Envisioned Future Priorities for: “LIVE: Power and Energy Storage”

John H Scott | Principal Technologist, Power and Energy Storage, Space Technology Mission Directorate | June 20, 2023
NASA Moon2Mars Strategy and Objectives

Released 6 April 2023

Lunar 

Infrastructure (LI)

LI-1: Develop an incremental Lunar power generation and distribution 

system that is evolvable to support continuous robotic/human operation 

and is capable of scaling to global power utilization and industrial 

power levels.

Mars

Infrastructure (MI)

MI-1: Develop Mars surface power sufficient for and initial human 

Mars exploration campaign 

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 2
Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) Strategic Taxonomy

Power Principal Technologist

TX 3.0 Power and Energy Storage

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 3
Power – The Key Commodity Needed to Explore the Lunar Surface

Illumination

The primary and scarce 

resource needed to produce 

power Equatorial Illumination Limits

§ Cyclical periods of 14 days illuminated, 14 days dark

§ Consistent

Polar Illumination Limits

§ Intermittent with up to 100 hours darkness

§ Highly dependent on location/elevation

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 4
In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) is the “Killer App” 

for Surface Power

Production of propellant from in in-situ resources is the demand driver for power at the Lunar South Pole

• Prospecting and tradeoff results will determine whether ISRU propellant will be oxygen from regolith or hydrogen and 

oxygen from ice mined from permanently shadowed regions. Decision drives power technology development priorities.

• ISRU pilot plants for propellant production will be powered from Artemis Base Camp resources

• Polar power demand may reach ~2 MWe at full industrial scale (Phase a)after handoff from Artemis to commercial 

investment. 

• ISRU/Construction projections may further drive power demand to GWe levels as infrastructure expands beyond the 

Polar region toward the Equator (Phase W).

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 5
Envisioned Growth of Lunar Presence

Ultimate Global Infrastructure – Phase W (2040+)

Additional technology gaps to be closed to enable building blocks for 

global infrastructure

Mature South Pole Industrial Facilities – Phase a (2030+)

Current and high priority new technology projects support gap closure for 

industrial-scale Polar infrastructure building blocks beyond Artemis Base Camp

Activities depicted are not all 

funded or approved. This is a 

“notional future” developed to guide 

technology vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 6
Power Architecture Building Blocks 

Phase a South Pole Facilities: Handoff from Artemis Base Camp to Industry (~2030+)

Power system

Load

Power demand driving case: 2200 t/year ISRU O2 propellant (industrial-scale) requires ~2 MWe Human Landing System

a Generation 

Radioisotope Power

H2/O2-Ice Mining in PSR

a Storage

Low-Temp Battery 

Modules

O2-Regolith ISRU

a Generation

Primary Fuel Cell

a Distribution

Heliostat a Distribution

Cables & Spools

a Generation

Vertical PV Arrays

a Distribution & Management

Rad-hard Power Electronic 

Circuits

Lunar 

Terrain 

Vehicle

a Storage

Regenerative 

Foundation Fuel Cell

Surface

Habitat

a Generation

Fission Power 

Plant

a Distribution

Power Beaming

Lab

Human Mobility Platform

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 7
Power Architecture Building Blocks 

Phase W: Additional Technology Building Blocks Required to Expand Industrial Activities to Lower 

Lattitudes (2040+)

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

W Generation

ISRU Silicon Photovoltaics

W Storage

In-Situ Flow 

Battery W Distribution

ISRU Aluminum Cables

a Generation

Human Fission Power Plant

Landing 

System

Surface

Habitats Lunar 

Terrain 

Vehicles

Labs

Human Mobility Platform

§ Landing pads and

protective structures

§ 100’s to 1000’s metric

tons of regolith-based

feedstock for

construction projects

§ 10’s to 100’s metric

tons of metals,

plastics, and binders

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 8
STMD Baselined “Envisioned Future Priorities (EFP)”

Guide Investments in Closing Technology Gaps 

1• Highest priority power EFP gap closures support Phase a industrial-scale Lunar ISRU production in the early 2030’s at the South

Pole

• Other gap closures support subsequent expansion toward Phase W construction and ISRU production at lower latitudes in 2040+

Mobile Fission 

Surface Power Reliable, Rad-Hard Power Conversion 

and Cable Transmission System

Solar Power

Long Life, Grid-Scale 

Secondary Energy 

Storage

PSR Operations

Wireless Power Transmission

Low Temperature Secondary 

Battery Modules

Radioisotope Energy Sources

Heliostats and Solar Reflectors

Superconducting Cable 

Transmission

Mars Forward

CH4/O2 Primary Fuel 

Cell Power

Activities depicted are not all funded or approved. This 

is a “notional future” developed to guide technology 

vision.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 9
Gap A: Fission Surface Power

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.1.2.1, 3.1.4.1

Definition: No multi-kWe-scale power sources have been developed to be capable of providing sun-independent, mobile power on the Lunar or Martian surface. Such power 

is needed not only to supplement solar power for sustainable operations on the Lunar pole but also to bootstrap the printing of power system components from Lunar regolith 

as infrastructure expands toward lower latitudes.

SOA: Though fission reactors have been operated on Earth land and sea for many decades, no reactors have been operated in space since the Soviet Topaz I (~5 kWe) 

flight in 1988. The Soviet TOPAZ II development unit (~6 kWe) was briefly ground tested in the US in 1994. A space fission reactor development unit (~ 1 kWe) was tested 

in the US in 2018.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA:

• Energy Conversion

• SBIR/STTRs (Stirling, Brayton, ATEG,

 Heat Ex, Radiators)

• Radiation Shielding

• SBIR (materials)

• Systems

• TDM (FSP)

• 

OGA

• Nuclear fuels 

• DoE SMR

• DoD Project Pele

Gap A (a) Closure: 

Bring to TRL 6 a relocatable 40 kWe-class mobile fission power system suited for the Lunar polar 

environment in time to support a TDM on the Moon in 2028. Lower power (e.g., 10 kWe) units may be 

developed for Mars.

Closure Roadmap (a):

• Complete NASA TDM FSP Project

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 10
Gap B: Reliable and Efficient Long Distance Power 

Transmission Systems (Cables and Conversion)

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4

Definitions:

BA: SOA Earth-sourced power converters, transformers, cables and load connection and deployment systems do not provide capability at specific power, voltage, and radiation-, thermal- and dust-tolerance 

levels sufficient to support reliable power distribution among Lunar pole surface elements. Flight-qualified technologies for all these components are not adapted the Lunar polar environment. 

BB: The technology required to print long distance conductors (100’s of km) on the Lunar surface from locally-sourced aluminum has seen little conceptual development. 

Mission architects must know what capability will be available to them once full-scale ISRU production operations are to start in the early 2030s and once large-scale Lunar surface operations expand toward 

the lower latitudes in the late 2030s.

SOA: Power converters of sufficient reliability for current missions are at TRL 9 for near- Earth, geosynchronous, and deep space missions at <200 V. Cables, dust-tolerant load connection systems, and cable 

deployment systems for the Lunar surface have been developed only to the “bench-top” level. Terrestrial microgrid topologies of similar capacity are well understood.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA:

• Materials:

• SBIRs (SiC, Ga2O3, Diamond, 

shielding)

• LuSTR grant (SiC)

• Circuitry and Devices 

• SBIR (switches)

• STTR (controller)

• LuSTR grant (router)

• GCD TP (Apogee RPCD)

• GCD (TYMPO)

• GCD (MIPS)

• Cable & Spooling Systems

• PCC (WOTM)

• GCD (TYMPO)

• Dust compatibility/Connectors

• GCD (LO-DuSST)

• GCD TP (UFPC)

OGA (DoD & DoE):

• DARPA BAA: Space Power Conversion 

Electronics

Gap B (a) Closure

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 power conversion and cable transmission systems which can (a) invert/boost (b) transmit (c) buck/rectify power between low voltage 

sources and loads (120 -200 VDC) at a 10 kWe-scale up to 10 km, transmitting at: 

• ~1000-1500 VDC or at:

• ~3000+ VAC, 1 kHz

The systems must lose no more than 3% per km in transmission, must maximize specific power, and must be able to operate at >0.95 power factor and 0.99 

reliability for 10 years in the relevant Lunar radiation, dust, and thermal environments and in the Lunar hard vacuum and Mars atmosphere environments.

Closure Roadmap (a) :

• LuSTR or ECF project for integrated subsystem (material, device, circuit) reliability modeling/prediction/verification.

• Further SBIR/ESI efforts for dust tolerant load connection, radiation-hard electronics, and cable/spooling systems

• Continue both MIPS and TYMPO GCD efforts to bring 0.99 reliability converter/transformer/rectifier systems to TRL 6

• TDM projects to demonstrate components (cable/spool, connectors, proximity charging) on CLPS and at Artemis Base Camp

Gap B (W) Closure: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2035 MWe-, 100 km-scale power transmission systems with conductors printed on the Lunar surface from Lunar-sourced aluminum and with minimal material brought from Earth.

Closure Roadmap (W):

• STRG and SBIR efforts for Lunar aluminum mining and conductor printing

• GCD efforts to bring integrated, printed power conductor systems to TRL 6 by 2035

• TDM project to fly and operate power conductor production equipment on the Lunar surface by 2037

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 11
Gap C1: Solar Power

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.1.1

Definition: 

C1 (a): SOA Earth-sourced solar array blankets do not provide sufficient durability or scale to support full scale ISRU production in the Lunar Pole thermal, dust , and radiation environment. Technology for 

reflectors/mirrors is likewise not optimized for the Lunar surface environment nor for gathering sunlight low on the horizon as at the Lunar poles. 

C1 (W): The technology required to print photovoltaic arrays on the Lunar surface from Lunar silicon has seen little conceptual development. 

Mission architects must know what capability will be available to them once full-scale ISRU production operations are to start in the early 2030s and once large-scale Lunar surface operations expand toward 

the lower latitudes in the late 2030s.

SOA: Photovoltaic arrays (<200 V) and deployment mechanisms suitable for LEO operations are at TRL 9. Vertical array deployment mechanisms for Lunar gravity are at a benchtop level of development. 

Large scale, surface-level photovoltaic arrays, at a GWe scale and printed from Lunar-sourced silicon, are at a very early stage of conceptual development.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA: • Earth-sourced PV Blankets:

• SBIR (composite Blanket)

• GCD ACO (FSAP)

• CLPS (PILS)

• Earth-sourced Deployment Structures

• SBIR

• STRG (BYU)

• GCD (VSAT)

• Earth-sourced Reflectors

• none

• Dust compatibility

• GCD (LO-DuSST)

• GCD ACO (DMFlex)

• Lunar-sourced PV blankets

• None

OGA (DoD & DoE):

• Earth-sourced PV Blankets 

Gap C1 (a) Closure: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030: 50 kWe-scale photovoltaic arrays, deployed with concentrators, providing power at >200 V and at 200 We/kg BOL. Arrays should exhibit no 

more than 10% degradation over ten years in the Lunar polar environment (including shadowed periods). Deployment solutions must maximize effective low-horizon 

insolation within limits of specific power.

Closure Roadmap (a)

• SBIR efforts for rad-hard photovoltaic cell, blanket, and concentrator designs

• GCD efforts to bring optimized blankets (with concentrators, dust tolerance, and rad-hardened PV) to TRL 6

• Continue GCD VSAT Project

• TDM project to fly 10 KWe-scale VSAT to support PSR prospecting in ~2025

• TDM project to fly ~50 kWe photovoltaic arrays to support pilot plant ops in 2030

Gap C1 (W) CLOSURE: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2035 GWe-scale photovoltaic blankets, printed horizontally on the Lunar surface from Lunar-sourced silicon and with minimal material brought from Earth.

Closure Roadmap (W):

• STRG and SBIR efforts for Lunar silicon mining and PV array printing

• GCD efforts to bring integrated, printed PV generation systems to TRL 6 by 2035

• TDM project to fly and operate PV production equipment on the Lunar surface by 2037

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 12
Gap C2: Long Life Grid-Scale Secondary Energy Storage

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.2.2

Definition: 

C2 (a): Eclipse-period support of industrial scale ISRU production facilities and a crewed outpost at the Lunar pole will require Earth-sourced, large-scale, long life, maintenance-free electrical 

energy storage at a MWhe scale.

C2 (W): Expansion of Lunar infrastructure toward the Equator will require large scale electrical and thermal energy storage sourced from Lunar regolith.. 

Mission architects must know what capability will be available to them once full-scale ISRU production operations are to start in the early 2030s and once large-scale Lunar surface operations expand toward the 

lower latitudes in the late 2030s.

SOA: For Earth-sourced, electrical energy storage, H2/O2 Primary fuel cells are nearing TRL 6/7 at a 1 kWe-scale with ~5000-hour operating life. High pressure electrolyzers of similar life and scale will be at TRL 

5 at completion of NASA STMD’s RFC project. Prototype flywheel energy storage systems of ~5 MWhe capacity have been built for terrestrial grid storage applications. Electrical and thermal energy storage 

sourced from Lunar regolith, such as metal-oxygen flow batteries and thermal “wadis”, remains at only a conceptual level of development. 

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA: • PEM Primary and Regen FC

• GCD ACO (AARC)

• GCD ACO (AMPES)

• GCD ACO (LFC-Blue Origin)

• GCD (RFC)

DoD NUWC:

• PEM Primary FC

• Various (SNC, Teledyne)

Gap C2 (a) CLOSURE: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 an electrochemical or mechanical energy storage system in up to MWhe and 10 kWe increments with maximum specific energy and 

maintenance-free life in the Lunar polar environment of 50,000 hours and 500 charge/discharge cycles.

Closure Roadmap (a)

• LuSTR or STRG effort for reliability/life modeling

• SBIR efforts for highly durable electrochemical membranes, fluid components, and flywheel rotors and bearings.

• Continue and augment GCD and/or Tipping Point/ACO projects for ultra-long-life RFC and flywheel systems

Gap C2 (W) CLOSURE: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2035 GWhe-scale secondary flow batteries formed from Lunar-sourced chemicals and large-scale thermal wadis printed from sintered 

regolith.

Closure Roadmap (W)

• NIAC/STRG/SBIR efforts for mining Lunar minerals suitable for secondary electrochemical batteries and for sintering of regolith for thermal energy storage

• GCD efforts to bring integrated electrical and thermal energy storage systems to TRL 6 by 2035

• TDM project to fly and operate energy storage equipment on the Lunar surface by 2037

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 13
Gap D1: Wireless Power Transmission up to 10 kWe Increment

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.3.2

Definition: ISRU ice mining operations in PSR (from prospecting to full-scale industry) will require power transmitted from insolated regions to mobile assets in the PSR 

interior.

SOA: Subscale wireless power transmission systems have been developed to the bench-top level. Relevant pointing mechanisms have been developed for terrestrial 

applications.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA: • Power Beaming

• SBIR

• PCC (WOTM)

• LuSTR grant (UCSB)

DoD:

• Power Beaming

• Various

• Pointing Mechanisms

• Various

Gap D1 (a) Closure: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 a wireless transmission system delivering power at up to ~10 

kWe scale from a source in either an isolated region or a PSR to a mobile load in a 

PSR, losing no more than 50% source-to-load over 5 km and at maximized delivered 

power per unit of system mass.

Closure Roadmap (a) :

• Further SBIR efforts for beaming and pointing mechanisms

• ~100 We subscale demos may support CLPS applications.

• GCD project to bring full-scale system to TRL 6

• TDM projects to demonstrate 1 kWe for 2028 PSR ice mining demo, 10 kWe for 2030 PSR Ice Mining 

pilot plant 

Source

Beam or cable Beam-to-

– to-fixed mobile

Station Rover

Beam-tomobile

Rover Rover Recharge

PSR Distribution/Storage Trade

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 14
Gap D2: Low Temperature Secondary Battery Modules up to 

50 kWhe Increment

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.2.1

Definition: The principal challenge from Artemis for battery technology is mobility energy storage for ISRU operations in PSRs. SOA (Li-ion) batteries lose 75% of their room 

temperature (295 K) capacity when operating at 235 K. Battery modules that can deliver SOA 295 K performance in a 70 K environment can thus increase specific energy for 

batteries in PSRs by well over a factor of three. Such performance might be achieved with a combination of cells developed to perform better at lower temperatures, 

improved insulation/thermal management hardware, and supplemental radioisotope heat sources.

SOA: Li-ion battery modules at 50 kWh-scale can deliver ~500 cycles at 150 Whe/kg at 290 K. Insulation and active thermal management hardware are required to maintain 

the cells in this temperature range when operating in colder environments.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA:

• Cells

• ECF (various)

Gap D2 (a) Closure: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 a 50 kWh-class battery module with capability to provide greater than net* 150 Whe/kg specific 

energy at 1 kWe discharge for 500 cycles in a 70 K environment and to survive with full operational capability after longduration cold soak at 70 K.

*net of module insulation, extra heat sources, or extra cells to feed heaters.

Closure Roadmap (a):

• Further SBIR efforts for cell development, thermal management systems, and supplemental (e.g., radioisotope) heat 

sources.

• GCD project to bring full-scale system to TRL 6

• TDM projects to demonstrate 1 kWe for 2028 ice mining demonstration

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 15
Gap D3: Radioisotope Power Sources in ~100’s We Increment

Thrust: EXPLORE

Outcomes: Develop vehicle platform technologies supporting new discoveries

Taxonomy Elements: 3.1.2, 3.1.4

Definition: A key strategic mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD) and for STMD is an understanding of the distribution of resources in the permanently 

shadowed regions of the Lunar South Pole. A multi-100 We, sun-independent power source is required for mobility assets to conduct through prospecting in the 2026 

timeframe. Smaller power sources (~100 We) required for CLPS-class science exploration missions in PSR

SOA: The current MMRTG can deliver ~125 We BOL from 238Pu General Purpose Heat Sources (GPHS). Its availability for the Lunar PSR prospecting mission is 

constrained in favor of its value for long duration, deep space missions.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA/DoE: • SMD RPS program

• DRPS Project

Gap D3 Closure (a) 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2024 a 100’s We-class power source based on radioisotopes other than 238Pu and delivering specific power 

of at least 2 We/kg for at least 1 year.

*”heat-source” = heat source material, analogous to PuO2

Closure Roadmap (a):

• Augment and accelerate SMD’s Dynamic Radioisotope Power System (DRPS) project to integrate with heat sources 

other than 238Pu.

• GCD Projects on alternative radioisotopes and conversion techniques.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 16
Gap D4: Solar Heliostats/Reflectors up to 30 kWsolar Increment 

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.3.2

Definition: ISRU ice mining operations in PSR (from prospecting to full-scale industry) will require power transmitted from insolated regions to mobile assets in the PSR 

interior.

SOA: Heliostats have been developed for terrestrial applications at large (MWt) scales. However, no examples have gone beyond TRL 3 for space applications

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

• Heliostat

• NAIC/LaRC (LightBender)

Closure (a): 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 a heliostat optics system directing the Lunar solar flux at a 30 kWsolar scale across wavelengths from 330 to 

1800 nm from an insolated region to a mobile or static receiver in a PSR with losses of no more than 5% over a distance of 3 km 

and at maximum delivered solar flux per unit of heliostat mass.

Closure Roadmap (a):

• SBIR/ESI efforts for lens and reflector development

• GCD project to bring full-scale system to TRL 6

Source

Beam or cable Beam-to-

– to-fixed mobile

Station Rover

Beam-tomobile

Rover Rover Recharge

PSR Distribution/Storage Trade

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 17
Gap D5: Superconducting Cable Transmission

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.3.2

Definition: ISRU ice mining operations in PSR (from prospecting to full-scale industry) will require power transmitted from insolated regions to mobile assets in the PSR 

interior.

SOA: High Temperature Superconducting (HTS) wires have been developed which show transition to the superconducting state at ~ 100 K. These have been successfully 

used terrestrially in magnetic coil applications However, no examples have gone beyond TRL 3 for space applications.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

• None

Closure (a): 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2030 an HTS cable system capable being spool-deployed across up to 5 km across the Lunar regolith in the PSR 

thermal environment and of operating at specific power greater than that of copper- or aluminum-based cables for 10 years in the 

Lunar PSR radiation, dust, hard vacuum, and thermal environments.

Closure Roadmap (a):

• SBIR/ESI efforts for materials development

• GCD project to bring full-scale system to TRL 6

Source

Beam or cable Beam-to-

– to-fixed mobile

Station Rover

Beam-tomobile

Rover Rover Recharge

PSR Distribution/Storage Trade

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 18
Gap E: CH4/O2 Primary Fuel Cell Power up to 10 kWe Increment 

Thrust: LIVE

Outcomes: Sustainable power sources and other surface utilities to enable continuous Lunar and Mars surface operations 

Taxonomy Elements: 3.2.

Definition: Primary power from LO2/LCH4 reactant storage may be the mass-optimal solution for certain Lunar/Mars mobility assets and Landers 

SOA: Air/Natural Gas Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are in common terrestrial use up to ~50 kWe scale. Multi-kWe-scale Jet Fuel/O2 power plants tested by USN NUWC in 

operational configurations. NASA and vendors have tested LO2/LCH4 SOFC 1 kWe-scale in breadboard configurations.

CURRENT INVESTMENTS

NASA: • SOFC

• SBIR Ph 3 (Precision Combustion)

CLOSURE: 

Bring to TRL 6 by 2032 LO2/LCH4 primary fuel cell power generation systems in up to 10 kWe increments 

with maximum specific energy and maintenance free life in the Lunar polar or Martian environments of 

10,000 operating hours

CLOSURE PLAN:

• Further SBIR efforts for cell development and thermal management systems

• GCD project to bring full-scale system to TRL 6

SPACE TECHNOLOGY MISSION DIRECTORATE 2023 Update June 20, 2023 19