Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 1 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

SPACE SHUTTLE 

MISSION 

STS-91 

PRESS KIT 

JUNE 1998 

SHUTTLE MIR MISSION-09 (S/MM-09) 

ALPHA MAGNETIC SPECTROMETER (AMS) 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 2 

STS-91 INSIGNIA 

STS091-S-001 -- This is the insignia for the STS-91 mission -- the ninth flight of the Shuttle-Mir Phase One 

docking missions. The crew will bring back Andrew S. W. Thomas, the last long-duration American crew 

member flown on the Russian Space Station Mir. This mission marks the end of the Shuttle-Mir Phase One 

Program and will open the way for Phase Two: construction of the International Space Station (ISS). The 

crew patch depicts the rendezvous of the space shuttle Discovery with the space station Mir. The flags of 

the United States and Russia are displayed at the top of the patch and both countries are visible on the 

Earth behind the two spacecraft. The names of the American crewmembers surround the insignia on the 

outer areas, with the name of cosmonaut Valeriy Ryumin in Cyrillic at the lower right. The Alpha Magnetic 

Spectrometer (AMS) is an international payload planned to fly in the payload bay of Discovery. Two thin 

golden streams flowing into the AMS represent charged elementary particles. The detection of antimatter 

in space will help scientists better understand the physics and origins of the universe. 

The NASA insignia design for space shuttle flights is reserved for use by the astronauts and for other 

official use as the NASA Administrator may authorize. Public availability has been approved only in the 

form of illustrations by the various news media. When and if there is any change in this policy, which we 

do not anticipate, it will be publicly announced. 

PHOTO CREDIT: NASA or National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 3 

NASA PAO CONTACTS 

Shuttle Program Contacts 

Debra Rahn/Jennifer McCarter 

 NASA Headquarters 

 Washington, DC 

Space Shuttle Mission, International 

Cooperation, Policy/Mgmt 

202/358-1639 

 

Eileen Hawley / Ed Campion 

 Johnson Space Center 

 Houston, TX 

Mission Operations /Astronauts 281/483-5111 

 

Bruce Buckingham 

 Kennedy Space Center, FL 

Launch Processing, KSC Landing Info 407/867-2468 

Fred Brown 

 Dryden Flight Research Center 

 Edwards, CA 

DFRC Landing Info 805/258-2663 

 

June Malone 

 Marshall Space Flight Center 

 Huntsville, AL 

External Tank / Solid Rocket Boosters / 

Shuttle Main Engines 

205/544-7061 

STS-91 Payload Contacts 

Linda Matthews-Schmidt 

 Johnson Space Center 

 Houston, TX 

STS-Mir Science 281/483-5111 

 

Mike Braukus 

 NASA Headquarters 

 Washington, DC 

AMS 202/358-1979 

 

Jim Sahli 

 Goddard Space Flight Center 

 Greenbelt, MD 

GAS, SEM 301/286-8955 

 

Lori Rachel 

 Lewis Research Center 

 Cleveland, OH 

SSCE, GMSF 216/433-8806 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 4 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

GENERAL PRESS RELEASE 5 

MEDIA SERVICES INFORMATION 7 

STS-89 QUICK LOOK FACTS 9 

CREW RESPONSIBILITIES 10 

ORBITAL EVENTS SUMMARY 11 

DEVELOPMENT TEST OBJECTIVES (DTOs) / DETAILED SUPPLEMENTARY 

 OBJECTIVES (DSOs) / RISK MITIGATION EXPERIMENTS (RMEs) 12 

PAYLOAD AND VEHICLE WEIGHTS 13 

MISSION SUMMARY TIMELINE 14 

SHUTTLE ABORT MODES 15 

STS-91 MIR RENDEZVOUS, DOCKING & UNDOCKING 16 

SPACEHAB 18 

SHUTTLE-MIR SCIENCE 19 

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 

 ASTROCULTURETM (ASC) 21 

 X-RAY DETECTOR TEST (XDT) 22 

 OPTIZON LIQUID PHASE SINTERING EXPERIMENT (OLiPSE) 23 

EARTH SCIENCES 

 VISUAL EARTH OBSERVATIONS 24 

 VISUAL OBSERVATIONS - WINDOW SURVEY OF MIR COMPLEX 25 

 TEST SITE MONITORING 26 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

 CREWMEMBER AND CREW GROUND INTERACTIONS DURING NASA-MIR 

 (INTERACTIONS) 27 

 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) 28 

 AUTONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS (CARDIO) 29 

 BONE MINERAL LOSS AND RECOVERY AFTER SHUTTLE/MIR FLIGHTS (BONE) 30 

 ASSESSMENT OF HUMORAL IMMUNE FUNCTION DURING LONG DURATION 

 SPACEFLIGHT (IMMUNITY) 31 

 RENAL STONE RISK ASSESSMENT DURING LONG-DURATION SPACE FLIGHT (RENAL-2) 32 

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION RISK MITIGATION 

 COSMIC RADIATION AND EFFECTS ACTIVATION MONITOR (CREAM 33 

 SPACE PORTABLE SPECTROREFLECTOMETER 34 

 TEST OF PCS HARDWARE (TPCS) 35 

 RADIATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT (RME) 36 

MICROGRAVITY 

 MICROGRAVITY ISOLATION MOUNT FACILITY OPERATIONS (MIM) 37 

 PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (PCG-DEWAR 38 

 SPACE ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (SAMS) 39 

 QUEENS UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT IN LIQUID DIFFUSION (QUELD) 40 

 BIOTECHNOLOGY SYSTEM DIAGNOSTIC EXPERIMENT REFLIGHT (BTSDE) 41 

 BTS COCULTURE (COCULT) 42 

 AMBIENT DIFFUSION CONTROLLED PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (DCAM) 43 

ALPHA MAGNETIC SPECTROMETER (AMS) 44 

GET AWAY SPECIAL (GAS) EXPERIMENTS 47 

SPACE EXPERIMENT MODULE (SEM) 49 

COMMERCIAL PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (CPCG) 53 

SOLID SURFACE COMBUSTION EXPERIMENT (SSCE) 55 

GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY, BOILING, AND CRITICAL FLUCTUATIONS IN PHASE 

 SEPARATING SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS 56 

SHUTTLE IONOSPHERIC MODIFICATION WITH PULSED LOCAL EXHAUST (SIMPLEX) 57 

STS-91 CREW BIOGRAPHIES 58 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 5 

RELEASE: J98-16 

NINTH SHUTTLE-MIR DOCKING MISSION HIGHLIGHTS - STS-91 

The first phase of the cooperative effort in space exploration between the United States and Russia will be 

completed in June 1998 with the launch of Space Shuttle Discovery on the ninth and final docking mission 

with the Russian Space Station Mir. The flight, designated STS-91, will deliver logistics and supplies to 

Mir and will bring home NASA Astronaut Andrew Thomas, who has been on the Russian complex since 

late January. 

Flying on STS-91 is an experiment by Nobel laureate Dr. Samuel C. C. Ting, the Alpha Magnetic 

Spectrometer (AMS) experiment. In 1995, Dr. Ting’s research proposal for the AMS space experiment was 

formally selected by the U.S. Department of Energy. The AMS will fly for the first time on the STS-91 

mission and a second time on the International Space Station. Professor Ting has been among the world’s 

leading researchers in the field of high-energy particle physics for decades. He has received many awards 

and honors for his research, including the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1976 for the discovery of the “J” subatomic particle. 

The AMS experiment is the first of a new generation of space-based experiments which use particles 

instead of light to study the Universe. The experiment will help answer questions about the creation, 

growth and future of the universe. It will also help probe further into questions surrounding the “Big Bang 

theory”. 

Researchers will use the AMS detector to search for both antimatter and "dark matter" to answer two 

specific questions: First, if equal amounts of matter and antimatter were produced at the beginning of the 

universe as described by the Big Bang scenario, and the galaxies we now see are made only of matter, 

where has the antimatter gone? Second, since the mass of a galaxy seems to be greater than the visible 

mass of all its stars, gas and dust, is there dark matter of a new kind that has eluded discovery? 

The STS-91 crew will be commanded by Charlie Precourt, who will be making his fourth shuttle flight and 

third trip to Mir. The pilot, Dominic Gorie, will be making his first flight. There are four mission 

specialists assigned to STS-91. Franklin Chang-Diaz is serving as Mission Specialist-1 and the Payload 

Commander and will become the third human to fly in space six times. Wendy Lawrence is making her 

third space flight as Mission Specialist-2 and flight engineer and is visiting Mir for the second time in less 

than a year. Janet Kavandi is Mission Specialist-3 and will be making her first flight. Valeri Ryumin, a 

veteran Russian cosmonaut and manager of the Russian Mir program, will serve as Mission Specialist-4. 

STS-91 will be Ryumin’s fourth space flight, his first aboard the Space Shuttle. After Discovery docks to 

Mir and Thomas once again becomes a shuttle crewmember, he will be designated as Mission Specialist-5 

for the remainder of the mission as he completes his second space flight. 

Discovery is targeted for launch on June 2, 1998, from NASA's Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 

39-A. The current launch time of 6:10 p.m. EDT may vary slightly based on calculations of Mir's precise 

location in space at the time of liftoff. The STS-91 mission is scheduled to last 9 days, 19 hours, 53 

minutes. An on-time launch on June 2 and nominal mission duration would have Discovery landing back at 

Kennedy Space Center on June 12 at 2:03 p.m. EDT. 

STS-91 will be the first time Discovery docks with the Mir. The first eight docking missions were 

conducted by Atlantis and Endeavour. 

Discovery’s rendezvous and docking with the Mir begins with the precisely timed launch, setting the 

shuttle on a course for rendezvous with the orbiting Russian facility. Over the next two to three days, 

periodic firings of Discovery’s small jet thrusters will gradually bring Discovery to its linkup to Mir. 

The STS-91 mission is part of the Phase One program, consisting of nine Shuttle-Mir dockings and seven 

long-duration flights of U.S. astronauts aboard the Russian space station. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 6 

This series of missions has expanded U.S. research on Mir by providing astronauts with a laboratory in 

orbit for long-term research, similar to the kind of continuous research capability which will exist on the 

new 

International Space Station. By the time Discovery lands, U.S. astronauts will have spent almost 1,000 

days aboard Mir, including more than 26 continuous months since the arrival of Shannon Lucid on the 

STS-76 mission in March 1996. 

For the STS-91 mission, Discovery carries the single SPACEHAB module in the payload bay of the 

orbiter. The module houses experiments to be performed by the astronauts and serves as a cargo carrier for 

the items to be transferred to Mir and those to be returned to Earth. 

During the docked phase of STS-91, astronauts and cosmonauts will transfer from the Mir to the Shuttle 

the science samples collected by Thomas and his Mir colleagues. Crew members will also transfer 

hardware and supplies to Mir to support the crew and future science investigations. This continued 

research will focus on studies in of advanced technology, human life sciences, and microgravity research. 

The research from the advanced technology discipline will evaluate new technologies and techniques using 

the Mir space station and the Shuttle as a test bed. This research will enhance knowledge base for 

implementation on the International Space Station and other space vehicles. 

Human life sciences research consists of investigations that focus on the crew members adaptation to 

weightlessness in terms of skeletal muscle and bone changes, cardiovascular acclimatization, and 

psychological interactions. This set of investigations will continue the characterization of the integrated 

human response to a prolonged presence in space. 

Microgravity research has the general goal of advancing scientific understanding through research in 

materials science. The QUELD furnace will heat capsules containing metallic binary systems, bring them 

to room temperature, and return them to Earth for analysis of the effects of microgravity on diffusion 

processes. This experiment will be performed using the Microgravity Isolation Mount (MIM). 

Also flying in Discovery’s cargo bay will be four Get Away Special (GAS) and two Space Experiment Module 

(SEM) payloads that will examine the effects of microgravity on various plants and materials, study the way 

materials processing changes in space, look at new ways to extract oil from the Earth and clean up accidental spills 

in the environment as well as investigate the degree to which DNA is damaged by exposure to cosmic radiation in a 

space environment. 

The current Russian cosmonaut crew aboard Mir began its mission on January 31 when Mir 25 

Commander Talgat Musabayev and Flight Engineer Nikolai Budarin were launched from the Baikonur 

Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan along with French researcher Leopold Eyharts. They arrived on Mir on 

January 31. Eyharts returned to Earth three weeks later with Mir 24 cosmonauts Anatoli Solve and Pave 

Vinogradov. Musabayev and Budarin are scheduled to return to Earth on or about August 10 when they are 

replaced by the Mir 26 crew of Commander Gennadi Padalka, Flight Engineer Sergei Avdeyev and 

researcher Yuri Baturin, who are scheduled to be launched August 2 for an docking on August 4. 

STS-91 will be the 24th flight of Discovery and the 91st mission flown since the start of the Space Shuttle 

program in April 1981. 

(END OF GENERAL RELEASE; BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOLLOWS.) 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 7 

MEDIA SERVICES INFORMATION 

NASA Television Transmission 

NASA Television is available through the GE2 satellite system which is located on Transponder 9C, at 85 

degrees west longitude, frequency 3880.0 MHz, audio 6.8 MHz. 

The schedule for television transmissions from the orbiter and for mission briefings will be available 

during the mission at Kennedy Space Center, FL; Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL; Dryden 

Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA; Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX; and NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. The television schedule will be updated to reflect changes dictated by mission 

operations. 

Status Reports 

Status reports on countdown and mission progress, on-orbit activities and landing operations will be 

produced by the appropriate NASA newscenter. 

Briefings 

A mission press briefing schedule will be issued before launch. During the mission, status briefings by a 

flight director or mission operations representative and when appropriate, representatives from the payload 

team, will occur at least once each day. The updated NASA television schedule will indicate when mission 

briefings are planned. 

Internet Information 

Information on STS-91 is available through several sources on the Internet. The primary source for mission 

information is the NASA Shuttle Web, part of the World Wide Web. This site contains information on the 

crew and its mission and will be regularly updated with status reports, photos and video clips throughout 

the flight. The NASA Shuttle Web's address is: 

http://shuttle.nasa.gov 

If that address is busy or unavailable, Shuttle information is available through the Office of Space Flight 

Home Page: 

http://www.osf.hq.nasa.gov/ 

General information on NASA and its programs is available through the NASA Home Page and the NASA 

Public Affairs Home Page: 

http://www.nasa.gov 

or 

http://www.nasa.gov/newsinfo/index.html 

Information on other current NASA activities is available through the Today@NASA page: 

http://www.nasa.gov/today.html 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 8 

The NASA TV schedule is available from the NTV Home Page: 

http://www.nasa.gov/ntv 

Status reports, TV schedules and other information also are available from the NASA Headquarters FTP 

(File Transfer Protocol) server, ftp.hq.nasa.gov. Log in as anonymous and go to the directory /pub/pao. 

Users should log on with the user name "anonymous" (no quotes), then enter their E-mail address as the 

password. Within the /pub/pao directory there will be a "readme.txt" file explaining the directory structure: 

• Pre-launch status reports (KSC): ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/pao/statrpt/ksc 

• Mission status reports(JSC): ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/pao/statrpt/jsc 

• Daily TV schedules: ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/pao/statrpt/jsc/tvsked. 

NASA Spacelink, a resource for educators, also provides mission information via the Internet. Spacelink 

may be accessed at the following address: 

http://spacelink.nasa.gov 

Access by Compuserve 

Users with Compuserve accounts can access NASA press releases by typing "GO NASA" (no quotes) and 

making a selection from the categories offered. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 9 

STS-91 QUICK LOOK 

Launch Date/Site: June 2, 1998/KSC Launch Pad 39-A 

 

Launch Time: 6:10 P.M. EDT (approximately) 

 

Launch Window: 5-10 minutes 

 

Orbiter: Discovery, (OV-103), 24th flight 

 

Orbit Altitude/Inclination: 173 nautical miles, 213 n.m. For Mir docking / 51.6 degrees 

 

Mission Duration: 9 days, 19 hours, 53 minutes 

 

Landing Date: June 12, 1998 

 

Landing Time: 2:03 P.M. EDT 

 

Primary Landing Site: Kennedy Space Center, FL 

 

Abort Landing Sites: Return to Launch Site 

 Kennedy Space Center, FL 

 

Transoceanic Abort Sites 

 Zaragoza, Spain 

 Ben Guerir, Morocco 

 Moron, Spain 

 

 Abort-Once Around 

 Kennedy Space Center, FL 

 

Crew: Charlie Precourt, Commander (CDR), 4th flight 

 Dom Gorie, Pilot (PLT), 1st flight 

 Franklin Chang-Diaz, Payload Commander, 6th flight 

 Wendy Lawrence, Mission Specialist 2 (MS 2), 3rd flight 

 Janet Kavandi, Mission Specialist 3 (MS 3), 1st flight 

 Valeri Ryumin, Mission Specialist 4 (MS 4), 4th flight 

 Andy Thomas, Mission Specialist 5 (MS 5), docking-landing, 2nd

flight 

 

EVA Crewmembers (if required): Franklin Chang-Diaz (EV 1), Janet Kavandi (EV 2) 

Cargo Bay Payloads: Orbiter Docking System 

 Spacehab Module 

 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) 

 Space Experiment Module (SEM) 

 GAS Canisters 

 

In-Cabin Payloads: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth 

 Solid Surface Combustion Experiment 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 10 

CREW RESPONSIBILITIES 

Payloads Prime Backup 

 

Rendezvous Precourt Gorie 

Rendezvous Tools Gorie Others 

Orbiter Docking System Lawrence Gorie 

Spacehab Systems Kavandi Chang-Diaz, Ryumin 

Spacehab Science Chang-Diaz Kavandi 

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Chang-Diaz Kavandi 

EVA (if required) Chang-Diaz (EV 1) Kavandi (EV 2) 

Intravehicular Crewmember Lawrence ------ 

Transfers Lawrence Ryumin, others 

Earth Observations Gorie Kavandi, Ryumin 

Ascent Seat on Flight Deck Chang-Diaz ------ 

Entry Seat on Flight Deck Kavandi ------ 

Commercial Protein Crystal Lawrence Gorie 

Solid Surface Combustion Gorie Lawrence 

Get Away Special (GAS) Precourt Lawrence 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 11 

STS-91 ORBITAL EVENTS SUMMARY

(based on a June 2, 1998 launch; times are approximate) 

Event MET 

Time of Day 

(EDT) 

 

Launch 0/00:00 6:10 PM, June 2 

Spacehab Activation 0/02:30 8:40 PM, June 2 

Discovery/Mir Docking 1/18:49 12:59 PM, June 4 

Hatch Opening 1/20:30 2:40 PM, June 4 

Crew News Conference/Farewell 4/18:35 12:45 PM, June 7 

Final Hatch Closure 5/14:15 8:25 AM, June 8 

Discovery/Mir Undocking 5/17:51 12:01 PM, June 8 

Final Separation Burn 5/19:13 1:23 PM, June 8 

Deorbit Burn 9/18:45 12:55 PM, June 12 

KSC Landing 9/19:53 2:03 PM, June 12 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 12 

DEVELOPMENTAL TEST OBJECTIVES/ 

DETAILED SUPPLEMENTARY OBJECTIVES/ 

RISK MITIGATION EXPERIMENTS 

DTO 685: Ascent/Entry Kneeboard Situational Awareness Display 

 

DTO 690: Urine Collection Device 

 

DTO 700-11: Orbiter Space Vision System Flight Unit Testing 

 

DSO 700-15: Integrated GPS/Inertial Navigation System Test 

 

DSO 1118: Micrometeoroid/Orbital Debris Photo-TV Survey of Mir 

 

DSO 802: Educational Activities 

 

RME 1312: Real-Time Radiation Monitoring Device 

 

RME 1319: Inventory Management System 

 

RME 1320: Radiation Monitoring Experiment-III 

 

RME 1331: Shuttle Condensate Collection for International Space Station
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 13 

PAYLOAD AND VEHICLE WEIGHTS 

 Pounds

 

Orbiter (Discovery) empty and 3 SSMEs 182,610 

Shuttle System at SRB Ignition 4,514,510 

Orbiter Weight at Landing with Cargo 259,834 

Spacehab Module 22,251 

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 9,196 

Orbiter Docking System 4,016 

Remote Manipulator System 994 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 14 

MISSION SUMMARY TIMELINE 

Flight Day 1 Flight Day 7 

Launch/Ascent Final Farewells and Hatch Closure 

OMS-2 Burn Undocking, Flyaround and Spektr Gas Release 

Payload Bay Door Opening Final Separation Burn 

Spacehab Activation Transfer Item Stowage 

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) Activation and Checkout 

Flight Day 8 

Flight Day 2 AMS Data Collection 

Water Bag Fills Secondary Experiments 

Spacehab Module Setup and Secondary Science Activity Off Duty Time 

Rendezvous Tool Checkout 

Orbiter Docking System Checkout Flight Day 9 

 AMS Data Collection 

Flight Day 3 Secondary Experiments 

Discovery/Mir Docking Educational Video Recording 

Hatch Opening and Welcoming Ceremony 

Thomas Transfers to the Shuttle Flight Day 10 

Logistics Transfers AMS Data Collection 

 Cabin Stow 

Flight Day 4 Flight Control System Checkout 

Logistics Transfers Reaction Control System Hot-Fire 

Spacehab Science Activity Spacehab Module Teardown 

 

Flight Day 5 Flight Day 11 

Remote Manipulator Checkout Final Cabin Stow 

Spektr Gas Release Spacehab Deactivation 

Logistics Transfers Deorbit Prep 

Spacehab Science Activity Deorbit Burn 

 KSC Landing

Flight Day 6 

Logistics Transfers 

Spacehab Science Activity 

Crew News Conference and Farewell Ceremony 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 15 

SHUTTLE ABORT MODES 

Space Shuttle launch abort philosophy aims toward safe and intact recovery of the flight crew, Orbiter and 

its payload. Abort modes for STS-89 include: 

• Abort-To-Orbit (ATO): Partial loss of main engine thrust late enough to permit reaching a minimal 

105-nautical mile orbit with the orbital maneuvering system engines. 

• Abort-Once-Around (AOA): Earlier main engine shutdown with the capability to allow one orbit of 

the Earth before landing at Kennedy Space Center, Fla. 

• Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL): Loss of one or more main engines midway through powered 

flight would force a landing at either Zaragoza or Moron in Spain or Ben Guerir in Morocco. 

• Return-To-Launch-Site (RTLS): Early shutdown of one or more engines, and without enough energy 

to reach a TAL site, would result in a pitch around and thrust back toward Kennedy until within 

gliding distance.
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 16 

STS-91 MIR RENDEZVOUS, DOCKING, UNDOCKING 

AND SPEKTR GAS RELEASE 

Discovery’s rendezvous and docking with the Russian Space Station Mir actually begins with the precisely 

timed launch of the Shuttle on a course for the Mir, and, over the next two days, periodic small engine 

firings that will gradually bring Discovery to a point eight nautical miles behind Mir on docking day, the 

starting point for a final approach to the station. 

Mir Rendezvous & Docking-- Flight Day 3 

About two hours before the scheduled docking time on Flight Day three of the mission, Discovery will 

reach a point about eight nautical miles behind the Mir Space Station at which time the astronauts conduct 

a Terminal Phase Initiation (TI) burn, beginning the final phase of the rendezvous. Discovery will close the 

final eight nautical miles to Mir during the next orbit. As Discovery approaches, the shuttle's rendezvous 

radar system will begin tracking Mir, providing range and closing rate information to Discovery’s 

astronauts. The crew members will also begin air-to-air communications with the Mir crew using a VHF 

radio. 

As Discovery reaches close proximity to Mir, the Trajectory Control Sensor, a laser ranging device 

mounted in the payload bay, will supplement the shuttle's onboard navigation information by supplying 

additional data on the range and closing rate. As Discovery closes in on the Mir, the shuttle will have the 

opportunity for four small successive engine firings to fine-tune its approach using its onboard navigation 

information. Flying a slightly modified rendezvous profile for improved efficiency, Discovery will aim for 

a point directly below Mir, along the Earth radius vector (R-Bar), an imaginary line drawn between the Mir 

center of gravity and the center of Earth. Approaching along the R-Bar, from underneath the Mir, allows 

natural forces of Earth’s gravity to assist in braking Discovery's approach. During this time, the crew will 

begin using a hand-held laser ranging device to supplement distance and closing rate measurements made 

by other shuttle navigational equipment. 

Discovery will intercept the R-Bar at a point 600 ft below Mir. Commander Charlie Precourt will fly the 

shuttle from the aft flight deck controls as Discovery begins moving up toward Mir. Because of the 

approach from underneath Mir, Precourt will have to perform very few braking firings. However, if such 

firings are required, the shuttle's jets will be used in a mode called "Low-Z," a technique that uses slightly 

offset jets on Discovery's nose and tail to slow the spacecraft rather than firing jets pointed directly at Mir. 

This technique avoids contamination of the space station and its solar arrays by exhaust from the shuttle 

steering jets. 

Using the centerline camera fixed in the center of Discovery' docking mechanism, Precourt will align 

Discovery's docking mechanism with the Docking Module mechanism on Mir, continually refining this 

alignment as he approaches within 300 feet of the station. 

When Discovery is 170 feet from the station, the Shuttle will briefly stop and perform a stationkeeping 

maneuver to maintain its distance from Mir. At that time, a final go or no- go decision to proceed with the 

docking will be made by flight control teams in both Houston and the Russian Mission Control Center in 

Korolev, outside Moscow. 

At a distance of about 30 feet from docking, Precourt will again stop Discovery briefly to adjust the 

docking mechanism alignment, if necessary. 

When Discovery proceeds with docking, the shuttle crew will use ship-to-ship communications with Mir to 

inform the Mir crew of the shuttle's status and to keep them informed of major events, including 

confirmation of contact, capture and the conclusion of damping. Damping, the halt of any relative motion 

between the two spacecraft after docking, is performed by shock absorber-type springs within the docking 

device. Mission Specialist Wendy Lawrence will oversee the operation of the Orbiter Docking System 

from onboard Discovery. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 17 

Undocking, Separation and Spektr Gas Release 

Once Discovery is ready to undock from Mir, the initial separation will be performed by springs that will 

gently push the shuttle away from the docking module. Both the Mir and Discovery will be in a 

configuration called "free drift" during the undocking, which keeps the steering jets of each spacecraft shut 

off to avoid any inadvertent firings. 

Once the docking mechanism's springs have pushed Discovery away to a distance of about two feet from 

Mir, and the two spacecraft are clear of one another, Discovery' steering jets will be turned back on to 

increase the separation distance between the two vehicles. 

The shuttle will continue to back away through a corridor similar to that used during approach until it 

reaches a distance of approximately 240 feet below the Mir. Pilot Dom Gorie will then perform a nose 

forward flyaround of the station. 

During the flyaround, about 20 minutes after undocking, Discovery will reach a point about 240 feet 

directly in front of the Mir, on what is known as the velocity vector. About three minutes prior to sunrise, 

Mir 25 Commander Talgat Musabayev and Flight Engineer Nikolai Budarin will release a tracer gas 

comprised of acetone and biacetyl into the depressurized Spektr module using a special device attached to 

the Spektr’s modified hatch. 

The release of gas into Spektr should last about 20 minutes, enabling Discovery’s astronauts to document 

any ionization glow from the gas through the hole in Spektr’s hull prior to sunrise and any fluorescent 

glow from the gas after sunrise. If lighting conditions are right, the gas could appear as a dull green cloud. 

The test is designed to pinpoint the location of the breach in Spektr’s hull resulting from last year’s 

collision of a Progress resupply ship with the Russian station. Two days earlier, a similar release of gas into 

Spektr will be conducted by the cosmonauts while Discovery is docked to Mir to test the gas release 

system and enable the crew members to document any areas of special interest for the flyaround 

experiment. 

Finally, almost an hour and a half after undocking, Gorie will fire Discovery’s jets one more time as the 

shuttle passes directly above the Mir to separate from the Russian station for the final time. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 18 

SPACEHAB 

STS-91 will be the sixth in a series of Shuttle-Mir missions which will carry a SPACEHAB single module 

onboard. The SPACEHAB single module is a pressurized, mixed-cargo carrier designed to augment the 

Orbiter Middeck by providing a total cargo capacity of up to 4,000 pounds. SPACEHAB is connected to 

the Orbiter through a modified Spacelab tunnel adapter, and in the aft half of the unit, contains systems 

necessary to support the habitat for the astronauts, such as ventilation, lighting, and limited power. 

The module accommodates various quantities, sizes, and locations of experiment hardware. Attachment 

locations are available on the bulkheads, the rack support structures and on the top exterior surfaces. 

Standard experiment accommodations include lockers and racks, and for Earth and space viewing, there is 

the capability to mount to the optical viewport on the module top panel. Also, there are attachment 

capabilities on the flat top of the module exterior, in order to provide direct access to space. 

Russian Logistics -- A double rack will be dedicated to some of the Russian Logistics and three Russian 

Storage Batteries will be mounted on the aft bulkhead of the SPACEHAB module for transfer to Mir. 

During docked operations, the crew will remove the batteries and transfer them to Mir. Numerous Russian 

Logistics items, totaling approximately 2,600 pounds, will be carried in the SPACEHAB. Items include 

food and water containers, clothing and sleeping articles, Personal Hygiene Aids (PHAS), a variety of film 

cases, and Cosmonaut Return Packages. 

American Logistics -- Water (1200 lbs.) Will be transferred from the Shuttle to Mir; a cosmonaut family 

package, phase 1 program gifts and crew gifts will be transferred from the Shuttle to Mir; and new film 

will be swapped for film already shot onboard Mir. 

Science and Technology -- The SPACEHAB Universal Communication System (SHUCS) payload will be 

used to send and receive telephone voice and faxes, as well as provide video images of the crew from the 

SPACEHAB module, to test the improved availability of payload uplink and downlink communications 

with the ground. On STS-91, the crew will have scheduled voice and fax contacts that are pre-approved by 

the Flight Control Team. SHUCS “round-trip” latency of 0.7 - 1.2 seconds allows file transfer, 

commanding, up/downlink fax and voice communications globally via three ground stations and the 

INMARSAT satellite system. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 19 

STS-91 AND MIR 25 

BACKGROUND AND SCIENCE OVERVIEW

Scientific research has always been a major objective of both the United States and Russian space 

programs. The Phase 1 NASA-Mir science program is a joint research program between Russia and the US 

which was initiated to conduct long duration space research in the most efficient manner possible, utilizing 

both countries’ resources and personnel. Using the Russian space station Mir as a platform for jointly 

developed hardware and science investigations allows US researchers to conduct experiments in 

microgravity for several months at a time. This currently is not possible to do within the US space 

program, since the average Shuttle mission lasts only a 1-2 weeks. 

Long duration space flight presents a unique opportunity for the US, as many human adaptation to 

spaceflight experiments, along with crystal growth, space sciences, and other biological investigations 

cannot be performed within the short time span of a typical Shuttle mission. In return for the use of 

facilities on their space station, the Russian Space Agency has access to 9 Shuttle flights that dock to the 

station. These Shuttle flights allow additional resupply for both station maintenance and science 

experiments, along with transportation of an American crewmember to the Mir. The American is trained as 

a Mir crewmember to perform routine maintenance on the station, in addition to performing joint science 

activities, and will be a permanent resident until his replacement arrives on the next Shuttle. The Shuttle 

provides a unique opportunity for the Russian space program, since large science payloads can now be 

delivered to the Mir, along with providing significant refrigerator and freezer space for samples taken to 

the station or returned to Earth. 

Both partners in this program are being given the opportunity to do things that they could not do 

independently. This international cooperation provides a wealth of knowledge about space flight, and is the 

first of its kind on this magnitude. Not since the days of Apollo-Soyuz has an international cooperation 

between space programs returned so much. These first steps coupling both programs to increase their 

respective yields leads directly to the framework for the International Space Station, which is slated for 

launch in 1998. 

The American long duration astronauts perform the majority of the experiment operations while on orbit, 

while their Russian counterparts primarily concern themselves with station upkeep and maintenance. All 

are equal contributors to the joint program and have dedicated their time during intensive training in both 

the US and Russia, as well as by staying on board the Mir for several months. 

Dr. Norm Thagard was the American who took the first step in this era of joint space cooperation by 

staying onboard the Mir for 116 days (which set the space duration record for an American). He was also 

the first astronaut to travel to Mir on a Soyuz rocket, with his Mir 18 crewmates. Dr. Thagard was followed 

by Dr. Shannon Lucid, who stayed on the Mir for 188 days, breaking Dr. Thagard’s record and setting a 

new record as the longest stay in space for a woman. Colonel John Blaha replaced Dr. Lucid in September 

1996. Dr. Jerry Linenger replaced Col. Blaha in January 1997. Dr. C. Michael Foale replaced Dr. Linenger 

in May 1997 and he was replaced by Dr. David Wolf in September 1997. Dr. Andy Thomas replaced Dr. 

Wolf in January 1998, and will remain on Mir until June, when STS-91 will retrieve him. These American 

crewmembers’ stays on Mir have demonstrated to the world the commitment of both countries to work 

together for the betterment of human kind through scientific advancement. 

STS-91 marks the ninth and final mission to dock an American Space Shuttle with Russia’s Mir space 

station. This mission will retrieve Astronaut Andrew Thomas from Mir and will return him to Earth. In 

addition to the NASA 7 crewmember, the Shuttle will transport approximately 370 pounds of research 

equipment and supplies to the station. The other crewmembers of STS-91 include: Charles J. Precourt, 

Commander; Dominic L. Gorie, Pilot; and Mission Specialists Wendy B. Lawrence, Franklin Chang-Diaz, 

Janet Kavandi, and Valeri Ryumin (Russian Space Agency). 

During the docked phase of STS-91, astronauts and cosmonauts will transfer from the Mir space station to 

the Shuttle the science samples collected by the Mir 25/NASA 7 crew. After return to Earth, the samples 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 20 

will be analyzed by researchers on the ground. Crewmembers will also transfer hardware and supplies to 

Mir in support of the health and well being of the Mir 25 crew and future investigations on the station. This 

continued research will focus on studies in the areas of Advanced Technology, Human Life Sciences, and 

Microgravity Research. 

The commercial initiated research from the Advanced Technology discipline will evaluate new 

technologies and techniques using the Mir space station and the Shuttle as a test bed. Such research in 

reduced gravity will contribute to an enhanced knowledge base for implementation on the International 

Space Station and other space vehicles. 

Human Life Sciences research consists of investigations that focus on the crewmembers’ adaptation to 

weightlessness in terms of skeletal muscle and bone changes, cardiovascular acclimatization, and 

psychological interactions. This set of investigations will continue the characterization of the integrated 

human response to a prolonged presence in space. 

Microgravity research has the general goal of advancing scientific understanding through research in 

materials science. The QUELD furnace will heat capsules containing metallic binary systems, bring them 

to room temperature, and return them to Earth for analysis of the effects of microgravity on diffusion 

processes. This experiment will be performed using the Microgravity Isolation Mount (MIM). 

The success of all the past Shuttle/Mir missions is due to the dedication of all the researchers involved in 

these different areas, as well as all the mission support personnel, crew trainers, and the crew themselves. 

The Phase 1 program is a difficult and unique program because of its international scope and length of 

mission duration, but it is providing both an excellent scientific return, and a training ground for future 

operations on the International Space Station. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 21 

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 

ASTROCULTURETM (ASC) 

Experiment Objectives 

• Determine if plants can grow from seed to mature plants that produce seed in a microgravity 

environment 

• Compare plants derived from space seeds with plants derived from Earth seeds 

Experiment Description 

The AstrocultureTM (ASC) flight experiment is a space-based controlled environment chamber that 

provides all the conditions required to support plant growth in microgravity. The main payload components 

include subsystems required to provide temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide control in an isolated 

chamber. A unique LED lighting system is used to meet plant light requirements. Ethylene released by the 

plants is removed from the atmosphere of the plant chamber with a photocatalytic oxidation unit that does 

not require any consumables. The ASC payload is configured as a standard Priroda locker and contains a 

single board computer which provides data download and video observation/recording capabilities. 

Flight Protocol

The AstrocultureTM unit was transferred to the Mir during the docked phase of STS-89. The ASC system is 

designed to operate in a fully automated mode with continuous power. 

The NASA crewmember will perform a daily monitoring of the ASC, as well as, a weekly download and 

downlink of plant data and video from the ASC. Crew interaction with ASC will be done via the MIPS 

System, built-in LCD displays and LED indicators, and ASC Video System. The ASC will remain on orbit 

until the unit is returned on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigator: 

Raymond Bula, Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics, Univerisity of Wisconsin 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 22 

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 

X-RAY DETECTOR TEST (XDT) 

Experiment Objectives 

• To measure the rates of incidence of cosmic rays which would be expected to strike a future 

diffraction system in space 

• Provide data for predicting the level of noise which would be produced by cosmic rays striking any of 

the critical elements of this system 

Experiment Description 

The XDT experiment is being flown in an effort to understand the high energy radiation environment of 

space. The XDT system consists of three detectors which will measure the incidence rate of cosmic rays 

and induced background levels expected for future x-ray crystallography systems to be flown in the 

International Space Station. Besides the detectors, it includes a microcomputer system and flash disk mass 

storage devices to allow virtually autonomous operations during several months of data-taking on-board 

Mir. 

Flight Protocol 

The XDT system was activated and operated on-board STS-89 for four consecutive days. Once Shuttle 

operations were concluded, the XDT system was deactivated, transferred to the Mir and reactivated for 

long duration operations. Although the XDT is designed to operate in a fully automated mode with 

continuous power, the NASA crewmember will perform a weekly monitoring of the XDT to ensure 

experiment integrity. The XDT will remain on orbit until the unit is returned on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions

STS-91 STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigator: 

Lawrence DeLucas, University of Alabama Center for Macromolecular Crystallography
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 23 

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY 

OPTIZON LIQUID PHASE SINTERING EXPERIMENT (OLiPSE) 

Experiment Objectives 

• Study the formation of defects or voids in the sintered metal samples. 

• Analyze the effects of wetting and alloy formation 

• Study grain sizes and shapes. 

Experiment Description 

Liquid Phase Sintering (LPS) is a process in which a liquid coexists with a particulate solid. This 

experiment seeks to understand and quantify phenomena within LPS that are dominated by gravity. The 

industrial importance of “defect trapping in microgravity” is also being investigated. 

Flight Protocol 

The experiment consists of heating samples of compressed metal powders to the melting point of one of the 

constituents, holding the temperature approximately 50°C above the melting point for a predetermined 

period of time, and then letting the sample cool. 

The following types of materials are planned for use in the OPTIZON Furnace: Copper (melting point 

1375 K), Silver (melting point 1234 K), and mixtures of Copper and Silver. These mixtures are cold 

compressed at high pressures and installed in quartz ampoules. The ampoules are to be vented to the 

vacuum during furnace processing. The furnace is to be vented to vacuum during the entire heat up and 

cool down phase with heating and cooling following Onyx programs. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions

Mir 25 STS-76, NASA 2, Mir 21 

 STS-86, Mir 24b, NASA 6 

 STS-89 

Investigator: 

James Smith, University of Alabama at Huntsville 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 24 

EARTH SCIENCES 

VISUAL EARTH OBSERVATIONS 

Experiment Objective 

• Monitor observable Earth surface changes and image ephemeral events (hurricanes, plankton blooms, 

volcanic eruptions) to incorporate into a 30+ year database of human observations 

Experiment Description 

The Earth’s surface is changing dramatically everyday, but due to our limited view, these large scale 

phenomena cannot be easily observed or recorded. A space station is a platform available for continual 

observations from low-Earth orbit. Sites are selected to document geologic structures using variable sun 

angles, seasonal events such as biomass burning, longer-term changes like the rise and fall of lake levels, 

gradual changes in land-use patterns, dynamic patterns in the ocean surface waters, and globally distributed 

episodic events like tropical storms, floods, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, and dust storms. 

Flight Protocol 

Site selection is a joint US/Russian activity based on long-term planning of known regions of interest, and 

near-term replanning of targets based on the trajectory and attitude of the space vehicle, current events, and 

weather patterns. Photography of special, unpredictable events, such as tropical storms, floods, forest fires, 

volcanic eruptions, and dust storms, will be requested of the crew as they occur in real-time during NASA 

7. Film was taken to Mir on STS-89, and the film will be returned to Earth by STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

 STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

 STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6, STS-89 

Mir 25, NASA 7

Investigators:

Kamlesh Lulla, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Cynthia Evans, Ph.D., Lockheed-Martin Corporation 

Lev Desinov, Ph.D., Russian Academy of Sciences 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 25 

EARTH SCIENCES 

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS - WINDOW SURVEY OF MIR COMPLEX 

Experiment Objective 

• Imaging of Mir windows and window environment using hand held photography 

Experiment Description 

Hand held photographs of the window surfaces in the KVANT-2, Base Block, and Spektr (if available) 

modules will be performed using a Nikon F-3 camera to document characteristics that may affect Earth 

Observation photography. 

Flight Protocol 

Associated hardware for this flight was transported to Mir by STS-89. All photographs will be returned to 

Earth for post-flight analyses on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-89, Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Kamlesh Lulla, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Premkumar Saganti, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 26 

EARTH SCIENCES 

TEST SITE MONITORING 

Experiment Objective 

• Monitor land cover changes and conditions, lake levels, etc., At selected test sites in support of global 

change research 

Experiment Background

Environmental monitoring of several rapidly changing regions on Earth will provide vital information to 

scientists from many different research disciplines. Data obtained from this investigation will be compared 

to the information in a historical database of these areas to assess the nature and rate of change. Routinely, 

at least seasonally, data will be collected from the Aral Sea, Galveston Bay (Texas), the region of South 

Florida and the Northern Bahamas, and the Panama Canal Zone. Monitoring of rapidly changing regions 

provides information to several interdisciplinary studies. Scientists will then be able to extend observations 

from historical databases and ground-based studies to produce a more comprehensive assessment of the 

nature and rate of the changes in these selected areas of the Earth. Data collection will be planned based on 

orbit trajectory, attitude, and weather conditions. 

Flight Protocol

During the Mir 25/NASA 7 mission, the sites of interest will be photographed at regular intervals. Weather 

information, such as cloud cover, sun angles, and any other information will be provided to the crew to 

guide their photographic sessions. Film was taken to Mir on STS-89, and the film will be returned to Earth 

by STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions

STS-91 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6, STS-89 

Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Kamlesh Lulla, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Cynthia Evans, Ph.D., Lockheed-Martin Corporation 

Lev Desinov, Ph.D., Russian Academy of Sciences 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 27 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

CREWMEMBER AND CREW-GROUND INTERACTIONS DURING NASA-MIR (INTERACTIONS) 

Experiment Objective 

• Complete three standard mood and interpersonal group climate questionnaires: Profile of Mood states, 

Group Environment Scale, and Work Environment Scale 

Experiment Description: 

During future space missions involving a space station or a trip to Mars, international crews will be 

engaged in complicated activities over long periods of time. A number of interpersonal issues must be 

addressed in order to ensure healthy crewmember interaction and optimal performance. 

A review of the literature of space analog studies on Earth, reports from previous space missions, and the 

principal investigator’s own work involving astronauts and cosmonauts have isolated crew tension, 

cohesion, and leadership as important interpersonal issues. This experiment also correlates the mood of the 

crew to that of the ground control team, and also has a critical incident log to help identify stressful 

periods. 

Flight Protocol 

Crewmembers and ground personnel will complete computerized mood, experience, and interpersonal 

group climate questionnaires along with the critical incident log throughout the course of the Mir 

25/NASA 7 mission. Mir crew data will be correlated with ground crew data once the questionnaires and 

logs are returned to Earth on STS-91. 

Mission Assignments Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 STS-76, STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3

STS-91 STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7

Investigators:

Nick A. Kanas, M.D., University of California, San Francisco 

Vyacheslav Salnitskiy, M.D., Institute of Biomedical Problems
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 28 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) 

Experiment Objective 

• Measure and analyze the bone marrow of the spine before and after space flight, and compare the 

results from actual long duration stays in weightlessness to data from bed rest studies with and without 

exercise. 

• Measure the muscle volumes of the calf, thigh, back, and neck before and after space flight, and 

compare the results from actual long duration stays in weightlessness to data from bed rest studies with 

and without exercise. 

• Measure the size of the intervertebral discs before and after long duration space flight to determine if 

spinal discs remain expanded, or enlarged beyond their normal size, after return to Earth’s gravity. 

• Document the occurrence of back discomfort during and after flight and study its association with 

expansion of the spinal discs caused by space flight 

Experiment Description 

When muscles are not used regularly, they begin to deteriorate and weaken, a condition known as atrophy. 

Measurements on the crew of the Spacelab-Japan mission (STS-47) showed that there was significant 

muscle atrophy after only eight days in weightlessness. Bed-rest studies have documented the degree of 

atrophy after several months of muscle inactivity. This investigation will document the degree of muscle 

weakening after long-duration space flight following a stay on the Mir space station. 

The spine, or backbone, supports the body against gravity. During upright activity on Earth, the downward 

pull of gravity actually compresses the spine and the spinal discs. However, weightlessness results in 

expansion of the spine which causes the astronauts to become taller and is believed to cause back pain and 

discomfort. This investigation will also study the relationship between spinal expansion and back pain in 

astronauts. These measurements will be made before and after space flight using Magnetic Resonance 

Imaging (MRI). 

Flight Protocol 

An MRI examination will be performed on the back and legs preflight to establish baseline data. It is then 

repeated three times post-flight to determine the extent of changes in the body due to space flight and the 

crewmembers’ readaptation to the Earth environment. Both during and after the Mir 25 and NASA 7 

mission, crewmembers will complete questionnaires to record any perceived back discomfort. The 

questionnaires that were taken to Mir on STS-89 will be returned after their completion on STS-91. 

Mission Assignments Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-91 STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Adrian Leblanc, Ph.D., Baylor College of Medicine 

Inessa Kozlovskaya, M.D., Russian Institute for Biomedical Problems 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 29 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

AUTONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS (CARDIO) 

Experiment Objective 

• Explore and define the mechanisms by which the autonomic nervous system regulates the circulation 

to support tissue perfusion, particularly the brain, during short term and long term adaptation to 

microgravity and after return to Earth. 

Experiment Background 

There is little evidence to suggest major systemic cardiovascular dysfunction in microgravity, but clinically 

highly significant cardiovascular abnormalities become apparent during and immediately after return to 

Earth gravity. Adequate understanding of these mechanisms can only be achieved by physiological studies 

that examine specific cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms and relate findings in microgravity to results 

obtained on Earth before and after space flight. The results of this investigation are expected to have a 

clinical significance and will provide a basis for new and effective approaches to the prevention of postflight orthostatic intolerance. There are also compelling general scientific reasons to take advantage of the 

access to microgravity to study the dynamic aspects and integration of neural regulation of the 

cardiovascular system. The unique environment of space, with the absence of hydrostatic gradients and the 

reduction in the overall level of physical activity, drastically alters the operating conditions of the 

cardiovascular system. Analysis of the effects of microgravity on specific aspects of neural regulatory 

mechanisms as proposed in the present application has the potential to provide new information on the 

properties on important physiological control mechanisms. 

Flight Protocol 

Associated hardware for this flight was transported to Mir on STS-89. Holter monitoring will be conducted 

over several twenty-four hour periods during the NASA 7 mission. Holter monitoring information will be 

recorded on Holter data tapes which will be returned to Earth for post-flight analyses on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 None. 

Investigators:

C. Gunnar Blomqvist, M.D., Ph.D. University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center 

Dwain L. Eckberg, M.D. McGuire Research Institute 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 30 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

BONE MINERAL LOSS AND RECOVERY AFTER SHUTTLE/MIR FLIGHTS (BONE) 

Experiment Objective 

• Determine the regional losses and the rate and extent of recovery in bone mineral density and lean 

body mass 

• Determine the muscle strength of the back and lower extremities of the crewmember before and after 

flight 

Experiment Background 

Previous studies have shown that long duration exposure to microgravity causes bone loss. In the absence 

of gravity, bone mass decreases in the load-bearing regions of the skeleton. The occurrence of this 

condition in space mimics osteoporosis, a medical condition characterized by brittle bones. By learning 

more about the process of bone mineral loss and recovery, researchers hope to be able to implement 

effective countermeasures in space, and develop more effective treatments for those who suffer from bone 

disorders on Earth. 

This investigation will measure the space flight-induced losses in bone mineral density and lean body mass 

of long duration crewmembers, and will determine the rate and extent of recovery after returning to Earth. 

Flight Protocol 

In this study, preflight and post-flight blood and urine samples will be obtained to measure hormones 

involved in bone formation and resorption and other indicators of bone metabolism. Muscle strength 

testing will be performed in conjunction with bone density measurements to study the relationship between 

muscular fitness and changes in bone density. Bone density and muscle strength measurements will be 

obtained periodically for up to three years post flight to gain important information regarding the rate of 

bone recovery after return to Earth’s gravity. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 Mir 18, Mir 21, NASA 2 

Mir 22, NASA 3 

Mir 23, NASA 4 

Mir 24, NASA 5 

Mir 24, NASA 6, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Linda Shackelford, M.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Victor Oganov, M.D., Institute of Biomedical Problems
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 31 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

ASSESSMENT OF HUMORAL IMMUNE FUNCTION DURING LONG-DURATION 

SPACEFLIGHT (IMMUNITY) 

Experiment Objective 

• This experiment examines the humoral component of the immune system in the microgravity 

environment. Specifically, the study investigates the antibody production in response to an antigen 

introduced by vaccination and the reaction time of the immune response.

Experiment Description 

Experiments concerned with the effects of space flight on the human immune system are important to 

protect the health of long duration crews. The human immune system involves both humoral (blood-borne) 

and cell-mediated responses to foreign substances known as antigens. Humoral responses include the 

production of antibodies and specialized blood cells which appear to be suppressed during long duration 

space missions. These immunity products can be measured in samples of the saliva and blood serum. 

Flight Protocol 

The antigen and associated equipment was transferred to Mir on STS-89. After immunization of the 

crewmember during the NASA 7 mission, blood and saliva samples are collected and processed 

periodically over 4 weeks. These samples are then frozen and returned for analysis on STS-91. The results 

are compared to pre- and post flight blood and saliva samples, as well as samples collected just prior to 

immunization. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-76, NASA 2

STS-79, NASA 3

STS-81, NASA 4 

STS-86, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigators: 

Clarence Sams, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

A. T. Lesnyak, Institute of Biomedical Problems 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 32 

HUMAN LIFE SCIENCES 

RENAL STONE RISK ASSESSMENT DURING LONG-DURATION SPACE FLIGHT (RENAL-2) 

Experiment Objective 

• The purpose of this experiment is to determine the in-flight risk of renal stone formation during 

prolonged exposure to microgravity, and to determine which risk factors are affected by flight 

duration. 

Experiment Description 

It has been suggested that space flight increases the risk of kidney stone formation, and the risk is 

proportional to the time spent in space. This risk is assessed using methods similar to those used on Earth: 

urine samples are collected over time and analyzed. The concentrations of ions and minerals present in the 

urine indicate the chances for renal stone formation. Samples are taken prior to launch, in flight, and after 

return to Earth. These samples are compared to determine if an increased risk of renal stone formation 

exists in microgravity. The results from this study will provide a better understanding of renal stone 

formation, which may lead to ways of counteracting the formation of these stones both in space and on 

Earth. 

Flight Protocol 

Associated hardware for this flight was transported to Mir on STS-89. Urine will be collected over several 

twenty-four hour periods during the NASA 7 mission, then it will be preserved and returned to Earth for 

post-flight analyses on STS-91. A metabolic log will be kept to monitor food, fluid, medication intake, and 

exercise to assess any environmental contributions to renal stone formation. 

Mission Assignments Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2

STS-91 STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigators: 

Peggy Whitson, Ph.D., NASA/Johnson Space Center 

German Arzamazov, M.D., Institute of Biomedical Problems 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 33 

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION RISK MITIGATION 

COSMIC RADIATION AND EFFECTS ACTIVATION MONITOR (CREAM) 

Experiment Objective 

• Monitor the energy disposition of spectra in silicon due to primary and secondary radiation as a 

function of time, orbital location and shielding. 

• Obtain collateral data on mission integrated dose, particle influences, and induced radioactivity. 

• Improve and test space environment and radiation shielding codes used to predict single event upset 

rates in electronics and background rates in sensors. 

Experiment Background 

The Mir modules, and the forth coming International Space Station, represent opportunities to explore new 

radiation environments in order to obtain data on different shielding levels and the effects of radiation on 

larger spacecraft. The Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) measures the Linear 

Energy Transfer (LET) effects within silicon and provides information relevant to single event upsets 

(SEUs) on avionics equipment.

Flight Protocol 

The associated hardware for this experiment was transported on STS-89. After transfer to Mir, the 

CREAM hardware will be deployed and photographed at predetermined locations on Mir. Once initiated, 

the CREAM Active Monitor will begin a standard two week data collection period at one of two 

predetermined locations on Mir. Once the data collection period is completed, the Active Monitor is moved 

to the other location for data collection. The Active Monitor will be exchanged between these locations and 

allowed to collect data for the remainder of NASA 7. Prior to undocking, specified NASA 7 CREAM 

hardware, along with the NASA 6 CREAM hardware, will be transferred to STS-91/Discovery for return 

to Earth. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-86, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7 

Investigators: 

Peter Truscott, Defense Evaluation and Research Agency, Ministry of Defense of the UK 

Michael Golightly, NASA/ Johnson Space Center 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 34 

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION RISK MITIGATION 

SPACE PORTABLE SPECTROREFLECTOMETER (SPSR) 

Experiment Objective 

• Determine effects and damage mechanisms of the Mir space environment on materials. 

• Provide flight testing of spacecraft materials by measuring total hemispherical reflectance from 250-

2500 n.m. 

• Provide data to validate ground test facilities and prediction models for material behavior in space. 

• Develop and test a reusable flight instrument for the study of the behavior of material in the space 

environment. 

Experiment Description 

The Space Portable Spectroreflectometer provides an in-space inspection instrument for non-destructive, 

quantitative engineering evaluation of spacecraft interior. The SPSR measures total hemispherical 

reflectance as an identification of effects of the space environment on materials such as thermal control 

coatings, viewing windows, reflectors, and solar power systems. It will provide valuable data for 

determining how materials degrade when exposed to the space environment within the Shuttle/Mir 

implementation framework. 

Flight Protocol 

The SPSR will be utilized during various Extravehicular Activity (EVA) operations to check spacecraft 

surfaces for optical performance. Reflectance data gathered by the SPSR will be stored in the units Data 

Acquisition and Control System (DACS), to be transferred to a Mir Interface to Payloads System (MIPS) 

computer for storage on optical disk and to the ground via telemetry. The SPSR will return on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-86, Mir 24b, NASA 6 

STS-89 

Investigators:: 

Ralph Carruth NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center 

Dr. Stanislov Naumov, RSC Energia 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 35 

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION RISK MITIGATION 

TEST OF PCS HARDWARE (TCPS) 

Experiment Objective 

• To quantify the Single Event Upsets (SEUs) that occur on the Mir and to test a software system for 

detecting and monitoring SEUs.

Experiment Background 

The TPCS is an International Space Station (ISS) Risk Mitigation experiment designed to provide 

information on the effects of space radiation on computer systems, namely single event upsets (SEUs) that 

occur when the computer hardware suffers from space radiation strikes in volatile memory. Exposure of 

the TPCS system to the radiation environment of low earth orbit will allow examination of the effects of 

radiation on the communications and data storage methods used within the Portable Computer System 

(PCS). 

Flight Protocol 

At specified intervals during the NASA 7 mission, the TPCS software is activated to measure and record 

SEUs that occur during testing. The data will be stored on the TPCS hard drives and returned on STS-91 

for post flight analysis. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, NASA 7, Mir 25 

Investigator: 

Rod Lofton, NASA/Johnson Space Center
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 36 

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION RISK MITIGATION 

RADIATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT (RME) 

Experiment Objective 

• Study the exposure to ionizing radiation on humans in space

• Measure the shielding provided in various locations inside the Mir space station

Experiment Background 

Exposure of crew, equipment, and experiments to the ambient space radiation environment in low Earth 

orbit poses one of the most significant health problems to long term space habitation. The RME will 

measure the radiation exposure in two different locations in the Mir, and by comparing the exposure data, 

the investigators are hoping to gain information about the local “East-West” radiation effect. This effect 

counters popular theory which states that the radiation levels are equal throughout the station, only varying 

due to shielding. Data obtained from previous missions have indicated that the local “east” side of the 

station has a lower radiation dose than the local “west” side. Comparisons will be made with measurements 

from previous space missions and predictions from mathematical models, and will hopefully lead to 

lowered crew exposure rates by taking advantage of this effect. 

Flight Protocol 

The radiation monitoring units will be transported to Mir on STS-91, and returned on the same Shuttle. The 

two units will operate side by side for approximately 12 hours, then for the next 48 hours the units will 

operate in opposing ends of the Mir space station. At the end of this time, the units will operate in different 

locations within the same Mir module for approximately 30 hours, and then for the balance of the 

remaining docked time, the two units will be relocated to a new module location. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-84 

STS-86 

Investigators:

Mike Golightly, NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Francis Afinidad, NASA/Johnson Space Center 

Vladislav Petrov, Institute of Biomedical Problems 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 37 

MICROGRAVITY 

MICROGRAVITY ISOLATION MOUNT FACILITY OPERATIONS (MIM) 

Experiment Objective 

• Ensure that the Microgravity Isolation Mount (MIM) provides an isolated microgravity condition for 

conducting experiments 

Experiment Background 

Experience with the flight of microgravity experiments has demonstrated that the acceleration environment 

on board spacecrafts is characterized by continual vibrational disturbances termed g-jitters. These g-jitters 

typically cause disturbance levels significantly higher than is desired for many sensitive experiments. The 

MIM attempts to provide isolation or controlled disruption for any experiment using this facility. 

Flight Protocol 

The NASA 7 crewmember will activate and evaluate the MIM Facility for proper function, as well as, 

prepare the MIM for experiment operations. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 Mir 21, NASA 2, Mir 22 

NASA 3, Mir 23, NASA 4 

Mir 24, NASA 5 

Mir 24, NASA 6 

NASA 7 

Investigators:

Bjarni Trygvasson, Ph.D., Canadian Space Agency 

Laurence Venzina , Canadian Space Agency 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 38 

MICROGRAVITY 

PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (PCG-DEWAR) 

Experiment Objective 

• Obtain crystals of sufficient size and purity that their quality and other crystallographic properties may 

be evaluated and compared with corresponding crystals grown on Earth 

• Evaluate the effectiveness of crystal growing techniques used in long-duration space flight 

• Compare crystals grown using the in-flight methods to crystals grown using the methods typically 

used on Earth 

Experiment Description 

Growing crystals in microgravity can provide significant advantages over processes used on Earth. 

Development of crystals in space is of interest to researchers because the crystals grown are more pure and 

generally more free of defects than those that crystallize in our gravitational environment on Earth. 

Frozen solutions from which the crystals will grow are loaded into a dewar before a Mir docking Shuttle 

flight and then transferred to the Mir after Shuttle docking. Once on board the Mir, the samples slowly 

thaw and the crystallization process is initiated. Crystals are grown aboard Mir using several different 

methods of growth, and the samples are returned to Earth for analysis. 

Flight Protocol 

The GN2 dewar is used in this experiment. Quick frozen samples are prepared and placed in the GN2 dewar 

to maintain them until post docking. The system is designed so that the nitrogen charge keeps the samples 

frozen until they are in orbit. As the system absorbs heat, the nitrogen boils away and the chamber 

approaches ambient temperature. As the samples thaw, crystal growth within the dewar takes place. The 

unit will be left undisturbed during the entire NASA 7 mission. The crystals are allowed to form 

throughout the long duration mission and are returned to Earth on STS-91 for analysis. Aside from transfer 

of the Dewar to Mir, there is little crew interaction with this experiment. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-74, Mir 20 

STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigators: 

Alexander McPherson, Ph.D., University of California, Riverside 

Stan Koszelak, University of California, Riverside 

Anatoli Mitichkin, Ph.D., RSC Energia
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 39 

MICROGRAVITY 

SPACE ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT (SAMS) 

Experiment Objective 

• Measure and record low-level perturbations to the microgravity environment at or near the experiment 

hardware 

Experiment Description 

Materials science experiments require a very stable environment to yield the best results. Thruster firings, 

vehicle dockings, and movements of the crewmembers cause random vibrations and accelerations which 

can affect an experiment, possibly compromising the results. The Space Acceleration Measurement System 

(SAMS) records these fluctuations in the microgravity environment so that researchers can apply this 

information when interpreting the results of an investigation. By characterizing the acceleration 

environment of the space vehicle, researchers can learn where regions of high acceleration forces exist, 

avoiding those areas for experiment placement. 

Flight Protocol 

The SAMS unit was developed by the NASA Lewis Research Center. It measures the accelerations 

through three triaxial remote sensor heads. Each sensor head contains orthogonally positioned 

accelerometers. Two optical disk drives in the unit provide the data-recording capability. SAMS will be 

activated during specific events of interest during NASA 7, such as dockings, and in support of other 

investigations. The SAMS unit was taken to Mir by a Progress vehicle prior to the Phase 1 Program. The 

optical disks with the recorded data will be returned on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

STS-86, Mir 24, NASA 6 

STS-89, Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Richard DeLombard, Ph.D., NASA/Lewis Research Center 

S. Ryaboukha, Ph.D., RSC Energia
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 40 

MICROGRAVITY 

QUEENS UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT IN LIQUID DIFFUSION (QUELD) 

Experiment Objective 

• Measure the diffusion coefficients in some metallic binary system under conditions of microgravity 

• Provide further data and increase the understanding of diffusion 

Experiment Description 

The QUELD is a joint investigation between the US, Canadian, and Russian space agencies. The QUELD 

unit is a fixed furnace facility that provides an experimental method of measuring the diffusion coefficients 

in some two metal systems during exposure to microgravity. Accurate diffusion coefficients are of 

considerable importance in modeling the diffusion process on Earth. During the course of this experiment, 

diffusion coefficients of selected systems will be placed in graphite crucibles, each contained in a separate 

stainless steel tube. This tube is rapidly heated to a constant temperature and held there for a given time 

period. Following this period, the tube is placed in an aluminum chill block and quenched to room 

temperature. 

Flight Protocol 

The QUELD unit is supported by the Microgravity Isolation Mount (MIM), which will attempt to isolate 

the experiment from microaccelerations that exist in the Mir space station. The samples used in the 

QUELD furnace were previously transported to Mir on STS-84, and will be returned for post flight 

analysis on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

Mir 25 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5 

Mir 24, NASA 6, Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigator:

Reginald Smith, Ph.D., Queen’s University, Canada 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 41 

MICROGRAVITY 

BIOTECHNOLOGY SYSTEM DIAGNOSTIC EXPERIMENT REFLIGHT (BTDSE) 

Experiment Objective 

• Ensure the functionality and maintenance of the Biotechnology System Facility for experiment use in 

microgravity 

Experiment Background 

The BTS is a facility designed to support long-duration biotechnology experiments in a low-gravity 

environment on the Mir Space Station. It was launched to the Mir aboard the Priroda module. The facility 

consists of six modules, four of which are contiguous and house the main facility. The remaining two 

modules are for passive stowage. All modules are designed for easy changeout in order to accommodate 

changing science requirements and advancements made during the several year period of its operation. 

Facility and experiment specific hardware, consumables and biological samples will be transported to and 

from the facility by the Space Shuttle during scheduled visits to the Mir. 

Flight Protocol 

The crewmember will have knowledge of BTS nominal, contingency, and malfunction procedures. The 

BTS Facility is activated and evaluated for proper function using diagnostic hardware. All BTSDE 

Diagnostic hardware will be returned on STS-91. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-89, Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigators:

Steve Gonda, Ph.D., NASA /Johnson Space Center 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 42 

MICROGRAVITY 

BTS COCULTURE (COCULT) 

Experiment Objective 

• Investigate long-term culture and assembly of two different cell types in microgravity and their role in 

developing a functional tissue

• Measure and compare cellular development, gene expression, mass transfer, and metabolism in a 

microgravity produced 3-D coculture to that of a 2-D culture and to a ground simulation 3-D coculture

• Measure and compare gene expression and protein production of the 3-D coculture to the initial 

monocultures

Experiment Background 

BTS-COCULT is a test bed for growth, maintenance and study of long term on-orbit cell growth for the 

purpose of tissue engineering. In this experiment a human endothelial cell line and a human breast 

carcinoma cell line will be cultivated first in the Biotechnology Specimen Temperature Controller-Mir 

(BSTC-M) and then combined and cocultivated in the Engineering Development Unit-Mir (EDU-M) to 

attempt the first vascularization of a solid tumor in microgravity. The procedures employed in engineering 

this specific type of tissue model may be of great benefit in the development of engineered tissue models of 

completely normal tissues in future experiments. 

Flight Protocol 

Cell cultures in temperature controlled vessels and associated hardware were transported on STS-89, and 

integrated in the Biotechnology Experiment Module (BEM) in the Biotechnology System (BTS) on Mir. 

Culture periods will vary with media exchanges, sample fixations, light microscopy, photography and 

video camera monitoring throughout. Samples will be stored at low temperatures or fixed and will be 

returned on STS-91 for post flight analysis. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-89, Mir 25 

NASA 7 

Investigators:

Timothy Hammond, Ph.D., Louisiana State University 

Peter Lelkes, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin School of Medicine
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 43 

MICROGRAVITY 

AMBIENT DIFFUSION CONTROLLED PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (DCAM) 

Experiment Objective 

• Grow large, well-ordered crystals of many different types of proteins and viruses for analysis and 

characterization in ground laboratories

Experiment Description 

The primary objective of the DCAM experiment is to produce large, high-quality crystals of selected 

proteins under controlled conditions in microgravity. Crystals of sufficient size and suitable quality are 

essential for protein crystallographic analysis of molecular structures via x-ray diffraction and computer 

modeling. 

All proteins are preloaded into the DCAM prior to the STS ferry flight. The experiment is self- activated 

once integrated into Mir, and the crystals will grow for the remainder of the flight. 

Flight Protocol 

The DCAM is designed for the growth of protein crystals in a microgravity environment. In the DCAM, a 

“button” holds a small protein sample, which is covered by a semipermeable membrane that allows the 

precipitant solution to pass into the protein solution to initiate the crystallization process. 

The DCAM has no mechanical systems. Diffusion starts on Earth as soon as the chambers are filled. 

However, the rate is so slow that no appreciable change occurs before the samples reach orbit one or two 

days later. The DCAM was transported to the Mir on STS-89 and left undisturbed for the duration of 

NASA 7. The DCAM unit will be returned on STS-91. Such an apparatus is ideally suited for long 

duration Mir Space Station missions. 

Mission Assignment Previous Phase 1 Missions 

STS-91 STS-74, STS-76, Mir 21, NASA 2 

STS-79, Mir 22, NASA 3 

STS-81, Mir 23, NASA 4 

STS-84, Mir 24, NASA 5, STS-89 

Mir 25, NASA 7 

Investigator:

Dan Carter, Ph.D., NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 44 

ALPHA MAGNETIC SPECTROMETER (AMS) 

AMS AND THE DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY - HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS IN SPACE 

As part of its long-standing role in high energy physics research, the U.S. Department of Energy is 

supporting the scientific leadership and part of the funding for the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) 

experiment that will fly on the Space Shuttle Discovery and later the International Space Station. 

The AMS experiment is the first time a high energy particle magnetic spectrometer will be placed in orbit. 

As high energy physicists continue to prove the fundamental laws that govern our universe, they ask such 

basic questions as: What are the ultimate building blocks of matter? What are the fundamental forces 

through which these basic particles interact? Fifteen Nobel Prizes in Physics have gone to high energy 

physicists for their discoveries. In 1995, Department of Energy-funded scientists found the top quark, the 

last to be discovered of the basic particles believed to make up all known matter. 

The AMS will continue this scientific journey of discovery in a region here to date untapped by high 

energy physics research, the environment of space. The space environment provides a copious flux of 

atomic and subatomic particles which have been naturally accelerated to energies which are impossible to 

achieve in Earth bond accelerators. The AMS will provide the first 

In-situmagnetic detector of these particles and will open a unique and rich new area of experimental high 

energy physics. 

On STS-91, a group of eminent scientists in the field who reviewed AMS for the department unanimously 

endorsed its scientific merit. Researchers will use the detector to search for both antimatter and "dark 

matter" to answer two specific questions: First, if equal amounts of matter and antimatter were produced at 

the beginning of the universe as described by the Big Bang scenario, and the galaxies we now see are made 

only of matter, where has the antimatter gone? Second, since the mass of a galaxy seems to be greater than 

the visible mass of all its stars, gas and dust, is there dark matter of a new kind that has eluded discovery? 

Secretary of Energy Federico Pena hailed the research that will be done with the AMS experiment as 

literally "out of this world." He congratulated the experiment's international collaboration of scientists from 

37 research institutions, headed by MIT Professor and Nobel Laureate Dr. Samuel Ting. The collaboration 

designed and built the 3-1/2 ton detector in record time. "I am delighted that the Department of Energy as a 

science agency has been able to support Dr. Ting during much of his brilliant scientific career and that we 

are able to help make possible this 'first-of-a-kind' experiment that conceivably could rewrite science 

textbooks," Secretary Pena said. 

Dr. Ting received the 1976 Nobel Prize for his co-discovery of the J particle. 

The Department of Energy is the federal government's primary steward for the field of physics that seeks to 

understand the fundamental nature of matter and energy. The department provides over 90 percent of 

federal support for high energy physics research in the United States. Its $680 million annual budget for 

high energy physics is, in turn, part of the $2.5 billion annual funding for basic research that supports the 

department's science, energy, environmental and national security missions. 

High energy physics is basic research that over the years has led to many practical benefits. Advances in 

medical diagnostic imaging, parallel processing computing and superconducting magnets have come out of 

the technologies developed to build and use powerful particle accelerators for this research. High energy 

physicist Allan Cormack shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his role in the development of the 

CAT scan by applying mathematical methods for reconstructing images of particle collisions from detector 

data. More recently, the World Wide Web, which has transformed the world of communication and 

information, was originally developed in the early 1990s so that the thousands of high energy physicists 

involved in international collaborations could quickly and efficiently communicate electronically. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 45 

Much of the experimental work of high energy physicists is done at particle accelerators such as at the 

Department of Energy's Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FERMILAB) outside of Chicago, Illinois, 

the Department's Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in California, or at high energy physics 

laboratories in Europe. In these accelerators, subatomic particles collide at velocities approaching the speed 

of light so researchers can study the resulting reactions and new particles produced. 

High energy particles also exist as cosmic rays produced at the beginning of the universe and in 

supernovae stars and near black holes. The particles AMS will search for cannot be detected on the ground 

because they are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so the detector must be deployed in space. When 

installed on the Space Station, the AMS will gather data for three years. 

The collaboration between the Department of Energy and NASA on the AMS experiment is the latest 

partnership in a long history, but this is the first joint effort with a purely scientific mission. The 

department's facilities have built radioisotope thermoelectric generators and heater units that power and 

warm spacecraft, such as Viking, Voyager, Galileo and most recently the Cassini space probe to Saturn. 

The department's national laboratories have provided sensors for reconnaissance satellites that help verify 

arms control and nonproliferation treaties. Most recently, a Department of Energy laboratory provided the 

instrument package for the Lunar Prospector that found evidence of ice on the Moon. The AMS 

collaboration will be the first time such a detector has been put in orbit and reflects a new level of 

cooperation among particle physicists and astrophysicists as they seek answers to the kinds of questions 

about the universe humankind has striven to answer at least since the ancient Greeks. 

AMS Science 

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) will be the first large magnet experiment ever placed in Earth's 

orbit. The scientific goal of this high energy physics experiment is to increase our understanding of the 

composition and origin of the universe. It is designed to detect and catalogue with a high degree of 

precision high energy charged particles, including antimatter, outside the Earth's atmosphere. The charge of 

such particles can be identified only by their trajectories in a magnetic field. 

The Big Bang scenario describes a universe that began with equal amounts of matter and antimatter. 

Measurements reveal that galaxies as far as 20 million light years from our galaxy are made of matter, so 

the unanswered question is, where is the antimatter? Are there entire galaxies of antimatter beyond what 

we have detected, or did an early small imbalance of matter over antimatter yield a universe of matter? The 

AMS experiment is sensitive enough to detect minute quantities of antimatter present in cosmic rays 

coming from outside the galaxy. AMS can measure one anti-particle per 100 million Helium nuclei. Thus, 

AMS may be the first experiment to detect this antimatter. Such observations could signal the existence of 

antimatter galaxies. 

A related question about the composition of the universe is, where is the "dark matter?" The mass of a 

galaxy, measured from the motion of gas clouds about its center, is greater than the visible mass of all its 

stars, gas and dust. The unseen portion is known as dark matter because it is undetected by optical 

telescopes and other instruments. If the dark matter consists of particles predicted by theory, collisions 

among them could produce antiprotons and positrons (the electron antiparticle). Scientists hope the energy 

spectra of the positrons detected by the AMS will indicate or set limits on the nature of the missing matter 

which has long remained a mystery. 

In the 10 days that AMS will orbit the Earth on the Space Shuttle Discovery, AMS will first perform a 

complete system check to ensure that it will function properly for three years on the Space Station. AMS 

will also carry out a search for anti-Helium and anti-Carbon nuclei as well as measure the spectrum of 

antiprotons. 

The AMS project is an international scientific collaboration that includes 37 research institutions in (with 

lead collaborators): China (H. S. Chen), Finland (J. Torsti), France (J. P. Vialle), Germany (K. 

Luebelsmeyer), Italy (R. Battiston), Portugal (G. Barreira), Romania (A. Mihul), Russia (Y. Galaktionov), 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 46 

Spain (C. Mana), Switzerland (M. Bourquin, H. Hofer), Taiwan (S. C. Lee), the United Kingdom (R. 

Marshall) and the United States (U. Becker). The U.S. portion of the AMS experiment is sponsored by the 

U.S. Department of Energy. 

AMS - What It Is, How It Works 

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer is a particle detector that weighs 3-1/2 tons and consists of five major 

elements: a permanent magnet, time-of-flight scintillators, a silicon microstrip tracker, anti-coincidence 

counters and an aerogel Cerenkov threshold counter. The AMS also has electronics, a support structure and 

interfaces to computers on the Space Shuttle and at Johnson Space Center. 

The permanent magnet is a cylindrical shell made of blocks of magnetic material called neodymiumferrous-boron. The blocks are arranged around the cylinder to create a magnetic field confined inside the 

magnet. The trajectory that a particle takes when it enters the magnetic field allows researchers to 

determine its charge. 

The time-of-flight counters provide the primary trigger when a charged particle or anti-particle passes 

through the detector. This starts the readout of the tracker and helps measure the particle's velocity. 

The silicon microstrip tracker has 1,921 silicon sensors in six layered horizontal planes. The sensors 

measure the particles' trajectories. 

The veto counters flag the entry of any secondary particles into the detector so the signals of these 

background particles can be rejected. The counters are arrayed in a cylindrical shell between the inner skin 

of the magnet and the tracker. 

The aerogel threshold Cerenkov counter at the bottom of the AMS enhances the detector's capability to 

identify particles. One hundred sixty-eight phototubes view the 10 cm thick layer of aerogel to measure its 

index of refraction as particles pass through. This will ensure identification of anti-protons and also help 

distinguish positrons (anti-electrons) from other particles such as protons, pions and muons. 

The electronics recognize that a particle of interest to scientists has passed through the detector, digitize the 

detector signals, collect the signals from the particle's passage into an "event," and transmit the event data 

to Earth. The electronics relay commands from Earth to the detector. They also monitor and operate the 

detector. 

The detector rests in a support structure of vertical aluminum I-beams. The entire payload weighs 9200 

pounds and will be mounted in the rear of the Space Shuttle payload bay. 

NASA will fly AMS twice. During the STS-91 mission, AMS will have 100 hours of dedicated system 

checkout and data gathering. During the Space Station mission, AMS will be an externally attached 

payload and gather data for three years. For both missions, commands will be issued and then data 

collected on the ground in real time. The high inclination and altitude of the Space Shuttle and Space 

Station missions are vital for the experiment because they provide data collection time near the 

geomagnetic poles where the influence of the Earth's magnetic field on inbound particles is minimized. 

More information about the AMS project is available on the World Wide Web at: 

www-lns.mit.edu 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 47 

STS-91 GET AWAY SPECIALS (GAS) EXPERIMENTS 

Flying on the STS-91 Space Shuttle mission will be four Get Away Special (GAS) payloads which were manifested 

by the Shuttle Small Payloads Project at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. Below is a brief 

description of those GAS experiments. 

G-648 

The Atlantic Canada Thin Organic Semiconductors (ACTORS) experiment is sponsored by the Canadian Space 

Agency’s Microgravity Sciences Program. This payload (G-648) prepared by the University of Moncton in New 

Brunswick will process an important type of semiconductor organic material. 

The ACTORS organic materials will be processed in space where the gravitational forces are minimal. Under 

microgravity, more uniform thin films will be formed. This improvement in uniformity is due to absence of 

convection, a phenomenon which influences Earth processes. Scientists will be able to compare the thin films 

produced in microgravity with those produced on Earth. 

A better understanding of the role gravity plays in affecting the forming of thin films should lead to improved Earth 

based manufacturing. The semiconductor material (Perylene Tetracarboxylic Dianhydride) studied has many uses. 

In particular, it can be used in high sensitivity particle beam detectors and electro-optic device applications. 

The principal investigator for the experiment is Dr. Truong Vo-Van of the University of Moncton. The mission 

manager is Susan Olden form Goddard while Lee Shiflett also from Goddard serves as the technical manager. 

G-765 

Through G-765, the Canadian Space Agency and several partners are launching an exciting set of space experiments 

in search of new ways to extract oil from the Earth and clean up accidental spill in the environment. 

The purpose of the Microgravity Industry Related Research for Oil Recovery (MIRROR) payload is to use space’s 

microgravity environment to develop new technologies which could have an impact on the Canadian oil industry, 

environmental clean-up and the world’s future oil reserves. For example, researchers from the Petroleum Recovery 

Institute, Calgary, Alberta in Canada expect the MIRROR space experiments will provide insight into the physical 

properties of the foams used for extracting oil, which could help scientists and engineers develop more efficient and 

less costly extraction processes. 

In operating oil fields, conventional means of extraction still leave huge amounts of the oil in the ground. Initially, 

oil is forced to the surface by its own naturally occurring pressure. When the pressure subsides, more oil is 

artificially forced out of the ground by pumping water or gas into the reserve. This still leaves about two-thirds of 

the oil trapped in tiny pores of rock beneath the Earth’s surface. 

The three MIRROR experiments aboard STS-91 are self contained and fully automated. The first experiment is the 

Diffusion Coefficients of Crude Oil (DCCO). DCCO will aid in developing accurate numerical models for the 

prediction of oil reservoir properties for DCCO. The experiment is being conducted by Professor Jean-Claude 

Legros of the Microgravity Research Center in Brussels, Belgium. Next, is the Foam Stability experiment. Scientists 

will study forces that affect the behavior and longevity of foams of interest to oil companies, as well as aid in the 

development of new foam products. Dr. Laurier Schramm of the Petroleum Recovery Institute is the principal 

investigator for this experiment. Lastly, the Capillary Flow experiment will study the magnitude of capillary forces 

on fluid flow in porous rock/soil and develop techniques to change the flow characteristics in reservoirs or 

contaminated soils. Dr. D’Arcy Hart of C-Core, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada is the principal investigator. 

Partners for the MIRROR program are the Canadian Space Agency, European Space Agency, Province of 

Newfoundland & Labrador and the oil industry. The mission manager for this Get Away Special payload is Susan 

Olden of Goddard. Lee Shiflett, is the technical manager and is also from Goddard. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 48 

G-090 

Utah State University in Logan, designed the GAS payload G-090 which consists of three experiments built by high 

school students. On board will be a power supply and computer controls built by Utah State students and several 

packages of popcorn that will be used for experiments by students at the St. Vincent Elementary School in Salt Lake 

City. The purpose of G-090 is to give high school students an opportunity to design and build GAS experiments 

with the university students acting as mentors, coordinating integration and building computer and power interfaces. 

The first experiment is the Chemical Unit Process (CUP). CUP was built by students at Shoshone-Bannock 

Junior/Senior High School on the Fort Hall Reservation, Idaho. Students hope to learn how microgravity effects 

extracting phosphate ions, used widely as a fertilizer, from phosphate ore mined on their reservation. This is the first 

GAS payload built by Native Americans students.

The second experiment, Nucleic Boiling, designed by Box Elder High School in Brigham City, Utah, will study the 

effects of microgravity on bubble formation and temperature gradients as water is heated to a boil during the flight. 

This process is affected on Earth by gravity, convection and liquid density. 

Moscow (Idaho) High School and Moscow University, Idaho, have formulated a crystal growth experiment that will 

study the formation and growth of chemical crystals in a microgravity environment. 

Lastly, the fourth experiment is a passive experiment from St. Vincent Elementary School in Salt Lake City.

Students will do experiments comparing traits of popcorn and radish seeds exposed to space with control seeds kept 

on Earth. This will be done by growing the space seeds and the Earth seeds on the ground to see if there will be any 

difference in the radishes produced. They will also compare the two popcorn samples by popping them on Earth to 

see what differences will occur within the two sample groups. The purpose of this experiment is to foster interest in 

space among young children. 

The principal investigator for this payload is Jan Sojka from Utah State University. Susan Olden from Goddard is 

the mission manager. Charles Knapp, also from Goddard, is the technical manager. 

G-743 

Broward (Davie, Fla.) And Brevard (Cocoa, Fla.), Community Colleges along with Belen Jesuit Preparatory School

in Miami, have constructed a genotoxicology experiment to determine the degree to which DNA is damaged by 

exposure to cosmic radiation in a space environment. 

For this payload experiment, DNA will be extracted from tissues of a variety of vertebrate organisms including 

chicken, fish and humans. The DNA samples will be loaded into sterile quartz tubes and sealed. Identical control 

samples will be prepared, but will not be flown in space. The DNA will be tested by measuring the average length 

of the DNA in each sample. 

Also seeds of the mustard plant, Arabodopsis, will be flown in space and then grown on Earth to look for the effects 

of chromosome damage. Germination (growth) and viability will also be compared to a control population. Most of 

this work will be done by the high school and college students upon return to Earth. 

The G-743 payload team has said that the ultimate experiment objective is to develop a community interest in space 

exploration activities, and that “from humble beginnings, great things will come”. 

The principal investigator for this payload is Rolando Branly from Broward Community College. Technical 

mentorship is provided by John Bickham at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas. Susan Olden from 

Goddard is the mission manager for this payload. Also, from Goddard is Charles Knapp, serving as the technical 

manager. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 49 

SPACE EXPERIMENT MODULE 

Two Space Experiment Module (SEM) canisters (SEM-03 and SEM-05) will be flying on Space Shuttle Mission 

STS-91. Each module contains multiple experiments from middle school, high school and college students around 

the country. The following SEM experiments will be onboard: 

SEM-03: 

Shoreham (N. Y.) Wading River High School – The Effect of Microgravity on Crossing-Over in Sordaria 

Fimicola 

The experiment will study the effect of microgravity on the crossover rate (union between strains of a species) of 

the fungus called Sordaria Fimicola. Genetic cross-over is a form of natural genetic recombination (which is another 

term for crossovover) without which a species of organisms can experience reduced genetic variability. The 

students hypothesize that microgravity will generate a 

Significant reduction in genetic crossover. If proven true, the implied lack of genetic variability could prove very 

detrimental to any organism which reproduces in a microgravity environment over a long period of time. 

Inside the experiment module, a motor will align Petri dishes containing the fungus and growth medium (food that 

will sustain the fungus) which will allow contact and breeding to begin. Temperature of the Sordaria will be 

thermostatically controlled. At two days, seven hours and thirty minutes, active thermal control will be discontinued

by the pre-programmed commands of the students and the experiment will continue unpowered. The fungi will be 

allowed to grow and multiply for the duration of the flight. Upon landing, the fungi will be examined to discover the 

rate at which cross-over has occurred and compared to ground control data. 

Tomasita Young Astronauts Club, Albuquerque, N.M. - Crystal Growth in Microgravity 

The purpose of this experiment is to compare the growth of crystals in a microgravity environment to those grown 

on the ground. Crystals will be measured for purity and the structure will also be examined through the use of a 

scanning electron microscope located at the University of New Mexico. Also, the growth pattern of crystals in space 

will be compared to those grown on Earth through a comparison of photographic records. The data will add to the 

general knowledge of crystal growth behavior in a microgravity environment. Exceptionally pure crystals are 

regularly grown in space to aid materials, semiconductor and medical research. 

Crystals will be grown using a supersaturation method. Pickling alum will be dissolved in distilled water. The 

solution will be cooled, allowing crystals to form on a piece of Zircon mounted on a piece of platinum wire. The 

mineral Zircon has the same crystalline structure as crystallized alum and will act as a seed crystal. It is insoluble in 

water as well so it can be left in the solution at all times. 

During the flight, the crystal growth process will be photographed with a specially modified 35 millimeter camera 

that is controlled by the SEM Module Electronics Unit. Postflight, the samples will be examined for purity and 

structure with the assistance of the University of New Mexico's Geology Department. 

Norfolk (Va.) Public Schools Science and Technology Advanced Research (NORSTAR) 

Experiment 1. Effect of Microgravity on development of Daphnia, Eubranchipus and Triops eggs 

The purpose of this experiment is to observe the development of Daphnia, Eubranchipus and Triops eggs 

(freshwater organisms with a shell) after they have been exposed to microgravity. The eggs will be flown in space 

in a state of suspended animation within a Plexiglas container. On their return to Earth their development into adults 

will be observed and compared to eggs which developed on Earth. The potential scientific value of the experiment 

includes: new insights into developmental biology, developing strategies to create artificial diapause in higher 

animals and altering cell development and differentiation under microgravity conditions 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 50 

Experiment 2. Separation of Immiscible Fluids in Microgravity 

The purpose of the experiment is to observe the behavior (displacement) of immiscible liquids (liquids incapable of 

being mixed) in a microgravity environment in order to determine whether displacement is due to surface tension, 

viscosity, or both. The separation of oil and colored water in the experiment will be videotaped in a microgravity 

environment. During the flight, a 50/50 combination of colored salt water and vegetable oil will be mixed within a 

Lexan container. A Teflon-coated magnetic stirring device will be used to mix the liquids. Pre-mixing, mixing, and 

post-mixing phases of the experiment will be videotaped over a two hour period. 

The potential scientific value of the experiment includes: benefits to the pharmaceutical industry in preparing 

medications, and development of better food processing of salad dressings and other foods containing significant 

amounts of oil and water. This experiment is a reflight of one that flew on STS-80. 

Boy Scouts Troop 177 and Four Rivers District, Gambrills, Md. - Merit Badge Madness 

The main purpose of this passive experiment is to determine how the environment of space and radiation will affect 

soil, water, and seed samples and their yield when planted. Each of the soil, water, and seed samples will be 

contained in test tubes provided by Goddard Space Flight Center. 

When the samples are returned to Earth after the spaceflight, each of the samples will be given a battery of tests to 

identify pH level, which is used to describe the level of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Seeds will be planted and 

their growth and yield will be evaluated. Flight samples will be compared with ground samples. 

Can Do Project, Charleston, S. C. 

Experiment 1. MAVIS - Magnetic Attraction Viewed In Space 

The purpose of the investigation is to capture an image of magnetic fields in microgravity and to compare them to 

the fields of the same magnets on Earth. A Light Emitting Diode will expose sheets of fine grain positive film 

capturing the shadow pattern (shadowgram) of thin iron filing filled boxes using electromagnets. Patterns will be 

compared to those captured by the same apparatus on the ground and by a similar experiment on a previous flight 

(STS-80). 

Experiment 2. BEST - Big Experiments in Small Tubes

A variety of passive materials will be flown as part of this experiment. Each sample is contained in a separate color 

coded "Cryovial”. Samples of photographic film and a particle track detector are also contained in the module. 

Flown samples will be compared with ground control samples that have been exposed to one of the following: 

centrifugation, high radiation, liquid nitrogen freezing or passive storage. Student teams will analyze and compare 

the samples. 

Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.- Cosmic Radiation Effects on Programmable Logic Devices (CREPLD) 

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effects of cosmic radiation on unshielded Programmable Logic 

Devices (PLDs). PLDs are integrated circuits which can be programmed to perform many functions. The devices 

retain their program even when not powered, and they have a long shelf life. The experiment will involve 

programming sample PLDs prior to flight, running the program inflight, and run the program again postflight. 

Changes to the program and correlation to cosmic radiation exposure and shielding will be evaluated. 

The potential scientific value of these measurements is the determination of the amount of shielding needed for 

PLDs to be reliable in space. If it is determined that the PLD is largely unaffected by cosmic radiation, future SEM 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 51 

projects and other space experiments could cut costs, experiment volume, and power requirements by using a single 

PLD to do the work of many fixed-use chips. 

Two identical circuits, one flown, one as ground control will use PLDs programmed with a infinite loop program. 

Additionally, fourteen non-powered Programmable Logic Devices will be flown to provide additional data points. 

Once the flight PLD is returned to Earth, its program will be compared to the ground control PLD’s program. The 

degree of corruption of the flight program, if any, will be measured. 

Woodmore Elementary School, Mitchellville, Md. - WESTAR 

An assortment of passive experiment items including seeds, soil, and other organic materials will be flown in 

polycarbonate vials. The flight samples will be compared with ground samples over a variety of physical 

characteristics. 

SEM-05: 

Chesapeake Bay Girl Scout Council, Salisbury, Md. - The Effect of Spaceflight on Food Yield 

The effect of spaceflight on food yield is the basis of this passive experiment. A medley of food materials contained 

in NASA-provided polycarbonate vials are included such as grass, peas, popcorn, and yeast. Once returned to Earth, 

the space flown samples will be compared to ground samples. Factors such as vitality, growth rate, yield, volume, 

etc. Will be measured. 

Excel interactive Science Museum, Salisbury, Md. - Exposure of the SEM to the Space Environment 

The experiment will investigate the effects of the space environment on electronic data storage, electrical circuits, 

magnetized metals, growth of simple plants, and photographic film sensitivity. Data disks with known data file 

structure will be analyzed when returned to Earth for data corruption. The magnetic field strength of steel nails will 

be measured before and after the flight then compared to a ground-based control sample. The signal levels of voice 

recording electronic circuits wrapped in two different materials will be compared when returned to Earth. Similarly, 

the pulsing frequency of 555-based pulsing circuits (a type of electronic circuit having a numerical designation) will 

be measured on their return to Earth. Germination and growth rate of space-exposed grass seed will be investigated. 

Different photographic film types will be flown and compared for X-ray sensitivity. 

Grand Coulee (Wash.) Elementary School- Comparative Microgravity Response of Fungi and Mold 

The purpose of the experiment is to study the effect of microgravity on the reproductive and growth mechanisms of 

simple plant species. Samples of bread and orange peel will be qualitatively and quantitatively compared to groundbased control samples upon their return to Earth. 

Olin-Sang-Ruby Union Institute, Ocononmowoc, Wis.- The Effect of Microgravity on Plant Seeds 

The experiment aims to be a basis for understanding the growth patterns of microgravity-exposed grains, seedbearing plants, fruits, nuts, and trees. The growth rate, color, life span and seed production of a diverse variety of 

seeds will be studied once they are returned to Earth. Additionally, the space-flown seeds will be compared to 

control seeds that have undergone radiation, sub-zero temperature, centrifugal forces, and storage exposures. 

Virginia Parent Teachers and Students Association, Accomac, Va. - Flower Garden in Space 

The effect of microgravity and temperature exposure on flower and foliage seeds will be studied. Once returned to 

Earth, a variety of growth factors of the seeds and resulting seedlings will be qualitatively and quantitatively 

compared with ground-based control samples. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 52 

Wicomico High School, Salisbury, Md. - Effects of Microgravity on Sordaria Fimicola 

The purpose of this experiment is to study the effects of microgravity on the reproduction of the fungus Sordaria 

Fimicola. Also, an aim is to determine what effects, if any, microgravity has on the meiotic process, which is the 

division of cells resulting in the production of fungus spores. The resulting spores will be examined for any 

evidence of crossover within the two fungus strains. Additionally, an attempt to map the genes involved in the 

determination of spore coat color will be made. Separate Petri dishes of a tan strain and wild strain of Sordaria 

Fimicola as well as dishes containing both strains will be flown and examined once returned to Earth. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 53 

COMMERCIAL PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH (CPCG) PAYLOAD 

The Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG) payload is designed to conduct experiments which will 

supply information on the scientific methods and commercial potential for growing large high-quality 

protein crystals in microgravity. The CPCG will be installed and operated in the Orbiter middeck. The 

CPCG payload consists of a Commercial Refrigerator Incubator Module (CRIM), its contents, and various 

stowed items. 

A primary objective of the CPCG payload on this flight is to grow parasitic enzyme crystals in space for 

the Chagaspace Project. Chagaspace is a joint project between NASA and several universities and 

institutions, with EARTH College as the coordinating entity to study Chagas disease. Chagas disease 

affects 16 to 18 million people, mostly in Latin America, with 90 to 100 million at risk. It is estimated that 

the disease causes approximately 20,000 deaths per year. 

Chagas disease is caused by the flagellate protozoan parasite, Trypanosomacruzi, and is transmitted to 

humans by the feces of “kissing bugs.” The parasite has been extending its reach, mostly due to blood 

transfusion, and has spread to new areas like Europe and the United States.

Growing higher quality crystals in space often yields higher resolution data important for developing drugs 

against diseases. This study represents the first Latin American experiment performed in space

Below and on the next page is information on the various proteins which are flying as part of the CPCG 

experiment on STS-91. Also shown is the organization or institution affiliated with each protein 

experiment along with some background information about each particular study. 

PROTEIN AFFILIATION COMMENTS 

Lysozyme Dr. Shigeo Aibara 

Kyoto University, Kyoto 

Japan 

The purpose of this study is to grow 

orthorhombic lysozyme crystals to compare the 

molecular order and mosaicity of ground and 

space grown crystals. Synchrotron radiation will 

be used to collect x-ray diffraction data. 

Proteinase K 

Proteinase K/substrate 

Complex 

Dr. Christian Betzel 

DESY, Hamburg, Germany 

Previous microgravity-grown crystals diffracted 

to 0.95 Å and gave the best x-ray data ever 

collected for this protein complex. The goal of 

this project to get better structural data for use in 

designing inhibitors for pharmaceutical 

applications. 

NAD Synthetase Complex Dr. Yancho Devedjiev 

Center for Macromolecular 

Crystallography/Eli Lilly, 

Inc. 

NAD Synthetase is the key enzyme in NAD 

biosynthesis and is the target for the structurebased design of antibacterial drugs; previous 

microgravity crystals have produced significant 

enhancements to the structural data. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 54 

PROTEIN AFFILIATION COMMENTS 

Pseudomonal Surface Protein A Dr. Mark Jedrzedas 

Center for Macromolecular 

Crystallography 

This is one of the major virulence factors of 

Streptococcus pneumoniae; it has proven 

potential for the development of therapeutic 

agents against pneumonia. 

Influenza Virus N8 and N2 

Neuraminidase 

Dr. Graeme Laver 

John Curtin School of 

Medical Research, Australian 

National University 

Neuraminidase is a protein on the surface of all 

viral influenza particles; the protein is a target 

for the structure-based drug design studies 

involving influenza. 

Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate 

Dehydrogenase complexed with 

Inhibitor 1 

Dr. Glaucius Oliva 

University of São 

Paulo/União Química 

Farmaceutica Nacional S/A 

This protein is a drug target for the treatment of 

Chagas’ disease. The complex involves 

Inhibitor 1, which is a small molecule extracted 

from a Brazilian plant. 

Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate 

Dehydrogenase complexed with 

Inhibitor 2 

Dr. Glaucius Oliva 

University of São 

Paulo/União Química 

Farmaceutica Nacional S/A 

This protein is a drug target for the treatment of 

Chagas’ disease. The complex involves Inhibitor 

2, which is a small molecule extracted from a 

Brazilian plant. 

Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate 

Dehydrogenase complexed with 

Inhibitor 3 

Dr. Glaucius Oliva 

University of São 

Paulo/União Química 

Farmaceutica Nacional S/A 

This protein is a drug target for the treatment of 

Chagas’ disease. The complex involves Inhibitor 

3, which is a compound synthesized as a 

structure-based drug design target. 

Mutt Dr. Stephen Quirk 

Georgia Institute of 

Technology 

This is an enzyme that protects DNA from 

oxidative damage prior to replication by 

hydrolyzing damaged DNA precursors. It 

prevents spontaneous mutations and is found in 

all organisms. 

Clumping Protein-B Dr. Narayana Sthanam 

Center for Macromolecular 

Crystallography/ Inhibitex, 

Inc. 

This protein has been shown to be bind to the α

and γ chains of fibrinogen and to be involved in 

Staphylococcus aureus clumping. 

Multiple Adhesion Protein-10 Dr. Narayana Sthanam 

Center for Macromolecular 

Crystallography/ Inhibitex, 

Inc. 

This is a surface bacterial adhesion protein and it 

is involved in the first step of bacterial attack on 

cells. It is a target in the design of drugs to 

combat bacterial infections. 

Grass Pollen Allergen Phl p 5b Dr. Wolfgang Weber 

University of Hamburg, 

Hamburg, Germany 

This allergen induces allergic rhinitis and 

bronchial asthma. Therefore, it is a target for the 

design of drugs to block interactions with ige 

antibodies. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 55 

SOLID SURFACE COMBUSTION EXPERIMENT (SSCE) 

Principal Investigator: Robert A. Altenkirch, Professor and Dean, Washington State University 

Project Manager: Franklin Vergilii, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH 

Project Scientist: Kurt Sacksteder, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH

Experiment Description: The SSCE series of experiments are designed to characterize flame spreading in 

microgravity and its differences from normal gravity behavior, leading to a better understanding of the 

physical processes involved. The knowledge gained is expected to enhance our understanding of fire 

behavior, both in space and on Earth. On Earth, gravity causes hot gases produced by flames to rise in the 

same way that oil floats on water, or helium balloons rise. Air flow induced by gravity is called buoyant 

convection. This convection brings fresh oxygen to meet the fuel vapor coming from the burning material. 

The spread rate of the flame is directly affected by the rate at which the fuel and oxygen are mixed with the 

help of buoyant convection. 

Objectives: 

• To measure the spread rates and temperatures of flames spreading over solid fuels (i.e. Ashless filter 

paper and Plexiglas) in microgravity. 

• To determine the effect of air pressure and oxygen concentration on flame spread rate and temperature. 

• To determine the mechanism of flame spreading in the absence of any forced or convective airflow. 

• To validate existing numerical models of the flame spreading process. 

• To contribute to improved methods of fire safety and fire control of space travel. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 56 

GROWTH AND MORPHOLOGY, BOILING, AND CRITICAL FLUCTUATIONS 

IN PHASE SEPARATING SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS (GMSF) 

Principal Investigator: John Hegseth, University of New Orleans, LA 

Project Manager: Monica Hoffmann, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH 

Project Scientist: R. Allen Wilkinson, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH 

Objective: To perform three separate experiments that will test current theories and measure properties not 

possible in Earth’s gravity for phase transitions, vapor to liquid and vice-versa, near a unique 

thermodynamic state, the “critical point.” 

Experiment Description: All three mission experiments will use a typical gas, pure sulfur-hexafluoride, 

which has been used both as a refrigerant and an electrical insulator in transformers, compressed to about 

the density of water by a pressure of about 38 atmospheres and at a temperature of 45.5 degrees 

Centigrade. At this “critical” pressure, density and temperature, the fluid has unusual properties like 

infinite capacity to store heat and the ability to conduct heat infinitely fast, which comes from the fluid 

having many intense density fluctuations. Density fluctuations are common in the dense gases of the Sun 

and in our atmosphere. 

The first experiment will provide data that will help decide which of two different mathematical equations 

to apply in determining the growth rate of droplets in a homogeneous fluid (uniform in its density) when it 

is cooled from a state (temperature, pressure and density) where liquid and gas have no separate existence 

to a state where they are separate. The second experiment will observe the formation of bubble surfaces, 

their location, shape and rate of shape and size change during gentle boiling of the fluid while going from 

the state where liquid and gas are separate to the state where the gas and liquid are indistinguishable. The 

third experiment will look at the pattern and size of the density fluctuations near the “critical” point. That 

is, many different sized regions of the fluid have measurably different densities that increase and decrease 

rapidly. Images taken during this experiment will be analyzed to determine if the fluctuation size is 

random, or obeying some other probability law. To date, this experiment has not been possible to do in 

ground-based facilities because the fluid collapses under its own weight near the “critical point.” 

Significance: These microgravity experiments will increase our knowledge in the fundamental science of 

critical fluids. The theory of critical phase transitions; vapor to liquid, normal to super-fluids with no 

viscosity and normal to super-conductors with no resistance to electric currents have common theoretical 

foundations. Further development of the theories to fully predict their behavior will be useful in 

manufacturing processes and applications. Past fundamental research in critical fluids has enabled us to use 

supercritical (above critical temperature and pressure) extraction of caffeine from coffee beans using 

carbon dioxide and the mixing of paint and solvent in manufacturing processes. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 57 

SHUTTLE IONOSPHERIC MODIFICATION WITH PULSED LOCAL 

EXHAUST (SIMPLEX)

The Shuttle Ionospheric Modification With Pulsed Local Exhaust (SIMPLEX) contains no flight hardware. 

The SIMPLEX experiment will use Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) thruster firings to create 

Ionospheric disturbances for observation by the three SIMPLEX radar sites in Arecibo, Kwajalein, and 

Jicamarca. 

The objective is to determine the source of very high frequency (VHF) radar echoes caused by the orbiter 

and its OMS engine firings. The principal investigator will use the collected data to examine the effects of 

orbital kinetic energy on ionospheric irregularities and to understand the processes that take place with the 

venting of exhaust materials. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 58 

STS-91 CREWMEMBERS 

STS091-S-002 --- The final crew members scheduled to visit Russia's Mir space station pose for a crew portrait during 

training at the Johnson Space Center (JSC). Pictured with their helmets in front are astronauts Dominic C. Gorie (left) 

and Charles J. Precourt. Others, from the left, are Wendy B. Lawrence, Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, Janet L. Kavandi, 

Valeriy V. Ryumin and Andrew S. W. Thomas. Precourt is mission commander, and Gorie, pilot, for Discovery's summer 

1998 mission to Mir. Thomas, who will have been serving as a guest researcher on Mir since late January, will return to 

Earth with the crew members. Lawrence, Chang-Diaz, Kavandi and Ryumin are all mission specialists. Ryumin represents 

the Russian Space Agency (RSA). Discovery will carry the single module version of Spacehab for the scheduled nine-day 

mission. 

No copyright is asserted for this photograph. If a recognizable person appears in the photo, use for commercial purposes 

may infringe a right of privacy or publicity. It may not be used to state or imply the endorsement by NASA or by any NASA 

employee of a commercial product, process or service, or used in any other manner that might mislead. Accordingly, it is 

requested that if this photograph is used in advertising and other commercial promotion, layout and copy be submitted to 

NASA prior to release. 

PHOTO CREDIT: NASA or National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 59 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

CHARLES J. PRECOURT (COLONEL, USAF) 

STS-91 MISSION COMMANDER 

PERSONAL DATA - Born June 29, 1955, in Waltham, Massachusetts, but considers Hudson, 

Massachusetts, to be his hometown. Married to the former Lynne Denise Mungle of St. Charles, Missouri. 

They have three daughters, Michelle, Sarah, and Aimee. Precourt enjoys golf and flying light aircraft. He 

flies a Varieze, an experimental aircraft that he built. His parents, Charles and Helen Precourt, reside in 

Hudson. Her parents, Loyd and Jerry Mungle, reside in Streetman, 

Texas. 

EDUCATION - Graduated from Hudson High School, Hudson, Massachusetts, in 1973; received a 

bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering from the United States Air Force Academy in 1977, 

a master of science degree in engineering management from Golden Gate University in 1988, and a master 

of arts degree in national security affairs and strategic studies from the United States Naval War College in 

1990. While at the United States Air Force Academy, Precourt also attended the French Air Force 

Academy in 1976 as part of an exchange program. 

ORGANIZATIONS - Member of the Association of Space Explorers, the Society of Experimental Test 

Pilots (SETP), the Soaring Society of America, and the Experimental Aircraft Association. 

SPECIAL HONORS - Defense Superior Service Medal (2); Air Force Meritorious Service Medal (2); 

Distinguished graduate of the United States Air Force Academy and the United States Naval War College. 

In 1978 he was the Air Training Command Trophy Winner as the outstanding graduate of his pilot training 

class. In 1989 he was recipient of the David B. Barnes Award as the Outstanding Instructor Pilot at the 

United States Air Force Test Pilot School. 

EXPERIENCE - Precourt graduated from Undergraduate Pilot Training at Reese Air Force Base, Texas, in 

1978. Initially he flew as an instructor pilot in the T-37, and later as a maintenance test pilot in the T-37 

and T-38 aircraft. From 1982 through 1984, he flew an operational tour in the F-15 Eagle at Bitburg Air 

Base in Germany. In 1985 he attended the United States Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force 

Base in California. Upon graduation, Precourt was assigned as a test pilot at Edwards, where he flew the F15E, F-4, A-7, and A-37 aircraft until mid 1989, when he began studies at the United States Naval War 

College in Newport, Rhode Island. Upon graduation from the War College, Precourt joined the astronaut 

program. His flight experience includes over 6,500 hours in over 50 types of civil and military aircraft. He 

holds commercial pilot, multi-engine instrument, glider and certified flight instructor ratings. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Selected by NASA in January 1990, Precourt became an astronaut in July 1991. 

His technical assignments to date have included: Manager of ascent, entry, and launch abort issues for the 

Astronaut Office Operations Development Branch; spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM), providing the 

voice link from the Mission Control Center during launch and entry for several Space Shuttle missions; 

Director of Operations for NASA at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, from 

October 1995 to April 1996, with responsibility for the coordination and implementation of mission 

operations activities in the Moscow region for the joint U.S./Russian Shuttle/Mir program. He also served 

as Acting Assistant Director (Technical), Johnson Space Center. A veteran of three space flights, he has 

logged over 696 hours in space. He served as a mission specialist on STS-55 (April 26 to May 6, 1993), 

was the pilot on STS-71 (June 27 to July 7, 1995), and was the spacecraft commander on STS-84 (May 15-

24, 1997). Precourt is assigned to command STS-91, the final scheduled Shuttle/Mir docking mission, 

concluding the joint U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is scheduled for a May 1998 launch. 

SPACE FLIGHT EXPERIENCE - STS-55 Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 

April 26, 1993. Nearly 90 experiments were conducted during this German-sponsored Spacelab D-2 

mission to investigate life sciences, materials sciences, physics, robotics, astronomy and the Earth and its 

atmosphere. STS-55 also flew the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX) making contact with 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 60 

students in 14 schools around the world. After 160 orbits of the earth in 240 flight hours, the 10-day 

mission concluded with a landing on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 6, 1993. 

STS-71 (June 27 to July 7, 1995) was the first Space Shuttle mission to dock with the Russian Space 

Station Mir, and involved an exchange of crews (seven-member crew at launch, eight-member crew on 

return). The Atlantis Space Shuttle was modified to carry a docking system compatible with the Russian 

Mir Space Station. It also carried a Spacehab module in the payload bay in which the crew performed 

various life sciences experiments and data collections. STS-71 Atlantis launched from and returned to land 

at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Mission duration was 235 hours, 23 minutes. 

STS-84 Atlantis (May 15-24, 1997) carried a seven-member international crew. This was NASA's sixth 

Shuttle mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. During the 9-day flight, the 

crew conducted a number of secondary experiments and transferred nearly 4 tons of supplies and 

experiment equipment between the Space Shuttle and the Mir station. STS-84 Atlantis launched from and 

returned to land at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Mission duration was 221 hours and 20 minutes. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 61 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

DOMINIC L. PUDWILL GORIE (COMMANDER, USN) 

STS-91 PILOT 

PERSONAL DATA - Born May 2, 1957, in Lake Charles, Louisiana. Married to Wendy Lu Williams of 

Midland, Texas. They have two children. He enjoys skiing, hiking, bicycling, golf and family activities. 

His mother, Shirley Pudwill, resides in Casselberry, Florida. His adoptive father, William Gorie, resides in 

Palm City, Florida. His father, Paul Pudwill, is deceased. Her mother, Laura Williams, resides in Midland, 

Texas. Her father, Deen Williams, is deceased. 

EDUCATION - Graduated from Miami Palmetto High School, Miami, Florida, in 1975. Bachelor of 

Science degree in ocean engineering from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1979. Master of science degree in 

aviation systems from the University of Tennessee in 1990. 

SPECIAL HONORS - Distinguished Flying Cross with Combat "V", Joint Meritorious Service Medal, Air 

Medal (2), Navy Commendation Medal with Combat "V" (2), Navy Achievement Medal, 1985 Strike 

Fighter Wing Atlantic Pilot-of-the-Year. 

EXPERIENCE - Designated a Naval Aviator in 1981. Flew the A-7E Corsair with Attack Squadron 46 

aboard the USS America from 1981 to 1983. Transitioned to Strike Fighter Squadron 132 in 1983, flying 

the F/A-18 Hornet aboard the USS Coral Sea until 1986. Attended the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School in 

1987 and served as a Test Pilot at the Naval Air Test Center from 1988 to 1990. Then was assigned to 

Strike Fighter Squadron 87 flying the F/A-18 aboard the USS Roosevelt until 1992. Participated in 

Operation Desert Storm, flying 38 combat missions. In 1992 received orders to U.S. Space Command in 

Colorado Springs for two years before reporting to Strike Fighter Squadron 106 for F/A-18 refresher 

training. Was enroute to his command tour of Strike Fighter Squadron 37 when selected as an Astronaut 

Candidate. 

Gorie has accumulated over 3500 hours in more than 30 aircraft and has over 600 carrier landings. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in December 1994, Gorie reported to 

the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. He completed a year of training and evaluation and then was 

initially assigned to work safety issues for the Astronaut Office. Gorie next served as a spacecraft 

communicator (CAPCOM) in Mission Control for numerous Space Shuttle flights. Gorie is currently 

assigned as pilot on STS-91, the final scheduled Shuttle/Mir docking mission, concluding the joint 

U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is scheduled for a May 1998 launch. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 62 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

FRANKLIN R. CHANG-DÍAZ (PH.D.) 

STS-91 MISSION SPECIALIST 

PERSONAL DATA - Born April 5, 1950, in San José, Costa Rica, to the late Mr. Ramón A. ChangMorales and Mrs. María Eugenia Díaz De Chang. Married to the former Peggy Marguerite Doncaster of 

Alexandria, Louisiana. Four children. He enjoys music, glider planes, soccer, scuba-diving, hunting, and 

hiking. His mother resides in Costa Rica. 

EDUCATION - Graduated from Colegio De La Salle in San José, Costa Rica, in November 1967, and 

from Hartford High School in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1969; received a bachelor of science degree in 

mechanical engineering from the University of Connecticut in 1973 and a doctorate in applied plasma 

physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1977. 

SPECIAL HONORS - Recipient of the University of Connecticut's Outstanding Alumni Award (1980); 

NASA Space Flight Medal (1986); the Liberty Medal from President Ronald Reagan at the Statue of 

Liberty Centennial Celebration in New York City (1986); the Medal of Excellence from the Congressional 

Hispanic Caucus (1987); NASA Exceptional Service Medals (1988, 1990, 1993); American Astronautical 

Society Flight Achievement Award (1989); NASA Space Flight Medals (1986, 1989, 1992, 1994). 

Outstanding Technical Contribution Award, Hispanic Engineer National Achievement Awards Conference 

(1993). Awarded the Cross of the Venezuelan Air Force by President Jaime Lusinchi during the 68th 

Anniversary of the Venezuelan Air Force in Caracas, Venezuela (1988). Recipient of three Honoris Causa 

Doctorates: Doctor of Science from the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica; Doctor of Science from the 

University of Connecticut and Doctor of Law from Babson College. Also Honorary faculty from the 

College of Engineering of the University of Costa Rica. Honorary Citizenship from the government of 

Costa Rica (April 1995). This is the highest honor Costa Rica confers to a foreign citizen, making him the 

first such honoree who was actually born there. 

EXPERIENCE - While attending the University of Connecticut, he also worked as a research assistant in 

the Physics Department and participated in the design and construction of high energy atomic collision 

experiments. Following graduation in 1973, he entered graduate school at MIT, becoming heavily involved 

in the United States' controlled fusion program and doing intensive research in the design and operation of 

fusion reactors. He obtained his doctorate in the field of applied plasma physics and fusion technology and, 

in that same year, joined the technical staff of the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. His work at Draper 

was geared strongly toward the design and integration of control systems for fusion reactor concepts and 

experimental devices, in both inertial and magnetic confinement fusion. In 1979, he developed a novel 

concept to guide and target fuel pellets in an inertial fusion reactor chamber. More recently he has been 

engaged in the design of a new concept in rocket propulsion based on magnetically confined high 

temperature plasmas. As a visiting scientist with the M.I.T. Plasma Fusion Center from October 1983 to 

December 1993, he led the plasma propulsion program there to develop this technology for future human 

missions to Mars. In December 1993, Dr. Chang-Díaz was appointed Director of the Advanced Space 

Propulsion Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center where he continues his research on plasma rockets. He 

is an Adjunct Professor of Physics at the University of Houston and has presented numerous papers at 

technical conferences and in scientific journals. 

In addition to his main fields of science and engineering, he worked for 2-1/2 years as a house manager in 

an experimental community residence for de-institutionalizing chronic mental patients, and was heavily 

involved as an instructor/advisor with a rehabilitation program for Hispanic drug abusers in Massachusetts. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Selected by NASA in May 1980, Dr. Chang-Díaz became an astronaut in August 

1981. While undergoing astronaut training he was also involved in flight software checkout at the Shuttle 

Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL), and participated in the early Space Station design studies. In late 

1982 he was designated as support crew for the first Spacelab mission and, in November 1983, served as 

on orbit capsule communicator (CAPCOM) during that flight. From October 1984 to August 1985 he was 

leader of the astronaut support team at the Kennedy Space Center. His duties included astronaut support 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 63 

during the processing of the various vehicles and payloads, as well as flight crew support during the final 

phases of the launch countdown. He has logged over 1,800 hours of flight time, including 1,500 hours in 

jet aircraft. Dr. Chang-Díaz was instrumental in implementing closer ties between the astronaut corps and 

the scientific community. In January 1987, he started the Astronaut Science Colloquium Program and later 

helped form the Astronaut Science Support Group, which he directed until January 1989. 

A veteran of five space flights (STS 61-C in 1986, STS-34 in 1989, STS-46 in 1992, STS-60 in 1994, and 

STS-75 in 1996), he has logged over 1,033 hours in space. Dr. Chang- Díaz is currently assigned as a 

mission specialist on STS-91, the final scheduled Shuttle/Mir docking mission, concluding the joint 

U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is scheduled for a May 1998 launch. 

SPACE FLIGHT EXPERIENCE - STS 61-C (January 12-18, 1986) which launched from the Kennedy 

Space Center, Florida, on the Space Shuttle Columbia. STS 61-C was a 6-day flight during which Dr. 

Chang-Díaz participated in the deployment of the SATCOM KU satellite, conducted experiments in 

astrophysics, and operated the materials processing laboratory MSL-2. Following 96 orbits of the Earth, 

Columbia and her crew made a successful night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Mission 

duration was 146 hours, 3 minutes, 51 seconds. 

On STS-34 (October 18-23, 1989), the crew aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis successfully deployed the 

Galileo spacecraft on its journey to explore Jupiter, operated the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

Instrument (SSBUV) to map atmospheric ozone, and performed numerous secondary experiments 

involving radiation measurements, polymer morphology, lightning research, microgravity effects on plants, 

and a student experiment on ice crystal growth in space. STS-34 launched from Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Mission duration was 119 hours and 41 minutes 

and was accomplished in 79 orbits of the Earth. 

STS-46 (July 31-August 8, 1992), was an 8-day mission during which crew members deployed the 

European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) satellite, and conducted the first Tethered Satellite System (TSS) 

test flight. Mission duration was 191 hours, 16 minutes, 7 seconds. Space Shuttle Atlantis and her crew 

launched and landed at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, after completing 126 orbits of the Earth in 3.35 

million miles. 

STS-60 (February 3-11, 1994), was the first flight of the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1), the second flight 

of the Space Habitation Module-2 (Spacehab-2), and the first joint U.S./Russian Space Shuttle mission on 

which a Russian Cosmonaut was a crew member. During the 8-day flight, the crew aboard Space Shuttle 

Discovery conducted a wide variety of biological materials science, earth observation, and life science 

experiments. STS-60 launched and landed at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission achieved 130 

orbits of Earth in 3,439,705 miles. 

STS-75 (February 22 to March 9, 1996), was a 15-day mission with principal payloads being the reflight of 

the Tethered Satellite System (TSS) and the third flight of the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP3). The TSS successfully demonstrated the ability of tethers to produce electricity. The TSS experiment 

produced a wealth of new information on the electrodynamics of tethers and plasma physics before the 

tether broke at 19.7 km, just shy of the 20.7 km goal. The crew also worked around the clock performing 

combustion experiments and research related to USMP-3 microgravity investigations used to improve 

production of medicines, metal alloys, and semiconductors. The mission was completed in 252 orbits 

covering 6.5 million miles in 377 hours and 40 minutes. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 64 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

WENDY B. LAWRENCE (COMMANDER, USN) 

STS-91 MISSION SPECIALIST 

PERSONAL DATA - Born July 2, 1959, in Jacksonville, Florida. She enjoys running, rowing, triathlons and 

gardening. Her father, Vice Admiral William P. Lawrence (USN, retired), resides in Crownsville, Maryland. Her 

mother, Anne Haynes, resides in Alvadore, Oregon. 

EDUCATION - Graduated from Fort Hunt High School, Alexandria, Virginia, in 1977; received a bachelor of 

science degree in ocean engineering from U.S. Naval Academy in 1981; a master of science degree in ocean 

engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 

(WHOI) in 1988. 

ORGANIZATIONS - Phi Kappa Phi; Association of Naval Aviation; Women Military Aviators; Naval 

Helicopter Association. 

SPECIAL HONORS - Awarded the Defense Superior Service Medal, the NASA Space Flight Medal, the Navy 

Commendation Medal and the Navy Achievement Medal. Recipient of the National Navy League's Captain 

Winifred Collins Award for inspirational leadership (1986). 

EXPERIENCE - Lawrence graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1981. A distinguished flight 

school graduate, she was designated as a naval aviator in July 1982. Lawrence has more than 1,500 hours flight 

time in six different types of helicopters and has made more than 800 shipboard landings. While stationed at 

Helicopter Combat Support Squadron SIX (HC-6), she was one of the first two female helicopter pilots to make a 

long deployment to the Indian Ocean as part of a carrier battle group. After completion of a master's degree 

program at MIT and WHOI in 1988, she was assigned to Helicopter Anti-Submarine Squadron Light THIRTY 

(HSL-30) as officer-in-charge of Detachment ALFA. In October 1990, Lawrence reported to the U.S. Naval 

Academy where she served as a physics instructor and the novice women's crew coach. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Selected by NASA in March 1992, Lawrence reported to the Johnson Space Center in 

August 1992. She completed one year of training and is qualified for assignment as a mission specialist on future 

Space Shuttle missions. Her technical assignments within the Astronaut Office have included: flight software 

verification in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL); Astronaut Office Assistant Training Officer. 

She flew as the ascent/entry flight engineer and blue shift orbit pilot on STS-67 (March 2-18, 1995). She next 

served as Director of Operations for NASA at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, with 

responsibility for the coordination and implementation of mission operations activities in the Moscow region for 

the joint U.S./Russian Shuttle/Mir program. In September 1996 she began training for a 4-month mission on the 

Russian Space Station Mir, but in July 1997 NASA decided to replace Lawrence with her back-up, Dr. David 

Wolf. This decision enabled Wolf to act as a backup crew member for spacewalks planned over the next several 

months to repair the damaged Spektr module on the Russian outpost. Because of her knowledge and experience 

with Mir systems and with crew transfer logistics for the Mir, she flew with the crew of STS-86 (September 25 to 

October 6, 1997). A veteran of two space flights, she has logged 658 hours in space. Lawrence is currently 

assigned as a mission specialist on STS-91, the final scheduled Shuttle/Mir docking mission, concluding the joint 

U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is scheduled for a May 1998 launch. 

SPACEFLIGHT EXPERIENCE - STS-67 Endeavour (March 2-18, 1995) was the second flight of the ASTRO 

observatory, a unique complement of three telescopes. During this 16-day mission, the crew conducted 

observations around the clock to study the far ultraviolet spectra of faint astronomical objects and the 

polarization of ultraviolet light coming from hot stars and distant galaxies. Mission duration was 399 hours and 9 

minutes. 

STS-86 Atlantis (September 25 to October 6, 1997) was the seventh mission to rendezvous and dock with the 

Russian Space Station Mir. Highlights included the exchange of U.S. crew members Mike Foale and David 

Wolf, a spacewalk by two crew members to retrieve four experiments first deployed on Mir during the STS-76 

docking mission, the transfer to Mir of 10,400 pounds of science and logistics, and the return of experiment 

hardware and results to Earth. Mission duration was 259 hours and 21 minutes. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 65 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

JANET LYNN KAVANDI (PH.D.) 

NASA ASTRONAUT 

PERSONAL DATA - Born July 17, 1959 in Springfield, Missouri. Married to John Kavandi. They have two 

children. She enjoys snow skiing, hiking, camping, horseback riding, windsurfing, flying, scuba diving, piano. 

Her parents, William and Ruth Sellers of Cassville, Missouri, are deceased. 

EDUCATION - Graduated from Carthage Senior High School, Carthage Missouri, in 1977; received a 

bachelor of science degree in chemistry from Missouri Southern State College - Joplin in 1980; master of 

science degree in chemistry from the University of Missouri - Rolla in 1982; doctorate in analytical 

chemistry from the University of Washington - Seattle in 1990. 

SPECIAL HONORS - Elected to the National Honor Society, 1977. Valedictorian of Carthage Senior High 

School, 1977. Awarded Presidential Scholarship from Missouri Southern State College, 1977. Graduated 

magma cum laude from Missouri Southern State College, 1980. Elected to Who's Who Among Students in 

American Universities and Colleges, 1980; Who's Who of Emerging Leaders in America, 1989-90, 1991-

92; and Who's Who in the West, 1987-88. Awarded certificates for Team Excellence and Performance 

Excellence from Boeing Missile Systems, 1991. 

EXPERIENCE - Following graduation in 1982, Dr. Kavandi accepted a position at Eagle-Picher Industries 

in Joplin, Missouri, as an engineer in new battery development for defense applications. In 1984, she 

accepted a position as an engineer in the Power Systems Technology Department of the Boeing Aerospace 

Company. During her ten years at Boeing, Kavandi supported numerous programs, proposals and red 

teams in the energy storage systems area through power analyses, trade studies, sizing, selection, 

development, testing and data analysis. She was lead engineer of secondary power for the Short Range 

Attack Missile II, and principal technical staff representative involved in the design and development of 

thermal batteries for Sea Lance and the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile. Other programs she 

supported include Space Station, Lunar and Mars Base studies, Inertial Upper Stage, Advanced Orbital 

Transfer Vehicle, Get-Away Specials, Small Spacecraft, Air Launched Cruise Missile, Minuteman, and 

Peacekeeper. In 1986, while still working for Boeing, she was accepted into graduate school at the 

University of Washington, where she began working toward her doctorate in analytical chemistry. Her 

doctoral dissertation involved the development of a pressure-indicating coating that uses oxygen quenching 

of porphyrin photoluminescence to provide continuous surface pressure maps of aerodynamic test models 

in wind tunnels. Commercial imaging technology was used for data collection and analysis. This nonintrusive technique was developed to supplement or replace the more expensive and time consuming 

pressure tap method. Her work on pressure indicating paints has resulted in two patents to date. In addition 

to her patents, Dr. Kavandi has published and presented several papers at technical conferences and in 

scientific journals. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Dr. Kavandi was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in December 1994 

and reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. Following an initial year of training, she was 

assigned to the Payloads and Habitability Branch where she supported payload integration for the 

International Space Station. Dr. Kavandi is currently assigned as a mission specialist on STS-91, the final 

scheduled Shuttle/Mir docking mission, concluding the joint U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is 

scheduled for a May 1998 launch. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 66 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

VALERY VICTOROVITCH RYUMIN

RUSSIAN COSMONAUT / STS-91 MISSION SPECIALIST 

PERSONAL DATA - Born August 16, 1939 in the city of Komsomolsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East. 

Married. Has two daughters and a son. His hobbies include tennis, angling, hunting, walking through 

forests, and travel. 

EDUCATION - In 1958, he was graduated from the Kaliningrad Mechanical Engineering Technical 

College with the specialty "Cold Working of Metal." In 1966, he was graduated from the Department of 

Electronics and Computing Technology of the Moscow Forestry Engineering Institute with the specialty 

"Spacecraft Control Systems." 

SPECIAL HONORS - Ryumin has been decorated twice as Hero of the Soviet Union, and has been 

awarded other Russian and foreign decorations. 

EXPERIENCE - From 1958 to 1961, Ryumin served in the army as a tank commander. 

From 1966 to the present, he has been employed at the Rocket Space Corporation Energia, holding the 

positions of: Ground Electrical Test Engineer, Deputy Lead Designer for Orbital Stations, Department 

Head, and Deputy General Designer for Testing. He helped develop and prepare all orbital stations, 

beginning with Salyut-1. In 1973, he joined the RSC Energia cosmonaut corps. A veteran of three space 

flights, Ryumin has logged a total of 362 days in space. In 1977, he spent 2 days aboard Soyuz-25, in 

1979, he spent 175 days aboard Soyuz vehicles and the Salyut-6 space station, and in 1980, he spent 185 

days aboard Soyuz vehicles and the Salyut-6 space station. 

From 1981 to 1989, Ryumin was flight director for the Salyut-7 space station and the Mir space station. 

Since 1992, he has been the Director of the Russian portion of the Shuttle-Mir and NASA-Mir program. 

In January 1998, NASA announced Ryumin's selection to the crew of STS-91, the final scheduled ShuttleMir docking mission, concluding the joint U.S./Russian Phase I Program. STS-91 is scheduled for a May 

1998 launch. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 67 

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 

ANDREW S. W. THOMAS (PH.D.) 

STS-89 / MIR-25 / STS-91 

PERSONAL DATA - Born December 18, 1951, in Adelaide, South Australia. Single. He enjoys horse 

riding and jumping, mountain biking, running, wind surfing, and classical guitar playing. His father, 

Adrian C. Thomas, resides in Hackham, South Australia. His mother, Mary E. Thomas, resides in North 

Adelaide, South Australia. 

EDUCATION - Received a bachelor of engineering degree in mechanical engineering, with First Class 

Honors, from the University of Adelaide, South Australia, in 1973, and a doctorate in mechanical 

engineering from the University of Adelaide, South Australia, in 1978. 

ORGANIZATIONS - Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 

EXPERIENCE - Dr. Thomas began his professional career as a research scientist with the Lockheed 

Aeronautical Systems Company, Marietta, Georgia, in 1977. At that time he was responsible for 

experimental investigations into the control of fluid dynamic instabilities and aircraft drag. In 1980, he was 

appointed Principal Aerodynamic Scientist to the company and headed a research team examining various 

problems in advanced aerodynamics and aircraft flight test. 

This was followed in 1983 by an appointment as the head of the Advanced Flight Sciences Department to 

lead a research department of engineers and scientists engaged in experimental and computational studies 

in fluid dynamics, aerodynamics and aeroacoustics. He was also manager of the research laboratory, the 

wind tunnels, and the test facilities used in these studies. In 1987, Dr. Thomas was named manager of 

Lockheed's Flight Sciences Division and directed the technical efforts in vehicle aerodynamics, flight 

controls and propulsion systems that supported the company's fleet of production aircraft. 

In 1989, he moved to Pasadena, California, to join the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and, shortly after, 

was appointed leader of the JPL program for microgravity materials processing in space. This NASAsponsored research included scientific investigations, conducted in the laboratory and in low gravity on 

NASA's KC-135 aircraft, as well as technology studies to support the development of the space flight 

hardware for future Shuttle missions. 

NASA EXPERIENCE - Dr. Thomas was selected by NASA in March 1992 and reported to the Johnson 

Space Center in August 1992. In August 1993, following one year of training, he was appointed a member 

of the astronaut corps and was qualified for assignment as a mission specialist on Space Shuttle flight 

crews. 

While awaiting space flight assignment, Dr. Thomas supported shuttle launch and landing operations as an 

Astronaut Support Person (ASP) at the Kennedy Space Center. He also provided technical support to the 

Space Shuttle Main Engine project, the Solid Rocket Motor project and the External Tank project at the 

Marshall Space Flight Center. He trained at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia in 

preparation for a long-duration stay aboard the Russian Space Station. Dr. Thomas flew on STS-77 (May 

19-29, 1996) and has logged 240 hours and 39 minutes in space. He currently serves as Board Engineer 2 

aboard the Russian Space Station Mir. 

SPACE FLIGHT EXPERIENCE - In June 1995 Dr. Thomas was named as payload commander for STS77 and flew his first flight in space on Endeavour in May 1996. During this 10-day mission the crew of 

STS-77 deployed two satellites, tested a large inflatable space structure on orbit and conducted a variety of 

scientific experiments in a Spacehab laboratory module carried in Endeavour's payload bay. The flight was 

launched from the Kennedy Space Center on May 19, 1996 and completed 160 orbits 153 nautical miles 

above the Earth while traveling 4.1 million miles and logging 240 hours and 39 minutes in space. 

On January 22, 1998, Dr. Thomas launched aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour as part of the STS-89 crew. 

Following docking, January 25, 1998 marked the official start of his expected 4-month stay aboard Space 

Station Mir. 
Edited by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001, Page 68 

SHUTTLE FLIGHTS AS OF JUNE 1998 

90 TOTAL FLIGHTS OF THE SHUTTLE SYSTEM -- 65 SINCE RETURN TO FLIGHT 

STS-90 

04/17/98 - 05/03/98 

STS-87 

11/19/97 - 12/05/97 

STS-94 

07/01/97 - 07/17/97 

STS-85 

08/07/97 - 08/19/97 

STS-83 

04/04/97 - 04/08/97 

STS-82 

02/11//97 - 02/21/97 

STS-80 

11/19/96 - 12/07/96 

STS-70 

07/13/95 - 07/22/95 

STS-78 

06/20/96 - 07/07/96 

STS-63 

02/03/95 - 02/11/95 

STS-86 

09/25/97 - 10/06/97 

STS-75 

02/22/96 - 03/09/96 

STS-64 

09/09/94 - 09/20/94 

STS-84 

05/15/97 - 05/24/97 

STS-73 

10/20/95 - 11/05/95 

STS-60 

02/03/94 - 02/11/94 

STS-81 

01/12/97 - 01/22/97 

STS-65 

07/08/94 - 07/23/94 

STS-51 

09/12/93 - 09/22/93 

STS-79 

09/16/96 - 09/26/96 

STS-62 

03/04/94 - 03/18/94 

STS-56 

04/08/83 - 04/17/93 

STS-76 

03/22/96 - 03/31/96 

STS-58 

10/18/93 - 11/01/93 

STS-53 

12/02/92 - 12/09/92 

STS-74 

11/12/95 - 11/20/95 

STS-55 

04/26/93 - 05/06/93 

STS-42 

01/22/92 - 01/30/92 

STS-71 

06/27/95 - 07/07/95 

STS-52 

10/22/92 - 11/01/92 

STS-48 

09/12/91 - 09/18/91 

STS-66 

11/03/94 - 11/14/94 

STS-50 

06/25/92 - 07/09/92 

STS-39 

04/28/91 - 05/06/91 

STS-46 

07/31/92 - 08/08/92 

STS-89 

01/22/98 - 01/31/98 

STS-40 

06/05/91 - 06/14/91 

STS-41 

10/06/90 - 10/10/90 

STS-45 

03/24/92 - 04/02/92 

STS-77 

05/19/96 - 05/29/96 

STS-35 

12/02/90 - 12/10/90 

STS-51L 

01/28/86 

STS-31 

04/24/90 - 04/29/90 

STS-44 

11/24/91 - 12/01/91 

STS-72 

01/11/96 - 11/20/96 

STS-32 

01/09/90 - 01/20/90 

STS-61A 

10/30/85 - 11/06/85 

STS-33 

11/22/89 - 11/27/89 

STS-43 

08/02/91 - 08/11/91 

STS-69 

09/07/95 - 09/18/95 

STS-28 

08/08/89 - 08/13/89 

STS-51F 

07/29/85 - 08/06/85 

STS-29 

03/13/89 - 03/18/89 

STS-37 

04/05/91 - 04/11/91 

STS-67 

03/02/95 - 03/18/95 

STS-61C 

01/12/86 - 01/18/86 

STS-51B 

04/29/85 - 05/06/85 

STS-26 

09/29/88 - 10/03/88 

STS-38 

11/15/90 - 11/20/90 

STS-68 

09/30/94 - 10/11/94 

STS-9 

11/28/83 - 12/08/83 

STS-41G 

10/05/84 - 10/13/84 

STS-51-I 

08/27/85 - 09/03/85 

STS-36 

02/28/90 - 03/04/90 

STS-59 

04/09/94 – 04/20/94 

STS-5 

11/11/82 - 11/16/82 

STS-41C 

04/06/84 - 04/13/84 

STS-51G 

06/17/85 - 06/24/85 

STS-34 

10/18/89 - 10/23/89 

STS-61 

12/02/93 - 12/13/93 

STS-4 

06/27/82 - 07/04/82 

STS-41B 

02/03/84 - 02/11/84 

STS-51D 

04/12/85 - 04/19/85 

STS-30 

05/04/89 - 05/08/89 

STS-57 

06/21/93 - 07/01/93 

STS-3 

03/22/82 - 03/30/82 

STS-8 

08/30/83 - 09/05/83 

STS-51C 

01/24/85 - 01/27/85 

STS-27 

12/02/88 - 12/06/88 

STS-54 

01/13/93 - 01/19/93 

STS-2 

11/12/81 - 11/14/81 

STS-7 

06/18/83 - 06/24/83 

STS-51A 

11/08/84 - 11/16/84 

STS-61B 

11/26/85 - 12/03/85 

STS-47 

09/12/92 - 09/20/92 

STS-1 

04/12/81 - 04/14/81 

STS-6 

04/04/83 - 04/09/83 

STS-41D 

08/30/84 - 09/05/84 

STS-51J 

10/03/85 - 10/07/85 

STS-49 

05/07/92 - 05/16/92 

 

OV-102 

Columbia 

(25 flights) 

OV-099 

Challenger 

(10 flights) 

OV-103 

Discovery 

(23 flights) 

OV-104 

Atlantis 

(20 flights) 

OV-105 

Endeavour 

(12 flights)