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Aeronautics 

and 

Space Report 

of the 

President 

Fissal Year 

1894 

Activities 

1885 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 
Executive Summary ........................................................................................... 1 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ......................................................... 1 

Department of Defense (DoD) ................................................................................................ 3 

Department of Commerce (DOC) ............................................................................................ 4 

Department of Energy (DOE) ................................................................................................... 4 

Department of the Interior (Dol) ............................................................................................. 4 

Department of Transportation (DOT) ....................................................................................... 5 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ............................................................................... 5 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation (OCST) .......................................................... 6 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) ........................................................................... 6 

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) .......................................................................... 6 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ................................................................... 7 

1995 I 
National Science Foundation (NSF) ........................................................................................ 7 

Smithsonian Institution ........................................................................................................... 8 

Department of State (DoS) ...................................................................................................... 8 

The U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) .................................................................................... 8 

The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) ............................................................. 9 

The Information Agency (USIA) .............................................................................................. 9 

Space Launch Activities .................................................................................... 9 

Space Shuttle Missions ........................................................................................................... 9 

Expendable Launches ........................................................................................................... 10 

Space Science ................................................................................................. 11 

Astronomy and Space Physics .............................................................................................. 11 

Solar System Exploration ...................................................................................................... 15 

Other Space Science ............................................................................................................ 17 

Space Flight and Space Technology ................................................................ 20 

Space Shuttle ........................................................................................................................ 20 

Other Launch Systems .......................................................................................................... 22 

Satel I ites ............................................................................................................................... 22 

Space Station ........................................................................................................................ 26 

Energy .................................................................................................................................. 27 

Safety and Mission Assurance ............................................................................................... 29 

Other Space Technology ...................................................................................................... 30 

Single Stage Rocket Technology (SSRT) ................................................................................. 21 

Space Communications ................................................................................... 31 

Communications Satellites ................................................................................................... 31 

Space Network ..................................................................................................................... 33 

Ground Networks ................................................................................................................. 34 

Aeronautical Activities .................................................................................... 34 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation ........................................................................................ 41 

Weather-Related Aeronautical Activities ............................................................................... 44 

Flight Safety and Security ..................................................................................................... 46 

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors ................................................................................. 49 

Technological Developments ............................................................................................... 34 

.. 

II Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Studies of the Planet Earth .............................................................................. 50 

Terrestrial Studies and Applications ...................................................................................... 50 

Atmospheric Studies ............................................................................................................. 55 

Oceanographic Studies ........................................................................................................ 57 

Other Aeronautical and Space Activities ........................................................ 59 

Discussions Concerning Arms Control of Space-Related Weaponry ..................................... 59 

Cooperation With Russia and Other Foreign Policy Issues .................................................... 59 

Commercial Development and Regulation of Space Technology ......................................... 62 

Space and Public Diplomacy Abroad ................................................................................... 65 

Appendixes ..................................................................................................... 67 

A- 1 

A-2 

A-3 

B-1 

8-2 

B-3 

C 

D 

E- I 

E-2 

E-3 

F- 1 

F-2 

F-3 

F-4 

F-5 

F-6 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record ........................................................................... 67 

World Record of Space Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ......... 68 

Successful U.S. Launches, October 1 . 1993-September 30. 1994 ............................... 69 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites. 1988-Sept . 1994 ............................................. 75 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites. 1988-Sept . 1994 .................................................. 77 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-Sept . 1994 .......................................................... 78 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept . 1994 ............................................. 79 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ........................................................................................ 91 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government ..................................................................... 93 

Federal Space Activities Budget ................................................................................... 95 

Federal Aeronautics Budget ......................................................................................... 95 

White House Statement on Treaty on Open Skies ........................................................ 96 

Statement on Foreign Access to Remote Sensing Space Capabilities ............................ 97 

Presidential Decision Directive/NSTC-2: Convergence of 

U.S.-Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite Systems ............................ 100 

White House Fact Sheet: Landsat Remote Sensing Strategy ....................................... 103 

White House Statement Releasing National Science Policy Report ............................ 106 

Presidental Decision Directive/NSTC-4: National Space Transportation Policy ......... 110 

Glossary ........................................................................................................ 117 

Index ............................................................................................................ 139 

1995 ... 

Ill 
Executive Summary 

Note: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 

directed the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to include a “comprehensive description of the programmed 

activities and the accomplishments of all agencies of the 

United States in the field of aeronautics and space activities 

during the preceding calendar pear. *’ This year’s report 

(like last year’s) has been prepared on afiscal year (FY) 

basis. consistent with the budgetary period now used in 

programs of the Federal Government. The Administration 

is continuing to work with Congress to amend the National 

Aeronautics and Space Act of I958 accordingly. 

There were numerous significant changes and developments in US. aeronautics and spaceefforts during FY 1994, 

which included seven Space Shuttle missions successfully 

completed before the year ended and an eighth that remained on orbit at the close of FY 1994. There were 15 

Government launches of Expendable Launch Vehicles 

(ELV’s) carrying payloads ranging from Global Positioning 

System (GPS) to Defense Support Program (DSP) satellites 

into orbit. Additionally, the Department of Defense (DoD) 

provided its facilities with minimal oversight tocommercial 

contractors for the launch of five satellites, one of them a 

DoD payload, which the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation (OCST) in the Department of Transportation (DOT) licensed and monitored. Highlights of the 

Shuttle missions included the servicing mission for the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which replaced several 

faulty parts and installed a sophisticated package of corrective optics to compensate for the spherical aberration in 

HST’s primary mirror. Also, the flight of the Space Radar 

Laboratory (SRL) began to provide information on environmental change, and a mission with a Russian astronaut, 

Sergei Krikalev, aboard signalled the beginning of a threephased cooperative program in space between Russia and 

the United States, resulting from the completion of arrangements by the United States and its international partners to 

bring Russia into the partnership for the international Space 

Station. Among notable developments in the ELV area 

were the launch of the deep space probe, Clementine, initial 

use of the Titan IV Centaur upper stage, and the first launch 

of the Taurus launch vehicle. In aeronautics, activities 

included development of technologies to improve performance, increase safety, reduce engine noise and other 

environmental degradation, improve air traffic management, lower costs, and help American industry be more 

competitive in the world market. Additionally, on May 5, 

1994, the White House announced that the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the DoD, and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

were establishing a joint program to effect the convergence 

of civil and military Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite systems into a single operational program. 

Other White House announcements during the year included 

a policy for licensing U.S. firms by the Secretary of Commerce to operate private remote sensing systems and sell 

their images to domestic and foreign entities and a national 

space transportation policy that will sustain and revitalize 

U.S. space transportation capabilities by providing a coherent strategy for supporting and strengthening U.S. space 

launch capabilities to meet the growing needs of the civilian 

and national security sectors. In these and other ways 

discussed below, the 15 Federal agencies involved in aeronautics and space activities have contributed significantly to 

furthering the Nation’s scientific and technical knowledge, 

international cooperation, a healthier environment, and a 

more competitive economy. 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) 

NASA advanced U.S. aeronautical and space goals in 

numerous ways during FY 1994 besides those just mentioned. In space science, astronomers using HST’s revitalized optics discovered disks of protoplanetary dust orbiting 

stars in the Orion Nebula, suggesting that the formation of 

planets in the Milky Way and elsewhere may be relatively 

common. Also, HST’s revelation of helium in distant 

constellations provides valuable information about the conditions in the universe during its initial evolution. Information from Ulysses increased our knowledge of the operation 

of the solar wind. Closer to home, the worldwide scientific 

community was able to predict and track the crash of Comet 

Shoemaker-Levy 9 into Jupiter with the resulting infonnation greatly enhancing our ability to understand such impacts. Galileo discovered the first confirmed moon around 

an asteroid. And the Spacelab Life Sciences-2, U.S. 

Microgravity Payload-2, and International Microgravity 

Laboratory-2 greatly increased our understanding of the role 

of gravity on biological, physical, and chemical processes. 

In biology, we learned that gravity affects the function of the 

neural connections between brain cells, which can have 

profound implications for rebuilding damaged brain cells 

1995 1 
due to strokes and disease. In the physical and materials 

sciences, microgravity researchers made strides in understanding the structural characteristics of metals, important in 

their industrial processing, and of how to improve their 

physical and electronic properties. NASA also made great 

strides in applying technology used in the space pro, Cram to 

medical care on Earth. In the Spacebridge to Moscow 

Telemedicine Project, medical personnel in the United States 

were able to remotely aid in diagnosing patients in Russian 

hospitals via two-way interactive video links. In Earth 

science, the Space Radar Laboratories-I and -2 plus the 

Light Intersection Direction and Ranging (LIDAR) In-Space 

Technology Experiment payload used powerful radar and 

laser technology to penetrate cloud cover and map critical 

factors on a global scale. 

In a year of tremendous accomplishments for the international Space Station, NASA developed an initial set of 

specifications for it that included Russian elements as part of 

the design. Russia’s agreeing to join the 12 original participating nations as a partner resulted in the expansion of the 

existing Shuttlemir program into Phase I of the international Space Station program, which officially began with 

Sergei Krikalev’s flight on the Shuttle. All of the partners 

held a successful systems design review in Texas in March, 

and in June, Russia and the United States signed an interim 

agreement on Space Station and a $400 million contract for 

Russian space hardware, services, and data. In August, the 

program completed a vehicle architecture review, and in 

September, the Space Station Control Board ratified the 

recommendations it included. The redesigned Space Station 

costs $5 billion less than Freedom and still offers increased 

research capability and user flexibility. 

In aeronautics, NASA’s Advanced Subsonic Technology program continued work on its goal to facilitate a safe, 

productive global air transportation system that includes a 

new generation of environmentally compatible, economic 

aircraft that will compete in international markets. Efforts in 

advanced subsonics focused on reducing aircraft and engine 

noise levels, on development of wind shear sensing devices, 

and on creating technologies that will improve general 

aviation aircraft and air traffic management. In the supersonic arena, NASA’s SR-7 1 aircraft testbed program conducted baseline flights for aeronautical research to assist 

industry in making key decisions about developing a HighSpeed Civil Transport (HSCT). More generally, NASA’s 

High-speed Research program continued during FY 1994 to 

focus on resolving critical environmental issues and laying 

the technological foundation for an economical, next generation HSCT. The United States reached agreement with 

Russia to use the Tu- 144 supersonic transport as a testbed for 

HSCT development. In its high-alpha technology program, 

NASA sought to achieve a basic understanding of high 

angle-of-attack aerodynamics, including the effects of 

vectorable thrust nozzles as an advanced flight control 

concept. NASA also did important aeronautics research 

using its F- 18 Systems Research Aircraft, its Vertical Short 

Take off and Landing (V/STOL) System Research Aircraft, 

and its F-15 testbed aircraft. A number of other NASA 

programs sought to reduce aircraft noise, to help U.S. 

industry remain competitive in an environment of increased 

worldwide competition, and to reduce the environmental 

impact of future commercial engines through decreased 

exhaust emissions. The joint National Aero-Space Plane 

(NASP) program of NASA and the DoD was reduced by 

congressional direction at the end of FY 1994 but continued 

throughout the year to develop exciting new technologies for 

potential commercial use in various industries. 

Also during FY 1994, NASA made significant progress 

in measuring, modeling, and mitigating the orbital debris 

environment. NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth program 

included the LIDAR In-Space Technology Experiment that 

flew on the Space Shuttle Discovery in September and 

observed clouds invisible to conventional weather satellites, 

dust clouds over Africa, and the structure of a super typhoon 

in the Pacific. In cooperation with Italy and Germany, the 

Space Radar Laboratory flew on the Space Shuttle Endeavour 

during April (SRL-1)and September-October 1994 (SRL-2), 

enabling a team of 52 scientists and ground teams around the 

world to observe the shifting boundaries between temperate 

and boreal (northern) forests, as well as other natural phenomena. FY 1994 was a year of transition for the Land 

Remote Sensing Satellite (Landsat) program, as NASA 

assumed the satellite-development responsibilities for 

Landsat-7 from the DoD in May, with NOAA and the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) also having roles in this future 

Landsat mission. NASA’s and NOAA’s efforts to monitor 

ozone depletion continued to reflect the effects of the Mount 

Pinatubo eruption in June 1991. The Antarctic ozone levels 

for 1994 were nearly as small as the record lows from 

October 1993. Theslightrecovery in 1994probably resulted 

from fewer sulfuric acid particles remaining from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. TOPEXPoseidon continued to 

2 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
provide valuable information during 1994. For example, 

data from the satellite have enabled scientists to track disturbances caused by the lingering effects of the El Nifio event 

of 1991-93, the longest in the last 40 years. 

Department of Defense (DoD) 

The DoD also continued to pursue a wide variety of 

aeronautical and space activities. Air Force Delta 11’s placed 

two GPS satellites into orbit. An Atlas E launched a Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite. An 

Atlas I1 carried a Defense Satellite Communication System 

(DSCS) satellite into orbit. Two Titan 11’s launched 

Clementine and Landsat-6. Three launches got the Titan IV 

program back on track during FY 1994, placing a Milstar 

satellite, the 17th DSP satellite, and a classified spacecraft 

into orbit. The Taurus launch vehicle carried the Space Test 

Experiments Platform Mission 0 (STEP-0) and an Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) satellite 

(DARPASAT) into orbit. STEP-2 was then launched successfully aboard a standard Pegasus vehicle. However, the 

inaugural attempt to launch a higher-performance, stretched 

Pegasus, known as Pegasus XL, ended in failure, resulting in 

the loss of the STEP-1 mission payload. A standard Pegasus 

then launched the Advanced Photovoltaic Experiment 

(APEX) mission. The 1 18th and final mission of the Scout 

rocket launched the second of the Miniature Sensor Technology Integration (MSTI-2) satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. A DoD Atlas I launched the next in the series of 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES8) into orbit for the NOAA, and a commercial Atlas I carried 

an Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Follow-On satellite into 

orbit for the DoD. 

The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) 

has been working with McDonnell Douglas to develop 

single-stage rocket technology, of which the Delta ClipperExperimental (DC-X) has become the first working, onethird scale demonstration vehicle. Following mostly successful flight tests but one explosion during 1994, the DC-X 

is expected to be transferred to the Air Force’s Phillips 

Laboratory from BMDO in January 1995 for completion of 

its flight series. NASA will then conduct further flight tests 

of a reconfigured DC-X as a means toward further development of reusable rocket technology. In a related area, the 

successful maiden flight of theTaurus standard small launch 

vehicle capitalized on ARPA’s previous investment in the 

Pegasus air-launched vehicle to produce a fully transportable, ground-launched rocket capable of providing rapid, 

affordable access to space for moderate-sized satellites. 

The 400-pound DARPASAT successfully performed 

its classified mission in support of worldwide deployed, 

joint military forces. With the launch of two Navstar GPS 

satellites into orbit on October 26, 1993, and March 9, 1994, 

the Air Force completed the 24-satellite GPS constellation 

ofoperational Block II/IIA satellites plus 1 Block I satellite. 

Launch of the 17th DSP satellite will provide the DoD with 

enhanced missile warning and surveillancecapabilities. The 

highly successful launch of Clementine had as its primary 

mission the testing in space of 23 advanced technologies for 

high-tech, lightweight missile defense. The relatively inexpensive, rapidly built spacecraft constituted a major revolution in spacecraft management and design; it also contributed significantly to lunar studies. Also during FY 1994, 

BMDO’s Space and Missile Tracking System (Brilliant 

Eyes) was slowed due to funding reductions, necessitating a 

restructuring of its contract, and because of a major DoD 

study that led to the combination of all nonimaging, spacebased infrared systems into an integrated program. The 

DSCS program successfully launched a DSCS 111 satellite in 

November 1993; it was cut over to operational traffic in 

mid-1994 as a replacement for an older DSCS In. The 

Milstar program, the cornerstone of the DoD’s military 

satellite communications network, launched its first satellite 

in February 1994. The second UHF Follow-On satellite, 

launched on September 3, 1993, began operational service 

over the Indian Ocean on December 3,1993, thus achieving 

initial operational capability for the constellation. The third 

UHF Follow-On satellite launch, on June 24, 1994, was the 

first Atlas launch conducted by Martin Marietta following 

its purchase of the Atlas business from General Dynamics in 

March-April 1994; the satellite began operational service 

over the Atlantic Ocean in October 1994. 

In aeronautics, among other programs, the joint X-3 1 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability program, a cooperative 

effort involving the DoD, NASA, Germany’s Ministry of 

Defense, Rockwell International, and Deutsche Aerospace, 

successfully completed its original program goals, compiling an impressive array of technically significant “firsts,” 

including significant agility at extremely high angles of 

attack, significant combat value of its advanced technologies in close-in combat, and the effectiveness of thrust 

vectoring for stability and control at supersonic speed. 

1995 3 
Department of Commerce (DOC) 

The Doc’s Office of Air and Space Commercialization 

(OASC) contributed to the new national space transportation policy, the new Presidential policy on commercial 

remote sensing, and a launch-services agreement between 

the United States and Russia as well as negotiations with 

China. The OASC was also involved in U.S. Air Force 

grants that fostered the growth of privately owned and 

operated spaceports across the Nation and in the renewal of 

the U.S.-China launch services agreement, as well as policy 

supporting commercial activity in GPS navigation satellite 

and ground system technology plus present- and futuregeneration high-power communications satellites. NOAA 

assumed leadership of the triagency convergence planning 

effort and invited the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites to cooperate in a future 

joint polar-orbiting satellite system taking into account the 

future converged U.S. system and assuming that key U.S. 

mission requirementscan be met. ATitanIIplaced Landsat-6 

into initial orbit on October 5, 1993, but the satellite’s 

integral “kick motor” apparently failed to place it into final 

orbit. Then, on April 13, 1994, an Atlas I launched the next 

in the series of Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites(G0ES-I) intoorbitforNOAAasGOES-8. NOAA 

managed a variety of data archives for information from 

satellites about global change and related matters. NOAA 

and the Russian Space Agency agreed to closer cooperation 

in the use of geostationary satellites for sea, air, and land 

search and rescue services. NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service has issued licenses to a number of aerospace companies planning to build 

remote sensing satellite systems under the new Presidential 

policy to which NOAA contributed. The National Institute 

of Standards and Technology (NIST) has applied its expertise in measurement science, developed through its mission 

to help industry with measurements, standards, and evaluated data, to assist NASA in 74 different project areas during 

the fiscal year. For example, NIST worked on projects to 

measure critical point viscosity, to assist in materials processing in space, to identify and quantify the presence of 

tropospheric methane and evaluate its effects on global 

warming, and to calibrate equipment for the NASA Seaviewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor. 

Department of Energy (DOE) 

In 1994, the DOE continued to progress in space flight 

research and development of more than 30 years’ duration in 

the fabrication of three General Purpose Heat Sources 

(GPHS’s) and 157 Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU’s) for 

the Cassini mission to Saturn scheduled for launch in October 1997. All of the Plutonium 238 (Pu-238) for the first of 

these Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG’s) has 

been processed, and the initial pellets have been pressed and 

encapsulated. The DOE took delivery in 1994 of 5 kg of 

Russian-produced Pu-238 to supplement the existing inventory. This Pu-238, purchased at an attractive price, will fuel 

the smaller and more efficient spacecraft used for future 

outer-planet exploration missions. In addition, the DOE 

received authority in 1994 to purchase an additional 4 kg of 

Russian Pu-238, which will be the first foreign-produced 

material capable of being pressed directly into pellets to fuel 

the RTG’s. The SP-100 Space Reactor Power System 

program was terminated in FY 1994. DOE archived the data 

from the SP-100 program for future applications. In addition, DOE and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory have initiated 

an effort to transfer SP-100 technologies to industry. DOE 

continued its support of the Air Force space reactor systems 

development by cosponsoring the Air Force Bimodal Power 

and Propulsion Program to evaluate reactor bimodal system 

options, which would replace existing upper stages and 

provide propulsion to transfer spacecraft to their operational 

orbit, power the spacecraft once in orbit, and reposition the 

operating spacecraft. DOE continued working with the DoD 

on the Thermionic Space Nuclear Power System. Los 

Alamos National Laboratory’s Blackbeard radio frequency 

experiment, piggybacked aboard the Array of Low Energy 

X-ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS) satellite launched last 

year, is continuing to monitor mysterious twin-pulsed radio 

bursts. The bursts mimic emissions from nuclear detonations. Los Alamos said these events are associated with 

thunderstorms but not caused by lightning. 

Department of the Interior (Dol) 

The Do1 applied remote sensing from satellites and 

aircraft to a variety of research and operational programs 

during FY 1994. The USGS successfully completed the first 

full-resolution global radar mosaic of Venus and was processing data from Clementine as the year ended to produce 

global digital maps of the Moon. Substantial public and 

4 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
scientific attention focused on the collision of Periodic 

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter, emphasizing the 

need for an inventory of comets and asteroids that may 

collide someday with the Earth. Do1 signed an agreement 

Department of Transportation (DOT) 

FederalAv;at;onAdm;n;strat;on (FAA) 

with the DoD to permit the Do1 to use the Navstar GPS 

Precise Positioning Service, which will provide more accurate, real-time, on-the-ground information about geographic 

location than is currently available for programs in mapping, 

inventory, monitoring, and research. The Bureau of Reclamation used airborne video and thermal infrared scanner 

imagery to map river habitat in the Colorado River system to 

help develop reservoir water release schedules that maximize the survival of endangered fish. The Bureau of Indian 

Affairscontinued toconduct inventories of natural resources, 

projects for image mapping, and GPS training services to 

support its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. The Bureau of Land Management used satellite data, 

aerial photographs, and GPS technology to monitor the 

health of public lands and the effectiveness of ecosystembased management practices. The National Biological Survey used Landsat data to map wildlife habitat in 36 states for 

the Gap Analysis Program, which is identifying land areas 

that are not being protected and managed to maintain biological diversity. The National Park Service continues with 

a comprehensive, multiyear program using aerial photographs to map vegetation in 235 units of the National Park 

System (excluding Alaska). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service used computerized mapping, aerial photographs, 

and Landsat and (French) Satellite Pour I’Observation de la 

Terre (SPOT-Satellite for Observation of the Earth) data 

for day-to-day operations, especially managing wildlife 

habitat from an ecosystem perspective. The U.S. Bureau of 

Mines conducted research to inventory and characterize 

noncoal mine wastes at abandoned mines using Landsat 

Thematic Mapper and Airborne Multispectral Scanner data. 

The USGS cooperated with the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA), NOAA, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service to prepare a baseline of multiscale data on environmental characteristics for the United States and to develop 

mechanisms for identifying, monitoring, and assessing environmental change. Several Do1 bureaus and other agencies formed the Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team 

that developed an environmental information system for the 

Upper Mississippi and Missouri River Basins to support 

recovery and river-basin management planning following 

the severe flooding in that area in 1993. 

The FAA continued a dynamic research and development program in support of its mission to ensure the safe and 

efficient use of the Nation’s airspace, to foster civil aeronautics and air commerce in the United States and abroad, and 

to support the requirements of national defense. During the 

fiscal year, the GPS achieved initial operational status for 

civil aviation. The FAA certified various types of GPS 

receivers for use in all phases of flight, including nonprecision approaches, and it approved the first GPS nonprecision 

approach procedure for use by helicopters. The agency also 

approved the first public “stand-alone” GPS instrument 

approach for aircraft. In a move designed to focus on the 

adoption of satellite technology and to save money, the FAA 

decided to halt further development of the Category I1 and I11 

microwave landing system. 

Following a series of independent reviews of the Advanced Automation System (AAS) program, the FAA restructured the system to contain cost growth and minimize 

delays. The restructured program will provide the same 

functions and benefits as the original AAS but will follow a 

different implementation approach. The FAA also accepted 

delivery on the first two Voice Switching and Control 

Systems, which, when fully operational, will be responsible 

for the air-to-ground and ground-to-ground communications between controllers at air route traffic control centers. 

In addition, the FAA certified a forward look wind shear 

detection device that provides aircrews with advanced warning of hazardous wind shear, allowing them to avoid the 

hazard. The air canier community has been required to have 

“reactive” warning devices onboard civil air transports since 

early 1994. Among its other safety-related programs, the 

FAA made significant strides in the study of icing, wind 

shear, and other atmospheric hazards. 

The Agency completed and implemented a Wake Vortex Program Plan, a joint effort with NASA, which will 

permit increases in airport capacity and will stress avoidance 

of wake turbulence through improved knowledge of vortex 

behavior. Also during FY 1994, the FAA approved for 

limited use a new oceanic in-trail climb procedure. The 

maneuver allows a trailing aircraft to climb to a more fuelefficient altitude with less horizontal separation from a 

leading aircraft than previously required. In addition, the 

FAA identified and documented Oceanic Data Link (ODL) 

5 1995 
and tested a prototype ODL for use by controllers as well as 

the related prototype Boeing data link avionics package, 

which will be installed in aircraft. 

Progress continued on aircraft safety programs. As part 

of those efforts, the agency continued to develop and research technologies and methodologies to mitigate and 

prevent the threat of catastrophic failure to aircraft; initiated 

a test program to develop certification criteria for halon 

replacement agents; published the revised “National Aging 

Aircraft Research Program Plan”; began publication of a 

quarterly newsletter describing aging aircraft research activities; and continued working on the development of an 

unleaded aviation gasoline for use in the existing fleet of 

general aviation aircraft with piston engines. Under its civil 

aviation security mandate, the FAA continued its efforts to 

strengthen aviation security through its research and development program. The agency initiated several extensive 

tests at its Security Research Laboratory, including the 

demonstration and evaluation of a resonance device for 

explosives detection in baggage, evaluation of two commercially available trace explosives devices, and development 

of standards for explosives detection devices. 

Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation (OCS T) 

Besides licensing and monitoring five commercial 

launches during FY 1994, the OCST has overall responsibility for regulating the U.S. launch business, including the 

regulation of any future commercial launch sites, such as 

those proposed by Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, New Mexico, 

California, and Virginia. The office had seven applications 

for commercial launch licenses that were in process during 

FY 1994. It issued four licenses, amendments, or transfers 

during the year and made the same number of maximum 

probable loss determinations. The office was instrumental in 

developing the national space transportation policy already 

discussed. The OCST also played a significant role in 

supporting the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) by chairing the Interagency Working Group on Information, which 

is charged with gathering data that enable the USTR to 

conduct negotiations about commercial space launch agreements with both the Russians and Chinese. The OCST 

continued to support the development of voluntary standards for the commercial launch industry, especially those in 

the area of safety, reliability, and quality assurance. The 

OCST is also a member of the National Spacelift Requirement Process group, whose charter is to establish a common 

set of requirements for the U.S. spacelift system. The office 

has maintained communications with members of the commercial space industry to ensure that industry inputs have 

been considered. 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) 

Within the USDA, the remote-sensing program of the 

Foreign Agricultural Service continued to be a critical element in the analysis of domestic and foreign agricultural 

production, supply, and demand-providing timely, accurate, and unbiased estimates of global area, yietd, and 

production. The National Agricultural Statistics Service 

used remote-sensing datain constructing area frame samples 

(using data from small sample areas as an aid to estimating 

crops and acreages), crop-specific land cover mapping, 

direct estimation of planted crop area, and assessment of 

crop conditions. The Agricultural Research Service used 

data from remote sensing and other sources for a variety of 

purposes, including maps of soil salinity, biomass, crop 

management, and crop yields as well as to aid in understanding how conditions in river basins influence climate and 

climate change. During a record year for damage from 

wildfires, the Forest Service used remote sensing and associated technologies to fight fires throughout the Western 

United States as well as to detect high-risk fire zones, assess 

damage, monitor national and foreign ecosystems, and administedmanage more than 19 1 million acres of National 

Forest System lands and works. The Soil Conservation 

Service (redesignated the National Resources Conservation 

Service in October 1994) adopted digital orthophotography 

as the common framework for collecting and managing 

natural resource geospatial data bases and cooperated with 

other Federal and State agencies to acquire digital 

orthophotography . 

Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC) 

There were three new commercial domestic fixed satellites launched for the United States during FY 1994. Galaxy 

1R(S), launched on February 19, 1994, will provide video 

services into the next decade. General Dynamics Commercial Launch Services successfully launched the Telstar 401 

communications satellite from Cape Canaveral aboard an 

Atlas IIAS on December 15, 1993. Unfortunately, the 

6 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
The U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) 

The EPA also routinely conducted research and provided technical support using remote sensing as part of its 

overall environmental monitoring program. The Agency 

used large-scale aerial photography to develop site characterization data during the remedial actions under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and 

Liability Act (CERCLA), as well as to support site selection 

and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities operated under 

the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). It 

developed and used remote sensing systems to support the 

provisions ofthe Clean Water Act. In FY 1994 the Agency 

completed approximately 1 50 aerial-photographic site-characterization projects under CERCLA and RCRA, and satellite imagery played a part in helping engineers develop 

detailed site characterizations. Aerial photography and 

satellite data also supported a broad variety of pollution, 

global change, pollution prevention, compliance, and other 

ecosystem monitoring studies in FY 1994, such as those of 

critical-habitat areas for wildlife. In support of activities 

associated with the identification of the impacts and hazards 

DBS- 7, the first U.S. Direct 

Broadcast Satellite, was launched 

on December 7 7, 7 993. 

September 9, 1994, launch of Telstar 402 by an Ariane 

launch vehicle from Kourou, French Guiana, was not as 

successful; operators lost contact with the satellite as it 

passed over the Indian Ocean. Two other communications 

satellites that were not in the domestic fixed category but did 

provide domestic service were the first two Direct Broadcast 

Satellites (DBS’s), launched by an Ariane booster from 

Kourou, French Guiana, on December 17, 1993, and from 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station by a Martin Marietta Atlas 

IIA on August 3, 1994. Still another communications 

satellite, placed into orbit on July 8, 1994, was PanAmSat’s 

PAS-24esignated PAS-4 by the FCC. The International 

Telecommunications Satellite (INTELSAT) Organization 

successfully launched its INTELSAT 701 satellite on October 22, 1993, aboard an Ariane 44LP rocket. On June 17, 

1994, INTELSAT successfully launched the second of nine 

VII-VII-A satellites, INTELSAT 702, aboard an Ariane 

44LP launch vehicle. The International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSAT) began providing the world’s 

first satellite voice connection to a cellular-sized phone 

during trials for a future global handheld phone system. 

resulting from the severe flooding along the Mississippi 

River and its tributaries in FY 1993, the EPA’s Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center identified and mapped 

changes that have occurred at known waste disposal sites 

affected by the flooding. 

National Science Foundation (NSF) 

Among other findings by NSF scientists, recent work by 

Mark Phillips of the Cerro-Tolodo Interamerican Observatory in Chile has shown that there is a significant spread in 

the intrinsic radiated energy in visible light of Type Ia 

supernovae. As a result of this and other discoveries, 

supernovae are now among the most accurate of the standard 

candles, suitable for use as distant probes measuring features 

of the early universe. Work by other NSF astronomers has 

modified scientists’ theories about the existence of a “Great 

Attractor,” a concentration of mass that causes a bulk flow 

of galaxies toward it. Their work opens fruitful new directions for understanding the scale of the largest structures in 

the universe. The application of seismology to the study of 

the solar interior in a new way by NASA and NSF scientists 

opens the way for seismic studies of local solar phenomena, 

such as inhomogeneities beneath the Sun’s surface near 

1995 7 
sunspots. It should also help refine models of the gas 

velocities below the Sun’s surface. Drs. Joseph Taylor and 

Russell Hulse of Princeton University won the 1993 Nobel 

Prize in Physics for their discovery using the Arecibo radio 

telescopeinPuertoRicoofthe binarypulsarPSRB1913+16 

and their subsequent monitoring and analysis of this object. 

Their work demonstrated convincingly the appropriateness 

of general relativity as a theory of gravitation under extreme 

conditions and indirectly confirmed the existence of the 

gravitational radiation Albert Einstein had predicted. The 

NSF’s Office of Polar Programs continued during the year to 

support researchers studying the cause and effects of the 

Antarctic ozone hole at each of three year-round stations. 

Finally, among other findings by the NSF, its Center for 

Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA) made wintertime astrophysical observations from NSF’s observatory 

at the South Pole for the first time during the austral winter 

of 1994. CARA’s South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX) 

telescope was able, because of its unique location, to image 

more of the impacts of the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with 

Jupiter than any other instrument. Also, site measurements 

by SPIREX confirmed that the sky at the South Pole is darker 

by a factor of at least three than any other site previously 

surveyed. 

Srnithsonian Institution 

An astronomer from the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) heading an international team used 

HST’s WideFieldPlanetaryCamera2inMay 1994toobtain 

valuable new images of supernova 19941. Shuttle Pointed 

Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN) 

201-2, a small satellite deployed and then retrieved several 

days later by the Space Shuttle Discovery in September 

1994, examined the Sun’s hot outer atmosphere, or extended 

corona, and the solar wind, the flow of charged ions from the 

Sun. On its second of four planned missions aboard the 

Shuttle, SPARTAN contained two instruments-the NASAdesigned White Light Coronograph to measure the density 

and distribution of the electrons in the coronal holes and 

polar plumes of the Sun and the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer, designed by the SAO. In a separate effort, two 

SA0 scientists discovered a huge, hot, gaseous halo surrounding a distant galaxy, perhaps providing evidence for 

the presence of both dark matter and so-called cooling flows. 

This, in turn, may shed new light on whether the universe is 

open or closed. The SAO-conceived and -designed Small 

Expendable Tether Deployable System-2 was a secondary 

payload on a Delta I1 rocket launched from Cape Canaveral 

AFS, Florida. The longest object ever placed in space, it was 

the third SAO-developed tether launched within the past 

year, each on time and with an increasingly ambitious goal. 

Department of State (DoS) 

With the existing partners agreeing to welcome Russia 

into the Space Station partnership in early FY 1994, the main 

focus of the DoS thereafter was on shaping an agreed 

approach to the negotiations. Once agreement was reached 

within the partnership and with Russia on these points, the 

DoS initiated the intergovernmental negotiating rounds, 

three of which have been held so far. In addition, the DoS 

facilitated an arrangement to keep fiscally constrained Canada 

in the partnership. The DoS worked closely with NASA 

throughout the year on several agreements with Japan on 

joint space activities. The DoS also worked closely with 

Government and private organizations to promote space 

cooperation at all levels with Latin America, and the DoS 

continued to coordinate U.S. Government involvement in 

international space science, satellite remote sensing, and 

related applications programs. During FY 1994, the DoS led 

efforts to advance U.S. ‘interests in multilateral discussions 

concerning international space cooperation, including the 

renewal of the mandate of the Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space. The DoS also represented U.S. 

interests in INTELSAT and INMARSAT and continued to 

further the interests of privately owned international satellite 

companies. The executive branch and other member countries of the two organizations have been addressing policy 

changes to further stimulate competition and market opportunity. 

The U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) 

During the year, the United States and Russia held two 

special and one annual consultation under the U.S.-Russian 

Commercial Space Launch Agreement. Both sides exchanged information on specific geosynchronous Earth orbit and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) competitions and LEO 

market prospects. Meanwhile, the United States and the 

People’s Republic of China held negotiations to renew a 

follow-on commercial space launch agreement. The current 

agreement, signed in 1989, will expire on December 31, 

1994. On September 21-23, 1994, a USTR-led negotiating 

a Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
team (made up of representatives from DoS, DOC, DOT, 

NASA, and OSTP) held its first round of consultations in 

Beijing with the Chinese National Space Administration on 

the possible renewal of the existing agreement regarding 

international trade in commercial launch services. As FY 

1994 ended, the United States continued working from the 

existing agreement to refine quantitative and pricing disciplines to respond to new developments in the market and to 

improve the functioning of the agreement. 

The U.S. Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency (ACDA) 

As we increase our cooperation with Russia, the United 

States must ensure that militarily useful technology is not 

transferred to Russian missile programs and that such programs are not supported indirectly+.g., by funding Russian 

production facilities that conduct both commercial and missile-related work. The ACDA endeavors to ensure that 

cooperation with Russia in the areas of civil and commercial 

space is carried out in accordance with our treaty obligations 

and nonproliferation standards. The United States does not 

authorize transfers that could contribute to Russia’s still 

formidable missile capability or that would assist Russia 

financially to continue the production of a missile by allowing it or modifications of it to be sold as commercial launch 

vehicles. The ACDA also worked to ensure that no use of 

ballistic missiles as space launch vehicles and no export of 

missiles and missile technology contributed in any way to 

the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The 

United States and its Missile Technology Control Regime 

partners exchange information and coordinate their control 

processes to prevent any such contribution. 

The U.S. Information Agency (USIA) 

The USIA joined the world in celebrating the 25th 

anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing in July 1994. 

Numerous posts abroad held special events that included 

exhibits (some featuring Moon rocks), seminars, and video 

programs. Additionally, the USIA covered the collision of 

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with the planet Jupiter and provided information on Shuttle launches and space probes to 

interested foreign audiences. 

Space Launch Activities 

Space Shuttle Missions 

During FY 1994, NASA successfully completed seven 

Space Shuttle missions and launched an eighth that remained on orbit at the close of FY 1994. In order of flight, 

the missions were STS-58 (STS standing for Space Transportation System), STS-61, STS-60, STS-62, STS-59, 

STS-65, STS-64, and STS-68. All launches occurred at 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida. 

The launch of STS-58 (in the orbiter Columbia) occurred on October 18, 1993. This marked the second 

Spacelab flight dedicated to life sciences research. 

Columbia’s seven crewmembers performed a series of experiments to gain more knowledge of how the human body 

adapts to the weightless environment of space. Fourteen 

experiments, conducted as part of this Spacelab Life Sciences-2 mission, focused on the cardiovascular, regulatory, 

and musculoskeletal systems of the body, as well as on the 

vestibular apparatus. Also included were experiments to 

gather data and tissue samples from rodents. These experiments were essential in developing NASA’s capability to 

support Space Station missions in the future. Columbia 

landed safely at KSC on November 1, 1993. 

The last flight of calendar year 1993 was STSdl 

(Endeavour), which began on December 2,1993. This was 

the first of several planned servicing missions to the orbiting 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) launched in 1990. The 

primary objectives of this mission were to restore the planned 

scientific capabilities and reliability of HST and to validate 

the on-orbit servicing concept. Employing five spacewalks, 

the astronauts met all of the objectives of the mission in a 

spectacular display of technical competence. They then 

returned the Endeavour safely to KSC on December 13, 

1993. 

The first flight of calendar year 1994, STS-60 (Discovery), began with a February 3, 1994, launch. A mission 

highlight was the participation of a Russian astronaut serving as a crew member. This signalled the beginning of a 

three-phased cooperative program between the United S tates 

and Russia. Phase one will entail 7 to 10 Space Shuttle-Mir 

missions, including rendezvous, docking, and crew transfers, between 1995 and 1997. Phase two will be the joint 

development of the core international Space Station program. Phase three will involve the expansion of the Space 

1995 

9 
Station to include all of the international partners. The 

STS-60 mission included the first use of the Wake Shield 

Facility, a 12-foot-diameter, stainless steel disk that gathered data while attached to the Shuttle’s mechanical arm. 

Spacehab-2, a privately funded module that increased the 

Shuttle’s experimental space, furthered our knowledge of 

materials processing and biotechnology in space. STS-60 

landed at KSC on February 1 1, 1994. 

On March 4, 1994, STS-62 (Columbia) began the 

second mission of the U.S. Microgravity Payload (USMP-2). 

Mission objectives focused on studies to produce better 

semiconductors. The l4-day, extended duration orbiterflight 

also provided additional information for ongoing medical 

studies assessing the effects of long-duration space flight. 

Columbia landed safely at KSC on March 18,1994. STS-59 

(Endeavour) was then launched on April 9, 1994. The 

primary payload was the Space Radar Laboratory, undergoing its first flight to give scientists highly detailed information to help distinguish human-induced environmental changes from other natural forms of change. Another 

mission objective was the Measurement of Air Pollution 

from Satellite experiment, designed to measure the global 

distribution of carbon monoxide in the lower Earth atmosphere. Scientists will be able to compare the data collected 

from this flight with those from two previous Shuttle missions in November 1981 and October 1984. STS-59 landed 

safely at Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB), California, on 

April 20, 1994. 

NASA successfully launched STS-65 (Columbia) on 

July 8, 1994. The primary payload for this 17th flight of 

Columbia was the International Microgravity Laboratory-2 

(IML-2), a payload that involved a worldwide research 

effort into the behavior of materials and life in the nearly 

weightless environment of low Earth orbit. It carried newts 

and fish living in aspecial Aquatic Experiment Unit. STS-65 

landed at KSC on July 23, 1994, following a record duration 

flight of 14.75 days. 

STS-64 (Discovery) launched successfully on September 9,1994, for a mission that was unique in several respects. 

The LIDAR In-Space Technology Experiment payload carried a laboratory laser into space to beam narrow pulses of 

laser light through the atmosphere. The reflected light gives 

an indication of the particles suspended in the air and those 

arising from the Earth’s surface. This marked the first time 

a laser system had flown in space for atmospheric study. The 

STS-64 crew deployed and retrieved the SPARTAN payload, designed to study the acceleration and velocity of the 

solar wind and measure aspects of the Sun’s corona. 

Discovery’s cargo bay also carried the Robot Operated 

Processing System, the first U.S. robotics system to be used 

in space; it transported a variety of semiconductors from 

storage racks to a halogen lamp furnace for processing. In 

addition, the STS-64 crew performed untethered spacewalks 

using a new small, self-contained propulsive backpack device to provide mobility for an astronaut in an emergency. 

Discovery landed safely at EAFB on September 20, 1994. 

The first launch attempt of STS-68 (Endeavour) had to 

be aborted on the pad. During the attempted launch on 

August 18, 1994, the discharge temperature in the highpressure oxidizer turbopump of main engine three exceeded 

the 1,560-degree redline limit for launch. As of the end of 

the fiscal year, the contractor for the turbopump, Rocketdyne 

Division of Rockwell International, was still investigating 

the causes of the unexpected temperature increase. Meanwhile, following engine testing and replacement, the STS-68 

mission was successfully launched on September 30, 1994, 

with a primary payload consisting of Space Radar Laboratory-2 (SRL-2). STS-68 landed on October 11, 1994, at 

EAFB and will be reported more fully in the FY 1995 report. 

Expendable Launches 

Both the DoD and the commercial transportation industry employed a number of Expendable Launch Vehicles 

(ELV’s) in the course of FY 1994. The DoD either launched 

or supported launches for 15 of its own or other Government 

payloads. These included two Delta 11, one Atlas E, one 

Atlas I, one Atlas I[, two Titan 11, three Titan IV, one Taurus, 

one Scout, two Pegasus, and one Pegasus XL launch vehicles. The Delta 11’s placed Global Positioning System 

(GPS) satellites into orbit on October 26, 1993, and March 

9, 1994 (local, March IO, Greenwich Mean Time). The 

Atlas E launched a Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite on August 29, 1994. The Atlas I1 

carried a Defense Satellite Communication System (DSCS) 

satellite into orbit on November 28, 1993. The mission of 

one of the Titan 11’s was to launch Clementine, an experimental deep space probe developed by the Ballistic Missile 

Defense Organization (BMDO) from recent, off-the-shelf 

hardware and carried into space on January 25, 1994. 

The three Titan IV launches got that program back on 

track during FY 1994, after its seventh mission the previous 

year ended in failure when the launch vehicle exploded 100 

seconds after launch from Vandenberg AFB. The Air Force 

completed its failure investigation in early FY 1994, concluding that the probable cause of the accident was a solid 

10 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
rocket motor segment repaired during manufacture. It 

apparently had allowed propellant to bum through the motor’s 

case wall and activate the flight termination system. After 

replacing all repaired segments, as well as those affected by 

corrosion, the Air Force launched the three missions from 

Cape Canaveral AFS. The first launch carried a Milstar 

satellite into orbit on February 7, 1994, marking the initial 

use of the Titan IV Centaur upper stage. This doubled the 

U.S. capability for placing payloads in geosynchronous 

orbit from 5,000 to 10,000 lbs. A second successful Titan IV 

launch on May 3,1994, carried a Defense Support Program 

(DSP) satellite into orbit using a Centaur upper stage. The 

final launch of a Titan IV with Centaur upper stage occurred 

on August 27, 1994; it carried a classified mission and 

marked the 10th Titan IV launch since FY 1989 when the 

program began. 

The DoD’s Space Test Program (STP) used the Taurus 

and Pegasus launch vehicles for three of its missions during 

FY 1994. On March 13, 1994, an Advanced Research 

Projects Agency (ARPA) Taurus launch vehicle, built by 

Orbital Sciences Corporation, carried the Space Test Experiments Platform Mission 0 (STEP-0) and an ARPA satellite 

into orbit. This was the first mission for both booster and 

STEP-0. STEP-2 launched successfully on May 19, 1994, 

using a standard Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus vehicle. However, the inaugural attempt to launch a higherperformance, stretched Pegasus, known as Pegasus XL, 

ended in failure on June 27,1994, resulting in the loss of the 

STEP-1 mission payload. The program got back in the 

success column on August 3, 1994, with the launch of the 

Advanced Photovoltaic Experiment (APEX) mission, again 

using the standard Pegasus launch vehicle. The STP’s next 

planned launch is the STEP-3 mission, again using apegasus 

XL. 

Meanwhile, the 118th and final mission of the Scout 

rocket, developed by NASA, launched the second of the 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration (MSTI-2) satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit on May 8, 1994. Additionally, the DoD launched two satellites for other Government 

agencies during FY 1994. A Titan I1 placed the last of the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (N0AA)- 

operated Landsat satellites, Landsat-6, into initial orbit on 

October 5, 1993, but following successful separation from 

the Titan 11, the satellite’s integral “kick motor” apparently 

failed to place it into final orbit. Then, on April 13, 1994, an 

Atlas I launched the next in the series of Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellites, GOES-I, into orbit 

for NOAA. 

In addition to these Government launches, the DoD 

provided its facilities with minimal oversight to commercial 

contractors for launch of five satellites, one of which was a 

DoD payload. The table below summarizes these missions, 

which the Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

(OCST) in the Department of Transportation (DOT) licensed 

and monitored. 

Company Launch Vehicle Payload Date 

McDonnell Douglas Delta 11 (7925) Nato IVB Dec. 7, 1993 

General Dynamics Atlas IIAS Telstar401 Dec. IS, 1993 

McDonnell Douglas Delta I1 (7925) Galaxy 1R Feb. 19, 1994 

Martin Marietta Atlas I UHF Follow-011-3 Jun. 24, 1994 

Martin Marietta Atlas IIA DBS-2 Aug. 3, 1994 

The last of these launches brought to 40 the total number 

of commercial launches licensed to date. The first such 

launch occurred in March 1989 with a suborbital launch of 

a scientific payload on a Starfire rocket from White Sands 

Missile Range, New Mexico. Space Services, Inc. built the 

Starfire. The first orbital commercial launch occurred using 

a McDonnell Douglas Delta I. On August 27, 1989, it 

succeeded in placing a British Satellite Broadcasting communications satellite in orbit. Martin MariettaCorporation’s 

commercial Titan and Atlas rockets and the Pegasus airlaunched vehicle built by Orbital Sciences Corporation have 

also successfully launched commercial payloads. 

Space Science 

Astronomy and Space Physics 

During FY 1994, space scientists continued to add to the 

fund of information about the universe gathered not only 

through instruments locatedon the Earth, but also from those 

on satellites above the distorting medium of the home 

planet’s atmosphere. For example, scientists working on the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) team made a number of 

important discoveries during FY 1994, including images of 

an exploding star (Nova Cygni 1992). Many of these 

findings preceded the highly successful servicing mission in 

December 1993, when astronauts on STS-61 replaced several faulty parts and installed a sophisticated package of 

corrective optics to compensate for the spherical aberration 

in the HST’s primary mirror. Coin-sized minors on the 

Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 and Corrective Optics 

1995 11 
SpaceTelescope Axial Replacements units have since served 

as “contact lenses” for the HST. While the telescope has 

In other developments, scientists analyzing data from 

thecompton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO). which was 

always had a view of the sky unobstructed by haze from the 

Earth, scientists since have been able to accomplish all the 

astronomical goals initially planned for the most sophisticated observatory ever built. In the process, the HST’s first 

servicing mission proved the capability of NASA’s highly 

trained astronauts to work productively in space. 

As one fruit of their efforts, an astronomer from the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). heading an 

international team, used the HST’s Wide Field Planetary 

Camera 2 in May 1994 to obtain valuable new images of 

Supernova 19941, discovered by amateur astronomers in 

April 1994 in the inner regions of the “Whirlpool Galaxy,” 

M51. The HST has the unique capability of imaging and 

measuring the spectra of distant supernovae in ultraviolet 

light. As the M5 1 supernova ages, Hubble will ‘‘see” more 

deeply into the interior of the exploding star. This will 

permit astronomers to probe thechemical composition of the 

debris and learn more about the type of star that exploded. 

The team of scientists thereby hope to learn which stars 

explode as supernovae, what chemical elements are ejected, 

and how to use these bright events as yardsticks for measuring the size of the universe. 

In June 1994, two scientists using the HST discovered 

disks of protoplanetary dust around stars in the Orion 

Nebula region of the Milky Way galaxy. This revelation 

indicates that the formation of planets may be relatively 

common both in the Milky Way and in other parts of the 

universe. The newly found disks contain many of the same 

basic chemicals that compose the planets in oursolar System. Because planets are the only heavenly bodies that can 

support life as we know it, the existence of planets around 

other stars would raise the likelihood of life in other parts of 

the universe. 

Then in July 1994, an international team of astronomers 

using the HST’s Faint Object Cameraconfirmed that helium 

is widespread throughout the early universe, a key hypothesis of the Big Bang theory. The discovery of helium in the 

constellation of Cetus, which is 13 billion light years away, 

gives scientists valuable information about conditions at the 

time of the universe’s initial evolution. Additionally, this 

finding lends further weight to the scientists’ conception of 

chemical evolution in the universe; scientists believe that 

hydrogen and helium evolved within three minutes after the 

Big Bang, while heavier elements such as oxygen and 

carbon came later. 

launched in April I99 I, found new evidence that gammaray bursts extend into the far reaches of the universe and 

thus bear an imprint of the universe’s expansion. These huge 

explosions come from all directions, suggesting a cosmological cause; until this discovery, it was believed that the 

bursts were limited to within the Milky Way galaxy. Because the bursts come from so far away, they demonstrate 

“time dilation.” an effect created when time seems to be 

running more slowly at the bursts’ source than at their 

destination, because the universe itself is thought to be 

expanding. 

Relatedly, the CGRO’s Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET) provided the first detailed all-sky 

map of highly energetic gamma ray objects, pointing out 

several different types of gamma ray sources. Scientists 

believe, for example, that the interactions of cosmic ray 

particles with gas between the stars produce diffuse gamma 

ray emissions from our Milky Way galaxy. Within this band 

are gamma ray pulsars and other unidentified sources of 

gamma rays. Astronomers analyzing EGRET’S data have 

also identified what they think are massive black holes in the 

middle of distant galaxies that are sending gamma rays in the 

Earth’s direction. 

Similarly, the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EWE), 

launched in June 1992, produced the first all-sky map in four 

extreme ultraviolet wavelength bands. This survey has 

identified large numbers of very hot stars such as white 

dwarfs and active corona stars. For purposes of comparison, 

scientists also surveyed a companion area along half the 

ecliptic plane on which the Earth travels around the Sun. 

Space physicists using the Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX), launched in June 

1992, discovered a radiation belt of trapped anomaious 

cosmic rays in the magnetosphere. They have determined 

the chemical composition and electrical charge of these rays 

in the region beyond the Earth’s upper atmosphere where the 

planet’s magnetic field affects charged particles. In addition, these scientists have learned a lot about the effects of 

electrons in the upper atmosphere. SAMPEX’s mission is to 

monitor energetic electrons and atomic ions from the Sun 

and from interplanetary, interstellar, and magnetospheric 

space. 

Space physicists also achieved breakthroughs in computer modeling. In particular, complex numerical modeling has led to a detailed conception of the Earth’s magnetosphere. As a result, scientists are now able to predict “space 

12 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
weather” caused by solar-terrestrial interactions. Investigators using computer simulations have also gained a refined 

understanding of the heliopause, the boundary of the Solar 

System where the solar wind’s outward flow is balanced by 

the pressure of the interstellar medium. This model’s 

parameters are expected to be confirmed or denied when the 

two Voyager spacecraft reach this area and transmit their 

data back to the Earth sometime within the next decade. 

(Voyager 1 was launched in September 1977 and Voyager 2 

in August 1977.) 

SPARTAN 201-2, a small satellite deployed and then 

retrieved several days later by the Space Shuttle Discovery 

in September 1994, examined the Sun’s hot outer atmosphere, or extended corona, and the solar wind, the flow of 

charged ions from the Sun. On its second of four planned 

missions aboard the Shuttle, SPARTAN contained two 

instruments-the NASA-designed White Light Coronograph to measure thedensity and distribution of theelectrons 

in the coronal holes and polar plumes of the Sun and the 

Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer, designed by the SAO. 

Together, the two instruments can determine the velocity of’ 

the solar wind as it accelerates out of the Sun so that scientists 

can grasp exactly how and when the Sun creates this wind as 

well as what the shape and spectroscopy of the solar corona 

may be. The measurements made by SPARTAN 20 1 will be 

used in conjunction with those from the Ulysses spacecraft, 

which was launched in October 1990 and whichdetected the 

solar wind from the south polar corona as SPARTAN 

observed the source region of that wind as well as other 

portions of the Sun’s corona. Data from SPARTAN201 will 

also calibrate measurements to be made by the European 

Space Agency (ESA)-NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, scheduled for launch in 1995. Scientists hope to 

derive practical information from these missions about exactly how the solar wind produces magnetic storms near the 

Earth that can disrupt communication systems and trigger 

power outages, resulting in losses estimated at $100 million 

each year worldwide. 

Ulysses, meanwhile, became the first spacecraft to fly 

over a polar region of the Sun when, in June 1994, it began 

its primary mission to observe the solar wind at high-solar 

latitudes. Built by ESA and equipped with both European 

andU.S. instruments, Ulysses will takedirect measurements 

of many complex solar phenomena that cannot be observed 

remotely. Scientists are eager to learn more about the Sun’s 

polar magnetic fields, which reverse polarity every 1 1 years 

in conjunction with the solar cycle; they play an important 

role in the Sun’s corona and solar wind. The ionic composition of the solar wind, measured by Ulysses. indicates that 

its source in the coronal gas measures just over a million 

degrees Centigrade. This is not hot enough to make the wind 

go as fast as it does, indicating that some unknown electromagnetic process near the Sun is responsible for accelerating 

the solar wind. 

In a separate development, researchers from the University of Alaska in Fairbanks recorded spectacular upper 

atmospheric flashes occurring above electrical thunderstorms. For many years, pilots have noticed these bright blue 

and red flashes that last only a few thousandths of a second. 

Using special low-light-level cameras mounted on two small 

aircraft, scientists recently captured these flashes on video 

for the first time. They extended upward as high as 60 miles. 

and some even reached through the Earth’s ozone layer to 

the ionosphere. After coordinating their measurements with 

scientists at other institutions, the researchers came to suspect that the flashes are a form of electrical discharge. The 

scientists plan further study to understand the origin of the 

flashes and their potential impact on aircraft safety. More 

broadly, this phenomenon links the weather in the Earth’s 

lower atmosphere to upper atmospheric layers that form our 

planet’s border to space. 

In other weather-related space science, NASA conducted a series of sounding rocket flights during FY 1994 to 

examine the Alaskan auroras. Space physicists are interested in these colorful phenomena known as “Northern 

Lights” because they are caused by variations in the solar 

wind’s interaction with theEarth’s magnetic field. Equipped 

with sophisticated payloads, sounding rockets hew directly 

through the auroras, allowing scientists to take direct measurements of the ions’ energy levels. Researchers hope to 

gain a better understanding of how these particles are accelerated and energized. This campaign of eight rocket flights 

formed a significant part of the Space Physics Division’s 4 1 

rocket flights this fiscal year. 

Because of their extreme luminosity at maximum light, 

Type Ia supernovae have proved themselves to be valuable 

in measuring both the local rate of expansion of the universe 

and the rate of change of that expansion. Recent work by 

Mark Phillips of the Cerro-Tolodo Interamerican Observatory in Chile has shown that there is a significant spread in 

the intrinsic radiated energy in visible light of this key 

subtype of supernova. That spread can introduce a bias in 

samples of distant supernovae, leading to erroneous estimates of universal deceleration. Phillips and his collaborators found a good correlation between the rate of decline 

with time of the luminous output of supernovae and their 

1995 13 
peak brightness. They also found that silicon absorption 

features easily detected in the spectra of supernovae are 

strongly correlated with both the rate of decline and peak 

brightness. The strength of the spectral features can be used 

to increase the accuracy of the estimate of each supernova’s 

intrinsic brightness and, therefore, its distance. The use of 

this technique now places supernovae among the most 

accurate of the standard candles, suitable for use as distant 

probes measuring features of the early universe. 

A series of systematic observations by astronomers has 

long suggested the existence of a “Great Attractor,” a 

concentration of mass that causes a bulk flow of galaxies 

toward it. Scientists discovered this large-scale flow by 

comparing the motion of the local group with respect to 

clusters versus the motion with respect to thecosmic microwave background, which is assumed to be a “stationary” 

reference. The strength of such large-scale flows can distinguish among models that explain the formulation of galaxies 

and clusters in the early universe. More recently, astronomers have begun to examine large volumes of space to 

search for structure and flows on even larger scales. Work 

by Todd R. Lauer (National Optical Astronomy Observatories) and Marc Postman (Space Telescope ScienceInstitute), 

using the Kitt Peak National Observatory’s 4- and 2.1-meter 

telescopes in Arizona and the Cerro-Tolodo Interamerican 

Observatory’s 1.5-meter telescope in Chile, suggests that 

bulk flows can be identified over scales as large as some 600 

million light-years, almost three times larger than those 

found in previous investigations. They used the brightest 

galaxies to measure the distances and velocities of 119 

clusters, creating the cluster reference frame. The motion of 

the local group of galaxies derived with respect to these 

galaxy clusters was significantly different from the one 

derived with respect to the cosmic microwave background. 

The most straightforward interpretation of this result is that 

all the galaxies in the volume of space defined by these 

clusters are streaming with a velocity of nearly 700 kilometers per second and that any “attractor” has to lie beyond the 

boundaries of the original search. A structure this large 

cannot be explained by any current theoretical model and 

opens fruitful new directions for understanding the scale of 

the largest structures in the universe. 

The application of seismology to the study of the solar 

interior has advanced almost solely by the prediction and 

measurement of the Sun’s frequencies of oscillation. Thomas L. Duvall (Goddard Spaceflight Center), Stuart Jeffries 

(Bartol), Jack W. Harvey (National Solar Observatory, 

Tucson), and Martin A. Pomerantz (Bartol) have shown that 

it is also possible to obtain direct measurements of the travel 

times and distances of individual accoustic (sound-like) 

waves, which is the predominant approach in terrestrial 

seismology. The basic concept is simple: At the surface, a 

wave propagating upward from the interior is reflected back 

downwards by the steep change in the density of the gas at 

the Sun’s surface. As the wave travels into the interior, its 

path is curved back toward the surface by refraction, caused 

by the strong increase of temperature with increasing depth. 

If the upward wave causes a brightening in the area of the 

Sun’s surface, then there will be a correlated brightening 

where the wave resurfaces at a later time. By measuring this 

time difference as a function of the distance of separation of 

two surface locations, it is possible to develop a plot of the 

travel time versus the distance of separation, a plot familiar 

from terrestrial seismology. The initial work showed that 

acoustic waves with frequencies of oscillation greater than 

a critical value predicted from the physical conditions in the 

solar atmosphere are not significantly reflected by the atmosphere, with a less than 2-percent reflection coefficient. This 

approach opens the way for seismic studies of local solar 

phenomena, such as inhomogeneities beneath the Sun’s 

surface near sunspots. It should also help refine models of 

the gas velocities below the Sun’s surface. 

Drs. Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse of Princeton 

University won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics for their 

discovery using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico 

of the binary pulsar PSR B 1913+16 and their subsequent 

monitoring and analysis of this object. Their work demonstrated convincingly the appropriateness of general relativity as a theory of gravitation under extreme conditions and 

indirectly confirmed the existence of the gravitational radiation Albert Einstein had predicted. In more recent use of the 

Arecibo radio telescope, continued timing of the millisecond 

binary pulsar PSR B 1257+ 12 by its discoverer, Alexander 

Wolszczan of Pennsylvania State University, has greatly 

strengthened the case for the previously announced pair of 

planets that orbit this object; the observations have begun to 

show the expected effects that the planets’ mutual gravity 

has on their orbital motion. The observations have also 

revealed the presence of a third planetary body, with a mass 

only 1.5 percent that of the Earth, that orbits the central 

neutron stars at a distance of only 0.2 astronomical units. 

Observations of gas clouds associated with the highredshift quasar PC 1643+4631A, using the 140-foot and 

12-meter radio telescopes at the National Radio Astronomy 

14 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Observatory (NRAO-Kitt Peak, Arizona), have revealed 

the presence of carbon monoxide emission. Clouds such as 

this have been identified previously with the progenitors of 

current galaxies. The red shift of the molecular spectral lines 

indicates that they wereemitted when theuniverse was about 

one-fifth of its present age. The observations by David T. 

Frayer, NRAO associate director Robert L. Brown, and 

NRAOdirector Paul A. Venden Bout are striking in that they 

indicate a molecular mass of 4.5 trillion solar masses. This 

equals the stellar mass of a large galaxy, but here the material 

apparently lies in an extended, gaseous, prestellar state. 

Also noteworthy are the substantial quantities of carbon and 

oxygen that make up the carbon monoxide molecules; these 

elements must have themselves been produced in a burst of 

massive star formation preceding the observed protogalactic 

state. 

The National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Center for 

Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CAM) made wintertime astrophysical observations from the NSF’s observatory at the South Pole for the first time during the austral 

winter of 1994. CARA’s South Pole Infrared Explorer 

(SPIREX) telescope was able, because of its unique location, to image more of the impacts of the Comet ShoemakerLevy 9 with Jupiter than any other instrument. Also, site 

measurements by SPIREX confirmed that the sky at the 

South Pole is darker by a factorof at least three than any other 

site previously surveyed. Another of CARA’s experiments 

is on the Cosmic Background Radiation Anisotropy; at the 

end of the fiscal year, it consisted of a suite of two telescopes 

designated PYTHON and VIPER. PYTHON has made 

measurements at the South Pole during the past two austral 

summers and has now been operated for the first time during 

winter. It has made important confirmation of the Cosmic 

Microwave Background (CMB) anisotropy first measured 

by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), launched in 

1989, and it has begun to make a finer scale map of the CMB 

than is possible with the smaller antennas of COBE. The 

quiet atmospheric conditions at the South Pole have allowed 

PYTHON to make measurements of unprecedented sensitivity. 

Using new data from the Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA, launched by Japan in 

February 1993) about two supernova remnants (designated E0519-69.0 and N103B) in the Large Megallanic 

Cloud, a binational team of astronomers led by the SAO’s 

John P. Hughes discovered significant amounts of iron, 

calcium, and other newly synthesized elements. ASCA 

gives astronomers a better tool for direct observation of the 

emissions from many atoms, including oxygen, silicon, 

calcium, and iron, in the ejected gas of supernovae, lasting 

for many hundreds of years after the explosion that created 

the supernova. Scientists believe that the explosions that 

created the remnants occurred somewhere between 500 and 

1.500 years ago. The obvious presence of iron emissions 

coupled with the lack of strong oxygen emission suggest that 

these remnants belong to the select group of supernova 

explosions that produced the bulk of the iron in the universe, 

according to Hughes. Further study of the new data should 

help astronomers refine current models of supernova explosions and “becauseof the ubiquitous presenceof ir.on throughout theuniverse,”Hughesexpected the results to havealarge 

influence on astronomy in general. 

Two other SA0 scientists. Dong-Woo Kim and 

Giuseppina Fabbiano, discovered a huge, hot, gaseous halo 

surrounding a distant galaxy, perhaps providing evidence 

for the presence of both dark matter and so-called cooling 

flows. This, in turn, may shed new light on whether the 

universe is open or closed. The two astronomers used the 

joint German-US.-U.K. Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), 

launched in June 1990, to observe an x-ray-bright elliptical 

galaxy, NGC 507, some 300 million light years from Earth. 

Measuring the temperatures of x-ray-emitting hot gas, they 

observed a steady decrease of heat toward the galaxy’s 

center. They believe this fall in temperatures may result from 

cooling flows in the central region. Also, uncertainty in 

measurements of the mass of NGC 507 suggests that a large 

amount of dark matter may be present. Observations indicate that baryonic matter (mass seen as stars and gas in all 

wavelengths) makes up some 15 percent of the estimated 

total mass of the galaxy. Because current cosmological 

theory predicts that baryonic mass must be less than 5 

percent to “close” the universe, this finding has implications 

for cosmology. However, similar measurements of many 

other systems will be necessary before scientists can determine whether the universe is open or closed. 

Solar System Exploration 

Closer to home, scientists were also making new discoveries about our own Solar System. For example, ground 

observations conducted under the Near Earth Object program detected the Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet in 1993 and 

predicted its impact on Jupiter in July 1994. This event 

marked one of the more spectacular results of a detailed, 

long-term telescopic survey of the night sky at Palomar 

Observatory, California, by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

1995 15 
geologist EugeneM. Shoemaker and two volunteers,Carolyn 

S. Shoemaker and David H. Levy. It was the first totally 

disrupted (fragmented) comet ever to be observed, and the 

first to be seen orbiting and impacting a planet. For the first 

time, the worldwide scientific community was able to predict and track such a crash. Astronomers using most available ground-based observatories and a variety of operating 

spacecraft, from Galileo (launched in October 1989) to the 

HST and the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, obtained an 

array of interesting and revealing dataabout the composition 

of comets and Jupiter, including a wide range of effects on 

the planet’s atmosphere and plasma environment from the 

impact. A total of 21 observable fragments collided with 

Jupiter over a week-long period. The impact, observed in 

regions of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from the 

ultraviolet to long radio wavelengths, produced fireballs that 

left major visible marks on the planet; it revealed a clearcut 

need for an inventory of comets and asteroids that may 

someday collide with the Earth. During the last few months 

of the fiscal year, scientists under contract to the Defense 

Nuclear Agency (DNA) used their expertise in simulation 

and modeling of the nuciear effects in the Earth’s atmosphere to explain the enhanced radio emission data resulting 

from measurements in various radio frequency bands from 

Jupiter’s magnetosphere during the impact. Their findings, 

in line with a shock acceleration model, suggest a greater 

effect than had previously been assumed. As the fiscal year 

ended, previous calculations were being refined in collaboration with a variety of radio and optical observers and 

investigators. In anticipation of the collision of the comet 

with Jupiter, the Divisions of Astronomical Sciences and 

Atmospheric Sciences within the NSF and the Solar System 

Exploration Division of NASA sponsored a special program 

to support observational and theoretical investigations into 

the mechanism of energy deposition into different regions of 

Jupiter’s atmosphere. Theoretical models account for the 

amount and velocity of material ejected during the collisions 

as well as the chemical reactions that occur as a result of the 

interaction of this material with the neutral and ionized 

components ofJupiter’s atmosphere. The impact is expected 

to have generated dust that, on being charged through 

exposure to the plasma environment, will form new dust 

rings around the planet. Data obtained from a variety of 

instruments strategically deployed to observe the effects of 

the impacts will test the theoretical predictions. 

NASA scientists also made exciting new strides in lunar 

studies while working on the DoD-sponsored Clementine 

mission. This effort, in which lunar research was only one 

of the goals, was conducted by the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) under sponsorship of the BMDO with the support of NASA, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 

and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in California. 

Launched on January 25, 1994, the Clementine spacecraft 

entered lunar orbit on February 19. 1994. For the next 2 I/ 

2 months, four cameras took 1.8 million images of the 

surface of the Moon in 1 I discreet wavebands with coarse 

altimetry over most of the lunar surface, resulting in the first 

comprehensive digital map of that surface. In addition, 

NASA scientists are excited to have multispectral surface 

data covering 11 colors in the visible and infrared spectra. 

Instruments such as a laser ranger, a charged particle telescope, advanced thermal imagers, and radio tracking gear 

also contributed significant new information about the 

Moon’s topography, surface composition, and charged particle environment. For example, the lidar system compiled 

a complete map of lunar elevations, discovering a 12- 

kilometer-deep impact crater at the lunar south pole in the 

process. An in-flight contrived experiment to use the 

communications transmitter for active, bistatic measurements produced supportive but not conclusive evidence for 

the existence of ice in the permanent shadows of craters near 

the lunar poles. NASA planned to sponsor a series of 

multiyear grants to scientists to examine Clementine’s lunar 

data in expectation of discovering new insights about the 

Moon’s formation. The USGS has begun processing the 

Clementine data to produce global digital maps as well. A 

secondary mission of Clementine, a deep-space encounter 

with the asteroid 1620 Geographos, could not be completed 

because of a problem that occurred after completion of the 

lunar mapping mission. 

Galileo, on the other hand, did complete its encounter 

with the asteroid Ida and in the process made the curious 

discovery of the first confirmed moon around an asteroid. 

This was the 1 .5-kilometer-in-diameter satellite, Dactyl. 

Although scientists previously believed that natural satellites of asteroids probably existed, they now contend that 

such moons may be more widespread than previously considered. As the fiscal year ended, researchers were busy 

examining data about Ida’s moon to learn how both bodies 

were formed. One possibility is that the moon was formed 

during the explosion of a larger asteroid of heterogeneous 

composition that also gave birth to Ida. Spectral analysis by 

Galileo’s near-infrared mapping spectrometer revealed that 

Dactyl is composed of different amounts of specific com16 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
pounds than Ida, indicating that it did not comedirectly from 

Ida. New data gathered by Galileo indicate that Ida’s 

composition is more diverse than previously thought. By 

examining the moon’s orbital parameters, scientists, including those from NASA and the USGS, can better determine 

Ida’s mass. Combining this information with prior data on 

Ida’s size will enable scientists to deduce the asteroid’s 

density and composition. While on its way to Jupiter, 

Galileo also examined another asteroid, Gaspra. which, like 

Ida, travels in the main asteroid belt orbiting the Sun between 

Mars and Jupiter. 

In other planetary exploration, the Magellan spacecraft, 

launched in May 1989, determined that Venus is still geologically active. After completing the mapping of the 

planet’s surface, Magellan began collecting information 

about its density. By tracking the spacecraft’s precise speed 

over specific areas of the planet, ground controllers back on 

the Earth calculated the strength of gravity in these locations 

and thus the subsurface density. The data indicate that 

Venusian areas of high gravity correspond to areas of high 

elevation, in contrast to the situation on the Earth, where 

mountain ranges correspond to gravitational lows. Relatedly , 

the USGS successfully completed the first full-resolution 

global radar mosaic of Venus (1 : 1,500,000 scale); a series of 

170 CD-ROMs containing the same spacecraft data was in 

production as the fiscal year ended. Nearly half of the 

1 : 1,500,000-scale geologic base map quadrangles have been 

completed to support NASA’s Venus Geologic Mapping 

Program. 

In addition, the USGS has been involved in planning for 

unpiloted missions that NASA proposes to send to Mars, 

including Pathfinder (a lander with a small rover projected 

for 1996-97), at least two orbiters named Mars Global 

Surveyor, and a series of Mars Surveyor landers. Geologists 

from the Survey served on the Pathfinder imaging team and 

helped plan for a wide range of Pathfinder experiments and 

geologic observations, including selection of a landing site 

at the mouth of a large Martian outflow channel. Survey 

personnel also helped plan for Surveyor orbiter and lander 

missions projected to take place between 1998 and 2005. 

Other Space Science 

NASA made significant strides in microgravity and life 

sciences research during FY 1994, beginning with the 

Spacelab LifeSciences-2(SLS-2) mission in October 1993. 

Its payload consisted of 14 experiments that examined 

physiological responses of humans and rodents to 

microgravity and their subsequent readaptation to the Earth’s 

gravity. As an extension of the SLS- 1 mission in June 1991, 

research on SLS-2 focused on identifying and further characterizing the changes in physiological systems during and 

after space flight and on increasing our knowledge about 

underlying mechanisms so we can minimize or counteract 

changes adverse to human health before the international 

Space Station begins itsoperations. Important findings from 

SLS-2 included independent demonstration by three different investigator teams that current models for understanding the effects of gravity on the heart, lungs, and circulation 

could not predict the observed physiological responses during space flight. These studies will yield important new 

understanding of blood pressure regulation. in health and 

disease, and of cardiopulmonary disorders. Researchers 

also learned that a surprising degree of neural plasticity 

results from exposure to microgravity. These results will 

improve our understanding of the nervous system’s adaptation to change. Research into the role that physical loading 

(gravity) plays in maintaining muscle function+ombining 

anatomy, biochemistry. and functional measures-will help 

the joint NASA-National Institutes of Health (NIH) program in muscle physiology. 

The flight of a cosmonaut on STS-60 in February 1994 

began Phase 1 of the international Space Station. In 

August, the first launch of U.S. research hardware aboard a 

Russian Progress rocket included an acceleration measurement system to support both U.S. and Russian research 

programs. Additional U.S. hardware is being tested and 

shipped to Russia for launch aboard Progress rockets next 

year. Ultimately, a planned International Space Research 

and Technology Institute will sponsor new interdisciplinary 

teams consisting of biologists, technologists, physicists, and 

material scientists to conduct research both on the Earth and 

in the Space Station, bringing fresh insight and methodology 

to bear on problems humans face. 

Meanwhile, in March 1994, NASA flew the USMP2-a facility exposed to the space environment in the Shuttle 

payload bay that provides power, cooling, and data collection for a variety of experiments. The Isothermal Dendritic 

Growth Experiment advanced our knowledge of materials 

science. Dendrite growth is the common form of crystal 

growth encountered when metals, alloys, and many other 

materials solidify in most industrial processes. Study of the 

formation of dendrites in orbit showed conclusively that to 

provide rigorous tests of fundamental theories of dendrite 

1995 17 
formation and development, long-duration, high-quality 

microgravity conditions are required. These theories are 

needed to predict and achieve in solidified materials the 

desired microstructures that control many of their physical 

and chemical properties, such as their mechanical strength 

and resistance to corrosion. The Crystal Growth of Solid 

Solution Semiconductors Experiment, using the Advanced 

Automated Directional Solidification Furnace on its first 

mission, successfully grew a crystal of mercury cadmium 

telluride alloy, a semiconductor, to study the physics of 

additive thermal- and composition-driven convection during crystal growth. The in-situ monitoring available in the 

MEPHISTO (Material pour I’Etude des Phenomenes 

Interessant la Solidification sur Terre et en Orbite) apparatus 

enabled the study of transport and kinetic phenomena during 

crystal growth of bismuthltin alloys. The MEPHISTO 

furnace, developed by the French Space Agency and shared 

by U.S. and French investigators under a cooperative agreement, has the unique ability to study the formation of 

microstructures in solidifying materials to help understand 

how metals acquire their physical properties. The Critical 

Fluid Light Scattering Experiment studied phase transition 

phenomena near the critical point of the element, xenon. 

Studying an area known to physicists as dynamic critical 

phenomena, this experiment provided theorists with new 

guidance for modeling how systems with many degrees of 

freedom respond to fluctuations. Such models can help 

interpret such varied phenomena as atmospheric turbulence, 

human population dynamics, and superconductivity. 

IML-2 in July 1994 continued ML-1’s exploration of 

the effects of gravitational force on biological, physical, and 

chemical systems. Some 82 investigations sent into orbit by 

75 principal investigators from 13 countries showed how 

crewed space laboratories can be used with high efficiency 

in international investigations such as those to be done on the 

Space Station. On IML-2, 11 major U.S. microgravity 

experiments used new flight apparatuses developed by 

NASA’s international partners. Four U.S. investigatorteams 

used the German electromagnetic containerless processing 

facility (TEMPUS) to conduct studies of nucleation in 

solidification while also measuring thennophysical properties. One U.S. investigator used ESAs Advanced Protein 

Crystallization Facility, flown on its first long-duration 

mission, to study crystallization of macromolecules using 

the “liquid-liquid diffusion technique.” Another U.S. investigator successfully completed protocols to study the phenomenon of liquid-phase sintering-a process used to produce alloys of novel compositions from high-temperature 

materials-in the National Space Development Agency 

(NASDA) of Japan’s Large Isothermal Furnace. Two U.S. 

investigator teams studied liquid-phase interactions using 

ESA’s Bubble, Drop, and Particle Unit, and one U.S. investigator group studied phase changes, employing ESA’s 

Critical Point Facility. Preliminary results from the mission 

include new insights into the transport of mass and energy in 

systemsat vapor-liquidcritical point-a unique condition of 

matter that promises to reveal an important new understanding of complex systems on scales ranging from the 

atom to global weather and of subtle changes such as the 

magnetization of an iron bar or the way substances transition 

from conductivity to superconductivity, as well as observations of surface-tension driven motions of drops and bubbles 

under conditions of strongly coupled heat and momentum 

transport. The IML-2 studies of radiation biology showed 

damage to living cells as an effect of the natural space 

environment. Nematode worms showed a significant number of mutations compared to control specimens but no 

unusual reproductive behavior. Investigations on animals 

and plants exhibited the effects of microgravity and radiation on growth patterns, genetic material, bone development, cell differentiation and reproduction, and the effectiveness of antibiotics. The first documented, successful 

vertebrate reproduction in space involved the mating and 

hatching of Medaka fish eggs. One fry resulting from inspace fertilization actually hatched and survived, as did 

prefertilized eggs. Two newt eggs, laid on orbit, survived, 

and a high percentage of pre-orbit selected eggs remained 

viable as embryos and larvae. In another first occurrence in 

space, researchers established a gravity threshold, the point 

where gravity’s effects can be observed, for two organisms-Euglena and jellyfish. Fruit flies exposed to 

microgravity exhibited hyperactivity compared to control 

specimens on the Earth, indicating an accelerated aging 

process in space. 

At the request of the governments of Ukraine and the 

Republic of Georgia. NASA life scientists associated with 

Space Radar Laboratory-2 received data in October 1994 

on Shuttle passes over the two countries. These data will 

support technological developments and environmental 

monitoring in response to concerns of those governments 

about pollution and disease control. 

NASAcontinued in FY 1994 to make strides in the field 

of telemedicine. the practice of medicine across distances 

using a phone line, satellite, microwave, or other telecom18 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
munications medium. The Spacebridge to Moscow 

Telemedicine Demonstration Project, a flagship program in 

this arena begun in November 1993, uses two-way, interactive video between clinical consultants at the Moscow 

Hospital of the Ministry of Information and four clinical 

sites in the United States. Remote aid in diagnosing patients 

under this project constitutes a successful follow-on to the 

Spacebridge to Armenia in 1988. 

Regenerative life support research has led to significant 

advances in the development of new biofilm resistant 

coatings using application techniques common in industry. 

NASA initiated this research to control or prevent the 

buildup of medically harmful microorganisms in the air, 

water, and trace-contaminant control systems of long duration on crewed spacecraft. Preliminary results (independently confirmed by the Center for Biofilm Engineering at 

Montana State University) show a 50 to 90+ percent reduction in the buildup of a common biofilm-forming organism 

when the coating is applied to plastics or metal. The coated 

surface is heat-stable, thus allowing sterilization and reuse. 

Of particular note, the coated surface is also extremely easy 

to clean. These coatings may have application to preventing 

biofilm buildup in a number of commercially important 

areas. Preliminary estimates by the Center for Biofilm 

Engineering and the EPA conservatively place the commercial potential of these technologies in the hundreds of millions of dollars. 

NASA also continued its close cooperation with other 

Government agencies in research. A joint biotechnology 

program between NASA and the NIH emphasized establishing joint centers to accelerate the transfer of NASA technology and allow its application to biomedical research, developing advanced tissue-culturing technology for application 

to biomedical research and developmental biology; advanced protein crystallization technologies to advance structural biology and drug design to fight diseases; and technology for early detection of cataracts. At the end of the fiscal 

year, NASA had 18 cooperative agreements with 10 institutes of the NIH as well as the National Library of Medicine. 

Under an interagency agreement between NASA and the 

NIH, the two agencies established a Center for ThreeDimensional Tissue Culture at the National Institute of 

Child Health and Human Development. This agreement 

supports the transfer of NASA’s bioreactor technology to 

the NIH, its further development with NASA support, more 

protein crystal growth flight experiments, and new investigations of microgravity cell culture. Additionally, NASA 

and the NIH have selected 22 investigators to fly life science 

experiments on the Space Shuttle in the period 1994-1996, 

the first such NASA/NIH space flight experiments, and 34 

investigators for Neurolab. a Spacelab mission to fly on the 

Shuttle in 1998. dedicated to brain and behavioral sciences. 

NASA has also signed agreements with the National Cancer 

Institute, the National Library of Medicine, and the National 

Institute of Child Health and Human Development to conduct research in areas of common interest. In 1994 NASA 

received 141 proposals in biotechnology in response to a 

research announcement. Peer reviews in FY 1995 will 

determine which will be pursued further. NASA and the 

National Cancer Institute will apply the imaging technology 

used in HST and elsewhere to the diagnosis and treatment of 

breast cancer. Three projects in particular offer the promise 

of developing direct digital mammography systems with 

high resolution and a wide field of view. With the National 

Institute of Mental Health, NASA will help apply recent 

advances in computer and information sciences to the brain 

and related health sciences. 

In related endeavors, NASA, the Air Force, and GTE 

Corporation recently completed a program studying the 

growth of gallium arsenide in the space environment. NASA 

also funds a protein crystal growth program at the Naval 

Research Laboratory, and under a NASA agreement with 

the DoD, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research has been 

conducting cell culture research in a flight system. A 

memorandum of understanding between NASA and the 

NSF has committed those two agencies to collaborative 

research in environmental signal transduction and cell differentiation in plants in response to environmental stimulation, especially gravity. Another agreement between NASA 

and the Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Association of America will 

use the technology developed for cooling systems in space 

suits to develop cool suit technology for victims of MS who 

have trouble regulating internal body temperature. A result 

from a joint project development effort between NASA’s 

Ames Research Center and the NSF‘s Closed Ecological 

Life Support System Antarctic Analog Project will be 

NASA’s largest-scale application to date in bioregenerative 

life support technology and will also feature a recycling 

system to support Antarctic researchers. Designed to increase the habitability of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole 

research station and help the United States meet its international obligations to maintain the Antarctic environment in 

apristinecondition, this projectwill allow NASA tomeetthe 

goal of obtaining long-duration experience in a similar 

1995 19 
environment to test regenerative life-support candidates for 

planetary habitats by deploying regenerative food, water, 

and waste-processing systems for use at the South Pole. 

Space Flight and Space 

Technology 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle’s primary purpose in FY 1994 continued to be transporting people and cargo safely into lowEarth orbit (100 to 350 nautical miles above the Earth). As 

of the end of the year, NASA had four active orbiters in its 

fleet: Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. During FY 1994, Atlantis completed its Orbiter Maintenance 

Down Period (OMDP) in the Orbiter Facility in Palmdale, 

California. During OMDP, Atlantis was outfitted with the 

modifications necessary to dock with the Russian Mir space 

station, with the first docking mission scheduled forthe third 

quarter of FY 1995. As the year ended, the orbiter Columbia 

was being prepared for delivery to Palmdale for an OMDP. 

During the year, NASA initiated a redesign of the 

external tank for structural weight reduction, which will 

improving the performance of the Shuttle system. The 

redesign involved substitution of aluminum lithium for the 

existing aluminumalloy, thus taking advantageofthe greater 

strength per unit of weight characteristic of the new material. 

The first launch of the resultant super lightweight tank will 

be in late calendar year 1997. 

The Space Shuttle Main Engine program aggressively 

pursued the development and implementation of safety and 

reliability improvements in FY 1994. In the current engine, 

five major components were in the process of being upgraded in two block changes. Block I incorporates the new 

phase 11+ powerhead, the single-coil heat-exchanger, and 

the alternate high-pressure oxidizer turbopump. Block II 

contains the Block I improvements and adds the alternate 

high pressure fuel turbopump and the large throat main 

combustion chamber. Engineers conducted 101 ground 

tests in N 1994 for a total of 47,775 seconds in support of 

the development and current flight programs. To date, the 

oxidizer turbopump has satisfied its requirements for total 

development seconds, and the first of two formal certification units has successfully completed its 20 test series. The 

first Block I certification engine, which contained the second oxidizer turbopump certification unit, began testing in 

October 1994. As of the end of the fiscal year, Block I was 

scheduled for its first flight in June 1995. Engineers involved in the oxidizer turbopump development successfully 

resolved all of the major technical problems encountered 

early in development. Due in large part to this success, 

Congress approved the resumption of development work on 

the fuel turbopump, which had been in caretaker status since 

1991. Development testing of the fuel turbopump was under 

way at the end of the fiscal year, and the Block I1 configuration was scheduled to enter service in September 

1997. The Space Shuttle Main Engine program has also 

been pursuing performance-enhancing changes in engine 

operation for Block 11-part of the overall Shuttle performance enhancement program to support Space Station 

objectives. 

The Solid Rocket Booster successfully supported the 

eight Shuttle flights begun during FY 1994. There was one 

static test firing of a heavily instrumented flight support 

motor. Efforts began to transition Redesigned Solid Rocket 

Motor nozzle production from Utah to the former Advanced 

Solid Rocket Motor site in northeast Mississippi. The 

elimination of ozone-depleting substances in booster manufacturing continued. Engineers have been developing two 

performance enhancements related to the booster as part of 

the overall Shuttle performance enhancement program to 

support Space Station objectives. A motor nozzle exit cone 

extension will increase the vacuum-specific impulse of the 

motor. The lightweight booster program will replace the 

current nylon parachutes with kevlar versions and will 

include minor structural weight reductions. 

In the area of Space Shuttle Systems Integration, the 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update (DOLILU I) system was 

available for all FY 1994 missions. The system updates the 

flight trajectory to account for the actual winds on the day of 

launch. The DOLILU I1 system, which will incorporate the 

main engine control tables, solid rocket trim data, and 

aerodynamic control data on the day of launch, will further 

optimize the ascent trajectory of the Shuttle. NASA expected the first flight using this improvement to occur in May 

1995. Integration efforts during FY 1994 also included 

analyses of structural loads; resolution of in-flight anomalies, waivers, and changes; and software development and 

testing for the control of each mission. To support the 

international Space Station mission requirements, NASA 

has initiated efforts to identify, develop, and baseline Shuttle 

performance enhancements. Engineers have developed 

20 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
systems integration plans to ensure their orderly implementation into the Space Shuttle program. Analyses were under 

way at the end of the year to ensure the compatibility of 

design modifications to the external tank, main engine, solid 

rocket boosters, and the orbiter itself. Engineers have 

specified design analyses and test requirements to provide 

definition of flight margins. All of the enhancements have 

been specified in support of the first international Space 

Station assembly flight scheduled for December 1997. 

During 1994, the Space Shuttle ground processing 

team at KSC achieved several innovations and enhancements that increased efficiency, improved scheduling, and 

reduced costs. A reliability-centered maintenance program 

continually adjusted procedures based on actual performance data and operational experience. An integrated work 

control system, still under development, has already streamlined and automated work control functions related to more 

than 10.000 major tasks performed in preparing an orbiter’s 

22 major systems for flight. It has prestaged work packages, 

provided automated notification of needs for parts and 

material, and thereby reduced the number of tasks experiencing holds. Another improvement in ground processing 

involves selecting a team leader from a work unit, training 

him or her, and defining the responsibilities and authority for 

processing tasks from planning to completion. This enables 

problems to be resolved at the lowest operational level while 

providing structure and cohesiveness to the effort. The task 

team leader concept has enhanced Shuttle processing, facilitated teamwork, minimized delays, and improved quality. 

More than 4,400 NASA and contractor personnel have 

received training in this concept, which has been employed 

successfully in all areas of the operation. 

Single Stage Rocket Technology (SSRT) 

The BMDO remained the contracting agent for the 

SSRT program with the objective of demonstrating aircraftlike operations and supportability for future SingIe-StageTo-Orbit (SSTO) launch vehicles, as well as relevant vehicle maneuvers scalable to a prototype vertical take off/ 

vertical landing, SSTO vehicle. If successfully developed, 

such a vehicle could reduce the cost of launching payloads 

by an order of magnitude. McDonnell Douglas’ Delta 

Clipper-Experimental (DC-X) has become the first working, one-third scale demonstration vehicle for this concept. 

Congress allocated $40 million in FY 1994 funds for reusable rocket technologies, of which $5.1 million were identified for completing the DC-X flight series (flights 4-8). The 

fourth flight occurred on June 20, 1994. at White Sands 

Missile Range, It demonstrated 100-percent engine thrust 

for the first time, use of the radar altimeter in the vertical 

control loop, and a relatively constant translation vehicle 

movement of 70 degrees relative to the ground. On the fifth 

flight test 7 days later, a hydrogen explosion outside the 

vehicle at liftoff ripped a hole in the aeroshell, causing an 

unplanned demonstration of the DC-X’s auto-land mode. 

The vehicle successfully landed after 78 seconds of flight 

time and an achieved altitude of 2,600 feet. The explosion 

was due to vented hydrogen collecting near the-vehicle. A 

modification to ground systems will prevent the recurrence 

of this problem. Funding to complete the flight tests was 

reallocated to repairing the vehicle. The DC-X was shipped 

back to the McDonnell Douglas facility in Huntington 

Beach, California, where the aeroshell and several other 

subsystems were being repaired as the fiscal year ended. The 

vehicle was expected to be repaired by the end of November 

1994 and ready for reflight soon thereafter. Congress has 

directed that funding be allocated to cover the remaining 

flight test program. The DC-X is expected to be transferred 

to the Air Force’s Phillips Laboratory from the BMDO in 

January 1995 for completion of the DC-X flight series. 

Ultimately, NASA will inherit the program and has indicated a keen interest in completing the flight test program to 

demonstrate low-and high-altitude rotation maneuvers necessary for reentry of a prototype vertical take offhertical 

landing SSTO vehicle. This rotation maneuver data, as well 

as additional information gained on vehicle ground operations and supportability, will be used by NASA (with the 

DoD in a supporting role) in selecting a candidate concept 

for the advanced technology demonstration for reusable 

rocket technology. 

In this connection, during FY’s 1993 and 1994 NASA 

conducted a comprehensive in-house study of alternative 

approaches for ensuring access to space in the 2000 to 2030 

timeframe. The goal was to reduce the cost of access to space 

and to increase the reliability and operability of the launch 

systems. More specifically, the study sought to identify the 

best vehicles and architectures to make major reductions in 

the cost of space transportation (at least 50 percent), while 

increasing safety for crews by at least an order of magnitude. 

The study concluded that the preferred option was to develop 

and deploy a fully reusable, SSTO pure rocket launch fleet 

incorporating advanced technologies. This class of vehicle 

had by far the lowest annual operating costs and lowest life21 1995 
cycle costs of all options (including upgrading the Space 

Shuttle and ELV’s). Relatively recent advances in technology make such a vehicle feasible and practical in the near 

term, assuming those technologies mature and are demonstrated before vehicle development begins. The study recommended a new vehicle as a NASA goal because it would 

result in an 80-percent reduction in annual and single-flight 

costs as well as provide a highly reliable, safe, and operationally efficient capability. Major changes in acquisitions and 

operations practices as well as Agency culture would be 

necessary for realizing these economies. The recommendations of this study contributed to the National Space Transportation Policy crafted by the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), signed by the President, and issued 

on August 5, 1994 (see appendix F-6 of this report). The 

policy assigns NASA lead responsibility to pursue thedevelopment of reusable launch vehicles, such as the SSTO 

concept, with a decision on whether to proceed with a largescale flight test vehicle to be made by December 1996. 

Other Launch Systems 

ARPA’s space launch activities expanded significantly in FY 1994 in response to congressional interest in 

alternative and innovative approaches to development and 

demonstration of directed technologies. ARPA funding, for 

example, went to the BMDO for the DC-X flight tests. Two 

ARPA programs were for Reusable Space Launch Technologies and Innovative Space Technologies Development. 

In both programs, ARPA planned to exploit the identification, development, and demonstration of technologies pnmarily available from industry through the use of Broad 

Area Announcement solicitations. These permitted ARPA 

to use the full array of its contractual options and provided 

a means to accommodate the personnel skills and unique 

facilities of Government laboratories, such as the Air Force’s 

Phillips Laboratory (New Mexico), which used ARPA funding to support competitive advanced propulsion systems. 

The Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) continued to be the 

most accurate upper stage in the Air Force inventory. The 

Air Force has used the IUS to deliver the DSP spacecraft 

from low-Earth orbit at about 150 nautical miles, after two 

different burns of the IUS solid stages, to geosynchronous 

orbit at more than 22,000 nautical miles. The Air Force 

plans for the IUS to continue to support the DSP into the next 

century. Additionally, NASA and Boeing entered into a 

separate production contract for one additional IUS in support of NASA’s Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

(AXAF) to be launched around the end of the century. 

The Taurus standard small launch vehicle, developed 

by Orbital Sciences Corporation and ARPA, was successful 

on its maiden mission from Vandenberg AFB on March 13, 

1994. This first Taurus launch flawlessly placed two advanced technology satellites, the Air Force STEP-0, also 

referred to as STEP-TAOS (Technology for Autonomous 

Operational Survivability), and ARPA’s own DARPASAT 

(referring to ARPA’s former name as the Defense Advanced 

Research Project Agency), into a 290-nautical-mile, 105- 

degree-inclination orbit. The Taurus launch vehicle capitalized on ARPA’s previous investment in the Pegasus airlaunched vehicle to produce a fully transportable, groundlaunched rocket capable of providing rapid, affordable access to space for moderate-sized satellites. Taurus is a fourstage, solid propellant, inertially guided rocket consisting of 

a Peacekeeper first stage motor and modified Pegasus motors for the upper three stages. With ARPA providing only 

a 38-foot square cement pad, the Taurus program demonstrated the ability to establish a launch site, integrate the 

launch vehicleand payloads, and conduct countdown operations in 200 work hours using a crew of about 30 people 

without any support from a permanent infrastructure. 

The 400-pound DARPASAT-developed by Ball Aerospace Corporation for ARPA and launched on March 13, 

1994-underwent demonstration operations during the rest 

of the fiscal year, successfully performing its classified 

mission in support of worldwide deployed, joint military 

forces. The goals of the DARPASAT program during its 3- 

year mission are to demonstrate a low-cost, classified space 

capability, validate advanced technologies, and assess the 

operational utility of direct user tasking and collection of 

payload data. The successful launch of Taurus and demonstration of DARPASAT mark the culmination of ARPA’s 

advanced space technology program. Over the past 4 years, 

ARPA had developed technologies aimed at achieving affordable production, launch, and operation of future DoD 

civil and commercial satellites and launch systems. 

With the launch of two Navstar Global Positioning 

System satellites into orbit on October 26, 1993, and March 

9, 1994, the Air Force completed the 24-satellite GPS 

constellation. Already in December 1993, the Secretary of 

Defense declared that initial operational capability had been 

achieved for civil use of the Air Force-managed GPS. The 

22 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
October and March launch of Block HA satellites provided 

the required assets available for declaration of full military 

operational capability. Initial operational testing and evaluation of the full constellation was wrapping up at the end of 

the fiscal year and an actual declaration of full military 

operational capability was on track for the second quarter of 

FY 1995. Meanwhile, the FAA certified various types of 

GPS receivers for use in all phases of flight, including 

nonprecision approaches. On June 30, 1994. the FAA 

approved the first GPS nonprecision approach procedure for 

use by helicopters. In another milestone, on July 16, 1994, 

FAA Administrator David Hinson and Aircraft Owners and 

Pilots Association President Phil Boyer landed at the 

Frederick, Maryland, airport using the first FAA-approved 

public “stand-alone” GPS instrument approach for aircraft. 

The agency also issued specifications for manufacturers that 

wishto buildGPS receivers for Category Iprecision approaches, which involve a runway visual range of not less than 

1,800 feet. The FAA continued to work with NASA to use 

GPS to satisfy Category I1 and I11 precision approach requirements, for use in conditions of more limited visibility 

than Category I. In addition, the FAA issued a Request For 

Proposals (RFP) for a wide area augmentation system, a 

network of ground stations and communications systems 

that will enhance the integrity and availability of GPS 

signals. The RFP is for a 6-year contract to develop an initial 

system of 24 ground reference stations and ground and 

satellite communications systems. Also during the fiscal 

year, the FAA worked with the International Civil Aviation 

Organization (ICAO) to promote the benefits of a worldwide 

Global Navigation Satellite System. 

In related developments, the Department of the Interior 

(Dol) signed a memorandum of understanding with the DoD 

in 1994 that permits the Do1 to use the Navstar GPS Precise 

Positioning Service. This agreement will provide more 

accurate, real-time, on-the-ground geographic location information (accurate to approximately 10 meters horizontally) than was previously available to Do1 field personnel in 

support of mapping, inventory, monitoring, and research 

activities related to natural and cultural resources. The 

agreement permits Do1 users to purchase and use precision, 

lightweight GPS receivers to access the encrypted DoD code 

for GPS data. The staff of the National Biological Survey is 

supporting this activity, working through the Interior Geographic Data Committee Remote Sensing Working Group, 

which coordinates remote sensing and GPS activities within 

the DoI. 

The Defense Support Program (DSP) provided a 

highly available, survivable, space-based surveillance system to detect and report missile and space launches as well 

as nuclear detonations in near real time for the National 

Command Authorities and theater commanders. The most 

recent launch on May 3, 1994, of the 17th DSP satellite will 

provide the DoD withenhanced missile warning and surveillance capabilities. The DSP system consists of a constellation of satellites in geostationary orbits. fixed and mobile 

ground processing stations, one multipurpose facility, and a 

ground communications network. In this connection. the 

Army’s Joint Tactical Ground Station (JTAGS) program 

supports the Theater Missile Defense architecture by providing timely reports on tactical ballistic missile launches. It 

does this by processing in-theater, infrared data downlinked 

directly from DSP sensors to the theater commander, resolving a major deficiency identified in Operation Desert Storm. 

The ability of JTAGS to process and disseminate data within 

theater minimizes the risk of single-point operation failures, 

provides improved reporting time lines, and minimizes the 

loading on high-priority communications links between the 

Continental United States and the theater user. The JTAGS 

system is scheduled for fielding during 1996- 1997. (For the 

most recent follow-on program to DSP, see below under 

Brilliant Eyes and SBIRS [Space-Based Infrared Systems] 

in the glossary.) 

The highly successful NRL and BMDO effort to launch 

the Clementine Deep Space Probe in January from 

Vandenberg AFB had as its primary mission the testing in 

space of 23 advanced technologies for high-tech, lightweight missile defense. The newly developed Clementine 

hardware-none of it dating back before 1990-included a 

common-pressure-vessel nickel hydrogen (NiH,) battery; 

lightweight imaging sensors; a high-capacity, solid-state 

data recorder; lightweight inertial measurement units; solar 

cells; momentum wheels; a reduced-information-set computer for onboard processing; composite materials; new 

near-infrared, long-wavelength infrared, ultraviolet-visible, 

and high-resolution imaging sensors; two startrackers; a 

laser altimeter; and software language. The testing of these 

technologies for possible use in BMDO sensors and interceptors used the Moon as a “target.” In addition, 

Clementine’s interstage adaptor included several new CMOS 

(Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) electronic 

chips and advanced sensor materials for radiation testing. 

Clementine’s secondary mission to perform an asteroid 

flyby of Geographos was canceled in May 1994 because of 

1995 23 
a software error on the satellite that resulted in the loss of the 

entire propellant store of the attitude control system. The 

new technologies onboard Clementine continued to function as designed, although communications were lost in July 

1994 because of battery depletion as the satellite turned 

away from the Sun. Mission operators expect the link to be 

restored in January 1995 as the solar arrays again assume a 

position permitting recharge of the batteries. Meanwhile, 

Clementine remained in orbit around the Earth, constituting 

a major revolution in spacecraft management and design. 

Conceived, built, and launched in 22 months, it cost only $55 

million for the spacecraft, $19 million for the launch vehicle 

(a Titan IIG), and $6 million more for launch operationsa total of roughly $80 million. 

The STEP-TAOS satellite launched on March 13, 

1994, from Vandenberg AFB, California, was demonstrating and validating state-of-the-art spacecraft technologies to 

ensure autonomy and survivability in an operational space 

environment as the fiscal year ended. Future spacecraft 

using this technology will experience decreased dependence 

on ground control andcommunication sites and autonomous 

spacecraft guidance, control, and navigation. The satellite 

continued to function successfully as the fiscal year ended. 

The STEP-2 satellite, launched from Edwards AFB on 

May 19, 1994, identified and detected unique transmissions 

in a special environment, crowded with signals. The purpose 

of this effort was to evaluate unusual detection techniques so 

as to separate adjacent, overlapping cochannel communications transmitted at a low signal level. The need for this 

technology is especially great where deliberate cochannel 

programmer interference is present. Like STEP-TAOS, 

STEP-2 was operating successfully at the end of the fiscal 

year. 

Another successful satellite program for the DoD was 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration (MSTI), with 

the Air Force’s Phillips Laboratory serving as the execution 

agent for the BMDO in implementing it. MSTI’s goals 

include proving miniaturized sensor and seeker technologies to support low-Earth-orbit satellite and other platform 

applications for ballistic missile launch detection and dual 

use for environrnentaUecologica1 monitoring. The launch of 

the second MSTI satellite (MSTI-2)-by the last Scout 

rocket on May 8,1994-into a425-kilometer, Sun-synchronous orbit led to highly successful performance until September 5, 1994, when an apparent transmitter failure left the 

satellite unable to communicate. During the 4 months of its 

planned 6-month operational lifetime, the satellite’s shortand mid-wave infrared sensorscollected more than 3 million 

images that were still undergoing analysis at the end of the 

fiscal year. MSTI-2 also participated in ballistic missile 

defense tracking exercises and proved the concept of relaying on-orbit missile tracking directly and in real time to a 

U.S. Navy cruiser, the U.S.S. R. K. Turner. MSTI-2 imagery 

also contributed to dual-use efforts-in particular, studies of 

volcanicactivity inChile inconjunction with thesmithsonian 

Institution’s Global Vulcanism Network. As the fiscal year 

ended, the imagery was being analyzed to determine the 

phenomenology of infrared-background clutter in support 

of future, space-based infrared sensors for viewjng the 

Earth--especially those to detect ballistic missile launches. 

MSTI-I and -2 have proven the concept of the common, 

highly capable spacecraft bus. MSTI-3, with its bus built by 

Spectrum Astro and its payload by Science Applications 

International Corporation, has been transferred to the Air 

Force Space and Missile Center, Los Angeles, California, 

and was scheduled for launch in late 1995 or early 1996. 

The BMDO’s Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) 

program completed final assembly of the MSX satellite by 

Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory 

(JHU/APL) in June 1994. The principal purpose of the 

satellite will be to collect phenomenological data in support 

of ballistic missile defense objectives. The five instruments 

on the satellite-an infrared imaging radiometer and spectrometer built by the Space Dynamics Laboratory of Utah 

State University; four ultraviolet and visible and five spectrographic imagers built by JHU/APL; a space-based visible 

surveillance camera constructed by Lincoln Laboratory at 

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); an onboard signal and data processor from Hughes Aircraft; and 

semiconductor devices for monitoring radiation effects from 

Hughes-will not only collect several terabytes of highquality data on ballistic missile-type targets and other objects in space but will also serve as a potential collector of 

data on a variety of civilian scientific objectives in atmospheric remote sensing and astronomy, including measurements of the ozone layer and greenhouse gases. As a result, 

NASA scientists have been active participants in planning 

the MSX’s experiments, a process nearing completion at the 

end of the fiscal year. Goddard Space Flight Center, in 

Greenbelt, Maryland, carried out the successful 

thermovacuum, acoustic, and pyroshock testing of the satellite, and it was shipped in September to Vandenberg AFB, 

California. for a projected launch by a McDonnell Douglas 

commercial Delta II in early 1995. 

24 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
On June 17, 1994, an Ariane 44LP launched BMDO 

experiments onboard two microsatellites4pace Technology Research Vehicle-1A and -1Bdeveloped by the 

Defense Research Agency of the United Kingdom. 

(STRV-IA and - IB were secondary payloads on a mission 

to launch INTELSAT 702.) The experiments performed 

well, with data from an adaptive-structures vibration-suppression experiment showing that this technology could 

reduce the motion of critical sensors by a factor of 100 in 

space, equalling ground laboratory test results. This positive 

result generated considerable interest from scientists and 

engineers who require highly stable platforms for space 

experiments and platforms. A radiation monitor experiment 

has been gathering data on levels of radiation encountered by 

the spacecraft as it traverses the Earth’s trapped radiation 

belts. These data will be correlated with data obtained by 

other radiation sensors on both microsatellites. The performance of the neural network and silicon infrared sensor was 

being monitored as the radiation dose it received was increasing. 

In an unrelateddevelopment, on May 5, 1994, the White 

House announced that, on the recommendation of the 

President’s National Performance Review, NOAA was joining with NASA and the DoD to effect the convergence of 

civil and military Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental 

Satellite (POES) systems into a single operational program 

(see appendix F-3). Specifically, the systems converged 

were the DoD’s follow-on DMSP Block-6 and NOAA’s 

follow-on O/P/Q satellites, with the first converged spacecraft planned for launch in the2006 timeframe. The program 

will employ an integrated management approach, whereby 

each agency will provide the expertise for a lead role in one 

or more of four functional areas, and technical personnel will 

form triagency teams performing each function. Under the 

directive, NOAA has leadagency responsibility toatriagency 

executive committee for the converged system, for supporting the Integrated Program Office (PO) for satellite operations, and for relations with national and international civilian users of the system. The DoD has lead agency responsibility to support the PO for the program’s acquisitions and 

launch and systems integration. NASA has lead agency 

responsibility to support the PO in facilitating the development and incorporation of new, cost-effective technologies 

that will enhance the capabilities of the converged system. 

The new system is expected to reduce duplication of efforts 

in meeting common requirements while satisfying the unique 

requirements of the civil and national security communities. 

The converged system will continue the open distribution of 

environmental data and accommodate international cooperation. Key European partners-the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

(EUMETSAT), with involvement as appropriate of ESAhave been invited to consider ajoint polar system taking into 

account, on the U.S. side, the converged U.S. system. This 

complements longstanding plans by NOAA and EUMETSAT 

to exchange instrumentation for flight on meteorological 

operational satellites. 

Meanwhile, following the loss of Landsat-6 in October 

1993, NOAA continued to rely on Landsat-5, in operation 

since 1984. The Landsat series has provided regularobservations of the surface of the Earth for two decades, monitoring renewable and nonrenewable resources. Landsat data 

applications support programs such as global change research, coastal zone monitoring, timber management, regional planning, and environmental monitoring. On May 

IO, 1994, the White House announced the Landsat Remote 

Sensing Strategy (see appendix F-4), which provides for 

continuity of existing Landsat and future Landsat-type data. 

The strategy assigned Landsat-7 program responsibilities 

jointly to NASA, NOAA, and the Do1 (USGS). NASA 

assumed the satellite-development responsibilities for 

Landsat-7 from the DoD. NASA and NOAA will jointly 

develop the ground system, which NOAA will operate in 

cooperation with the USGS. The Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center of the USGS will continue 

to be responsible for maintaining Government archives of 

Landsat and other land-related remote-sensing data. 

Landsat-7, planned for launch in December 1998, will carry 

an improved Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM-Plus). 

The successful April 13, 1994, launch of Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)-I, renamed 

GOES-8 once it achieved orbit, resulted in more precise and 

timely weather observation and provision of data on the 

atmosphere. Its design, featuring three-axis stabilization, 

permits the satellite’s sensors to observe the Earth continuously, compared to only 5 percent of the time for current 

spin-stabilized satellites. The first in a series of five advanced weather satellites to be launched over the next 

several years, GOES-8 was checked out and fine-tuned by 

NASA for 6 months after launch. Thus, NOAA did not 

obtain control over the satellite until after the end of the fiscal 

year. During checkout, the satellite was positioned at 

longitude 90’ W., but plans called for it to be moved to 

longitude75.W. onceitbecameoperational andforGOES-7, 

25 1995 
still operational seven years after launch, to move from 

longitude 112’ W. to longitude 135’ W. so the twosatellites 

together could provide continuous coverage of the Western 

Hemisphere. NASA, which procures launches and checkouts for the GOES series of satellites and manages their 

design, development, and launch, planned to launch GOESJ in 1995 to replaceGOES-7, which has already exceeded its 

expected lifetime. NOAA is responsible for the operations, 

including command and control, data receipt, and product 

generation and distribution for the satellites. 

In a totally different area, NOAA announced at the 

beginning of the calendar year that two new ground stations 

had been added to the network of satellite search and rescue 

facilities throughout the United States. Located in Guam 

and Puerto Rico. they were the final of six new, fully 

automated installations designed to upgrade the satellite 

search and rescue system, which helps to bring emergency 

assistance to mariners, ground-based users, and pilots in 

distress. The stations and four others installed in the United 

States over the preceding year and a half are part of an 

international satellite search and rescue system known as 

COSPAS-SARSAT (from a Russian acronym meaning 

Space System for Search of Vessels in Distress and an 

English one for Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking 

System). The system enables distress signals from ships or 

airplanes to be received and processed more quickly than 

before. It uses a total of six NOAA environmental satellites 

and Russian navigational satellites, plus a network of ground 

stations to pick up radio and beacon signals from the distressed individuals and send them via mission control centers such as NOAA’s in Suitland, Maryland, to rescue 

coordination centers. Since the inception of the system in 

1982. a total of 43 10 lives had been saved as of September 

30, 1994--960 of them during calendar year 1993. 

The Small Expendable Tether Deployable System-2 

(SEDS-2), conceived and designed by the SAO, was a 

secondary payload on a Delta I1 rocket launched at 10:40 

p.m. EST on March 9, 1994, from Cape Canaveral AFS, 

Florida. At a length of nearly 20 kilometers, it was the 

longest object ever placed in space. At 11:45 pm., the 

Delta’s second stage ejected the 23-kilogram SEDS-2, using 

a spring-loaded device. The minisatellite reached a final 

deployed length of 19.8 kilometers in just 1 hour48 minutes, 

achieving the primary purpose of the experiment, to suspend 

such a payload with a minimum of swing. Thereafter, 

SEDS-2 remained in space to determine the resistance of its 

braided polyethelene to micrometeoroids, space debris, and 

atomic oxygen. The tether apparently was severed by a 

micrometeoroid (or debris) on March 15. Thereafter, the end 

of the tether reentered the upper atmosphere and burned, 

while about IO to 12 kilometers of its length remained 

attached to the rocket’s second stage and continued orbiting 

until May 8, 1994. This marked the third SAO-developed 

tether launched within the past year, each on time and with 

an increasingly ambitious goal. 

One of the Department of Energy’s responsibilities is 

providing spaceborne sensors to scan for above-ground 

(and above-water) nuclearexplosions. Such sensors, aboard 

GPS and DSP satellites, verify nations’ compliance with 

nuclear test ban treaties, monitor nuclear proliferation, and 

meet military needs in the event of a nuclear attack. These 

specialized sensors satisfy national requirements for detection, identification, location. and characterization of nuclear 

detonations anywhere within the Earth’s atmosphere or in 

near-Earth space. From its beginnings in the 1960’s. this 

program has been a joint effort of the DOE and the DoD. 

Development, design, and production ofthe instrumentation 

for detecting nuclear explosions are the responsibility of the 

DOE, while the rest of the satellite hardware, launch, telemetry, and day-to-day operations are the responsibilities of the 

DoD, which also has the overall coordination and scheduling role. The DoD and the DOE have shared in special 

operations and in the use and interpretation of data. 

Los Alamos National Laboratory’s Blackbeard radio 

frequency experiment, piggybacked aboard the ALEXIS 

satellite launched last year, is continuing to monitor mysterious twin-pulsed radio bursts. The bursts mimic emissions 

from nuclear detonations. Los Alamos stated that these 

events are associated with thunderstorms but not caused by 

lightning. Los Alamos has set up two ground stations on its 

premises to attempt to record the events at the same time that 

the Blackbeard equipment does. 

Space Station 

Fiscal year 1994 was a time of tremendous accomplishment for the international Space Station program. In 

October 1993, the program formally developed an initial set 

of specifications, including Russian elements as part of the 

design. In December 1993, the original 12 participating 

nations in Space Station Freedom (the United States, Canada, 

Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, France, 

Spain, Germany, United Kingdom, and Japan) extended an 

official invitation to Russia to join the partnership, and 

26 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Russia accepted. The existing ShuttleMir program was 

then expanded and made Phase I of the international Space 

Station program. In February 1994, the Phase I activity 

officially began when Sergei Krikalev became the first 

Russian to fly on the Space Shuttle. NASA astronauts 

Bonnie Dunbar and Norm Thagard have been training to fly 

on the Mir space station since March 1994 at the Russian 

Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City. The first American 

was scheduled to be launched on a Russian spacecraft to Mir 

in March 1995. All of the international Space Station 

program partners took part in a successful systems design 

review at Johnson Space Center (JSC), Texas, in March 

1994. On June 23, 1994, NASA Administrator Daniel S. 

Goldin and Russian Space Agency (RSA) Director General 

Yuri N. Koptev signed a NASA/RSA interim agreement on 

Space Station and a $400 million contract. The agreement 

permits Russian participation in joint program management 

bodies, and the contract covers Russian provision of hardware and data in the program’s early phases (primarily for 

Shuttle-Mir activities). Additionally, on August 3 1, 1994, 

NASA and the Boeing Company signed a memorandum of 

agreement that defined the content and maximum cost of the 

prime contract, scheduled for signature by late 1994. Also 

during August, the program completed a vehicle architecture review. Finally, on September 28, 1994, the Space 

Station Control Board examined the vehicle architecture 

review and ratified its recommended modifications to the 

assembly sequence and element requirements for the Space 

Station. 

The redesign of the Space Station that resulted from 

these activities preserved the best of the previous Space 

Station Freedom program’s hardware and capability, while 

adding increased research capability and user flexibility. 

The new international Space Station costs $5 billion less 

than Freedom. It has adopted a streamlined management 

structure and significantly reduced the number of civil 

service personnel and contractors assigned to the program. 

It includes an integrated product team approach, using the 

skills of the civil service workforce to develop a number of 

Station elements more economically and efficiently, saving 

millions of dollars in the process. Furthermore, Russian 

cooperation has added greater capability to the international 

Space Station and further reduced U.S. costs, making the 

Station an important aspect in the new and evolving relationship between the two countries. To date, the program has 

produced 26,700 pounds of Space Station hardware-almost 2,000 pounds more than projected. There has been a 

number of successful technical interchange meetings with 

the Russians, and Russia has begun delivery of items called 

for in the contract signed in June. Before the end of the fiscal 

year, a NASA liaison team was in place in Moscow, and 

NASA was working with the Russians to get their liaison 

office established in Houston. At a technical interchange 

meeting in August 1994, NASA and RSA agreed on a 

number of important integration and operations issues, such 

as how command and control orders would be sent to the 

Space Station. Joint management team discussions in Moscow the following month continued and expanded these 

efforts, resulting in agreement on matters necessary for 

working together, such as the use of English as the common 

language. 

Meanwhile, the new Canadian government recently 

reaffirmed support for the international Space Station. Canada 

has been restructuring government spending to reduce its 

debt. In the face of difficult budget decisions, the Canadian 

government has continued to recognize its responsibility for 

developing the Mobile Servicing System, which will provide external Space Station robotics. Canada also planned 

to develop the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator for 

more delicate robotic operations. ESA has continued to 

develop the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF-a pressurized laboratory) and laboratory support equipment for early 

scientific use. ESA has also been developing the Ariane V 

launch vehicle and associated transfer vehicles; as FY 1994 

ended, it was involved in discussions with NASA on a 

possible role for these vehicles in Space Station logistics 

resupply. ESA conducted a design-to-cost exercise on the 

COF, coordinating the technical and management changes 

closely with NASA. The Europeans have expressed interest 

in examining the possibilities for providing a crew rescue 

vehicle and also an automated transfer vehicle, which would 

provide propellant resupply and reboost. Japan has been 

developing the Japanese Experiment Module (EM), consisting of a multipurpose pressurized laboratory element, an 

unpressurized exposed facility, a remote manipulator system, and experiments logistics modules. Japan’s Space 

Station program has been making steady progress, with 63 

percent of its development funds contracted out. 

Energy 

To date, the United States has successfully employed 37 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG’s) on more 

than 20 spacecraft launches. An RTG is a device without 

1995 27 
moving parts that converts the heat from the decay of the 

radioisotope Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) into electricity. RTG’s 

have shown the flexibility and ability to operate beyond 

specified mission lifetimes demanded by a variety of space 

missions. For instance, the multihundred-watt RTG on the 

Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977, has continued to 

operate as it has traveled beyond Neptune into space. The 

DOE has developed a new model RTG with a more efficient 

fuel design called the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS). 

The GPHS-RTG operated successfully on the Galileo and 

Ulysses missions, launched in 1989 and 1990, respectively. 

DOE program activities in 1994 focused on production of 

both GPHS components and GPHS-RTG thermoelectric 

converters to meet the requirements for power of the Cassini 

mission to Saturn, scheduled for a 1997 launch. The Savannah River Plant in South Carolina processed the majority of 

the Pu-238 needed to fuel the three new RTG’s. In 1994, Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee completed production of all the iridium parts that will be used to encapsulate 

the Pu-238 fuel. Los Alamos National Laboratory, New 

Mexico, pressed the initial flight pellets of Pu-238 and 

welded these pellets into the iridium capsules. The agency 

will release the preliminary safety analysis report in late 

1994. The Mound Plant of EG&G Mound Applied Technologies in Miamisburg, Ohio, was proceeding according to 

plan with RTG assembly preparation activities as the fiscal 

year ended. The prime system contractor, Martin Marietta 

Astrospace, completed the production of all thermoelectric 

elements for all three RTG’s during the year, and fabrication 

activities on other portions of the RTG’s remained on 

schedule. The DOE also developed new conceptual designs 

for smaller and lighter-weight RTG’s for the Pluto Fast 

Flyby mission, whose specifications call for it to be powered 

by RTG’s. Later in 1994, the DOE will issue a comprehensive report responding to a General Accounting Office 

inquiry regarding the long-term production capability of 

RTG’s. DOE intends to retain its unique capabilities to 

provide special nuclear power sources for other agencies’ 

needs. 

The DOE has continued to pursue advanced converter 

technologies in support of other agency needs. In 1994, the 

DOE fabricated 6 special heat sources that will be used in a 

dynamic Stirling generator capable of producing 10 watts of 

electricity for several years. Successful testing of the Stirling 

generator with an electrically heated unit in 1994 demonstrated a system efficiency of more than 20 percent. This 

compares very favorably with the approximate 7 percent 

efficiency of the present RTG’s. The DOE was also investigating the viability of the Thermo Photovoltaic (TPV) 

conversion technology as the year ended; TPV uses proven 

solar cell technology with a shift in spectrum. In 1994, 

engineering tests demonstrated an efficiency of 13 percent 

with existing hardware; hardware optimization is expected 

to result in efficiencies in the range of 20 percent or more. 

The DOE supported the Air Force during FY 1994 in 

conducting preliminary assessments of concepts for space 

reactor systems that would produce both power and propulsion for spacecraft in the DoE/Air Force Bimodal Power 

and Propulsion Program. A primary objective of these 

preliminary assessments was to determine whether nuclear 

bimodal (power and propulsion) systems could satisfy 

requirements while enabling the launch of large payloads on 

smaller, less costly launch vehicles and at the same time 

increase maneuverability of the satellite on orbit. The Air 

Force determined that several nuclear bimodal system concepts may be feasible and during FY 1995 will generate 

preliminary conceptual designs for further evaluation. The 

DOE also supported the Air Force with some of its termination activities on the Space Nuclear Propulsion Program. 

The SP-100 Space Reactor Power System program 

was terminated in FY 1994. Initiated in 1983 as aDoE, DoD, 

and NASA program to develop space reactor power in the 

IO’S to 100’s of kilowatts of electrical (kWe) power for 

emerging civil and military missions in the 1990s and the 

next century, the SP-100 featured a fast reactor design of 

high-temperature refractory niobium alloys with uranium 

nitride ceramic fuel. The reactor was to be cooled by a set 

of pumped liquid metal (lithium) loops to transport heat to 

solid-state thermoelectric-power conversion packages. The 

DOE archived data from the program in its Office of Science 

and Technical Information for future applications. In addition, the DOE and the JPL in California have initiated an 

effort to transfer to industry the technologies developed 

under the SP-100 program. A sampling of those technologies includes self-lubricating bearings, heat pipes, hightemperature electric motors, thermoelectric power converters, techniques for bonding brittle materials to metals, and a 

device to separate gases from liquids. More than 150 

companies have shown an interest in applications, ranging 

from ball bearings for the Space Shuttle to electric motors for 

aircraft actuators and to the use of the gas-separator concept 

to remove gases from liquids in the manufacture of syrup for 

soft drinks. 

Progress has continued on in-core Thermionic Space 

Nuclear Power Systems. The Thermionic Space Nuclear 

Power System Design and Technology Development pro28 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
gram began in 1992 under the sponsor-ship of the DOE, the 

BMDO, and the Air Force’s Phillips Laboratory. Funding 

constraints in 1994 limited progress to technical development of key technologies and critical components identified 

from early design efforts for a thermionic reactor system 

meeting mission requirements in the range of 5 to 40 kWe. 

Industrial contractors under this program have subcontracts 

with Russian entities that have allowed Russian expertise 

and facilities to be integrated into the 1994 activities of this 

program. 

The Thermionic Fuel Element Verification Program 

(TFEVP) was terminated in FY 1994. During the year, 

TFEVP focused on closing out the program activities and 

completing final reports. The post-irradiation examinations 

of the TFE test articles and components will continue into 

FY 1995. 

During 1994, the DOE sponsored a number of studies to 

assess how nuclear power and propulsion systems might 

enhance and reduce the cost of space operations. These 

studies included the evaluation of power options for highpower communications satellites; the potential of a reusable 

space tug to reduce the cost of space operations and increase 

the payload capabilities of existing launch vehicles; and the 

benefits that increased power could provide for outer-planet, 

robotic science missions. In FY 1994, the DOE also continued, at a limited level, nuclear studies to advance knowledge that might be required for future space and terrestrial 

nuclear power applications. Work to be accomplished next 

year under several awards issued by the DOE in 1994 

includes technical research and testing of thermionic-related 

technologies and fuels, space reactor applications, and facility/ground-testing issues related to safety and environmental containment. A few of the grant awardees have subcontracts with Russian entities that will promote the transfer of 

Russian space-power technology to U.S. industry. 

Safety and Mission Assurance 

The eight successful and one aborted Shuttle launches 

during FY 1994 were all a testimony to NASA’s safety 

procedures. The successful engine shutdown on the launch 

pad during the attempted launch of Endeavour on August 18, 

1994, followed an engine temperature that exceeded the redline launch commit criteria. Once the engine was replaced, 

Endeavour flew successfully on September 30. During the 

year, NASA also developed a model of the risk associated 

with the Shuttle systems and subsystems to determine which 

investments in new technology will bring the largest returns 

in terms of safety and reliability for Shuttle missions. More 

generally, NASAcontinuedduring FY 1994 toexplore more 

efficient ways of assessing and managing risk, targeting 

specific areas of individual programs where the reward is 

greatest. The Agency applied this program in FY 1994 to the 

Small Satellite Technology Initiatives, identifying mission 

success criteria and ensuring that there was adequate definition of risks to performance. cost, and schedule. Workshops 

on the cost of quality have provided another tool for project 

managers to use in improving overall performance at reduced cost. NASA’s Office of Safety and Mission Assurance has also been leading an Agency-wide evaluation of a 

National Performance Review reinvention laboratory, eliminating bureaucracy and empowering people to provide more 

effective reviews of safety, reliability, and quality assurance 

processes at the field installation level. NASA has also 

begun a transition to apply the 9000 series of generic quality 

management standards of the International Organization for 

Standardization to products from NASA’s suppliers. Additionally, NASA established an independent assessment function at JSC in Houston for the international Space Station to 

ensure that safety, reliability, and quality assurance were 

being fully implemented. An assessment panel from major 

Centers, contractors, and international partner representatives was chartered and began meeting quarterly to this end. 

In other areas, NASA assisted in the remediation of the 

earthquake on January 17, 1994, at Northridge, California. 

By coordinating the efforts of the Ames Research Center and 

its aerial surveillance aircraft (C-130 and ER-2) to collect 

and disseminate aerial photographs of the area around 

Northridge, the Agency was able to provide information to 

the Federal Emergency Management Agency that helped 

minimize the effects of the earthquake. Other safety efforts 

included a planned space flight demonstration of an interferometric, fiber optic gyroscope with improved reliability 

over mechanical systems; guidance and reference documentation in pyrotechnic devices, including a laser-initiated 

system to enhance launch vehicle safety; technology such as 

optically stimulated electron emission sensors and automatic optical scanners that provide early identification of 

defects; and advanced wiring systems for safe flight operations. NASA issued a new safety standard on an interim 

basis to incorporate software into the Agency’s overall 

approach to safety engineering. Relatedly, the NASA Software Independent Verification and Validation Facility opened 

this year in West Virginia. There, software experts from 

NASA, industry, and the academic community began working to improve software processes for such projects as the 

1995 29 
international Space Station, remote sensing applications, 

and software reuse for NASA and the DoD. 

Other Space Technology 

Also during FY 1994, the BMDO’s Space and Missile 

Tracking System (Brilliant Eyes) was slowed due to funding reductions (necessitating a restructuring of its contract) 

and because of a major DoD study that led to the combination of all nonimaging, space-based infrared systems into an 

integrated program known as SBIRS. While design progressed, there were performance tests of the system’s focalplane arrays; cryocoolers; critical sensor algorithms; sensor 

pointing, stabilization, and control algorithms; 32-bit processors and application-specific integrated circuits; communications; electrical power system; ground and space 

software; simulation; and sensor end-to-end demonstration. 

Other development work in conjunction with the Air Force 

Phillips Laboratory and the JPL included delivery and testing of cryocoolers from four contractors as well as successful space flight testing of a thermal storage unit. 

During FY 1994, NASA made significant progress in 

measuring, modeling, and mitigating the orbital-debris 

environment. This completed the third year that the Haystack Orbital Debris Radar, operated for NASA by MIT’s 

Lincoln Laboratory, has measured and monitored such debris. This powerful radar can detect debris as small as a pea 

orbiting 400 miles out in space. At low altitudes (250-400 

miles), it measured less debris than predicted-good news 

for the international Space Station. However, at higher 

altitudes (500-650 miles), the debris population was greater 

than NASA had predicted. Because objects in higher orbits 

are not significantly affected by changes in solar activity, 

their lifetimes can exceed 1,000 years, meaning that they 

will not pose a hazard to the Space Station, but they are a 

threat to scientific, Earth observation, weather, and communications satellites. On February 9. 1994, the Orbital Debris 

Radar Calibration Spheres (ODERACS- 1) were deployed 

from Space Shuttle Discovery. The purpose of these six 

spheres, ranging in diameter from 2 to 6 inches, is to improve 

the ability of ground-based radars to detect and track small 

debris objects. The spheres are expected to remain in orbit, 

providing valuable calibration data until mid- 1995. NASA 

also developed a portable telescope that is capable of detecting objects as small as one-half inch in diameter at altitudes 

ranging from that of the Space Station (250-400 miles) 

through Sun-synchronous altitudes (500-650 miles) and 

objects as small as 2 to 4 inches at geosynchronous altitude 

(23,000 miles). This Liquid Metal Mirror Telescope(LMMT) 

concept is based on the research of Dr. E.F. Borra of Lava1 

University in Quebec, Canada, in the area of liquid mercury 

mirrors. The prototype IO-foot-diameter LMMT now in 

operation at NASA’s JSC is the 17th largest telescope in the 

world. It was built at a cost ofabout $500,000-1/100th the 

cost of comparable Earth-based astronomical telescopes. To 

reduce construction costs, NASA designed the LMMT to be 

housed in a grain silo purchased on the commercial market. 

Operational software costs were minimized by modifying 

software previously developed for JSC’s Charge Coupled 

Device Debris Telescope. 

In a somewhat related effort to forecast space weather 

and thus to assess the likelihood of damage to satellite 

components, scientists at Rice University developed sophisticated computer models to calculate the density and energy 

of particles at any point in space. They constructed maps 

similar to those used by meteorologists showing the flow of 

plasma in the ionosphere and the characteristics of ions and 

electrons precipitating into the atmosphere. Using hightime resolution, the scientists calculated the way in which 

the plasma flow changed in response to conditions in the 

solar wind. They displayed the results graphically as a 

movie. More than 50 scientists then carried out coordinated 

observational campaigns to validate the results of the model. 

The Department of Commerce’s (Doc’s) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has applied its 

expertise in measurement science, developed through its 

mission to help industry with measurements, standards, and 

evaluated data, to assist NASA in 74 different project areas 

during the fiscal year. For example, NIST worked on a 

project to measure critical point viscosity. The object is to 

test the theory of transport properties of fluids very near the 

liquid-vapor critical point. To date, a definitive test of the 

theory has not been possible on the Earth because of the very 

weak divergence of the viscosity as the critical point is 

approached and because the approach to the critical point is 

limited by the Earth’s gravity. Fluids within 4 percent of the 

critical density and 0.01 percent of the critical temperature 

are so compressible that the density near the bottom of a 1 - 

mm-high sample exceeds the density near the top of the 

sample by 8 percent or more. In recent years, a series of 

viscometers were developed that achieve the necessary 

combination of low frequency (1-5 hertz), extremely low 

shear rate and fluid flow (0.1 to 1 s-I), precise temperature 

control (0.1 millikelvin), and high-viscosity resolution (0.1 

percent). Measurements have been completed near the 

critical points of xenon, carbon dioxide, four binary liquid 

30 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
mixtures of small molecules, polymer solutions, and 

microemulsions. The results of the NIST research have 

stimulated theoretical work to recalculate the exponent 

characterizing the divergence of the viscosity. NIST recently developed a new viscometer that not only meets the 

criteria mentioned above but will be able to do so in the 

vibrationally noisy environment of the Space Shuttle. On the 

Shuttle, gravity-induced stratification will be negligible, 

and meaningful measurements will be made to within 0.6 

millikelvin of thecritical temperature of xenon. In FY 1994. 

a novel, accurate calibration procedure based on hydrodynamic similarity was developed and tested successfully in 

the new viscometer. The design of the sample cell of the 

viscometer was improved, and NASA began construction of 

the flight apparatus, scheduled to be flown in 1997. 

Another example of the projects NIST was working'on 

for NASA during the fiscal year involved materials processing. During the directional solidification of a binary 

alloy, solute inhomogeneities can arise from both fluid flow 

and morphological instability. In microgravity, buoyancydriven fluid flow is reduced, and experiments to study the 

evolution of morphological patterns without the interference of fluid flow may be possible. NIST researchers have 

performed calculations to predict fluid flows and evolution 

rates to aid in the planning and analysis of space flight 

experiments on these effects. Many semiconductors and 

some metals such as bismuth have highly anisotropic interface kinetics and solidify with faceted interfaces. In FY 

1994, morphological stability theory has been extended to 

treat these anisotropic materials. Anisotropic kinetics give 

rise to traveling waves along the crystal-melt interface and 

can lead to a significant enhancement of morphological 

stability. The stability enhancement increases as the orientation approaches a singular orientation and as the solidification velocity increases, thus tending to produce homogeneous materials. Shear flows interact with the traveling 

waves and, depending on the direction of the flow, may 

either stabilize or destabilize the interface. 

Space Lommun icat ions 

Communications Satellites 

There were three new commercial domestic fixed satellites launched for the United States during Fy 1994. 

Galaxy 1R(S), launched on February 19,1994, will provide 

video services into the next decade. The satellite replaced 

another one that was nearing the end of its useful life; it is 

located at longitude 133' W. General Dynamics Commercial Launch Services successfully launched the Telstar 40 I 

communications satellite from Cape Canaveral aboard an 

Atlas IIAS on December 15, 1993. The satellite completed 

systems checkout and in-orbit testing at longitude 89' W. in 

January 1994 and was then moved to longitude 97' W. to 

begin providing television and data communications services for U.S. customers in early February. Unfortunately, 

the September 9, 1994, launch of Telstar 402 by an Ariane 

launch vehicle from Kourou, French Guiana,.was not as 

successful. The launch itself went fine, but operators lost 

contact with the satellite after it evidently began spinning as 

it passed over the Indian Ocean. Customers such as Fox 

Broadcasting and ABC will continue to useTelstar401 until 

Telstar 403, redesignated Telstar 402R. is launched. 

Two other communications satellites that were not in 

the domestic fixed category but did provide domestic service 

were the first Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS's). Launched 

by an Ariane booster from Kourou, French Guiana, on 

December 17, 1993, DBS- 1, as the satellite is designated by 

its co-owners, DirecTv and United States Satellite Broadcasting, offered some 75-80 channels of television service 

after April 1994 to US. subscribers or those purchasing the 

equipment necessary for reception. Located at longitude 

101" W., the HS 601 satellite built by Hughes Space and 

Communications Company provided broadcasting to all of 

thecontiguous 48 states. It was followedon August 3, 1994, 

by DBS-2. successfully launched from Cape Canaveral AFS 

DBS- 1 before assembly. 

1995 31 
PanAmsSat’s first Pacific Ocean 

satellite, the PAS-2, was 

launched on July 8, 1994. The 

FCC refers to this satellite as the 

PAS-4. 

by a Martin Marietta Atlas IIA. It increased the number of 

channels available on the service to 150. Still another 

communications satellite placed into orbit during the fiscal 

year was PanAmSat’s PAS-24esignated PAS-4 by the 

Federal Communications Commission (FCC). An Ariane 4 

rocket launched it into space from Kourou, French Guiana, 

on July 8, 1994. The 2,920-kilogram satellite was built by 

Hughes Aircraft Company and became PanAmSat’s first 

private international satellite for the Pacific Ocean region, 

providing television coverage from the Western United 

States to the Asian mainland. It marks the second of four 

satellites scheduled to constitute PanAmSat’s Global Satellite System, begun with PAS-1 launched in June 1988 and 

providing services to the Atlantic Ocean Region. Also a 

Hughes HS 601 satellite, PAS4 can carry more than 320 

digital channels transmitted on 16 63-watt Ku-band and 16 

34-watt C-band transponders. 

For the military, the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) continued to serve as the long-haul, 

high-capacity communications system supporting the worldwide command and control of the U.S. Armed Forces and 

other Government agencies. The DSCS program successfully launched a DSCS III satellite in November 1993; it was 

cut over to operational traffic in mid-1994 as a replacement 

for an older DSCS III. Six other DSCS III satellites in 

storage at the end of FY 1994 have been scheduled for launch 

between FY’s 1995 and 2003. The DSCS control segment 

continued to provide semi-automated management of DSCS 

resources to maintain the satellite communications network 

in alignment with the needs of the operational commanders. 

As of the end of FY 1994, there were five DSCS operations 

centers and three auxiliary satellite control terminals operated and maintained by the U.S. Army Space Command 

worldwide. Proficient network management of DSCS space 

and ground resources enabled support of a wide variety of 

contingencies and high-priority requirements, including 

various Presidential trips and military activities in Bosnia. 

The Milstar program, the cornerstone of the DoD’s 

military satellite communications network, launchedits first 

satellite in February 1994. Although the satellite was still 

undergoing on-orbit testing at the end of the fiscal year, 

when operational it will be a multichannel, extremely high 

frequencyhltra high frequency (EHFNHF) satellite communications system providing survivable, enduring, and 

jam-resistant secure voicedatacommunication for the Armed 

Forces and other users. The Air Force remained the lead 

service for procuring the Milstar satellites, a dispersed 

mission control network, airborne terminals, and ground 

command post terminals. The Army and Navy also continued to have programs for terminal development and procurement. Satellite number two was complete and in testing as 

the year ended. Satellite number three was being prepared 

for medium-data-rate payload. 

The Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM) provided worldwide UHF satellite communications for the DoD and other agencies through a 

constellation composed of four Navy FLTSAT satellites, 

two Leased Satellites (LEASATs) that had been purchased 

by the Navy, and one still-leased LEASAT, all positioned in 

geosynchronous orbit at four locations around the Earth. 

The two newest FLTSAT spacecraft carry an EHF package 

added to theirUHFpayloads. This mixed FLTSATLEASAT 

constellation is being replaced by the UHF Follow-On 

satellites produced by Hughes Aircraft Company under 

contract with the Navy. The second UHF Follow-On satellite, launched on September 3, 1993, aboard a General 

Dynamics Commercial Launch Services Atlas-Centaur I 

ELV, began operational service over the Indian Ocean on 

December 3, 1993, thus achieving initial operational capability for the UHF Follow-On constellation. The third UHF 

Follow-On satellite launch, on June 24, 1994, was the first 

Atlas launch conducted by Martin Marietta following its 

purchase of the Atlas business from General Dynamics in 

March-April 1994. UHF Follow-On satellite number three 

32 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
began operational service over the Atlantic Ocean in October 1994. The 1994 Defense Appropriations Act authorized 

the Navy to use the $199 million in contract remedies from 

the failureof the first UHFFollow-On launch in March 1993 

to fund the purchase and launch of a replacement satellite. 

With that purchase, a total of IO UHF Follow-On satellites 

the will be produced, with satellites 4 through 10 incorporating both UHF and EHF communications capabilities. 

The U.S. Army Space and Strategic Defense Command’s 

Space Applications Technology program successfully 

demonstrated an ability to communicate at 128 kilobits per 

second (voice, data, and video) to and from a moving High 

Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), using NASA’s Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) and the JPL’s ACTS mobile terminal. The 

mobile terminal’s algorithms partially alleviated the impact 

of multipath and rain attenuation effects on communicating 

in the EHF frequencies. ACTS operates in the WKa bands 

(20/30 gigahertz) and will be used as a testbed to demonstrate and evaluate technologies and concepts suitable for 

application to Milstar 3 and Milstar4. Follow-on efforts will 

attempt to increase the data rates to 1.5 milobits per second, 

and the testbed will also be used to identify and quantify 

requirements to influence future communications satellites. 

Also, analyses will identify performance degradation (if 

any) related to converting ACTS mobile terminal technologies to the lower-power Milstar wave form. 

The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), aconsortium established in 1964 and 

consisting (in September 1994) of 134 member nations that 

owned and operated the world’s most extensive global 

communications satellite system with service in more than 

200 countries and territories, successfully launched its 

INTELSAT 701 satellite on October 22, 1993, aboard an 

Ariane 44LP rocket. The first in its series of high-powered 

INTELSAT VI1 spacecraft, INTELSAT 701 began commercial service on January 15, 1994, with the transfer of 

traffic from the INTELSAT 5 10 satellite launched in March 

1985. Situated at longitude 174’ E., the Space Systems/ 

bra1 satellite began providing expanded telephone, television, and other services to INTELSAT customers in the 

Pacific Ocean region, including the west coast of North 

America, the islands in the Pacific, and the east coast of Asia. 

Most long-distance carriers of telephone service in North 

America and the Asia-Pacific region began using the new 

satellite, which handles 90,000 telephone calls at once 

versus the 75,000 transmitted by the 510 satellite. In 

addition, the 70 1 transmits three television channels at a time 

instead of the two channels transmitted by INTELSAT 50 I. 

On June 17, 1994, INTELSAT successfully launched 

the second of nine VII-VII-A satellites ordered from Space 

SystemsLoral aboard an Ariane 44LP launch vehicle from 

Kourou, French Guiana. After moving from its in-orbit test 

location, INTELSAT 702 began commercial service on 

August 13. 1994, at longitude 359” E., replacing the lowercapacity INTELSAT 5 12. Serving as the only direct onehop communications link between the Indian subcontinent 

and America (North and South), INTELSAT 702 provides 

expanded communications services to INTELSAT’s customers in Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle 

East, the Eastern United States, and South America. The 

new satellite is the 50th that INTELSAT has launched; 22 of 

these remain in operation, providing customers such business services as international video, teleconferencing, facsimile, data, and telex. 

The International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT), aLondon-based international entity with 75 

member countries as the fiscal year ended, did not add to its 

complement of four INMARSAT I1 and seven older satellites providing mobile satellite communications in the air, on 

land, and at sea for almost 40,000 users of mobile terminals 

in more than 165 countries. Among the organization’s 

accomplishments during the year was the world’s first 

satellite voice connection to a cellular-sized phone, announced by INMARSAT in March 1994. The event occurred during trials for a future global handheld phone 

system to test the power margins needed to provide voice 

service between 1998 and 2000. Meanwhile, in September 

1994, a London department store began selling the 

INMARSAT-M briefcase satellite telephone. The lid of the 

briefcase serves as the antenna for the telephone inside. Also 

during the year, the U.S. Communications Satellite (Comsat) 

Corporation, which holds (roughly) a 23-percent share in 

INMARSAT, opened a new station in Kuantan, Malaysia, 

on July 1, 1994. This new station plus existing ones in Santa 

Paula, California, and Southbury, Connecticut, made Comsat 

the first INMARSAT service provider to operate digital 

mobile satellite services around the globe. 

Space Network 

* 

On November 29. 1993, NASA repositioned its first 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-1). launched in 

1983 and already serving beyond its 10-year lifetime, to 

33 1995 
recover scientific data from the Compton Gamma Ray 

Observatory (GRO), launched in 199 I. A significant portion of the GRO data would otherwise have been lost 

because of the failure of a tape recorder on the spacecraft. 

NASA installed a highly automated ground terminal, GRO 

Remote Terminal System (GRTS), at its Deep Space 

Network location in Australia to control TDRS- I. This 

terminal is remotely operated from the TDRS System 

(TDRSS) ground stations in New Mexico. TDRS- 1 started 

relaying data operationally on December 6,1993, during the 

shift from its former to its new location, a year from project 

start. TDRS- I was in position at longitude 85’ E. over the 

Indian Ocean by February 7, 1994, and NASA declared 

GRTS to be operational on April I, 1994, with a proficiency 

of over 97 percent. With TDRS- 1 and GRTS, NASA has 

extended real-time data retrieval to the full orbit for the 

GRO, which is studying the evolution of the universe, the 

nature of puzzling astronomical objects, and the processes 

that produce very-high-energy radiation. 

NASA has begun making TDRSS available to U.S. 

industry to conduct experiments and demonstrations of 

innovative satellite communications technologies and concepts free of charge. The intent of this Mobile Satellite 

Communications via the TDRSS (MOST) program is to 

enhance the competitiveness of the U.S. industry in the 

global satellite communications arena. TDRSS enables 

testing of lightweight, mobile, handheld satellite communication terminals in a variety of environmental conditions. 

Already, the tracking system has been used to demonstrate 

satellite broadcast of compact disk (CD)-quality radio to 

conduct measurements of path diversity for commercial 

mobile satellite communications. Applications of the technologies validated by MOST include, for example: listening 

to CD-quality radio while driving across the country; communicating by handheld, wireless devices anywhere in the 

world, no matter how remote; and communicating (by 

hikers) in remote areas during emergencies. The MOST 

activity does not interfere with the primary TDRSS mission 

of relaying commands to and data from scientific spacecraft. 

Ground Networks 

NASA uses ground-based telecommunications facilities to provide telemetry, command, and navigation services 

to a number of NASA, other U.S., and international spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle; other Earth-orbiting spacecraft; planetary orbiters; and international spacecraft. These 

spacecraft include the Space Shuttle and Earth orbiters, 

planetary orbiters such as Galileo and Magellan; and the 

Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft traveling to theouterreaches 

ofour Solar System. Other uses of ground network facilities 

include tracking and data acquisition services to sounding 

rocket, high-altitude balloon, and aeronautical research missions. This worldwide capability has enabled mission operators to navigate their spacecraft, configure them for 

scientific observations, and recover the resulting scientific 

data. During the past year, the recovery of additional image 

data from the 1993 encounter of the Galileo spacecraft with 

the asteroid Ida showed that the asteroid had a-moon. 

Magellan, which had been providing scientific data about 

Venus for several years, concluded its mission in a final 

experiment as its orbit decreased and it entered the planet’s 

atmosphere. In addition, radar image data received from the 

Clementine spacecraft provideddetailed maps of the Moon’s 

surfaces, and data from the international solar mission, 

Ulysses, provided unique observations of the southern hemisphere of the Sun. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Technological Developments 

In the field of aeronautics, the DoD, NASA, and the 

FAA all engaged in the development of new and improved 

technologies. A good example of the ways in which the 

agencies cooperated in this endeavor was the joint X-31 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability program, a cooperative effort involving the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Air Force, 

NASA, ARPA, Rockwell International, and Germany’s 

Ministry of Defense, as well as Deutsche Aerospace (formerly Messerschmidt-Bolkow-Blohm). The aim is to determine the overall utility of thrust vectoring and advanced 

control concepts during slow-speed, poststall maneuvering. 

This highly productive program includes two aircraft built 

under sponsorship of ARPA and the German government. 

The X-3 1 features three lightweight, carbon-carbon external 

thrust deflection paddles and a movable inlet lip to minimize 

inlet flow distortion at high angles of attack. It also incorporates a flight control system that provides superior control 

during poststall maneuvering. During the past year, the 

program successfully completed its original program goals, 

compiling an impressive array of technically significant 

“firsts” in aeronautics, demonstrating: (1) significant agility 

34 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
at extremely high angles of attack (70’), well beyond the 

aerodynamic stall limit; (2) the significant combat value of’ 

its advanced technologies in close-in combat with F/A- I8 

Hornets and F- 14 Tomcats by winning 1 17 of 129 engagements featuring computer-simulated guns and missiles; (3) 

the effectiveness of thrust vectoring for stability and control 

at supersonic speed (Mach 1.2). including a successful 

simulation of flight without a vertical tail; (4) the successful 

use of the advanced lightweight helmet during simulated 

close-in combat, permitting the pilot to see critical flight 

information on the helmet visor, thereby promoting safety 

and combat effectiveness by keeping a maneuvering foe in 

constant view; and (5) the highest flight rate and total 

number of flights ever achieved for a fixed-wing X-aircraft. 

This technology, integrated into new designs, would provide 

significant reductions in aircraft weight, aerodynamic drag, 

fuel consumption, and radar signature. It could even permit 

more efficient and less complex subsonic and supersonic 

transport aircraft designs for the future. The program’s 

significance is suggested by its winning Aviation Week and 

Space Technology’s Laurels Award in December 1993 and 

the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’ 

Aircraft Design Award in September 1994. 

As Congress mandated, FY 1994 marked the last year of 

another joint program, the National Aero-Space Plane 

(NASP). NASP was a joint DoD-NASA effort to demonstrate technologies for air-breathing, SSTO, hypersonic vehicles that take off and land horizontally. Since 1986, the 

NASP program has developed significant advances in structures, materials, propulsion, aerodynamics, computational 

design tools, and national hypersonic test facilities. Those 

efforts have established a broad and sound foundation of 

national hypersonic expertise. Advances include hightemperature carbon-carbon materials, lightweight titanium 

and beryllium-aluminum alloys, and high-strength, corrosion-resistant titanium-alloy composites. In the area of 

propulsion, the program vigorously pursued the development of supersonic-combustion ramjet (scramjet) technology in FY 1994. A one-third scale Concept Demonstrator 

Engine underwent initial testing at Mach 6.8 in the 8-foot 

High-Temperature Tunnel at NASA’s Langley Research 

Center in Virginia. During the past year, the program has 

made a major effort to document progress made to date and 

transfer NASP technology to other aerospace industries. 

Applications of this technology are emerging in the automotive, energy, computer, and medical industries as well. The 

hypersonic community will focus its efforts over the next 5 

years on the most critical technology, the scramjet propulsion system, as the most cost-effective way to reduce the 

technical risks for air-breathing aerospace planes. The 

resulting Air ForcdNASA Hypersonic System Technology 

Program will combine rocket-boosted scramjet experiments 

(with nominal test points at Mach 15) with related ground 

tests and analyses. 

Relatedly, the External Vision Display (EVD) program-a joint effort between NASA, the NASP joint Program, Lockheed, Kaiser Optical Electronics, and Systems 

Technologies, Inc.-developed a system of lenses and mirrors that provides the pilot a view on the cockpit display of 

the runway under the nose of the aircraft. A flight of the 

system on an F-104 aircraft at the Dryden Flight Research 

Center in January 1994 showed that it allowed the pilot to see 

the runway during nose-high landings typical of a HighSpeed Civil Transport (HSCT)-type aircraft, without the 

need for heavy nose-drop machinery used in the Concorde 

and the Russian Tu-I44 aircraft. 

Another joint program between the DoD and NASA is 

the X-32 Short Take-off and Vertical Landing/Conventional 

Take-off and Landing (STOVWCTOL) Affordable Lightweight Fighter Technology Demonstration program. ARPA 

conceived this joint program with the British Ministry of 

Defense, NASA, and the Joint Advanced Strike Technology 

Program to investigate the technical feasibility of designing 

both a STOVL aircraft and an Air Force CTOL strike fighter 

aircraft to conduct missions currently performed by the 

AV-8B, F- 18, and F- 16. The keystone to this concept is 

affordability to be achieved by employing integrated product/process development and acquisition reform; specifying 

a single engine; setting an upper weight limit of 24,000 

pounds empty; and maximizing avionics, airframe, and 

engine commonality for the Air Force, Navy, and Marine 

Corps versions of the aircraft-i.e., 95 percent of the Air 

Force CTOL aircraft parts common to the Naval Services’ 

Advanced STOVL (ASTOVL) version. The X-32 was in 

Phase II of a three-phase program as the fiscal year ended. 

Phase I consisted of studies of the propulsion system and 

airframe design. Phase I1 consists of the validation of critical 

technology, studies of common airframe design, and analyses of affordability. Phase 111 will consist of the design of 

demonstrator aircraft, fabrication, and flight testing. The 

NASA portion of the program included tests conducted in a 

Harrier aircraft equipped with an integrated flight propulsion control system and cockpit display system. During 

1994, NASA completed most of the planned flight research. 

1995 35 
Close participation of industry engineers and pilots during 

the tests resulted in beneficial exchanges of information and 

data. NASA also conducted flight simulations in the Ames 

Fixed-Base and Vertical Motion Simulators, with industry 

engineers and pilots participating. This work served as a 

basis for their control system designs, which will then be 

simulated in FY’s 1995-96. Finally, aerodynamic testing of 

the various STOVL configurations and components took 

place at three NASA research facilities. 

Another project for ARPA has been thespecial Operations Forces (SOF) Transport Program. This concept 

exploration effort, initiated in FY 1994, aimed at determining the feasibility and appropriate characteristics of an 

affordable transport capable of performing the SOF infiltratiodexfiltration mission. During the course of the 2-year 

program, the contractor will conduct trade studies to identify 

concepts with potential military multipurpose and/or military-civil dual-use applications. Conceptual designs will be 

refined in terms of weight, performance, and costs. The 

contractor will also address key technical issues and risks 

through analysis and ground testing. 

ARPA has also been involved jointly with the AirForce 

and Army in the Miniature Air-Launched Decoy (MALD) 

program to develop a small, self-protection and offensive 

air-launched decoy system designed to saturate surface 

threat radars and aid in establishing air superiority by diluting and confusing surface-based and airborne threat systems. This program is a follow-on to ARPA’s Small Engine 

Applications Program (SENGAP) that resulted in the 

development of a low-cost, 4-inch-diameter turbojet engine 

capable of developing 50 pounds of thrust for up to 30 

minutes. The current phase of the MALD program will 

integrate this engine with an airframe, conduct flight demonstrations, and verify full-envelope flight performance of a 

MALD flight vehicle. If successful, this could lead to further 

efforts to refine the air vehicle concept and to develop 

prototype decoy payloads for flight testing in an operational 

environment. 

Another ARPA effort is a congressionally directed 

study of the possible use of very large, ocean-skimming 

aircraft to transport large military payloads quickly over 

long distances. Referred to as wingships, these unique 

vehicles would be 5 to 10 times larger than the biggest 

conventional aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, and would be 

built to take advantage of favorable aerodynamic forces. 

ARPA also had a Tier lII Minus Program to develop 

and demonstrate a low-observable, high-al titude-endurance, 

unmanned air vehicle specifically designed for wide area 

surveillance of areas to which conventional aircraft are 

denied access by the enemy. Two such vehicles will comprise part of a system, currently under development by 

Lockheed Advanced Development Company and Boeing 

Defense and Space Group, consisting of the vehicles, one 

electric optical sensor, one synthetic aperture radar sensor, 

two sets of communications equipment. and one launch and 

recovery control station. This system will be procured and 

tested during FY’s 1995-96. The air vehicle will be capable 

of carrying the radar or optical sensor payload and will 

communicate with the ground station through a UHF Satellite Communication (UHF SATCOM) link, a 1 S-megabitsper-second sensor SATCOM link, and a wideband line-ofsight link. This program is integral to the overall reconnaissance architecture being developed by the Defense Airborne 

Reconnaissance Office. 

In the BMDO’s gasoline-powered RAPTOR Demonstrator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) program, the 

UAV built by ScaledComposites. Inc., completed 19 flights 

during FY 1994 before crashing in February 1994. A 

replacement UAV completed two flights before October in 

preparation for high-altitude, long-endurance missions later 

in the calendar year. The solar-powered Pathfinder UAV. 

built by AeroVironment, Inc.. flew 10 missions at low 

altitude in FY 1994 to explore basic flight stability and 

control issues. This UAV was upgraded during the year. 

Plans called for it to be moved in the spring of 1995 to 

NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center in California to 

resume high-altitude flight testing. Because of budget 

restrictions in the BMDO, the DoD could no longer fund 

these activities and was in the process at the end of the fiscal 

year of transferring these assets to NASA and the DOE for 

continued joint flight operations to support future civil and 

commercial initiatives. 

The Army had a project, Rotorcraft Pilot’s Associate 

Advanced Technology Demonstration, to revolutionize 

the mission effectiveness of combat helicopters. It has 

focused on critical pilotage and mission management technologies, including the use of artificial intelligence for 

cognitive decision making to optimize crew workload; advanced command and control techniques necessary to meet 

new mission requirements and situational-awareness needs; 

advanced pilotage sensors, displays, and controls; and advanced weapon systems to support both air-to-air and air-toground engagements. The new technology will contribute 

greatly to DoD/Army rotorcraft pilots’ abilities to “see and 

36 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
comprehend the battlefield’ in all conditions; rapidly collect, synthesize, and disseminate battlefield information; 

and take immediate and effective actions. Compared with a 

“Commanche-like” baseline, this is expected to reduce 

mission losses by 30 to 60 percent, increase targets destroyed by 50 to 150 percent, and reduce mission time lines 

by 20 to 30 percent. Projected plans for transition include 

support of the RAH-66 Commanche, AH-64 Longbow 

Apache, Special Operations aircraft, DoD/Army system 

upgrades, and potential future systems beyond the year 2000. 

The Army was also involved in two related, joint 

programs, the Integrated High Performance Turbine 

Engine Technology (IHPTET) and Joint Turbine Advanced Gas Generator (JTAGG). The IHPTET initiative 

is a joint DoDNASNindustry effort to provide revolutionary advancement in aircraft propulsion performance and 

operational capability. The goals of JTAGG-which is 

jointly sponsored by the Army, Navy, and Air Force and has 

two contractors, Textron Lycoming of Stratford, Connecticut, and General Electric of Lynn, Massachusetts (teamed 

50/50 with Allied Signal Engines of Phoenix, Arizona)-are 

fully aligned with the three phases of IHPTET. JTAGG will 

focus on improvements in turboshaft/turboprop (TS/TP) 

core engine technology with a long-range goal of achieving 

a 40-percent decrease in specific fuel consumption and a 

120-percent increase in power-to-weight for a given size 

engine. The JTAGG program was demonstrating TS/TP 

core engines as the fiscal year ended, employing advanced 

aerodynamics and materials technology that will allow the 

IHPTET Phase I goals to be achieved. Demonstrator engines that can greatly exceed the Phase I goals and meet 

those of Phase I1 were being fabricated as of the end of 

September 1994, with component testing to begin soon. 

At NASA, the F-18 High Alpha Technology program 

sought to achieve an understanding of high angle-of-attack 

aerodynamics, including the effects of two advanced control 

concepts: thrust vectoring and vortices shed from the nose. 

The program was using flight research, wind-tunnel research, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling, 

and correlation among the resultant sets of data to produce 

this understanding. The flight research has employed a 

highly instrumented F-18 aircraft outfitted with an externalpaddle thrust-vectoring system. Plans called for a mechanical nose-strake vortex-control system to be added in FY 

1995. During 1994, flights with the thrust-vectoring system 

produced performance and dynamic data to a 70’ angle of 

attack to help establish specification criteria for the future 

design of a Navy aircraft. Flights with an instrument rake 

documented engine-inlet distortion patterns during maneuvering and measured the effects of engine compressor stalls 

on the aerodynamic flow field external to the aircraft. 

U.S. companies and other Government agencies used 

NASA’s F-18 Systems Research Aircraft (SRA) as a 

testbed to help identify and flight test advanced concepts and 

technologies. The Electrically Powered Actuation Design 

(EPAD) program installed and successfully flew a “smart 

actuator”in place ofaconventional aileron actuator. The Air 

Force, Navy, and NASA jointly sponsored the EPAD program as part of the drive toward the “more electric aircraft” 

concept. A test of a IO-horsepower electromechanical 

actuator for an aileron will be the next element in the EPAD 

flight test program. A second focus of the F- 18 SRA testbed 

is its use in an element of the Advanced Subsonic Technology (AST) program called “Fly-by-Lighflower-by-Wire” 

(FBLPBW), which aims to reduce aircraft weight substantially by using glass fiber to replace a large amount of 

electrical wiring. The F- 18 flew successfully in FY 1994, 

equipped with a package of IO airframe fiber optic control 

sensor integration sensors. The aircraft will test a package 

of IO engine sensors in FY 1995. Also initiated later in the 

calendar year will be the fly-by-light aircraft closed-loop 

tests, which will demonstrate fiber optic technology in the 

critical paths of the flight control system. The expected 

result will be to build the knowledge and confidence necessary to begin applying this technology to new aircraft designs. 

The goals of NASA’s FBWPBW program are to provide technology for lightweight, highly reliable, electromagnetically immune control and power-management systems for advanced subsonic civil transport aircraft and to 

develop the technology for application to and certification of 

future transport aircraft systems. NASA assists industry in 

accomplishing these goals by reducing research and development risks associated with cost, safety, and certification. 

Optical technologies are immune to electromechanical interference and eliminate the threat of electrical sparking. PBW 

eliminates the need for centralized hydraulic and pneumatic 

systems, variable engine-bleed air systems, and variablespeed, constant-frequency drive systems found in secondary 

power systems. The use of FBLPBW results in significant 

weight savings, more efficient engine operation, and reduced complexity. Studies also indicate improvements in 

reliability, which translate into less downtime for maintenance and faster turnaround at the gate. Several studies by 

1995 37 
industry have confirmed these advantages, and the NASANavy Fiber-optic Control System Integration has begun to 

evaluate FE3L technology in high-performance aircraft. 

Relatedly, in FY 1994, the FAA continued to study the 

airworthiness resulting from improvements in flight safety 

for new aircraft employing advanced displays. flight management systems and procedures, and modified operational 

profiles. The agency focused efforts on the collection of 

updated flight test data and analyses of computer-based, flyby-wire automated flight control systems and equipment. 

The FAA will use that information to address the issues of 

flight safety and certification raised by incorporating the 

emerging, highly complex, software-based digital systems 

into aircraft and avionics system design. The research is 

especially crucial in cases where this technology is applied 

to flight-critical applications, such as fly-by-wire, FBL, and 

PBW. In coordination with NASA, the agency proceeded 

during FY 1994 in designing, developing, and validating 

fault-tolerant software and hardware to assist the U.S. aviation industry in acquiring the competitive advantages associated with this advanced technology while simultaneously 

promoting flight safety. 

Another area in which NASA and the FAA cooperated 

was in aircraft noise reduction. Aircraft noise has become 

a national and international issue that prompts airports to 

operate within strict noise budgets and curfews, restricting 

airline operations. International treaty organizations are 

actively considering even more stringent noise standards. 

They will limit the growth of the air transportation system 

and the U.S. aircraft industry’s competitiveness in the world 

market. The FAA has been participating with NASA in a 

series of joint noise and emission reduction initiatives. The 

two agencies continued implementation of the joint subsonic airplane noise reduction technology research program. 

The FAA released version 2.2 of the Heliport Noise Model, 

featuring more helicopter performance data and improved 

methods of track definition and taxi procedures. The development of computer models included the release of Integrated Noise Model 4.1 l with capabilities for analyzing 

terrain, runup operations, and varying airport temperature 

and elevation. In addition, the FAA established a broad 

Government-industry review committee to oversee future 

FAA noise modeling. The overall goal of NASA’s noise 

reduction program is to provide ready noise reduction technologies to help industry achieve present and future noise 

reduction goals and thereby facilitate market growth, increased U.S. market share, and compliance with international environmental requirements. To achieve that goal, 

NASA has established an objective of IO decibels of noise 

reduction over 1992 levels. A group of industry, university, 

and Government technologists is working to achieve this 

goal and help provide the competitive impetus for U.S. 

industry in the design of the next generation of subsonic 

transport aircraft. Specifically, the program will enhance 

reductions in source noise, improve nacelle aeroacoustics, 

enhance engine-airframe integration, reduce interior noise, 

and help create flight procedures to reduce airport community noise and still maintain high efficiency. Two specific 

major accomplishments of the program in FY 1994 were the 

completion of the first integrated fan noise source and 

propagation prediction codeand the activecontrol of interior 

aircraft noise using active trim control panels. The prediction capability will define and optimize concepts for technology to reduce noise. The active trim panel is a promising 

concept that can be used by airframe manufacturers to 

reduce aircraft cabin noise. 

Another NASA initiative that will assist the U.S. civil 

transport industry to remain competitive in an environment 

of increased worldwide competition is the integrated wing 

element of the AST program. Its goal is to develop and 

validate new wind tunnel test procedures and cost-effective 

aerodynamic concepts that will improve overall aircraft 

performance while reducing the length of the aerodynamic 

design cycle. The result will be an aircraft that performs 

better and is cheaper for the airlines to operate. Areas being 

investigated include simpler and more cost-effective highlift systems, cost-effective methods for integrating engines 

on aircraft wings, and new wind tunnel test techniques and 

technologies that will provide design data more quickly and 

accurately. One result of studies surrounding the integrated 

wing has been a pressure-sensitive paint system that, when 

fully developed, will result in a significant reduction in the 

aerodynamic portion of the wing design time, thus reducing 

cost. 

NASA’s Advanced Composites Technology program 

can also help U.S. transport aircraft recoup recent losses in 

market share of world sales by reducing ownership and 

direct operating costs by 16 percent. The program is specifically tailored to demonstrate the capability to scale up 

existing technology by designing, fabricating, and testing 

full-scale fuselage and wing sections under simulated flight 

loads and by verifying a composite-structure fuselage and 

wing design that will have an acquisition cost 20 to 25 

percent less and weigh 30 to 50 percent less than the current 

aluminum aircraft with the same payload and mission. 

While this is a challenging goal, significant savings can be 

38 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
attained by using automated fabrication methods and by 

reducing the numbers of parts required in composite structures. During FY 1994, the program produced and tested 

subscale components in both wing and fuselage areas. A 

NASA-industry team manufactured and strength-tested fuselage keel panels madeof laminatedcomposite skins bonded 

to a composite-honeycomb core. Engineers developed and 

used cost-analysis software in the analysis of the engineering and manufacturing process. Its use led to a focus on a 

honeycomb core sandwich substance as the material of 

choice for the fuselage side panels as well as the keel. In the 

wing area, McDonnell Douglas and its subcontractors, along 

with their team members from the Langley Research Center, 

manufactured a number of wing cover panels to increase 

confidence in the resin-film-infusion process of impregnating and curing dry fabric layers stitched together. Once the 

process was perfected, the team fabricated, assembled, and 

prepared for strength testing an inboard portion of wing 

structure with stiffened upper and lower panels, called a 

wing stub box. 

The propulsion element of NASA’s AST program, in 

cooperation with US. industry, has been developing propulsion technology that will increase the competitiveness and 

market share of the U.S. propulsion industry, helping to 

recover some of the 50,000 jobs recently lost due to industry 

downsizing, as well as reduce the environmental impact of 

future commercial engines through decreased exhaust emissions. The improved propulsion systems will lower overall 

direct operating costs of future commercial transports of all 

sizes by 3 percent-a figure that currently represents the 

profifloss margin for a U.S. airline. The systems will reduce 

nitrogen oxide emissions by at least 70 percent over current 

levels and will improve fuel efficiency by at least 8 percent. 

Engineers also made progress in FY 1994 in the development of robust computer design codes to help U.S. industry 

decrease development test time and cost on new or derivative engines. During FY 1994, the NASA-industry partnership with major U.S. engine manufacturers (General Electric Co., Pratt and Whitney, and Alison Engine Co.) completed several studies of low-emission combustors. The 

companies identified promising concepts and barrier technology issues, and the partnership was also studying highertemperature disk materials, lightweight composites, and 

film-riding seals. 

Relatedly, to develop a scientific basis for analyzing the 

impacts of subsonic aviation on the atmosphere, NASA has 

established an environmental assessment element in its 

AST program. The goals are to determine the impacts over 

time of aviation on the atmosphere and to provide assistance 

to future international ozone and climate assessments. The 

successful scientific and management model of the Atmospheric Effects of Stratospheric Aircraft element of the 

High-speed Research (HSR) program was in the process of 

being applied to this program as of the end of the fiscal year 

to establish collaborative relationships with existing atmospheric science programs. NASA’s HSR program also 

continued to emphasize the resolution of environmental 

issues for, as well as the determination of the economic 

viability of, the next-generation HSCTduring FY 1994. The 

National Academy of Sciences conducted a review of the 

“Interim Assessment of Atmospheric Effects of Stratospheric Aircraft” released by NASA. It commended NASA 

for enhancing the understanding of atmospheric chemistry. 

NASA’s ER-2 high-altitude scientific aircraft completed a 

series of atmospheric observations for the Stratospheric 

Photo Chemistry Aerosols and Dynamics Expedition. These 

in-situ measurements testedconcepts that underlie the stratospheric models used for assessment of HSCT aircraft effects 

in the stratosphere. As the year ended, the program was 

conducting atmospheric observations in collaboration with 

the NASA Office of Mission to Planet Earth. 

In related engine technology, the development of the 

low oxides of nitrogen (NOx) combustor technology for 

HSCT engines continued with successful tests of experimental fuel combustion chamber sectors. Initial results 

achieved or exceeded the goal of generating no more than 5 

grams of NOx per kilogram of fuel burned at supersonic 

cruise conditions. The results indicate that practical combustor hardware has been developed that emits the ultralow 

levels previously obtained under highly controlled laboratory conditions. The “mixed flow turbofan” and “fan-onblade” technologies showed significant benefits in reducing 

engine take off noise while maintaining good performance 

at supersonic speeds. Both approaches will continue to be 

studied for approximately 2 years. 

Along these same lines, the FAA began participation in 

NASA’s Atmospheric Effects of Aviation project involving some of the efforts just discussed. The goal was to 

develop a scientific basis for the assessment of atmospheric 

impacts of subsonic and supersonic aviation, particularly 

commercial aircraft emissions during cruise. The FAA also 

completed ajoint EPAEAA study concerning the control of 

NOx emissions from uninstalled aircraft engines in enclosed 

test cells. The agency released Version 94.4 of the Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System with enhancements 

to me& requirements of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 

1995 39 
1990and theCaliforniaFederal Implementation Plan. Among 

these enhancements is the ability to assess emissions from 

aircraft ground support equipment. 

In a separate area related to the HSCT, synthetic vision 

will improve the operational flexibility necessary for an 

economically successful HSCT to take off and land in all 

weather conditions. NASA has combined a variety of sensor 

data, including millimeter wave and infrared, into a single 

display to provide visibility for pilots in any type of weather. 

A future decision by industry to develop an HSCT would 

require that the aircraft meet stringent certification standards. The advanced technologies that would be incorporated into an HSCT pose new challenges for the current 

process and requirements of aircraft certification. During 

FY 1994, NASA addressed these challenges by initiating 

discussions with the FAA on the potential airworthiness 

standards that would be required to develop the certification 

for a supersonic civilian transport. NASA and the FAA 

prepared a memorandum of agreement that identified responsibilities for developing new certification processes 

and standards for supersonic transports. A team comprised 

of members of each agency released a Long-Range Plan for 

Certification of High-speed Civil Transports. 

In a related connection, NASA’s SR-71 Aircraft 

Testbed program conducted several aeronautical research 

flights to assist industry in making key decisions about 

developing an HSCT. The SR-7 1 is particularly well suited 

for this research because of its ability to meet and exceed the 

projected HSCT operating conditions of Mach 2.4 at 60,000 

to 65,OOO feet. Pilots successfully completed baseline flights 

to verify flight test methods for sonic boom propagation. In 

addition, there were numerous scientific and technical experiments completed using the SR-7 1, including a highspeed flying qualities experiment; a dynamic auroral viewing experiment sponsored by UCLA, theJPL, and the Navy; 

a JPL validation of a Near Ultraviolet Spectrometer; inflight shock wave photographs; and validation of the communication performance of Motorola’s IRIDIUM low-Earthorbit satellite intended to make voice, data, facsimile, and 

paging services available on pocket-sized telephones. 

At the recommendation of a task force, NASA began 

during FY 1994 to enter into joint sponsored research 

agreements with the FAA and industry. In an effort to 

revitalize the U.S. general aviation industry, NASA made 

available to industry its “world-class tools,” including wind 

tunnels, computer simulations, engine test cells, and material property labs. The goals of this effort are to support the 

expansion of the national economy by better serving the vast 

infrastructure of more than 5,200 public-use airports for 

general aviation. Included in the program are cockpit 

systems for improved safety and utility, design and manufacturing for improved affordability, propulsion systems for 

environmental compatibility, and icing protection systems. 

The Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments 

(AGATE) program is developing the foundation for general 

aviation to expand to meet the needs of the U.S. and foreign 

general aviation market. 

In a different area, NASA’s achievements in advanced 

technology concepts for development, fabrication, and testing of lightweight, high-strength airframe materials continued in FY 1994. NASA fabricated and tested an array of 

composite metal and organic matrix composite panels. 

NASAalsodemonstratedaprocesscapableoffabricating up 

to 10 feet per minute of fiberhesin composite material, 

suitable for high-temperature use. 

Also during the year, the United States and Russia 

reached an agreement to use the Russian Tu- 144 supersonic 

civil transport as a flying testbed for conducting flight 

research to develop enabling technologies for NASA’s HSR 

program. The flights will provide data on aerodynamic, 

flight environment, structural, and handling qualities for a 

supersonic passenger aircraft. The decision to use the 

Tu-144 was based on a study conducted by a team of 

engineers from the United States and Russia. It concluded 

that use of the Tu-144 would be effective and economical. 

Its size, performance characteristics, and availability made 

it ideal for this purpose. The Tu- 144 supersonic research will 

establish direct working relationships between aircraft manufacturers in the United States and Russia and will enhance 

the relationship between the aeronautical agencies of the two 

countries. 

In a different area, NASA’s Flight Research Instrumentation and Test Techniques program continued to 

emphasize the transition of new concepts into products and 

processes that will improve the productivity of flight testing. 

In 1994, the program achieved in-flight imaging of jet flow 

for the first time, using laser visualization between Mach 0.8 

and 1.8. These tests yielded important information that will 

aid in understanding and developing improved combustion 

processes for a vehicle accelerating through the transonic 

flight regime. 

Also, Aurora Flight Sciences Corporation has been 

developing the Small High Altitude Science Aircraft, 

known as Perseus A, for NASA to use in gathering atmo40 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
spheric readings at 65.000 to 82,000 feet. Thesedata will till 

in a gap between measurements from current research aircraft and space-based instruments. Perseus A is an unpiloted, 

propeller-driven aircraft. It uses a single internal combustion engine and a novel exhaust recirculation concept with 

liquid oxygen and gasoline fuel to operate in the rarified 

stratosphere. Two of the aircraft had been built by the end 

of the fiscal year, with the first flight occurring on December 

21, 1993. By August 1994, Perseus A had demonstrated 

flight operation to 50.000 feet. 

Additionally during 1994, NASA initiated the Airborne Coherent Lidar for Advanced In-flight Measurements (ACLAIM) program through a research announcement issued by the Office of Aeronautics. As conceived, the 

ACLAIM program will use a high-power, solid state laser 

device with a high repetition rate for aircraft application. The 

proposed laser represents more than a IO-fold increase in 

laser capability over the currently available diode laser. 

NASA signed a contract for the laser development with 

Coherent Technologies, Inc., in August 1994. The planned 

use of the laser is to acquire reflected energy from naturally 

occurring atmospheric aerosols. Potential high-value applications include sensors to indicate interruptions of supersonic airflow through engine inlets, detection of turbulence 

that follows in the wake of landing aircraft, and detection of 

turbulence that arises in the otherwise clear air. 

NASA designed the Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) program to create 

a partnership between the UAV industry and Government. 

The purpose of the partnership is to foster commercial 

applications of UAV’s, to address the Government’s needs 

for UAV’s in support of scientific and military requirements, and to address expected regulatory issues associated 

with the flight operations of these aircraft. NASA held three 

meetings with industry in 1994 to define the research and 

development tasks necessary to achieve flight demonstrations in support of scientific missions. On September 9, 

1994, NASA signed a joint sponsored research agreement 

with industry to develop UAV technology. 

NASA’s efforts in the field of High Performance 

Computing and Communications (HPCC) contributed to 

the Federal HPCC program by leading the development of 

applications software and algorithms for scalable parallel 

computing systems that will increase systems performance 

to the sustained teraFLOPS ( 10l2 floating point operations 

per second) level for NASA applications and also by transferring those technologies for application to other national 

needs. NASA will use those technologies to solve its “grand 

challenges,” including improvement in the design and simulation of advanced aerospace vehicles, enabling people at 

remote locations to communicate more effectively and share 

information, increasing scientists’ abilities to model the 

Earth’s climate and forecast global environmental trends, 

and improving the capabilities of advanced spacecraft to 

explore the Earth and Solar System. In this connection, the 

Information Infrastructure Technology and Applications 

(IITA) program applies HPCC technology to developing 

programs not only for aerospace design and manufacturing 

but also for use in elementary and secondary education, 

experiments in packet video over the Internet, digital library 

technologies, and data base applications for remote sensing. 

In FY 1994 the IITA started several projects in data base 

applications for remote-sensing and digital-library technologies, and it established a public access center for the 

products of remote sensing. During the fiscal year, the 

Computational AeroSciences component of the HPCC program installed I28 of the 160 planned processors for a new 

IBM SP-2 at Ames Research Center, California. The new 

system will greatly augment other scalable parallel computers to provide research platforms for systems software, 

virtual wind tunnels, critical disciplines research, and other 

projects beneficial to the aerospace and manufacturing industries. The projects will lead to significant enhancements 

in design support and in computer simulation of aerodynamic performance. These will produce more efficient and 

cost-effective aircraft and spacecraft design. The HPCC 

program has also started research into the use of highperformance workstations so as to decrease dramatically the 

costs of many high-performance computing requirements 

while ensuring reliable performance on workstations in 

diverse geographical locations. Finally, the Numerical 

Aeronautics Simulation (NAS) facility at Ames underwent 

major improvements during 1994 to support the requirements of the aeronautics community, 170 of whose representatives attended a workshop titled “Distributed Computing of Aerospace Applications” sponsored by the NAS 

facilities. Many aerospace industry leaders have already 

attributed major cost savings to the NAS facilities. 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation 

Among many projects and programs of the FAA in the 

area of air traffic control, the Traffic Alert and Collision 

Avoidance System (TCAS) uses air-to-air interrogations of 

1995 41 
transponder-equipped aircraft to provide pilots with traffic 

advisories indicating the range, attitude, and bearing ofother 

tional Airport and on ICAO recommendations. A stop-bar 

lighting system is intended to prevent aircraft from entering 

planes posing potential threats. The agency will require 

TCAS I, a low-power system that provides alerting but does 

not recommend escape maneuvers, in turbine-powered commercial airplanes with 10 to 30 passenger seats by the midto late 1990's. Public Laws 100-223 and 101-236 require 

that all air carrier aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats 

operating in U.S. airspace be equipped with TCAS II. It 

alerts pilots to traffic and advises whether to climb or 

descend when a potential conflict occurs. At the end of FY 

1994 there were more than 6,000 air carrier and business 

aircraft equipped with TCAS 11, and more than 25 million 

flight hours have been accumulated with the equipment 

worldwide. In addition, pilot reports show that the system 

has already prevented midair collisions. During FY 1994, 

the FAA continued to monitor the performance of TCAS I 

and I1 and to make adjustments as necessary. 

The FAA's Advanced Traffic Management System 

(ATMS) sought to develop enhanced automation capabilities for air traffic flow management. In FY 1994, the agency 

implemented a new automation function, Delay Manager, 

that provides the traffic flow manager with the capability to 

estimate the operational impact of alternative air traffic 

control flow management actions. 

During the fiscal year, the FAA delivered the first Voice 

Switching and Control System (VSCS) to the Seattle Air 

Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). On June 29,1994, 

the agency accepted delivery of its second unit at the Salt 

Lake ARTCC. The VSCS is an automated communication 

system that provides flexible, digital air-to-ground and 

ground-to-ground voice communications links between controllers and enroute aircraft. When fully operational, the 

VSCS will be responsible for communications among controllers at ARTCCs. The new digital system will allow the 

FAA to begin planning for eventual decommissioning of the 

presently owned and leased voice switching equipment, 

which is over 30 years old. Eight additional operational 

VSCS's were on order at the end of the fiscal year. The 

software baselines have undergone evaluation and testing at 

the FAA's Technical Center in Atlantic City, New Jersey. 

An essential part of aircraft movement on airport surfaces is proper guidance during taxiing. Hence, it is necessary that the FAA design and maintain the visual guidance 

systems (lighting, marking, and signs) to avoid any ambiguity in intended operational use. During FY 1994, the FAA 

revised a draft specification for a U.S. standard stop-bar 

lighting system based on testing at Seattle Tacoma Interna- 

- 

the runway area without proper approval, and it improves 

safety for low-visibility operations below 600 feet runway 

visual range. The agency completed an inservice evaluation 

of the system at Seattle during the fiscal year. The FAA has 

also completed a study on improved pavement marking 

materials. This included an evaluation of different sizes of 

retroflective beads added to the marking materials. 

The FAA's Terminal Area Surveillance System 

(TASS), chartered to provide a single-system replacement 

for the existing mix of multiple aircraft and weather terminal 

surveillance systems, has been conducting research and 

technology demonstrations of design concepts expected to 

increase capacity and efficiency while maintaining safety. 

The effort has focused on seamless coverage from gate to 

gate and timely hazardous weather detection and prediction 

integrated with surface and enroute data. The selected 

design will provide lower maintenance costs through emphasis on solid-state technology and the modularity and 

upgradability of the system to accommodate site-specific 

needs. During FY 1994, the FAA (I) evaluated the results 

of exploratory work in various pulse-Compression processing techniques, methods to detect and track wake vortices, 

capabilities of phased-array radars, and simulated displays 

of weather and aircraft tracking data; (2) completed initial 

simulations that demonstrated that a 5-percent increase in 

capacity is achievable with wind data from TASS sensors; 

(3) completed two milestones of a cooperative agreement 

with the DoD on an ARPA technology reinvestment project 

for the building and demonstration of an advanced airport 

radar system based on dual-use monolithic microwave integrated circuit technologies; (4) conducted a TASS industry 

day forum and released to industry all nonproprietary TASS 

program reports and documentation to provide interested 

parties an opportunity to contribute to the formulation of the 

TASS program strategy; (5) completed an Air Traffic Terminal Surveillance Requirements Report documenting controllers' needs inthe terrninalarea,a baselinefortheprogram's 

initial operational requirement document; and (6) initiated a 

cost-benefit analysis of alternative concepts identified during the concept exploration phase of the program. 

The FAA's Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation (TATCA) program provides software tools to aid controllers in traffic flow management in the airspace surrounding major airports. The FAA previously completed the 

development of a converging runway display aid. Successfully deployed at four airports, this technology for use during 

42 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
instrument meteorological conditions (bad weather) is 

planned for additional terminal facilities nationwide. The 

Center-TRACON Automation System (CTAS), jointly developed by the FAA and NASA, is also a part of the TATCA 

program. During this fiscal year, CTAS design strategy 

shifted from individual tool development to a combined 

approach of producing four software components. Future 

CTAS capabilities will include integration withothergroundbased and onboard systems technologies, including the 

flight management system, data link, aircraft communications addressing and reporting system, next-generation air 

traffic management, and automated enroute air traffic control. As the yearended, acooperative team of airframe users, 

onboard avionics manufacturers, and air traffic management 

system engineers was discussing interoperability issues and 

benefits to users. 

In June 1991, the FAA awarded a production contract 

for 26 Microwave Landing Systems (MLS‘s) for use in 

Category I conditions. In FY 1994, all 26 systems completed 

production, factory testing, and FAA factory acceptance. 

Seven systems had been installed at airports at the end of the 

fiscal year, with engineering and site preparation under way 

at 17 additional locations. On June 2, 1994, in a move 

designed to focus on the adoption of satellite technology and 

to save money, the FAA decided to halt further development 

of Category I1 and I11 MLS’s. The FAA terminated two 

existing development contracts. If Category I1 or LII MLS’s 

are required by any international treaty, the agency will 

acquire the systems on the open market. 

Predeparture Clearance (PDC) data link service continued at 30 airports with participation growing to include 

eleven carriers. General aviation participation increased to 

324 aircraft. During FY 1994, the FAA continued development work on the Tower Data Link Service, which included 

PDC Phase II, flight data input and output emulation, and the 

Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service, with expansion planned to 57 airports during FY 1995. The FAA 

also worked toward the development of U.S. and international standards for controller/pilot data link communications, which will be used to standardize interfaces for digital 

messages for air traffic communications services, helping to 

relieve pilot and controller workload while reducing voice 

channel congestion. In addition, the agency supported the 

development of the context management application, which 

enables aircraft and ground systems to maintain up-to-date 

addressing information while the aircraft traverses airspace. 

The FAA identified and documented Oceanic Data 

Link (ODL) requirements in a system segment specification 

and an interface requirements specification. During the 

fiscal year, the agency began ODL development and conducted testing of the prototype ODL for use by controllers; 

it also tested the related prototype Boeing datalink avionics 

package, which will be installed in aircraft. The FAA designed an Air Traffic Services Interfacility Data Communications (AIDC) system and developed a prototype for 

testing ground-to-ground data link communications between 

adjacent flight information regions. lnitial testing took place 

between the New York ARTCC and the Area Control Center 

at Piarco, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Additionally, 

the Russian Department for Air Transport agreed to permit 

the FAA to install a prototype AIDC in the Russian Far East 

and connect it to the Anchorage ARTCC. The agency also 

participated in the development of Dynamic Aircraft Route 

Planning (DAW) capability in the South Pacific. That 

capability provides the structure, procedures, and processes 

necessary for the rerouting of aircraft in midflight. During 

the fiscal year, the FAA completed several studies and 

collected the data used to generate scenarios for the end-toend system simulation of DAW, and the FAA Technical 

Center performed the simulation. The agency also finalized 

the Dynamic Oceanic Track System (DOTS) training plan. 

Efforts were under way at the end of the year to rehost the 

DOTS ontoanew hardwareplatform withanopenoperating 

system. The maintenance plan was also in development, and 

all existing documentation was being revised to reflect the 

new hardware and open architecture. 

In other areas related to air traffic and navigation, in 

FY 1994 the FAA approved a new oceanic intrail climb 

procedure; it allows a trailing aircraft to climb to a more fuelefficient altitude with less horizontal separation from a 

leading aircraft than previously required. The procedure is 

currently limited to use by United and Delta Airlines’ 

aircraft under the control of the Oakland ARTCC. The FAA 

also, in cooperation with the user community, formed a new 

operational concepts working group to coordinate modeling 

and analysis of a range of procedural and policy matters. The 

group conducted initial analysis in support of the RTCA 

(formerly, Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics) 

Task Force on Free Flight. In addition, the FAA is supporting NASA’s free-flight initiatives as outlined in a memorandum of agreement. Finally, after conducting an assessment of the five architectural options, the National Airspace 

System precision approach and landing system study group 

recommended as the future precision approach and landing 

architecture the wide area augmentation systedlocal differential GPS for Category I approach procedures and a GPS1995 43 
based system for Categories I1 and In approach procedures. 

Following a series of independent reviews of the Advanced Automation System (AAS) program in FY 1994, 

the FAA restructured the program tocontain cost growth and 

minimize delays. When completed, the restructured program will provide the same functions and benefits as the 

original program but with a different implementation approach. The new system will upgrade the capacity and 

reliability of the airspace system, increase controller 

productivity, provide greater fuel efficiency, minimize delays, and give the flexibility needed for future enhancements. The FAA was planning to replace the equipment 

used at the end of the fiscal year by controllers with new 

computer software, processors, tower position consoles, and 

controller workstations. In the enroute environment, the 

most pressing need was the replacement of antiquated controller displays and the computers that drove them. The new 

plan called for a display system replacement that will provide controllers with a new workstation and peripherals. 

Initial deployment of the automated enroute air traffic control project will enablecontrollers to begin a major transition 

to more flexible routing and more fuel-efficient aircraft 

operations. In the terminal environment, the plan includes 

short-term projects to replace or upgrade aging and inflexible subsystems of the automated radar terminal system. The 

longer-term solution requires proceeding with astand-alone 

TRACON replacement project, based on commercial products and technology, to remove functional limitations and 

facilitate the phased introduction of user benefit capabilities. 

The tower program will provide technical enhancements, a 

computer-human interface, and consolidation of various 

automated capabilities into a single, efficient system. This 

will ease the problem of limited physical space, enhance 

safety, and provide a platform for further automation. 

This program was especially important because an 

increase in air traffic has led to congestion at major airports 

with a corresponding increase in delays and inconvenience 

for passengers as well as in costs and time to operators. 

Unless system capacity is increased, the annual delay of 

20,000 hours at a number of airports is estimated to grow to 

39,000 hours by 1997. Civil tiltrotor offers a unique 

opportunity to create a new aircraft market and simultaneously reduce a large portion of short-haul traffic at major 

airports. Studies conducted by the U.S. aircraft industry, 

NASA, the FAA, and various state and local transportation 

authorities have shown that the civil tiltrotor can be a viable 

solution for relieving air traffic congestion. A commercially 

viable, U.S.-manufactured tiltrotor can provide an increase 

of approximately $5 to $7 billion in sales revenue as well as 

an increase in aviation jobs. Furthermore, it will substantially relieve our overcrowded major airports and increase U.S. 

aviation exports. NASA’s civil tiltrotor research has begun 

building the technological foundation for a vertical take off 

and landing commuter airliner of the future that will operate 

from conveniently located, inner city vertiports. The civil 

tiltrotor element focuses on noise reduction, cockpit integration, proprietor efficiency, contingency power, and technology integration. Major accomplishments in FY 1994 included the first wind-tunnel test of a four-bladed proprotor, 

the most comprehensive tiltrotor test to date. The test data 

will substantially add to the understanding of the acoustic 

improvements inherent in the four-bladed proprotor. NASA 

also completed the critical design review for the TiltRotor 

Aero-acoustic Model (TRAM), a critically important 

proprotor test stand for use in the 40-by-80-foot wind tunnel 

at Ames. Its successful implementation will greatly facilitate full-scale aerodynamics testing of future proprotors. 

Additionally, this year NASA published the first Government and industry characteristics standard for tiltrotor performance. The standard represents current tiltrotor technology that will be used as a baseline for comparison with 

future designs. 

In a separate program, NASA initiated the Terminal 

Area Productivity (TAP) program. Its goal is to achieve 

clear-weather capability in instrument weather conditions 

and do so safely and affordably. TAP consists of reduced 

separation requirements, air traffic management, low-visibility landing and surface operations, and aircraft-air traffic 

control systems integration. Wake vortex systems research 

has begun to reduce separation standards for runway operations safely through investigations, tests, and documentation. The wake vortex systems effort consists of identifying 

and modeling wake vortices mathematically. The goal is to 

develop models that will predict wake vortex hazards and to 

develop sensor concepts to detect wake vortex hazards on 

final approach. 

Weather-Related Aeronautical 

Activities 

NASA applied a similar process to the NASA-FAA 

Airborne Wind Shear Advanced Technology program. 

The Terminal Area Simulation System (TASS), a model of 

the atmosphere with cloud microphysics incorporated, pro44 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
vided an unprecedented capability to the NASA and FAA 

research program to study wind shear. After extensive 

evaluation of the candidate sensors in the simulated 

microburst environment of the TASS, there were flight tests 

of candidate wind-shear sensors. TASS also provided the 

foundation for the certification and test criteria to be applied 

to commercial wind-shear radar systems. Relatedly, in FY 

1994, the FAA certified a forward-look wind-shear detection device that provides the aircrew with advanced warning 

of hazardous wind shear, enabling pilots to avoid the hazard. 

The agency has required the air carrier community to have 

“reactive” warning device sonboard civil air transports since 

early 1994. The FAA has completed a wind-shear research 

program addressing commuter and air taxi operators, extending previously acquired knowledge to this important 

segment of the air transportation system. A computer-based 

training program is available to the entire aviation community through the National Technical Information Service. 

To achieve TAP’S goals and meet the challenges of 

modern-day air traffic, NASA replaced its outdated Transport Systems Research Vehicle (TSRV) with a new Boeing 

757 (B-757) that incorporated more advanced electronic 

systems than its predecessor, the 30-year-old TSRV-I. The 

TSRV supports field experiments to test reduced separation 

requirements for aircraft under TAP. For example, a series 

oftests is projected in Memphis, Tennessee, as acooperative 

effort with MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory in support of the 

NASA-FAA Integrated Wake Vortex Program (IWVP). 

These field experiments will provide a field capability for 

testing candidate predictor algorithms and operational wake 

vortex sensors, as well as provide an interface between 

meteorological and air traffic systems for testing demonstrations. During these field experiments, NASA will deploy 

lidar and supplemental meteorological sensors to record 

vortex and other atmospheric data. During the year, the FAA 

completed and implemented its wake vortex program plan, 

which includes a joint effort with NASA through a memorandum of agreement. This joint program will permit 

increases in airport capacity and will stress avoidance of 

wake turbulence through improved knowledge of vortex 

behavior. As the year ended, a Wake Vortex Training Aid 

was undergoing development through joint efforts of the 

FAA and the aviation community. Additionally, work had 

already begun to collect take off and landing data at John F. 

Kennedy International Airport in New York to validate 

sensor performance and determine meteorological effects 

on vortex behavior in the vicinity of the runway. The 

international community has also provided data regarding 

vortex encounters through an established reporting system 

located in the United Kingdom. France, Germany. and The 

Netherlands have been participants in this effort. 

The FAA also continued its development of the Integrated Terminal Weather System which will provide shortrange forecasts and warning notices for pilots and air traffic 

controllers. The agency conducted prototype tests at the 

Orlando and Memphis airports. Among other improvements in aviation weather services, the FAA and NOAA’s 

Forecast Systems Laboratory continued testing the improvements in the analysis and forecasting of weather data at 

Denver’s Stapleton Airport, using the Aviation Gridded 

Forecast System (AGFS), which provides more accurate and 

timely weather information. The National Center for Atmospheric Research also continued assisting the FAA in developing aviation weather products, which will be tailored for 

enroute application. NOAA and the FAA continued evaluations of prototype aviation user products at the Denver 

airport and NOAA’s National Aviation Weather Advisory 

Unit in Kansas City. 

During the year, the FAA completed the report, “Other 

Ways to Characterize the Icing Atmosphere.” which facilitates the use of icing-related variables for the design of 

aircraft ice protection systems, computer modeling, icing 

tunnel settings, and evaluation of flight test results with 

regard to icing. The agency continued the assessment and 

verification of commuter aircraft with potential susceptibility to ice-induced stalls of the tail. In cooperation with 

NASA, the FAA initiated efforts to develop techniques to 

recognize this susceptibility during icing certification testing. Also in cooperation with NASA, the FAA has been 

developing simulation methodologies and analytical techniques from which to design and test ice protection systems. 

The FAA incorporated much of this and related information 

on iceprotectionintoitsFY 1994updateto theAircrafrIcing 

Handbook. The agency continued its investigation of technologies associated with aircraft ground deicing and antiicing fluids, optimal application procedures, holdover-time 

guidelines, and associated aerodynamic effects. The FAA 

also undertook research, development, and evaluation of 

surface ice detectors and related technologies. One surface 

ice detector system will be evaluated in a cooperative effort 

with United Airlines. 

The FAA and the manufacturer installed all 190 federally procured automated weather observing systems, with 

nearly all having been commissioned. Forty-two automated 

1995 45 
surface observing systems, the result of a cooperative program of the FAA and the National Weather Service (NWS), 

have been commissioned, 40 by the NWS and 2 by the FAA. 

During FY 1994, the FAA developed a research and 

development data base to address the electrical hazards 

associated with lightning. In addition, the agency continued 

its joint programs with NASA’s Langley Research Center, 

the DOE’S Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 

California, and the Doc’s National Institute of Standards 

and Technology to study the effectiveness of shielding 

aircraft and airframes from lightning and high-intensity 

radiated fields, emissions that could interfere with electronic 

systems. 

The FAA’s Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) 

provides timely detection of hazardous wind shear in and 

near airport terminal approach and departure corridors, and 

it reports that information to pilots and controllers. FAA 

plans call for acquiring 47 systems for deployment at 45 

airports. During FY 1994, the agency commissioned a 

TDWR at Houston and installed the system at Denver, 

Memphis, New Orleans, Orlando, and St. Louis. A related 

system, the enhanced Low-Level Wind shear Alert System 

(LLWAS), was on hold at the end of the fiscal year while the 

FAA analyzed the need for sustaining LLWAS another 15 

years at 38 airports not scheduled to receive either a TDWR 

or an airport surveillance radar wind shear processor. 

Also during FY 1994, the FAA completed development, testing, and installation of a modification to integrate 

data fromthe Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) 

into the Meteorologist Weather Processor I (MWP 1)-an 

existing system that provides meteorologists located in 

ARTCC’s with weather data, processing, and display capabilities to support real-time air traffic control operations 

across the United States. The NEXRAD modification 

provides access to individual radar products from all operational NEXRAD’s as well as regional and national weather 

radar mosaics. The agency completed installation of the 

modification in all 21 ARTCC’s and the new Air Traffic 

Control System Command Center in Herndon, Virginia, in 

May 1994. 

Flight Safety and Security 

In the area of advanced materials and structural 

safety, the FAA published two reports on delamination 

methodology for composite structures, describing how to 

assess size and location of delaminations on composite 

airframes to determine their effects on strength and service 

life. The FAA used recently developed software to assess 

the structural integrity of all composite Learfan aircraft. 

Nondestructive inspection and analysis in the field have 

shown that the delaminations found were smaller than the 

allowable damage sizes. The agency also published a report 

exploring the use of an ultrasonic resonance technique to 

find weak bonds. The technique proved to be 97-percent 

effective in detecting known weak bonds but was subject to 

a range between 14 and 31 percent of false reject errors 

depending on the evaluation criteria. In-house research 

resulted in two completed chapters for a handbook on 

bonded and bolted joints in composite structures. The 

program office also presented three papers on advanced 

materials and bolted joints at conferences during this fiscal 

year. Also during the year, the FAA conducted a vertical 

drop test of a IO-foot section of a narrowbody fuselage to 

determine the reactions experienced by the fuselage, onboard 

overhead bins, and the auxiliary fuel tank system. NASA, in 

conjunction with the FAA, conducted a pendulum swing test 

of a Learfan 2 100 to determine the reaction of thecompositematerial fuselage. The FAA had experimental energyabsorbing seats installed on this airplane to determine its 

reactions. In addition, the agency upgraded the computer 

program “KRASH’ with an algorithm for aircraft impacts 

into soft soil. The FAA published a report that reviewed and 

analyzed worldwide impact and ditching performance into 

water for transport aircraft for the years 1959 to 1991 to 

determine the adequacy of current ditching requirements. 

Also, the agency published a report that surveyed and 

analyzed current rotorcraft flotation systems. 

In cooperation with NASA, the FAA sponsored an 

international symposium on methods for maintaining the 

structural integrity of aging aircraft during 1994. The two 

agencies also conducted numerous technical workshops on 

this increasing problem in the U.S. commercial air transport 

fleet. The FAA published a revised program plan on 

research in this area in October 1993, as well as a quarterly 

newsletter during the fiscal year and a draft advisory circular. The FAA developed a prototype immersion device for 

focused ultrasonic inspections in the vertical and reverse 

horizontal positions, then tested the device both in the 

laboratory and in a field demonstration at Northwest Airlines. Also, the agency integrated its self-compensating 

ultrasonic technique for the detection of fatigue cracks and 

corrosion with commercially available hardware and software and conducted laboratory and field tests of the resulting 

46 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
system on manufactured samples provided by Northwest 

Airlines. Under an international agreement with Transport 

Canada, the FAA developed an enhanced visual inspection 

device for rapid surface corrosion detection called D-Sight. 

It tested that system on the Boeing 737 belonging to its 

Aging Aircraft Nondestructive Validation Center as well as 

on an Air Canada aircraft. Other achievements of the FAA 

during the year included publishing a damage-tolerance 

handbook and video for engineering and maintenance personnel; a prototype software package on aircraft and fuselage repairs; a 2-week video survey of landing parameters 

undertaken with Navy personnel at Kennedy International 

Airport; and a prototype safety performance analysis that it 

has installed in 24 regional and field offices, FAA headquarters, the FAA Technical Center, and the DoD’s Air Mobility 

Command. Meanwhile, NASA experimentally verified its 

two-dimensional models to predict the residual strength and 

fatigue-crack growth of aging structures. It developed 

software and transferred user-friendly computer codes to 

industry. NASA completed successful field demonstrations 

of several prototype, portable instruments for detecting 

corrosion and small fatigue cracks in aircraft structures. 

These led to product licensing agreements and cooperative 

partnerships with industry to develop commercial equipment for use by airline maintenance personnel. A novel, 

self-nulling eddy-current instrument developed by scientists 

at Langley Research Center is capable of detecting fatigue 

cracks as small as 0.05 inches. It can mapcorrosion damage 

to accuracies within 3 percent of wall thinning in aluminum 

sheet material. Under a new licensing agreement with 

NASA, the Kraut Kramer Corporation will develop and 

build several advanced prototypes for industry and FAA 

evaluation, including a battery-powered, handheld instrument for field inspections. The advanced technology being 

developed by NASA in this area has many dual-use applications. Under a recently implemented memorandum of 

understanding between NASA and the Air Force, these 

technologies will be specialized and transferred to air logistics centers to assist in the safe and economical operation of 

aging military weapons systems well into the next century. 

In another area related to flight safety, the production of 

halon fire extinguishing agents, used extensively in commercial transport cargo compartments, engine nacelles, lavatory trash receptacles, and portable extinguishers, ceased on 

January 1, 1994, because of their contributions to the depletion of the ozone layer. During the fiscal year, the FAA 

initiated a test program to develop certification criteria for 

halon replacement agents, evaluating water spray, pyrotechnically generated aerosol, and a hydrochlorofluorocarbon 

gas on cargo compartment fires; it found them not as effective as halon. As a result of this and tests to determine flight 

attendants’ effectiveness in fighting cargo compartment 

fires, the FAA will develop new cargo compartment fire 

protection requirements for commuter airplanes. In FY 

1994, the agency completed testing to ensure greater survivability of flight data and cockpit voice recorders subjected to 

postcrash fire. Since 1989, six accidents have occurred 

worldwide in which vital flight recorder data were lost 

because of the thermal degradation of the magnetic tape 

recording media. Based in part on the completed testing, the 

FAA will propose new fire test certification criteria. The 

new test will double theexposure time ofthecurrent fuel fire 

simulation test and add a new fire test requirement to 

simulate a long-duration, smoldering fire that may occur at 

a remote accident site. 

The FAA also completed tests at a number of large 

airports to evaluate and develop a Drivers’ Enhanced Vision 

System (DEVS) for Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

(ARFF) vehicles to improve response capability under conditions of poor visibility. DEVS consists essentially of a 

forward-looking infrared system for enhanced driver visibility and a GPS/Geographic Information System (GIS) for 

vehicle positioning on a map display. The FAA also completed fire extinguishing tests on two halon replacement 

agents, perfluorohexane and Halotron I, for application in 

flightline extinguishers and ARFF vehicle extinguishing 

equipment. Halotron I with improved discharge characteristics proved to be the more effective of the two in extinguishing aircraft and fuel fires. 

The FAA Technical Center continued working on the 

development of an unleaded aviation gasoline for use in the 

existing fleet of general aviation aircraft with piston engines. 

This program is primarily concerned with issues of safety 

certification and eventually will culminate in a new fuel 

specification, but it has generated dataon environmental and 

maintenance issues as well. The principal research topics 

include octane requirements, emissions, and endurance. 

The FAA, various oil companies, and engine manufacturers 

have been working together to develop standard testing 

procedures to identify the minimum octane requirements of 

the existing piston aircraft engines. In support of the octane 

requirement study, the FAA compiled surveys identifying 

the properties of autogas that is currently used in light 

aircraft, as well as an aircraft registry summary showing the 

1995 47 
number of single-engine piston aircraft certified on each fuel 

grade. The emission tests compared a base fuel to a similar 

fuel containing various percentages of methyl tertiary butyl 

ether (MTBE), with fuel flows adjusted to obtain equivalent 

energy densities. The results showed a decrease in carbon 

monoxide and NOx in exhaust gases. In addition, more 

power was generated using increasing amounts of MTBE. 

Tests in late September 1994 identified the Octane requirements of current test engines before use in a flight test 

program. 

The FAA continued to develop and research technologies and methodologies to mitigate and prevent catastrophic 

failure of aircraft. As the year ended, studies and tests were 

ongoing in areas of flight control technologies, lightweight 

material barriers for high-energy rotor fragment mitigation, 

and aircraft loads. Grants and small business innovation 

research awards have further expanded research in aircraft 

control, load technology, and rotor fragment mitigation. 

During FY 1994, the agency and NASA’s Lewis Research 

Center in Ohio completed evaluation tests of a Health Usage 

Monitoring System (HUMS) for rotorcraft. This evaluation 

will help the FAA develop certification and regulatory 

criteria for HUMS operation on rotorcraft. 

The recent advent of larger and heavier civil transport 

aircraft has necessitated advanced technology for proper 

assessment of whether airport pavements remain safe. The 

FAA continued its comprehensive Airport Pavement Research Program, including the development of advanced 

pavement design methodologies. In August 1994, the FAA 

signed an agreement with the Army Corps of Engineers for 

construction of the first National Airport Pavement Test 

Machine facility. It will provide full-scale testing data 

urgently needed to investigate the performance of airport 

pavements subjected to the complex gear loads of the new 

generation of aircraft. The FAA also completed the construction of the first fully instrumented runway section at the 

Denver International Airport. Using planes of various sizes 

and tireconfigurations, the agency completed the calibration 

of a system of almost 500 sensors to collect data in real time, 

providing the first source of accurate information on pavement performance. Also during the fiscal year, the FAA 

introduced a layered elastic design method with guidelines 

to permit airports to cope with the Boeing 777’s impact on 

their pavement once it begins commercial flight in 1995. 

Also, as a part of its efforts to develop an index of runway 

roughness, the FAA completed a field study at 10 selected 

airports. The study will determine appropriate limits and 

corrective measures for irregular runway profiles. 

The FAA continued efforts to identify, initiate, and 

coordinate actions to promote technology applicable to 

general aviation and vertical flight in the national airspace 

system. The agency initiated work to improve coordination 

and cooperation with NASA on general aviation programs 

of mutual interest, such as innovative aircraft design, new 

cockpit display and control technologies, enhanced ground 

cockpit information systems, noise reduction, and situational awareness for safety. Research continued with 

NASA’s Ames Research Center to develop steep-angle 

approach profiles to reduce rotorcraft noise. The FAA 

continued to conduct flight tests for development of criteria 

for GPS nonprecision-approach, terminal instrument procedures for use at heliports across the Nation. Such tests are 

part of a program to improve safety for rotorcraft instrument 

flights in poor weather conditions. The agency is participating with NASA, the DoD, and industry as part of the 

National Rotorcraft Technology Center to promote and 

expand the U.S. rotorcraft technology base as well. 

During FY 1994, the FAA continued its efforts to 

strengthen civil aviation security through research and 

development, initiating extensive tests at its Security Research Laboratory. These included the evaluation of a 

resonance device for explosive detection in baggage and of 

two commercially available, trace-explosives-detection devices, as well as the development of standards for explosive 

detection devices. The FAA also deployed agency-owned, 

commercially available explosives-detection equipment at 

three U.S. airports for test periods of 3 to 6 months each. 

Another airport testfdemonstration evaluated a tomography 

x-ray device to detect explosives in baggage. The manufacturer of this device became the first company to apply for 

certification testing under the FAA’s criteria for explosivesdetection systems. Additional research included the evaluation of two prototype personnel portal screening devices and 

of two explosives-detection devices for baggage at Glasgow 

International Airport, Scotland. The agency also completed 

its first series of characterization tests for luggage containers. The completed testing of an enhanced airport security 

system at Baltimore/Washington International Airport 

yielded more than 70 reports being made available to industry. During the fiscal year, the FAA held security awareness 

gaming exercises at three domestic airports and conducted 

an operational test and evaluation of an improvised explosive device using black-and-white and color-enhanced x-ray 

machines, both before and after specialized screener train48 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
ing. Also, the agency developed the functional requirements 

for a screener proficiency evaluation and reporting system. 

In addition, the FAA developed, operationally tested, and 

evaluated a profiling technique for domestic passengers to 

highlight passengers categorized as high-security risks. 

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors 

The FAA completed final details concerning the procurement of a reconfigurable advanced general aviation 

research simulator, with installation at the Civil Aeromedical 

Institute scheduled for the first quarter of FY 1995. Work 

has continued on enhancing the capability of a system used 

to recreate air traffic controller incidents with the objective 

of developing controller and sector-task-load measures. 

During the fiscal year, the agency also initiated joint international research projects with The Netherlands and Sweden to 

evaluate and validate a computerized test as a selection 

instrument for air traffic controllers. An extensive field 

study in several FAA regions evaluated a “pen-based” 

computerized job aid that allows information to be entered 

into a computer by using a stylus to write directly on the 

computer screen. The FAA aviation inspectors were provided with these systems and specially developed software 

in a study of methods for improving the efficiency and 

quality of the inspectors’ work. The FAA also evaluated 

human blood and tissue samples for toxicologic analysis 

from over 80 percent of all pilots in civil aviation accidents. 

Positive chemical or pharmaceutical findings were noted in 

34 percent of these cases. The FAA’s forensic capabilities 

were enhanced by the introduction of a Deoxyribo-Nucleic 

Acid (DNA) laboratory that facilitates specimen identification and by more sensitive methods to detect newer cardiovascular and tranquilizer medications. 

The FAA completed a study on the effect of automation 

on corporate aircraft pilots; it suggests that errors made by 

pilots could be alleviated by redesigning cockpit computer 

programs. The FAA’s study of flight deck information 

management resulted in preliminary guidelines outlining 

functional control and display requirements as well as procedures for the classification and prioritization of information on future flight deck systems. Research also showed 

that human performance would be improved by functionally 

grouping flight deck information and integrating displays. 

During the fiscal year, the FAA also designed a handbook on 

improving the presentation of instrument-approach-procedure charts. The agency studied the human-factor problems 

associated with the operation of the Loran-C and GPS 

systems, focusing on input controls, software logic, viability 

and order of displayed data, and the complexity of all 

available functions. Problems in theseareas havelimited the 

use of these systems and affected the operational integration 

of the systems into the national aerospace system; they may 

pose a safety problem if uncorrected. 

Additionally, agency research on crew resource management and decisionmaking focused on reviewing existing 

empirical information on the variables affecting situational 

awareness, identifying individual and team-level behavioral 

skills, and developing a model to test and validate these 

skills. The FAA supported NASA in its aeronautical 

decisionmaking research by reviewing current knowledge 

about it and related research, developing preliminary criteria 

for effectiveness, and investigating decisionmaking scenarios. The FAA also conducted research dealing specifically with aeronautical decisionmaking in general aviation 

settings, That research dealt with improving the 

decisionmaking skills of inexperienced pilots in such areas 

as weather avoidance and risk assessment. To support this 

effort, the agency conducted a national survey of pilots to 

determine typical experience levels, training activities, and 

attitudes toward safety issues. The agency also initiated a 

study of the automated performance measurement system, 

designed to measure when and why crew performance 

diminishes in the cockpit. Although the benefits of the 

system range from improved flight safety to validation of air 

traffic control procedures’and air carrier training, the FAA 

discovered problems such as difficulty in converting data 

into useful information. Agency researchers concluded that 

the system must be affordable, goal-directed, and tailored to 

the immediate use of airlines. The FAA’s investigations of 

shift schedules for air traffic controllers resulted in the 

completion of both laboratory and field studies to determine 

the effects of the rapidly rotating shift schedule on sleep and 

performance. The agency used the findings to develop 

strategies for coping with sleep loss often associated with 

shift work. The FAA also initiated research to evaluate the 

effectiveness of fatigue countermeasures. The effects of 

fatigue while monitoring a simulated air traffic control 

display revealed a number of significant changes in eye 

movement that could serve as possible indicators of loss of 

alertness. The agency initiated a follow-on study to determine the feasibility of using noninvasive techniques to 

assess changes in eye movements as potential measures of a 

loss of attention or a decline in alertness. 

1995 49 
Studies of the Planet Earth 

Spacecraft launched into Earth orbit over the past 35 

years have enabled humans to observe the home planet 

repeatedly and on a global basis, allowing scientists in a 

great variety of disciplines to study the Earth as a whole and 

parts thereof in ways analogous to practices carried on by 

other scientists in a laboratory. Applications of this comparatively new capability have ranged widely but can be 

broken down basically into terrestrial, atmospheric, and 

oceanographic studies, although there has been considerable 

overlap among these categories in some programs and 

projects. 

Te r res t r i a I Studies and A p p I i cations 

Terrestrial studies themselves encompass a broad range 

of activities. Among them was NASA’s demonstration 

during FY 1994 of two new techniques for observing the 

environment from space. The first of these was a multifrequency, multipolarization radar-the most complex civilian 

radar ever flown in space-to study ecology, water cycles, 

vegetative cover, oceanography, geology, and volcanology. 

In cooperation with Italy and Germany, the Space Radar 

Laboratory flew on the Space Shuttle Endeavour during 

April (SRL- 1) and September-October 1994(SRL-2). These 

missions have enabled a team of 52 scientists and ground 

teams around the world to observe the shifting boundaries 

between temperate and boreal (northern) forests, plus other 

natural phenomena. The results will be used for mapmaking, 

study, and interpretation. For example, the USGS has begun 

studying the Sahara in North Africa, the southern part of 

Africa, Asia, and the southwestern United States using 

images from the SRL. Because radar signals penetrate dry 

sand and produce images of geologic features otherwise 

concealed by windblown sand in desert regions, the radar 

laboratory’s images are being used to map thedistribution of 

various geologic indicators of climate change and of untapped resources, particularly those related to old, dry river 

systems. 

During April and May 1994, NASA and the Canadian 

government conducted a campaign known as the Boreal 

Ecosystem- Atmosphere Study (BOREAS)-a large-scale, 

ground-based and remote-sensing investigation of how the 

forests and the atmosphere exchange energy, heat, water, 

carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. SRL-1 repeatedly 

imaged BOREAS ground sites, allowing scientists to compare the spaceborne data with their readings from ground 

and aircraft investigations. Sample results indicate that 

water evaporation rates in the boreal (northern) forests of 

central Canada are extremely low. These data will correct 

current models that overpredict atmospheric moisture. In a 

tangentially related development, in August I 994 NASA, 

NOAA, and the Canadian Space Agency reached final 

agreement on the data policy for the Canadian Radarsat 

spacecraft. Once launched, Radarsat will map the world, 

collecting all-weather data of particular value over ice and 

oceans. The program plan calls for tilting the satellite to 

provide a complete mapping of Antarctica as one of the 

mission objectives. 

The second of NASA’s new techniques for environmental observation was lidar-using a laser in a manner 

similar to radar by bouncing it off objects (e.g., clouds, 

pollutants, the Earth’s surface) and then making environmental measurements from the reflected energy. The LIDAR In-Space Technology Experiment (LITE) flew on 

the Space Shuttle Discovery in September and observed 

clouds invisible to conventional weather satellites, dust 

clouds over Africa, and the structure of a super typhoon in 

the Pacific, including the top level of clouds and the storm’s 

eye. 

In June 1994, meanwhile. NASA announced that it had 

competitively selected two industry-led teams to build, 

launch, and operate two experimental satellitesdach no 

bigger than a console television set and commonly referred 

to as “Lewis and Clark“-as part of NASA’s small spacecraft technology demonstration. The entire contract process 

lastedonly 70days instead of thestandard 6 months to ayear. 

“Lewis” will be the first-ever space-based “hyper-spectral” 

imaging system, with wideapplications in Earth science and 

new commercial business opportunities. “Clark” will help 

city planners and developers evaluate sites and construction 

needs through the use of an optical element with very high 

spatial resolution and capabilities for stereo imaging. Both 

spacecraft will carry additional instruments that will provide 

information on the dynamics of global atmospheric pollution for NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE). 

MTPE has included education and public awareness as 

part of its vision to ensure that the public has sufficient 

information and understanding to support the development 

of prudent policy in the future regarding global environmental change. Significant efforts are under way at the Federal 

and agency levels and within MWE to coordinate and 

50 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
convey program results moreeffectively. In this connection, 

so as to be a catalyst for progress, NASA has begun addressing educational challenges at several levels-training the 

next generation of Earth scientists who will approach global 

change from an interdisciplinary perspective, training teachers at the undergraduate level to provide the tools to teach 

Earth system science, and educating the public at the societal 

level to build confidence in and understanding of scientific 

methods. One of the priorities of the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program (USGCRP) is to address and contribute 

to scientific education and communications. In April 1994, 

Vice President Albert Gore, Jr., announced Global Learning 

and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE), a 

major new initiative to have students from around the world 

make measurements, submit them to a central source for 

processing, and analyze the collective findings. Scientists 

will be able to use the results in their environmental research. 

NOAA and NASA have been leading this effort with contributions from the NSF, EPA, the State Department, and other 

agencies. The agencies of the USGCW made significant 

progress during the year in improving coordination in education and outreach, including the development of teacher 

training materials, the provision of fellowships in environmental research, and contributions to new national standards 

for the teaching of science. 

NASA-sponsored analysis of data from Landsat-4 

and -5 for 1978 and 1988 showed that deforestation in the 

Brazilian Amazon Basin was lower than some previous 

estimates had suggested. However, the fragmentation of the 

rain forest and the “edge effects” on the perimeters of these 

fragments were greater than had been believed, potentially 

increasing the threat of species extinction. Tropical forests 

are home to nearly half of all plant and animal species on the 

Earth. Researchers concluded that while the area of deforestation had nearly tripled in the IO-year period, the total 

deforested area was smaller than predicted by many other 

studies. Working in closecooperation with researchers from 

Brazil, the authors of the study validated the use of Landsat 

data for estimating deforestation in the Amazon, previously 

an issue of substantial controversy. Other researchers also 

demonstrated Landsat’s effectiveness by combining its imagery with GIS technology to identify types and location of 

landscape elements associated with the risk of Lyme disease 

in Westchester County, New York. Also, analysis of data 

from a combination of Landsat, airborne, and ground-based 

scanners continued to be used to battle pest damage to 

California’s $10 billion-a-year wine industry. About 65 

percent of Napaand SonomaCounties’ vineyards are planted 

with a grape rootstock vulnerable to a new variety of phylloxera. an aphid-like insect that kills grapevines by sucking 

juice from their roots. The spatial and spectral analysis from 

Landsat’s scanners can detect problems before they become 

visible to vintners. 

Relatedly, theUSGS EROS Data Center is the Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC) for data about land 

processes to be acquired and distributed in support of the 

Earth Observing System (EOS). Its functions include storage, management, and distribution of data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer and- Advanced 

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, 

which will fly on the first EOS platform in 1998, and from 

Landsat-7. The EROS Data Center was also planning to 

archive and distribute other data sets through its Land 

Processes DAAC, including data from the Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on NOAA’s polarorbiting satellites, digital aircraft scanner data, digital topography, and associated ancillary data. The EROS Data 

Center DAAC component of the EOS Data and Information 

System (EOSDIS) Version 0 became operational in Fy 

1994, providing user access to electronic networks, 

interoperable catalogs, and data distribution capabilities at 

the EROS Data Center as well as at the other DAAC’s. The 

center was in the process of converting historical Landsat 

data from aging magnetic media to new cassette tapes to 

preserve them for future use. It completed the conversion of 

352.000 Landsat Multispectral Scanner scenes acquired 

since 1979, and it also converted about 30 percent of the 

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data in the archive. 

The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) 

within NOAA had a fully operational center for processing, 

archiving, and disseminating data from the DMSP. It 

became fully operational during the fiscal year, processing 

data within 48 hours of collection by the Air Force and 

provided browse images routinely on the Internet. Also 

available on the Internet, NGDC’s geophysical online data 

were accessed by an order of magnitude more users than just 

a year before. Also, NGDC employees visited more than 30 

different classrooms in local schools throughout the year to 

present workshops on such subjects as earthquakes, volcanoes, and geomagnetism. 

Information management is one of the main program 

elements of NOAA’s Climate and Global Change (C&GC) 

program. It provides the scientific community with the data 

and information necessary to evaluate the variability of the 

1995 51 
global environment, distinguish between natural and human-induced change, and perform integrated assessments of 

changes in climate and their societal impacts. Foci of the 

program include data base development (rescue, digitization, and assembly of high-priority data sets); data access 

and archive management, which provide the means to make 

the data sets available to scientists; and Pathfinder, which is 

developing community-consensus algorithms for the reprocessing and dissemination of large-volume, multidecadal, 

global-scale, operational-satellite data sets. In FY 1994, the 

program supported governmental and academic researchers 

in 31 projects. 

As part of the Landsat Pathfinder program, the USGS 

has been producing standardized Landsat Multispectral Scanner data sets from three periods (1973, 1986, and 1992) to 

support the EPA’s North American Landscape Characterization Program. In FY 1994, it produced about 400 out of 

a total of 4,000 scenes for parts of the United States, Mexico, 

and Central America. The USGS has also been cooperating 

with NASA plus the Universities of New Hampshire and 

Maryland to produce similar three-date-time-series Landsat 

data sets for the Humid Tropical Forest Inventory Project, 

which is studying the tropical forest regions of the Amazon 

Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia. These data sets 

will serve to monitor changes in land cover over these areas 

during the 20-year period since the beginning of the Landsat 

program. In a separate project using lower-resolution satellite data, since 1992 the USGS has been working with 

NASA, NOAA, ESA. and more than 31 foreign ground 

receiving stations to collect AVHRR data (1 -km resolution) 

for each afternoon pass of the NOAA polar-orbiting satellite 

over the Earth’s land surface. This Pathfinder project had 

collected over 93,000 AVHRR scenes by the end of the fiscal 

year. They were being used to produce a global land-cover 

map and to monitor vegetation conditions (greenness) on a 

periodic basis throughout the year. Routine production of 

cloud-free composite data for a vegetation index of all global 

land areas was also under way at the end of the year. The 

USGS was cooperating with the EPA, NOAA, and the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service to prepare a baseline of global, 

multiscale data on environmental characteristics and to 

develop mechanisms for identifying, monitoring, and assessing environmental change. The resulting Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Monitoring System will be essential for understanding the dynamics of the Earth as a system. 

Through a directive from OSTP, an interdisciplinary, 

interagency Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team formed 

to provide scientific advice to Federal officials making 

decisions about recovery and river-basin management 

following the severe flooding of the Upper Mississippi and 

Missouri River basins in 1993. The team included specialists from the USGS, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National 

Biological Survey, Soil Conservation Service, Army Corps 

of Engineers, EPA, and Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Working at the EROS Data Center, the team 

produced numerous maps and analyses, as well as asubstantial environmental information system for the two basins 

using remotely sensed, map, and environmental data. This 

includes a wide variety of data made available .on the 

Internet. The team’s preliminary report documents the data 

and analysis provided to the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee, which was providing policy 

recommendations to the Administration. 

In other Do1 activities, the Bureau of Reclamation 

used remote sensing and GIs’s to aid in the management of 

water resources. During FY 1994, it used aerial photographs 

and multispectral data from the Landsat TM and SPOT to 

map irrigated lands, riparian vegetation, and open water at a 

number of locations in the Western United States. It used 

these maps and other spatial data in a GIS with environmental models to estimate consumptive water use. Airborne 

video and thermal infrared scanner imagery were used to 

map river habitat for endangered fish in the Colorado River 

system, enabling managers to release water from reservoirs 

in such a way as to maximize survival of the endangered 

species. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to conduct 

natural resource inventories, image mapping projects, and 

GPS training services to support its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. Analysts used Landsat TM 

data to classify land use on several Indian Reservations for 

forestry and wildlife management applications. The Bureau 

continued land cover inventories on reservations in New 

Mexico and Arizona with emphasis on modeling the potential burn rate of different vegetation types in response to 

fires. Landsat TM and SPOT panchromatic data enabled the 

Bureau to prepare image maps for three reservations, while 

GPS training supported resource inventory programs. 

The Bureau of Land Management used remotely 

sensed data and GPS to monitor the health of public lands 

and theeffectiveness of ecosystem-based management practices. Landsat, SPOT, and AVHRR satellite data plus aerial 

photographs supported ecosystem-based management of 

mineral resources, land-use planning, fire fuels mapping, 

52 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
characterization of wildlife habitat, and delineation of haz- acquiring remotely sensed data and increase theconsistency 

ardous materials and their impacts at a number of sites on 

public lands throughout the United States. GIS and GPS 

technology supported much of this analysis. 

The National Biological Survey, now 1 year old, has 

continued a wide variety of remote sensing projects transferred from other Do1 bureaus. The Gap Analysis Program, 

a statewide and national program to identify land areas not 

being protected and managed to maintain biological diversity, was one such program transferred from the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service. The program is based on mapping of 

actual natural vegetation from Landsat TM and other data 

using a nationwide classification system for vegetation. 

Standardized mapping methods and data formats permit the 

aggregation of State-level data for comparison at regional 

and national levels. At the end of the year, projects were 

under way in 36States, withdata from Nevadaand Washington nearing completion. With adequate funding, complete 

national-level data sets will be available by 1999. 

The National Park Service initiated a comprehensive, 

multiyear program in FY 1994 to map vegetation in 235 

units of the National Park System, excluding Alaska. The 

program will provide consistent baseline digital data about 

the composition and distribution of vegetation to support the 

National Park Service Inventory and Monitoring program. 

Mapping will be done through the interpretation of mediumscale (I :20,000) natural color and color-infrared aerial photographs using a nationwide standardized classification system. The National Biological Survey is working closely 

with the Park Service to plan and direct the project, beginning with pilot studies in a variety of selected park environments. 

With transfer of research activities to the National 

Biological Survey in FY 1994, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service began emphasizing use of computerized mapping, 

aerial photographs, and Landsat and SPOT data for day-today operations, especially managing wildlife habitat from an 

ecosystem perspective. It has used remotely sensed data and 

CIS technology to evaluate the effects of habitat changes on 

migratory birds, assess threats of environmental contaminants to biological resources such as endangered species, 

and identify the most valuable lands for inclusion in new 

refuges such as Canaan Valley, West Virginia. The Service 

also led a Federal Geographic Data Committee effort to 

develop national standards for mapping wetlands and was 

active in a similar attempt to define a standard for mapping 

upland vegetation. These activities will reduce costs for 

of the resultant maps of these resources. 

The U.S. Bureau of Mines has directed its remote 

sensing research to the development of applications to 

abandoned mine land areas. This innovative technology will 

address the identification and characterization of mineralogy of waste materials and the associated potential for the 

development of acid mine drainage and occurrence of heavy 

metals at these sites. The applications utilize Landsat TM 

satellite images and airborne multispectral scanner data and 

were field tested in the Cripple Creek Mining District in 

central Colorado. The successful completion. of this research will provide a quick procedure for inventorying and 

initial characterization of noncoal mine waste materials, 

providing land management agencies with an increased 

ability to focus on the remediation of these sites. 

Within the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 

the remote sensing program of the Foreign Agricultural 

Service (FAS) continued to be a critical element in the 

analysis of domestic and foreign agricultural production, 

supply, and demand-providing timely, accurate, and unbiased estimates of global area, yield, and production. The 

agency used satellite imagery, crop models, and remotely 

sensed weather data to support State Department assessments of food needs in the states of the former Soviet Union, 

particularly the drought-affected Ukraine. The FAS also 

prepared detailed analyses of the performance of India’s 

summer monsoon, frost damage to Brazil’s coffee crop, and 

drought in Australia’s eastern wheat regions. Satellitederived early warning of unusual crop conditions allowed 

for price adjustments in commodity markets and helped 

maximize U.S. farmers’ returns. In addition, the FAS used 

satellite imagery to monitor domestic crop production areas 

in support of work carried out by the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (redesignated the Farm Service Agency in October 1994). 

The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) 

used remote sensing data in constructing area frame samples 

(using data from small sample areas as an aid to estimating 

crops and acreages), crop-specific land cover mapping, 

direct estimation of planted crop area, and assessment of 

crop conditions. Products from the first three areas were 

mainly based on Landsat-5 TM and SPOT Multispectral 

Scanner data. Crop condition assessment used data from the 

NOAA- 1 1 satellite. In 1994, NASS completed a California 

area frame for conducting 1994 surveys, and New York and 

South Carolina frames for survey use in 1995, and it initiated 

1995 53 
work on a Kansas frame. Among a host of other activities, 

NASS improved biweekly vegetative index map products 

for the I994 crop season, based on NOAA- 1 1 AVHRR data, 

and distributed them to NASS offices and USDA policy 

makers for their use. Starting in the fall of 1993, NASS 

entered into a cooperative agreement with the Intertribal 

Agricultural Council to collect pilot-level data on Native 

American farm operator production. One result of the 

agreement was a crop-specific land-cover map of the Crow 

and Northern Cheyenne Reservations in Montana, delivered 

in September 1994. Another satellite data application was 

the Delta Remote Sensing Project in Arizona. It regressed 

multitemporal, computer-classified Landsat TM data against 

ground information to provide estimates with reduced sampling error for rice, cotton, and soybean acreage. The 

resulting data provided county acreage estimates for the 

1993 season in tabular form and in colored theme-map and 

tabular form. NASS continued to produce biweekly vegetative index map products based on NOAA- l l AVHRR data 

during the 1994 crop season. It distributed the maps to 

USDA decisionmakers and to various NASS state statistical 

offices to aid in assessments of crop conditions. In 1994, 

NASS improved the maps in several ways, such as adding 

the capability to compare the current value with a meridian 

of several previous years. However, due to the aging 

NOAA-11 satellite, on which one AVHRR ceased to function in September, and a relatively unstressed crop year, the 

1994 maps contained less information than those of 1993 

when the Midwest flood and the Southeast drought were 

featured in the maps. 

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) used remote sensing and GIS technologies to provide information 

about the extent and spatial dynamics of leafy spurge, a 

troublesome weed, in the Theodore Roosevelt National 

Park, North Dakota, among many other applications. The 

results contributed to the development of a management 

plan for leafy spurge in the park and provided insight into the 

application of integrated spatial technologies for natural 

resource management. Other uses of remote imaging together with data from the ground included maps of soil 

salinity, biomass, crop management, and crop yields. For 

example, a cooperative program was undertaken examining 

commercial cotton fields in the San Joaquin Valley of 

California, aimed at developing integrated tools to produce 

crops that maximize economic return, support efficient use 

of natural resources, and minimize detrimental impacts on 

the environment. ARS researchers also developed fluorescence techniques and a prototype fluorescent instrument to 

discriminate and quantify crop residues. The effective 

management of these remains from the harvest minimizes 

soil erosion and improves water quality. In the area of 

hydrology, ARS scientists, in close cooperation with NASA 

and the DOC, used ground-based and remotely sensed data 

to aid in understanding how conditions in river basins 

influence climate and climate change. ARS also is using 

space signals to help develop “precision farming systems” 

that permit land managers to adjust the treatment (with 

fertilizers, pesticides, or seeding rates) continuously across 

a field based on detailed local knowledge. 

In 1994, the Forest Service (FS) used remote-sensing 

and associated technologies to assist in fighting fires throughout the Western United States as well as to detect high-risk 

tire zones, assess damage, monitor national and foreign 

ecosystems, and administerhanage more than 19 1 million 

acres of National Forest System land. The number of 

wildfires reached a record high in 1994, with more than 

66,000 fires and over 3.8 million acres burned. To combat 

these blazes, the FS employed airborne scanners, including 

Firefly developed by the JPL, to help map and determine 

both the speed and direction of the tires. Throughout the 

year, the FS used such remote sensing technology as AVHRR 

imagery from NOAA satellites to implement early-warning 

measures. Once fires started, the FS shifted to greater use of 

imagery from aircraft. When fires had been suppressed, the 

FS employed satellite imagery to map and assess changes in 

the landscape caused by the fires. Other uses for remote 

sensing included mapping, vegetation classification, the 

rehabilitation and restoration of ecosystems, research for 

global greenhouse gas emissions, land management, identification of critical wildlife habitat, support of law enforcement, and inventory programs. The FS initiated partnerships 

with international, Federal, State, and private organizations 

for ecosystem assessment, leading to greater use of satellite 

data and increased understanding of global ecological processes. For example, technical exchanges continued with 

Russia, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Canada, Australia, and 

Kenya, among other countries. FS research and development of airborne video, digital cameras, radar, and GPS 

systems continued to address numerous ecosystem management applications. Integration of remotely sensed data into 

GIs’s proved to be cost effective in supporting land management decisions. 

The Soil Conservation Service (redesignated the Natural Resources Conservation Service or NRCS in October 

54 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
1994) adopted digital orthophotography as the common 

framework for collecting and managing natural resource 

geospatial databases. The Service cooperated with other 

Federal and State agencies to acquire aerial photography and 

digital orthophotography. In addition, it and other USDA 

agencies agreed with the DoD to purchase GPS units to 

collect georeferences for natural resourcedata to be included 

in a CIS. 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

primarily through its Environmental Monitoring Systems 

Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada (EMSL-LV). with assistance from its Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 

also routinely conducted research and provided technical 

support using remote sensing as part of its overall environmental monitoring program. The EPA used large-scale 

aerial photography to develop site characterization data 

during the remedial actions under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

(CERCLA), as well as to support site selection and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities operated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). It developed and used remote-sensing systems to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. In FY 1994, the EMSL-LV 

completed approximately 150 aerial-photographic site-characterization projects under CERCLA and RCRA, and satellite imagery played a part in helping engineers develop 

detailed site characterizations. Aerial photography and 

satellite data also supported a broad variety of pollution, 

global change, pollution prevention, compliance, and other 

ecosystem monitoring studies in FY 1994, such as those of 

critical-habitat areas for wildlife. In support of activities 

associated with the identification of the impacts and hazards 

resulting from severe flooding along the Mississippi River 

and its tributaries in FY 1993, the EPA’s Environmental 

Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC-a branch of 

EMSL-LV) analyzed aerial photographs acquired, in cooperation with the Army Corps of Engineers, to identify flood 

impacts on industrial and agricultural facilities for the assessment of hazardous and toxic waste movement and containment. Additional analysis of pre- and postflood aerial 

photographs by EPIC in FY 1994 identified and mapped 

changes that have occurred at known waste disposal sites 

affected by the flooding. 

Atmospheric Studies 

NASA’s and NOAA’s efforts to monitor ozone depletion continued to reflect the effects of the Mount Pinatubo 

eruption in June 1991. Data from NASA instruments such 

as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer aboard the Russian Meteor-3 satellite (launched in 199 I) as well as NOAA 

instruments aboard balloons and the NOAA-9 satellite have 

enabled scientists to study the global cooling effects and loss 

of ozone that resulted from the eruption. These are the first 

unambiguous, direct measurements of large-scale changes 

in the Earth’s radiation budget caused by a volcanic eruption. Ozone, a molecule made up of three atoms of oxygen, 

forms a thin layer of the atmosphere that absorbs harmful 

ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The term “ozone hole” 

describes a large area of intense ozone depletion that occurs 

over Antarctica during late August through early October 

and typically breaks up in late November. Scientists have 

determined that chlorine products from human activities, 

such as electronics manufacturing, air conditioning, and 

refrigeration, are a primary cause of ozone hole formation. 

The Antarctic ozone levels for 1994 were nearly as small as 

the record lows from October 1993. The slight recovery in 

1994 probably resulted from fewer sulfuric acid particles 

remaining from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo. The NSF’s 

Office of Polar Programs continued during the year to 

support researchers studying the cause and effects of the 

Antarctic ozone hole at each of three year-round stations. 

Both balloons for in situ measurements and remote sensing 

instruments were used. There was a particularly strong 

effort during the late austral winter and early spring of 1994 

to support the NASA-sponsored ER-2 aircraft flights from 

Christchurch, New Zealand, to study the ozone levels. The 

Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) on the Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite (UARS-launched in 199 1) continued, 

meanwhile, to make unprecedented measurements of global 

chlorine monoxide (CIO) concentration, observing the spatial relationships of C10, ozone, temperature, and other 

atmospheric variables. These measurements provide the 

first global picture of the reactive form of chlorine that 

destroys ozone. Even though regulations will phase out the 

production of chlorofluorocarbons in the future, the removal 

of chlorine from the stratosphere is a very slow process 

(taking decades or centuries), and stratospheric chlorine will 

continue to increase for at least the next few years, as 

chlorine already released into the lower atmosphere reaches 

the stratosphere. The MLS is providing the only global 

1995 55 
monitoring of this process during the critical period in which 

stratospheric chlorine is increasing to record levels. 

A major focus of the Upper Atmosphere Research 

Program (UARP) in 1994 was the Airborne Southern Hemisphere Ozone Experimenthleasurements for Assessing the 

Effect of Stratospheric Aircraft campaign. The goal of this 

effort in the Pacific was to obtain in-situ measurements of 

atmospheric trace gases related to stratospheric ozone. Full 

analysis of the data combined with model calculations will 

improve our understanding of the chemistry and processes 

of midlatitudes. Scientists from NASA and NOAA contributed to the recently completed “Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994,” developed under the auspices of the World 

Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme. This periodically issued report provides the scientific basis for policy decisions by parties to the 

Montreal Protocol (the international agreement limiting the 

use and production of chlorofluorocarbons) and its amendments. NASA’s ozone measurements are part of the Agency’s 

MTPE program, which includes measurements from instruments on free-flying spacecraft and the Space Shuttle; 

aircraft, in situ, and ground-based observations; a comprehensive data and information system to process and distribute the findings; and a modeling effort designed to help 

understand, and eventually predict, the behavior of and 

changes in the Earth’s system as well as to distinguish the 

effects of natural and human-induced global climatic change. 

The first phase of MTPE includes the flight by NASA and 

partners of more than two dozen missions through 1998. 

Data from MTPE and other global change research efforts 

will enable policymakers to formulate prudent policies regarding the future of the global environment. 

The second phase of MTPE is the EOS program, a 

series of spacecraft planned to carry a variety of sophisticated instruments to make the most comprehensive measurements ever of the interrelated elements of the global 

environment. NASA’s program is part of the international 

Earth Observing System, in which satellites and instruments 

from the United States, Europe, Japan, and Canada are being 

closely coordinated to provide complementary data on different aspects of the Earth’s environment. In support of 

NOAA’s GOES program, NASA participated in the successful IaunchoftheGOES-8 satellite in April 1994. GOES8 and subsequent GOES satellites (J-M) are the prime 

observational platforms for dynamic weather and the nearEarth environment for the 1990s and beyond. In mid-1994, 

the EOS program was redesigned to respond to a reduction 

in program budget through the year 2000. NASA’s objectives were to preserve the scientific integrity of EOS as a 

global change program and to maintain the target launch 

schedule for core EOS missions. Realigning the EOS 

program meant placing greater reliance on both domestic 

and foreign partners, in addition to deferring some data 

products and measurements. However, some high-priority 

scientific items were added to the program or scheduled 

sooner, such as the flight of an additional Stratospheric 

Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) instrument in the year 

2000 and the incorporation of a Landsat-type instrument on 

the EOS AM-2 spacecraft (AM indicating a morning crossing time over the Equator). In September, NASA released 

a major solicitation seeking proposals for a “common” 

spacecraft bus for several of the subsequent EOS flights, 

with selection expected in 1995. Meanwhile, development 

continued on the EOSDIS, the means by which information 

from MTPE observations and analysis will be archived and 

made available to researchers and other worldwide users; 

NASA modified its planning for EOSDIS architecture, 

making it more extensible and accessible. In August 1994, 

NASA released Version 0, a working prototype for EOSDIS, 

designed for the general Earth science community for use in 

scientific research. 

Pathfinders constitute a recent application of Earthscience and other data sets, developed specifically to study 

global environmental change. They focus on processing, 

reprocessing, archiving, maintaining, and distributing existing data sets to make them more useful to researchers. In FY 

1994, the focus of thejoint NASA-NOAA Pathfinder was on 

generating data for the benchmark period April 1987 to 

November 1988, but additional data sets included TOPEW 

Poseidon, an educational CD-ROM, the First International 

Satellite Cloud Climatology Regional Experiment, and the 

UARS. Using Pathfinder data sets, NASA scientists combined NOAA-7, -9, and -1 1 data on vegetation dating back 

to 198 1 to predict the likelihood of famine and locust plagues 

in Africa. for use by the U.S. Agency for International 

Development to locate drought areas and locust swarms. 

NASA also solicited broadened application of its scientific 

and technological assets via the Internet. A significant 

number of the resultant proposals and awards involved using 

the Internet to make environmental information more readily 

available for educational purposes. 

The NSF also studied global change. Under the Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions (CEDAR) program, scientists at the University of 

56 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Tennessee, Urbana, organized a campaign referred to as 

ALOHA-93 (Airborne Lidar and Observations of the Hawaiian Airglow). Involving experimenters from several 

academic and commercial research institutions, its purpose 

was to study the source and dynamics of gravity waves over 

the mid-Pacific in October 1993. Gravity waves are a major 

source of energy and momentum coupling between different 

layers of the atmosphere from the troposphere to the lower 

thermosphere. In ALOHA-93, a sodium lidar, optical imager, and spectrometer gathered data from an aircraft, the 

flights being coordinated with selective overpasses of 

NASA’s UARS (launched in 1991). The campaign obtained important information on midocean storms and generation, propagation, and filtering of gravity waves in the 

mesosphere and stratosphere. This should lead to better 

parameterization of gravity waves in global circulation 

models. The airborne observations also revealed rich horizontal structure in sporadic sodium layers observed in conjunction with substantial increases in mesopause temperature. These metal layers, formed through meteoric ablation, 

appear to be sensitive to global atmospheric changes related 

to changing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane. Also, the CEDAR program sponsored a special competition to encourage the development of innovative technical 

approaches, resulting in a number of projects to improve 

instrumentation and techniques. 

The NSF has supported studies of how variations in the 

energy output from the Sun and anthropogenic effects contribute variously to global change. The SunRISE (Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth) program supports the development and deployment of a precision photometric telescope designed for measurements of sunspots, faculae, and 

other features thought to be sources of variations in solar 

brightness. The program also supports measurements of the 

solar diameter and analysis of the historical measurements 

of the plage phenomena (bright, granular areas in the chromosphere of the Sun), which are possible indicators of 

changes in radiance. A second area of emphasis in the last 

year has been space weather, conditions on the Sun and in the 

solar wind, magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere 

that can significantly influence the performance and integrity of civilian, commercial, and military spaceborne and 

ground-based technological systems. The NSF supported a 

study conducted by scientists at Johns Hopkins University in 

which they used data from a Swedish satellite to predict 

electrical currents induced in a power grid at Chalk Point, 

Maryland; they successfully correlated intense electrical 

currents in the ionosphere with the induced currents on the 

ground. Other studies of ionospheric currents used magnetometer arrays deployed by scientists from Boston College, 

Augsburg College, and the University of Michigan. The 

scientists will use data from these newly created arrays in 

Canada and Greenland to study dynamic variations in ionospheric currents that originate from the entry of energetic 

particles from the Sun into the Earth’s atmosphere. 

Another atmospheric and environmental concern in 

recent years has been global warming. In the first international, interdisciplinary effort to discuss this issue broadly. 

37 scientists from IO countries met near the beginning of the 

fiscal year at aconference sponsored by the DOE and NOAA. 

Among the findings of the conference were that while the 

global average temperature has been rising in recent decades, the warming has not been truly global and has 

occurred mainly at night. Scientists believe that the cause of 

higher nighttime temperatures may be the combined result 

of an increase in greenhouse gases and cloud cover over 

continents combined with increased sulfur emissions produced by the burning of fossil fuels. A climatic model 

developed by James Hansen of NASA that took all three 

factors into account came closer to simulating observed 

temperature changes than had previous models. While 

nighttime warming may lengthen the growing season and 

reduce killing frosts, it might increase insect infestations, 

reduce crop-growing areas, and raise heat-related death rates 

among humans. In a study relevant to this issue, NIST has 

been studying isotropic measurements for NASA to identify 

and quantify the presence of tropospheric methane (CH,), 

which is second only to carbon dioxide (CO,) in its effects on 

global warming. Although the tropospheric CH, concentration is a small fraction (5 percent) of that of CO,, CH, 

accounts for about 12 percent of the global temperature rise, 

due to strong absorption in a relatively transparent part of the 

infrared. Intensive CH, measurement and modeling are 

under way because of significant uncertainties in both anthropogenic and natural emission data that are critical for 

estimating the global CH, budget. To serve these needs, 

NIST has compiled a data base of global source and ambient 

isotropic measurements. 

Oceanographic Studies 

TOPEXPoseidon, a satellite jointly sponsored by the 

French Space Agency, Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales 

(CNES), and NASA (launched in August 1992) continued to 

1995 57 
provide valuable information during 1994. The satellite 

uses a radar altimeter to yield precise measurements of seasurface height. Dataanalysis shows that the seasonal change 

in sea level in the Northern Hemisphere is about 50 percent 

larger than in the southern half of the globe. This was a 

previously unknown asymmetry and indicates the air-sea 

heat exchange is much stronger in the Northern Hemisphere. 

Data from the satellite have also enabled scientists to track 

disturbances caused by the lingering effects of the El Niiio 

eventof 1991-93, thelongestonein thelast40years. ElNiiio 

is a warm inshore current annually flowing south along the 

coast of Ecuador around the end of December and extending 

about every 7 to IO years down the coast of Peru; it can bring 

devastating weather to several global regions, including 

heavy rains and flooding as well as colder than normal 

winters across the United States and severe droughts and 

dust storms in Australia. Observations made by TOPEW 

Poseidon in the North Pacific revealed a northward shift of 

the Kuroshio, the swift current southeast of Japan, which has 

been traced back to the El Niiio event of 1982-83. Meteorologists believe that the position of the Kuroshio is drastically affecting the weather of North America. NASA, 

CNES, and NOAA held discussions in 1994 on a TOPEW 

Poseidon Follow-On (TPFO) mission, in which NOAA, the 

new partner, would provide the ground segment. TPFO 

would meet both operational and research needs. 

NASA also participated in the international Tropical 

Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA)-Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) program. Measurements from NASA’s ER-2 and DC-8 aircraft have produced 

significant improvements in our understanding of precipitation, convection, clouds and radiation, air-sea interaction, 

and oceanographic processes. Results from the 1993 TOGACOARE field exercise in oceanography and long-term 

atmospheric effects will be presented in Melbourne, Australia, in April 1995. 

Meanwhile, the NIST Radiometric Physics Division 

has been continuing its collaboration with the NASA Seaviewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) project and 

associated investigators. SeaWiFS, scheduled for launch in 

1995, is designed to provide global observations of photosynthetic pigment concentrations contained in the microscopic marine plants called phytoplankton. Among other 

things, these measurements will help assess how much 

carbon dioxide transferred to the ocean from the atmosphere 

is being transformed into oceanic plant biomass. Accurate 

calibration of the SeaWiFS instrument is critical to the 

mission’s success. Also, sea-based optical measurements 

for validation of the post-launch calibration and various 

products derived from the satellite observations must be 

equally accurate. NIST’s role is to help ensure that these 

observations are traceable to radiometric standards and that 

instrument calibrations are performed properly. NIST has 

designed, constructed, and characterized a portable, multichannel spectroradiometer (SeaWiFS Transfer Radiometeror SXR) tocompare thecalibrationsof field instruments 

and to check the calibration sources at different institutions. 

The device was used during the second and third SeaWiFS 

Round Robins in June 1993 and September 1994. NISTalso 

used the device during a NASAMOAA field experiment in 

February 1994 at the Marine Optical Buoy (MOBY) support 

facility in Hawaii. MOBY will be used to verify the 

postlaunch SeaWiFS calibration and other future ocean 

color satellite instruments to be launched later in this decade 

under the EOS program. 

Near the end of the fiscal year, NOAA announced the 

completion of initial flight tests of a new system for mapping 

coastal ocean salinity. Called the scanning low-frequency 

microwave radiometer, the new system is smaller than 

older ones and can be operated from small, single-engine 

aircraft rather than the four-engine C-130. Consisting of a 

microwave radiometer, an infrared radiometer, a GPS instrument for locating measurements, and a computer, the 

new system can produce salinity maps at the rate of 100 

square kilometers per hour. NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) anticipated collaborating with other NOAA and Federal agencies and academia in coastal-ecosystem health, hydrological, and coastal forecasting activities where data on salinity 

are critical, such as in studies of the distribution of brown 

shrimp in the Mississippi Delta and Gulf of Mexico. 

Additionally, NOAA/NESDIS’s Officeof Satellite Data 

Products and Distribution forged a partnership with NASA 

for the development and joint funding of a U.S. ground 

system to support real-time collection of high-priority 

scatterometer and ocean color data from the Japanese 

AdvancedEarthObserving Satellite, scheduledfor launch in 

1996. 

Finally, in the area of tactical oceanography, Ball Aerospace Corporation has been developing the GeodetidGeophysical (GEOSAT) Follow-on (GFO) satellites for the 

Navy. The Navy expects to launch the first of these radar 

altimeter satellites in 1996, with up to two additional satellites as needed to provide an operational capability until a 

radar altimeter can be placed aboard a future environmental 

58 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
satellite (such as the converged DMSP and NOAA satellites). GFO is expected to provide timely, worldwide, and 

extremely accurate measurements of ocean topography via 

direct readout to ships at sea and selected shore sites. The 

Navy completed the preliminary design review in October 

1993 and the critical design review in August 1994. As the 

fiscal year ended, the first satellite was in production for the 

1996 launch date on a Lockheed LLV-I launch vehicle. 

Other Aeronautical and 

Space Activities 

Discussions Concerning Arms Control 

of Space-Related Weaponry 

In the wake of the breakup of the Soviet Union, and with 

the end of the Cold War, there has been an unprecedented 

wave of projects for cooperation between the United States 

and Russia in the areas of civil and commercial space. It is 

U.S. policy to support such cooperation actively, to employ 

Russian scientific and technical personnel who might otherwise work on military projects or migrate abroad to work on 

projects that might promote the proliferation of technology 

applicable to missiles. Even as we increase our cooperation 

with Russia, the United States must ensure that militarily 

useful technology is not transferred to Russian missile 

programs and that such programs are not supported indirectly, e.g., by funding Russian production facilities that 

conduct both commercial and missile-related work. The 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), as the 

only U.S. agency specifically charged with responsibilities 

for arms control, endeavors to ensure that cooperation with 

Russia in the areas of civil and commercial space is canied 

out in accordance with our treaty obligations and nonproliferation standards. 

There are several ways in which commercial space 

activities interact with interests in arms control and nonproliferation. One is technology transfers relating to cooperation in commercial space. In each U.S.-Russian project for 

cooperation in space, the U.S. export-control community 

examines the flow of technology in both directions. The 

United States does not authorize transfers that could contribute to Russia’s still formidable missile capability or that 

would assist Russia financially to continue the production of 

a missile by allowing it or modifications of it to be sold as 

commercial launch vehicles. Another area of interaction is 

ballistic missiles used as space launch vehicles. With the 

inventories of ballistic missiles being reduced or eliminated 

under the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) signed 

in July 199 1, the United States, Russia, and the Ukraine are 

considering the use of ballistic missiles or their derivatives 

as space launch vehicles. Both START and the Missile 

Technology Control Regime (MTCR) control such use. The 

ACDA participated in U.S. policy formulation on this issue 

as a member of the Excess Ballistic Missile Working Group, 

chaired by the National Security Council. Under START, 

any such use must be in accordance with the counting rules 

in the treaty, must not allow the flight testing of missiles 

under the guise of space-launch vehicles, and must not result 

in the transfer of strategic arms to third countries. MTCR 

restrictions pertain to the export of missiles and missile 

technology, providing that member countries and adherents 

may support the space programs of other nations as long as 

such programs could not contribute to the delivery systems 

for weapons of mass destruction. The United States and its 

MTCR partners exchange information and coordinate their 

control processes to prevent any such contribution. 

During FY 1994, theconferenceon Disarmament (CD), 

based in Geneva, Switzerland, again discussed the subject of 

preventing an arms race in outer space. Substantive discussions in the CD’s Outer Space Ad Hoc Committee focused 

on appropriate, multilateral confidence-building measures, 

and the United States maintained its position that negotiations should not be initiated unless meaningful issues can be 

identified. The United Nations General Assembly’s First 

Committee (UNFC) passed its annual resolution on preventing the arms race in outer space, with the United States 

abstaining. ACDA is the lead agency for the United States 

in both the CD and the UNFC. 

Cooperation With Russia and Other 

Foreign Policy Issues 

With the President’s decision in June 1993 to pursue a 

redesigned Space Station and seek ways to involve Russia 

in the program, the Department of State (DoS) and NASA 

were tasked to evaluate potential options for Russian participation. In support of this direction, NASA initiated in-depth 

technical discussions with RSA on the feasibility of Russian 

involvement in the program and provided the results of this 

joint technical assessment to the White House on November 

1, 1993, indicating that significant programmatic benefits 

1995 59 
could be gained from Russian participation. Bringing Russia into the program also required agreement by the existing 

Space Station partners. To achieve this agreement, the DoS 

and NASA initiated discussions with Canada, Europe, and 

Japan at the intergovernmental and cooperating agency 

levels. In early November, the heads of the Space Station 

cooperating agencies invited RSA’s Director General to 

participate in a meeting to begin charting the technical 

parameters of potential Russian cooperation in the program. 

The Russians confirmed their strong desire to participate in 

the international Space Station program on an equal basis 

with the existing international partners, recognizing the 

preeminent U.S. role in managing the program. Working 

closely with technical and political representatives of the 

existing partners, representatives of participating agencies 

extended an invitation from the partnership to Russia at the 

intergovernmental level and developed an integrated plan 

with programmatic milestones for bringing Russia into the 

partnership at the cooperating agency level. Russia accepted 

both the invitation and the plan by diplomatic note on 

December 17, 1993. 

On February 10-1 I, 1994, the existing Space Station 

partners held a preparatory meeting to discuss approaches to 

revising the legal framework of the 1988 Space Station 

agreements and to propose negotiating modalities for bringing Russia into the partnership. While the partners accepted 

in principle the U.S. approach of minimizing changes to the 

1988 agreements, the Europeans sought to preserve flexibility to allow them later to revise their contributions to the 

program. The legal framework advanced by the DoS after 

extensive coordination within the U.S. Government called 

for a protocol amending the 1988 Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), a new provisional arrangement for the period 

between signature of the protocol and the time it went into 

effect, and, at the cooperating agency level, a NASA-RSA 

memorandum of understanding paralleling those already in 

effect with the cooperating agencies of the existing partners. 

To cover the period up to the the signature of the protocol and 

provisional arrangement, NASA would conclude an interim 

agreement with RSA. The proposed negotiating modalities 

called for establishing a negotiating body below the IGAlevel representation that could employ legal and drafting 

groups as required. Each of the four existing partners, plus 

Russia, would participate on an equal basis in plenary 

sessions and subgroups. The existing partners met in Paris 

on March 17-18 at the intergovernmental level, initially to 

agree among themselves on the legal framework and negotiating modalities proposed by the United States, and then 

with representatives of the Russian Federation and RSA 

participating. As a result of the meeting, Russiaaccepted the 

legal framework and negotiating modalities the existing 

partners proposed. In June 1994. NASA and RSA signed an 

“Interim Agreement for the Conduct of Activities Leading to 

Russian Partnership in the Permanently Manned Civil Space 

Station.” It established bilateral management mechanisms 

that are fully consistent with existing managing mechanisms 

used by the international Space Station partners. It also 

provides for Russian participation in the mechanisms for 

management within the existing multilateral Spacestation 

partnership. NASA and RSA also signed a separate $400 

million contract for Russian space hardware. services, and 

data. Under this contract, NASA will purchase hardware 

and services from RSA and its subcontractors for approximately $100 million per year through 1997 in support of a 

joint program involving the U.S. Space Shuttle and the 

Russian Mir space station. The contract also covers early 

international Space Station activities. Relatedly, the DoS 

chaired or provided secretariat support for three rounds of 

intergovernmental negotiations between the existing partners and Russia in Washington on April 27-28, in Moscow 

on May 30-3 I, and again in Washington on August 30-3 I, 

1994. In parallel, NASA initiated discussions with RSA on 

the development of a NASA-RSA memorandum of 

understanding on Space Station and bilateral discussions 

with each of the existing partners regarding modifications of 

their memoranda of understanding as appropriate to reflect 

Russian involvement in the program and modifications to 

the respective contributions by partners. The aim is to 

complete all agreements for concurrent signature during 

1995. In parallel with the effort to bring Russia into the 

Space Station program, the partnership faced a difficult 

challenge posed by budget-cutting pressures in Canada. 

Arguing that the addition of a new partner, Russia, was not 

an appropriate time to lose an existing partner in Canada, the 

DoS coordinated U.S. efforts to ensure that Canada remained in the partnership, albeit at lower funding levels. 

In September 1994, Germany hosted the 10th annual 

meeting of the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 

(CEOS) in Berlin. CEOS members are national and international governmental organizations with responsibility for 

conducting Earth observation programs. Other organizations with a focus on Earth observation or Earth science 

participate in CEOS as affiliates and observers. The primary 

goal of CEOS is to coordinate the Earth observation mis60 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
sions of its members. Also, on September 22. 1994. NASA 

and German space officials recognized 30 years ofcooperation in space at a celebration in Bonn. 

Japan is becoming an increasingly important partner of 

the United States in space. The DoS worked closely with 

NASA throughout the year on several agreements with 

Japan on joint space activities. To facilitate enhanced 

cooperation between NASA and Japanese agencies, the 

United States and Japan have begun discussing a government-level agreement waiving liability for damages resulting from cooperative or reimbursable space activities. 

The DoS also worked closely with Government and 

private organizations to promote space cooperation at all 

levels with Latin America. The Government of Chile 

hosted an air show in Santiago from March 20-27, 1994, 

during which the American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics (AIAA) organized, with support from the DoS, 

a highly successful program on using space technology for 

development. Before an audience of over 300 people, 

representatives from various U.S. firms reviewed opportunities for collaboration in using space technology for environmental monitoring and communications. Another U.S.- 

sponsoredevent was the first meetingon theuseofCOSPASSARSAT in the Latin American region. In conjunction with 

the DoS, NOAA organized a 2-day meeting to examine 

distribution procedures for COSPAS-SARSAT alert data 

among search and rescue authorities in Latin America. 

Representatives from I3 countries and 3 international organizations participated in the meeting and agreed on measures 

to expand the use of this important program. 

Relatedly, in connection with a joint statement issued at 

the June 1994 meeting of the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation, NOAA 

Administrator D. James Baker and Director General Yuri N. 

Koptev of RSA agreed to closer cooperation in the use of 

geostationary satellites for sea, air, and land search and 

rescue services. For more than a decade, the United States 

and Russia have used polar-orbiting satellites to support the 

search and rescue of maritime, aviation, and land-based 

users in distress. The two countries, plus France and Canada, 

provide satellites, instruments, and ground-receiving capabilities for the COSPAS-SARSAT system. In addition, 

NOAA collaborated with the DoS, OSTP, and other Federal 

agencies in negotiating with Russian counterpart agencies a 

“Statementof General Principles f0rU.S.-Russian Exchange 

of Scientific and Technological Data and Information,” 

which Vice President Albert Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime 

Minister Victor Chernomyrdin signed in June 1994. 

In FY 1994, the DoS continued to provide foreign 

policy oversight of U.S. Government involvement in international space science, satellite remote sensing, and 

related applications programs. The DoS participated in 

interagency forums addressing the convergence of NOAA 

and DoD Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite systems; 

development of U.S. components in a global EOS supporting global change research and other related initiatives; 

licensing for operation and export of high-resolution US. 

private remote sensing systems; review of U.S. Government 

data policy in the United Nations (UN) World Meteorological Organization; and technical planning for the follow-on 

U.S. Landsat-7 program. The DoS also coordinated interagency review of several space-based Earth observation 

agreements involving data management, export licensing, 

cross-waiver of liability, intellectual property, and bilateral 

regulatory issues. 

During FY 1994, the DoS also led efforts to advance 

U.S. interests in multilateral discussions concerning international space cooperation. The General Assembly of the UN 

adopted, without a vote, Resolution 48/39 renewing the 

mandate of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space (COPUOS) and setting the program of work for 

COPUOS and its Legal and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees (LSC and STSC, respectively). In 1993, 

COPUOS and the subcommittees continued their work on 

questions relating to international cooperation in areas such 

as meteorology, astronomy and astrophysics, space transportation, human space flight, planetary exploration, and 

environmental monitoring. There has been agrowing awareness among member states of the need for further international research concerning orbital debris and its potential 

impact on space exploration. In this regard, the DoS played 

a leading role in reaching agreement to add to the agenda of 

the 1994 session of the STSC an item dealing with the 

scientific aspects of orbital debris. The year 1993 marked 

the 35th anniversary of the establishment of the 53-member 

COPUOS, established as an ad hoc committee in 1958 with 

20 members to consider international cooperation in the 

exploration of outer space. Since that time, the committee 

and its subcommittees have made significant progress in 

promoting international understanding of the potential uses 

of outer space for science and engineering, communications, 

transportation, meteorology, environmental monitoring, and 

medicine. COPUOS has also been responsible for the 

elaboration and adoption by consensus of five multilateral 

1995 61 
treaties governing space activities and two sets of nonbinding principles concerning the use of nuclear power sources 

in outer space and remote sensing of the Earth from space. 

These treaties form the basis for international law in the use 

and exploration of outer space. 

In connection with the President’s May 1994 announcement of the convergence of NOAA and DoD Polar Orbiting 

Environmental Satellite systems into a single operational 

program under NOAA leadership, NOAA Administrator D. 

James Baker invited EUMETSAT-together with involvement as appropriate of ESA-to consider a joint polar 

system, taking into account on the U.S. side a converged 

U.S. system and assuming that key U.S. mission requirements can be met. This invitation complements longstanding 

plans by NOAA and EUMETSAT, as supported by NASA 

and ESA, to provide U.S. instruments for flight on the 

European METOP satellite series. Activities under this 

proposed cooperation would be an important asset in the 

international effort to better understand the global environment. With DoS international authorization, NOAA, with 

the involvement of the DoD and NASA, is in the process of 

negotiating an agreement with EUMETSAT for an initial 

joint polar system covering the initial METOP satellites, as 

well as continued contribution of European instruments to 

the remaining NOAA missions prior to the advent of the 

converged US. system. 

Commercial Development and 

Regulation of Space Technology 

The five commercial launches completed during FY 

1994 brought to 40 the total number carried out by the US. 

commercial space transportation industry, since inception in 

1989. Of these launches, 18 have carried foreign or internationally owned payloads, many of them satellites purchased 

from U.S. manufacturers. This international launch and 

satellite sales business has contributed more than $2 billion 

to the U.S. balance of trade. The industry has more than 60 

more launch or reentry events scheduled over the next 

several years. The DOT’S OCST is responsible for regulating this growing industry. It grants licenses to launch 

providers based on their presenting evidence that they are in 

compliance with all safety regulations and other requirements and have sufficient insurance or financial resources to 

cover any probable losses from a launch mishap. The OCST 

is also responsible for the regulation of any future commercial launch sites, such as those proposed by Alaska, Florida, 

Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Virginia. Working 

with the OCST, Hawaii completed its State Environmental 

Impact Statement for a proposed commercial launch site, 

and the office also coordinated efforts with the other states 

involved. The OCST also has the responsibility to oversee 

commercial reentry vehicles and recovery sites. The office 

had seven applications for commercial launch licenses that 

were in process during FY 1994, including amendments, 

renewals, maximum probable loss determinations (in case of 

launch mishaps, none of which have occurred so far), and 

transfers. It issued four licenses, amendments, or transfers 

during FY 1994 and made the same number of maximum 

probable loss determinations. The OCST continued to 

support the development of voluntary standards for the 

commercial launch industry, especially those in the area of 

safety, reliability, and quality assurance. Work sponsored 

by the OCST with the participation of the AIAA should lead 

to the acceptance and accreditation of an industry standard. 

The office has continued discussions with a number of 

companies interested in the development for commercial 

applications of reusable SSTO vehicles. At least two companies are building or have built subscale prototypes of 

reusable vehicles, including McDonnell Douglas’s DC-X 

discussed below. The OCST is a member of the National 

Spacelift Requirement Process group, whose charter is to 

establish acommon set of requirements f0rtheU.S. spacelift 

system. The office has maintained communications with 

members of the commercial space industry to ensure that 

industry inputs have been considered. 

In FY 1994, the OCST was instrumental in developing 

the National Space Transportation Policy (see appendix 

F-6 of this report). This Presidential directive established 

policy, guidelines, and implementing actions for the conduct 

of national space transportation programs that will sustain 

and revitalize U.S. space transportation capabilities by providing a coherent strategy for supporting and strengthening 

U.S. space launch capabilities to meet the growing needs of 

the civilian and national security sectors. The DoS and the 

Office of Air and Space Commercialization (OASC) in the 

DOC also made contributions to this directive, which recognizes the importance of private-sector input into Government space launch policies and activities and will support 

increasing commercial activity in space, thereby promoting 

growth in satellite manufacturing, launch services, and space 

application operations. The policy commits the Nation to a 

two-track strategy of maintaining and improving the current 

fleet of expendable launch vehicles as necessary to meet 

62 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
civil, commercial, and national security requirements, and 

of investing research and development resources in developing and demonstrating next-generation, reusable space transportation systems with the potential to reduce greatly the 

cost of access to space. 

The OCST also played a significant role in supporting 

the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) by chairing the 

Interagency Working Croup on Information, which is charged 

with gathering data that enable the USTR to conduct negotiations about commercial space launch agreements with 

both the Russians and Chinese. In this connection, the 

United States and Russia held two special and one annual 

consultation under the U.S.-Russian Commercial Space 

Launch Agreement. Both sides exchanged information on 

specific Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (CEO) and Low-Earth 

Orbit (LEO) competitions and LEO market prospects (see 

also OASC coverage below). Meanwhile, the United States 

and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) held negotiations 

to renew a follow-on commercial space launch agreement. 

The current agreement, signed in 1989, will expire on 

December 31, 1994. On September 21-23, 1994, a USTRled negotiating team (made up of representatives from the 

DoS, DOC, DOT, NASA, and OSTP) held its first round of 

consultations in Beijing with the Chinese National Space 

Administration on the possible renewal of the existing 

agreement regarding international trade incommercial launch 

services. U.S. discussions with the PRC reflect the U.S. 

belief that China’s transition toward a market economy is 

ongoing and that transitional rules are therefore desirable to 

ensure China’s participation in the international commercial 

launch market does not disrupt normal competition among 

Western launch providers. The new agreement, if successfully negotiated, will continue to provide rules of the road for 

Government involvement in the commercial launch market 

regarding subsidies, marketing inducements, and nondiscriminatory treatment. The U.S. believes the existing agreement should serve as the basis for a renewed agreement. The 

current agreement consists of two basic disciplines: (1) a 

quantitative limit allowing the Chinese to launch up to nine 

space vehicles over the period of the agreement (1989- 1994) 

and (2) a pricing discipline that obligates the PRC to offer 

launch services “on a par with those prices, terms and 

conditions prevailing in the international market for comparable commercial launch services.” As FY 1994 ended, the 

United States continued working off the existing agreement 

to refine quantitative and pricing disciplines to respond to 

new developments in the market and to improve the functioning of the agreement. With regard to the CEO and LEO 

launch markets, the United States proposes to treat them 

separately to spur the development of these different markets. The United States also seeks to address concerns 

created with respect to Chinese implementation of the pricing provision and to clarify provisions pertaining to directed 

procurement and leasing transponders on orbiting satellites, 

based on past experience. The consultations drew on extensive analysis of PRC launch contracts conducted by the 

OCST and the Interagency Working Group it chairs. 

Per Presidential directive, the DoS continued to chair an 

interagency working group that reviewed the coverage of 

spacecraft and related components on various lists. The 

Space Technical Working Group had the mission of 

identifying and recommending removal from the U.S. munitions list commercial satellites and related articles covered 

by the coordinating committee industrial list, except where 

such movement would jeopardize U.S. national security 

interests. The working group developed language to transfer 

the Space Station to the commodity control list under the 

Doc’s jurisdiction. 

The role of the OASC is to ensure that U.S. commercial 

space interests are represented in Government policy making and programmatic activities and to provide the U.S. 

commercial space sector and related sectors with timely, 

reliable data and analysis regarding commercial space activities, investment, and trade opportunities. It further 

develops policy and undertakes initiatives that seek to assure 

and support a policy environment in which commercial 

space activities prosper. During FY 1994, besides the work 

on the National Space Transportation Policy, the OASC and 

NOAA contributed to a new Presidential policy on commercial remote sensing announced March 10, 1994 (see appendix F-2) that allows private firms to build and operate highresolution satellite imaging systems. Development of these 

systems will result in more jobs in manufacturing and 

operations and will also produce geographic information 

that will greatly advance emergency management and rescue, disaster relief, mineral exploration, map making, and a 

variety of other commercial endeavors. As a result of the 

new policy, NESDIS, the line office within NOAA responsible for administering the policy, has already issued licenses to a number of aerospace companies planning to build 

remote-sensing satellite systems. In 1994 it issued licenses 

to Lockheed Corp., Orbital Sciences Corporation, Ball Corporation, and a consortium consisting of Orbital Sciences 

Corporation, GDE Systems, andLitton Itek. TheOASC was 

1995 63 
also instrumental in promoting a launch-services agreement 

between the United States and Russia that creates a policy 

environment under which introduction of nonmarket Russian launchers on the international scene will cause minimal 

disruption, allowing U.S. and foreign launch service providers to compete fairly for international business and aiding 

Russia’s transition to a market-based economy. In addition, 

the OASC had direct input into the administration of U.S. 

Air Force grants for the study, design, and construction of 

launch pads and facilities to be used by both the Government 

and the private sector. These dual-use grants for launch 

infrastructure have fostered the growth of privately owned 

and operated spaceports across the Nation. To ensure U.S. 

commercial access to space and to promote growth in U.S. 

space applications, the OASC was also involved in the 

ongoing development of policy supporting commercial activity in several other areas. These included the renewal of 

the U.S.-China launch services agreement, GPS navigation 

satellite and ground system technology, present- and futuregeneration high-power communications satellites, and satellite remote sensing. 

In a separate area having to do with commercial development and the regulation of space technology, the FCC 

adopted rules and policies governing the nonvoice, 

nongeostationary Mobile Satellite Service that will facilitate granting the applications for licenses in this service that 

are pending before the agency. The FCC also adopted a 

notice of proposed rulemaking for the Mobile Satellite 

Service operating above 1 gigahertz, which is the first step 

in granting authorizations to provide this service. 

In related developments, following a year of intense 

negotiations, a special working party of the INTELSAT 

Assembly of Parties made recommendations on a number 

of significant policy issues. It raised the limit on public 

switched telephone circuit capacity, below which private 

international systems could receive streamlined international approval, from the l ,250-circuit limit established at 

the Assembly meeting in 1992 to 8,000 circuits. This 

recommendation was expected to receive routine approval 

at an Assembly meeting after the end of the fiscal year. The 

working party focused much of the remainder of its work on 

the future structure of the INTELSAT organization and 

whether it would not be appropriate to “privatize” it in the 

face of a new, more competitive market environment. The 

party recommended that the Assembly work out further 

details for a subsequent working party. 

During FY 1994, the INMARSAT Council devoted 

considerable attention to whether it should proceed with the 

INMARSAT-P program to identify and deploy a pocket 

telephone. Thecouncil wasdivided between those members 

who wished to undertake the project within INMARSAT 

and those who were unwilling to assume the liability for a 

venture that had become risky because of numerous competing systems. The council compromised by proposing the 

creation of an independent affiliate in which INMARSAT 

will invest. The affiliate will implement a handheld, global, 

mobile telephone service expected to be fully operational by 

2000. A 12-satellite system in intermediate circular orbit 

will provide the service. 

The U.S. Government has also been involved in a 

process to formulate policy regarding the future structure of 

both INTELSAT and INMARSAT. An interagency task 

force, chaired by the DoS Coordinator for International 

Communications and Information Policy, met several times 

to consider the merits of various options. As part of the 

process, the DoS held a public meeting to elicit the views of 

industry and consumer groups. The United States has 

announced that it will support privatization of the organizations as the best means to achieve competition, which it 

views as the best way to assure the best service at the lowest 

cost. 

NASA was also involved in the development of commercial space technology. For example, late in the fiscal 

year, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama 

signed a cooperative agreement with McDonnell Douglas 

Aerospace to reconfigure the Delta Clipper experimental 

vehicle (DC-X), using advanced lightweight materials and 

advanced auxiliary propulsion systems. The agreement 

covers a 28-month period beginning in August 1994 with 

total estimated Government funding at $17.6 million and 

cost sharing by McDonnell Douglas of $7.6 million. Originally developed under a DoD contract (see above), the DCX will allow NASA to test new technologies needed to 

develop a reusable launch vehicle that could assist the 

Agency’s ultimate goal of gaining low-cost access to space. 

This is only oneof the ways NASA sought to implement 

the President’s policy to invest in U.S. technology and thus 

in the Nation’s future and to work cooperatively with U.S. 

industry in areas of mutual interest. NASA is one of six 

Federal agencies managing the Technology Reinvestment 

Project (TRP), promoting risk-sharing investment partnerships based on mutual interests rather than the buyer-seller 

relationship that used to exist between the Federal Govern64 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
ment and private industry. It is a fully collaborative project 

of NASA, ARPA, DOC, DOE, DOT, and NSF, with ARPA 

acting as the lead agency. NASA is contributing technical 

expertise and program management to the TRP. NASA 

helped plan the first “general” competition for TRP partnerships, and 57 NASA personnel helped evaluate about 2,800 

proposals in FY 1993-94, of which 212 projects worth 

around $605 million were selected for negotiation. NASA 

is the lead “agent” in managing 28 of these projects. They 

are estimated to cost the Government about $7 1.5 millionless than half of the total cost because of the TRP’s costsharing requirements. NASA is managing technology development projects in such areas as hybrid rockets, virtual 

reality simulations, phased-array satellite antennas, and millimeter-wave cameras for all-weather pilot-vision systems. 

In the area of technology deployment, a NASA-managed 

project links NASA’s National Technology Transfer Network and the Federal Lab Consortium to improve the transfer of technology from the Federal labs, leveraging NASA’s 

mission and structure in technology transfer. In the area of 

manufacturing education and training, NASA is the agent 

for a project that will develop a junior college curriculum 

centered around thedesign and manufacture of microsatellites 

and Get Away Specials (low-cost, experimental payloads 

for the Space Shuttle). 

Two examples will illustrate the way the TRP has been 

working. On April 7, 1994, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight 

Center signed a TRP agreement with a consortium of three 

U.S. aerospace companies to develop hybrid-rocket-motor 

technology. Hybrid rocket motors consist of elements from 

both solid- and liquid-propellant rockets. The Hybrid Technology Project (HyTOP) consortium consists of Martin 

Marietta Manned Space Systems, United Technologies 

Corporation’s Chemical Systems Division, and the American Rocket Company. The TRP will provide $10.4 million 

during the 30-month duration of the project with the consortium furnishing approximately $12 million. The agreement 

calls for the consortium to build and test two H250K hybrid 

qualification motors with 250,000 pounds of thrust. The 

manager of this initiative in technology development, the 

director of Marshall’s recently established Technology Transfer Office, stated that this agreement was “an important step 

in stimulating the transition of technology to the private 

sector and enhancing U.S. competitiveness.” 

The second example of TRP agreements featured one 

between NASA and Hi-Shear Technology Corporation in 

California to develop a new generation of portable emergency rescue equipment. This equipment will use NASAdeveloped pyrotechnical technology to modernize current 

hydraulic-powered cutters that fire and rescue teams employ 

to free accident victims from wreckages. The new-generation cutters will replace umbilical connections to cumbersome hydraulic pumps with pyrotechnic cartridges, saving 

an estimated 50 percent in weight and 70 percent in costs. 

This will make the cutters available to smaller fire departments as well ascivil and military search and rescue helicopters. It should also generate millions of dollars in cost 

savings for local, State, and Federal rescue services. 

NASA’s many other activities in developing commercial space technology and promoting technology transfer included TECHNOLOGY 2003, the fourth annual national technology transfer conference on December 7-9, 

1993, in Anaheim, California. At the event, sponsored by 

NASA Tech Briefs magazine and the Technology Utilization 

Foundation. more than 200 Federal labs, universities, and 

high-technology companies from across America exhibited 

their latest inventions and products available for license or 

sale. Other efforts included Phase A awards todevelop flight 

experiments in a 1992 In-Space Technology Experiments 

Program. NASA selected 51 studies from more than 350 

proposals, of which 15-20 will receive Phase B awards for 

continued hardware development and, eventually, flight 

testing. NASA also selected 21 proposals of 159 submissions for I-year Phase I contracts under the Small Business 

Technology Transfer Pilot Program to develop products that 

will involve technological innovation. About half of the 

Phase I products are expected to evolve into Phase I1 efforts 

geared toward product commercialization. NASA’s budget 

for this program in FY 1994 was about $3.4 million. 

Space and Public Diplomacy Abroad 

The U.S. Information Agency (USIA) joined the world 

in celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon 

landing in July 1994. Numerous posts abroad held special 

events that included exhibits (some featuring Moon rocks), 

seminars, and video programs. Invited guests in several 

Asian cities had live conversations via televised Worldnet 

Dialogue with former Apollo astronaut David Scott and 

NASA Associate Administrator for Space Science, Dr. 

Wesley T. Huntress. Posts in 70 countries distributed more 

than 5,000 commemorative Apollo 1 1 posters, designed and 

produced by the USIA. The Voice of America radio, the 

Wireless File print service, and Worldnet television pro1995 65 
duced special commemorative features in dozens of languages. Additionally, the USIA covered the collision of 

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with the planet Jupiter and provided information on Shuttle launches and space probes to 

interested foreign audiences. 

66 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
APPENDIXES 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record 

(includes spucecruJtfrom cooperating countries hunched by U.S. launch vehicles ) 

Calendar Earth Orbit' Earth Escape' 

Year Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ..................................................................... 0 1 0 0 

1958. .................................................... 5 8 0 4 

1959 ........................... 9 9 1 2 

1960 ................................................................... 16 12 1 2 

1961 ................................................................... 35 12 0 2 

1962 ................................................................... 55 12 4 1 

1963 ................................................................... 62 11 0 0 

1964 ................................................ 69 8 4 0 

1965 ............................ 7 4 1 

1966 ............................ 12 7 lb 

1967 ............................ 4 10 0 

1968 ................................................................... 61 15 3 0 

1969 ...................................... 1 8 1 

1970 ...................................... 1 3 0 

2 8 1 

2 8 0 

2 3 0 

2 1 0 

4 4 0 

0 1 0 

2 2 0 

2 7 0 

0 0 0 

4 0 0 

1 0 0 

0 0 0 

1983 ................................................................... 31 0 0 0 

1984 ................................................................... 35 3 0 0 

1985 ................................................................... 37 1 0 0 

1986 ................................................................... 11 4 0 0 

1987 ..................................................................... 9 1 0 0 

1988 ................................................................... 16 1 0 0 

1989 ................................................................... 24 0 2 0 

1990 ................................................................... 40 0 1 0 

1991 ................................................................... 32c 0 0 0 

1992 ....................................... 0 1 0 

1993 ................................................................... 28' 1 1 0 

1994 ................................................................... 27' 1 1 0 

(through September 30) 

TOTAL ........................................................ 1,314 146 85 15 

19 77 .................................... 

'The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Escape" 

flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle, as on Mar. 13,1994, 

when a single Taurus launch vehicle placed two satellites in orbit. (See Appn. A-3.) 

67 
APPEND~X A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some hunches orbited multiple spacecra).) 

People‘s European 

Year States CIS of China Kingdom. Agency 

1957 ................................. 2 ....................... ..................................................... 1958 ............... 5 .............. 1 ....................... .......... ................................ 1959 ............. 10 .............. 3 ...................................................................... .......... ................................ 1960 ............. 16 .............. 3 ........................................................................................................................ 

1961 ............. 29 .............. 6 ..................................................................................................................... 

1962 ............. 52 ............ 20 ............................................................................................................................................. 1963 ............. 38 ............ 17 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1964 ............. 57 ............ 30 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1965 ............. 63 ............ 48 ................ 1 ................................................................................................................................................................... 

1966 ............. 73 ............ 44 ................ 1 ................................................................................................................................................................... 1967 ............. 57 ............ 66... 

1968 ............. 45 ............ 74. 

1969 ............. 40 ............ 70. 

1970 ............. 28 ............ 81 

1971 ............. 30 ............ 83. 

1972 ............. 30 ............ 74 .......................... 1973 ............. 23 ............ 86 ................................................... 1974 ............. 22 ............ 81 ............................... 2 

1975 ............. 27 ............ 89 ................ 3 ........... 1 ..... 1976 ............. 26 ............ 99 ...................... 1977 ............. 24 ............ 98 ...................... 1978 ............. 32 ............ 88 ........................................ 1979 ............. 16 ............ 87 ........................................ 19 80 ............. 13 ............ 89 ................................................ 2 .................................. 1981 ............. 18 ............ 98 ........................................ 1982 ............. 18 .......... 101 ................................................ 1 .................. 1 ............................................................................................................. 1983 ............. 22 ............ 98 ................................................ 3 .................. 1 ...................................................................... 2 ............... 1 ................ 1984 ............. 22 ............ 97 ................................................ 3 .................. 3 ...................................................................... 4 ................................... 1985 ............. 17 ............ 98 ................................................ 2 .................. 1 ...................................................................... 3 ................................... 1986 ............... 6 ............ 91 ................................................ 2 .................. 2 ...................................................................... 2 ................................... 1987 ............... 8 ............ 95 ................................................ 3 .................. 2 ...................................................................... 2 ........ 1988 ............. 12 ............ 90 ................................................ 2 .................. 4 ...................................................................... 7 ................................... 1989 ............. 17 ............ 74 ................................................ 2 ............................................................................................ 7 ................................. 1 

1990 ............. 27 ............ 75 ................................................ 3 .................. 5 ...................................................................... 5 ... ................. 1 

1991 ............ 20C ............ 62 ................................................ 2 .................. 1 ...................................................................... 9 ............... 1 ................ 1992 ............ 31C ............ 55 ................................................ 2 .................. 3 .................................................................... 7b ............... 2 ................ 1993 ........... 24C ............ 45 ................................................ 1 .................. 1 .................................................................... 7b ................................... 

Calendar United USSR/ France’ Italy’ Japan Republic Australia United Space India Israel 

................................................................................................................. 

.................................................................................................................... 

.................. 

... b 

...................... 

TOTAL ......... 998 ....... 2,418 .............. 10 ........... 8 ........... 46 ................ 32 ..................... 1 ................... 1 .................... 58 ............... 6 .............. 2 

1994 ............ 20C ............ 32 ................................................ 2 .................. 4 .................................................................... 4b ............... 1 ................ ~thmugh Sept. 30) 

TOTAL ...... 1,018 ....... 2,450 .............. 10 ........... 8 ........... 48 ................ 36 ..................... 1 .................. 1 .................... 62 ............... 7 .............. 2 

%ice 1979 all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA. 

bIndudes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

%-& includes commercial e ndable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle, but because this table records launches rather than 

spacecraft, it does not inze separate spacecraft released from the Shuttle. 
APPENDR A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1 , 1993-September 30,1994 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (Gh4T). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Launch Vehicle Equator (7 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

at. 5 

'Landsa t-6 

63A 

Titan II 

Oct. 18 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(Sls-58) 

65A 

at. 26 

GPS 

68A 

Delta 11 

Nov. 28 

Dscs m 

74A 

Atlas I1 

Objective: To monitor Earth resources in 

support of global change research, coastal 

zone monitoring, timber management. environmental monitoring, and other programs. 

Spacecraft: Landsat-6 

Objective: To determine the effects of microgravity on human and animal subjects using the 

Spacelab Life Sciences-2 payload. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying SLS-2. 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, 

and timing data to DoD and civilian users. 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. 

Spacemap: A Block JIA satellite in the 

Objecfive: To provide long-haul, high capacity 

communications system supporting the worldwide 

command and control of the U.S. Armed Forces 

and other Government agencies. 

Satellite Communications System (DSCS) satellite. 

Spacecraft: Improved, third-generation Defense 

Dec. 2 Objective: To restore the planned scientific capabilities 

and reliability of the Hubble Space Telescope and 

to validate the on-orbit servicing concept for HST. 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(STS-61) 

75A replacements. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter equipped with HST 

813.0 

786.0 

100.6 

98.5 

291.0 

282.0 

90.2 

39.0 

20,268.0 

20,093.0 

717.9 

55.2 

35,533.0 

160.0 

623.3 

26.5 

594.0 

588.0 

96.5 

28.4 

Dec. 8 Objective: To provide secure and reliable military 35,914.0 

NATO IVB communications between NATO member nations 762.0 

76A and NATO military forces. 644.5 

Delta II Spacemap: Military communications satellite 23.3 

built by British Aerospace. 

Satellite's kick motor 

failed to place it in final 

orbit and communications 

with it ceased (1 e, launch 

was successful but not satellite) 

Fifty-eighth flight of STS. 

Piloted by John E. Blaha and 

Richard A. Searfoss. Payload 

Commander M. RheaSeddon, MD. 

Mission Specialists Shannon W. 

Lucid, PhD; David A. Wolf, MD; 

William S. McArthur, Jr. Payload 

Specialist, Martin J. Fettrnan, 

DVM, PhD. Launched from KSC, 

10:53 a.m. EDT. Landed at EAFB 

11:22 a.m. EDT, Nov. 1. 

Mission duration: 14 days, 29 min. 

Twenty-third in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. 

System to be composed of 24 

satellites in inclined, semisynchronous orbit. In orbit. 

Cut over to operational 

traffic in mid-1994. In orbit. 

Fifty-ninth flight of STS. 

Piloted by Richard 0. Covey 

and Kenneth D. Bowersox. 

Mission Specialists Tom Akers, 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman, 

Kathryn C. Thornton, 

Claude Nicollier (Switzerland), 

and F. Story Musgrave. 

Launched from KSC at 4:27 a.m. 

EST. Landed at KSC 26 minutes 

after midnight on Dec. 13. 

Mission duration: 10 days, 

19 hours, 58 min. 

Launched commercially by 

McDonnell Douglas. In orbit. 

69 
APPENDLX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1 I 1993-September 30,1994 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Launch Vehicle Equator (3 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (mid, Remarks 

Dec. 16 

Telstar 401 

77A 

Atlas I1 

Jan. 25 

Clementine 

4A 

Titan 11 

Feb. 3 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STs-60) 

6A 

Feb. 7 

Milstar 

9A 

Titan IV 

Feb. 9 

ODERACS 

6B-6G 

Space Shuttle 

Feb. 9 

BREMSAT 

6H 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

Objective: To provide television and data communications services for U.S. customers. 

Spacecraft: AT&T communications satellite. 

Objective: To test in space 23 advanced technologies 

Spacecraft: A deep space probe consisting of newly 

for high-tech, lightweight missile defense. 

developed hardware, such as lightweight imaging 

sensors, all developed since 1990. 

Objective: To deploy and retrieve a free-flying disk 

designed to generate new semiconductor films for 

advanced electronics and provide the second flight 

of a commercially developed research facility. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying the Wake Shield 

Facility, a 12-footdiameter, stainless steel disk, 

and SPACEHAB. 

35,804.0 Launched commercially 

188.0 by General Dynamics. 

631.2 In orbit. 

23.9 

Objective: To begin a multichannel, EHF/UHF satellite 

communications system providing survivable, enduring, 

and jam-resistant secure voice data communication for 

the Armed Forces and other users. 

Spacenaj: A communications satellite using extremely 

high-frequency radio and encription technology to 

prevent jamming. 

Objectiae: To improve the ability of ground-based 

radars to detect and track small debris objects. 

Spacecraft: Six spheres ranging in diameter from 

two to six inches. 

409,886.0 Conceived, built, and launched 

6,158.8 whose position changed over 

801.0 in 22 months, the satellite, 

Objediae: To study various phenomena in space 

including heat conductivity, the forces of acceleration, 

and atomic forces. 

that institution’s Center of Applied Space 

Technology and Microgravity; weight: 140 Ibs. 

(63 kilograms); length: 19 inches (480 mm). 

Spacecraj: The University of Brernen Satellite, built by 

63.8 

386.0 

358.0 

91.7 

59.9 

Elements 

not 

available. 

Elements 

vary. 

320.0 

302.0 

90.8 

57.0 

the couke of the year, also 

provided 1.8 million images of 

the surface of the Moon. 

Sixtieth flight of the STS. 

Piloted by Charles F. Bolden 

and Kenneth S. Reightler, Jr. 

Mission Specialists N. Jan Davis, 

PhD; Ronald M. Sega, PhD; 

FranklinR. Chang-Diaz, PhD, who 

also was Payload Commander; 

and Sergei Konstantinovich 

Krikalev (Russia), whose presence 

signified a new era in cooperation 

in space between the U.S. and 

Russia. Launched from KSC 

710 a.m. EST. Landed at KSC 

219 p.m. EST on Feb. 11. 

Mission duration: 8 days, 

7 hours, 9 min. 

Launch included first use of 

Titan IV with Centaur upper 

stage. First Milstar satellite. 

In orbit. 

Deployed from the orbiter’s 

payload bay. In orbit at end of FY 

but ODERACS A & B (COSPAR 

designations 68 & 6C) decayed 

Oct. 2 & 4 respectively. 

Spring-jected from its canister 

in the orbiter’s bay. In orbit. 

70 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1, 1993-September 30,1994 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Equator (3 

Feb. 19 

Galaxy 1R 

13A 

Delta 11 

Objective: To provide video communications. 37,300.0 Launched commercially 

spacecraft: A geostationary communications satellite 2,933.0 by McDonnell Douglas. 

with 24 C-band transponders, owned by 715.3 In orbit. 

Hughes Communications, Inc. 25.1 

Mar. 9 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(SE-62) 

Mar. 10 

GPS 

16A 

Delta II 

objective: To conduct dozens of experiments in 309.0 

296.0 

Sixty-first flight of the STS. 

such areas as materials processing, biotechnology, Piloted by John H. Casper and 

advanced technology, and environmental monitoring. 90.4 Andrew M. Allen. Mission 

Microgravity Payload-2, the Office of Aeronautics 

and Space Technology-2, the Shuttle Solar Backscatter 

Ultraviolet instrument, and other payloads. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter equipped with the U.S. 39.0 Specialists Pierre J. Thuot, 

15A Charles D. Gemar, and 

Marsha S. Ivins. Launched 

from KSC at 8:53 a.m. EST. 

Landed at KSC 8:lO a.m. EST 

on Mar. 18. Mission duration: 

13 days, 23 hours, 17 min. 

Mar. 10 

168 

Delta I1 

SEDS-I1 

Mar. 13 

ARPASAT 

17A 

Taurus 

Mar. 13 

STEP-TAOS 

17EJ 

Taurus 

Mar. 13 

Not announced 

17C-17J 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, 

and timing data to DoD and civilian users. 

Spacecruft: A Block IIA satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Objective: To suspend a tether in space with a 

minimum of swing and to determine the 

resistance of its braided polyethelene to 

micrometeoroids, space debris, and atomic oxygen. 

Spacecraft: A 23-kilogram mini-satellite. 

Objective: To demonstrate a lowcost, classified space 

capability, validate advanced technologies, and 

assess the operational utility of direct user 

tasking and collection of payload data. 

Satellite: A 400-lb. satellite developed by Ball 

Aerospace Corporation for the Advanced Research 

Projects Agency of DoD. 

Objective: To demonstrate and validate state-of-theart spacecraft technologies to ensure autonomy and 

survivability in an operational space environment. 

Satellite: Space Test Program Experimental PlatformTechnology for Autonomous Operational Survivability, 

also known as STEP-O. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Satellite: Not announced. 

20,348.0 

20,016.0 

718.0 

55.0 

358.0 

344.0 

91.3 

32.3 

Twenty-fourth and final satellite 

in the GPS constellation. 

In orbit. 

Ejected by the Delta's second 

stage using a spring-loaded 

device. At 20 kilometers, the 

longest object ever placed in 

space. Severed on March 15, but 

the remaining 10-12 kms. remained attached to the rocket's 

second stage until it decayed 

May 8. 

specific Launched by the first Taurus 

elements standard small launch vehicle. 

not available. In a 290-nautical-mile, 

105degree-inclination orbit. 

Specific Launched by the first 

elements Taurus standard small 

not available. launch vehicle. In a 

290-nautical-mile, 

105degree-inclination 

orbit. 

No elements In orbit. 

available. 

71 
APPENDIX A-3 

(confinuedl 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1993-September 30,1994 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (mid, Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Equator (3 

Apr. 9 Objective: To gather Earth images from Space Radar 218.0 Sixty-second flight of 

Space Shuttle Laboratory-1 to improve the understanding of our 204.0 the STS. Piloted by 

Endeavour planet's carbon, water, and energy cycles and the 88.7 Sidney M. Gutierrez 

(STs59) effects humans have on them. 56.9 and Kevin P. Chilton. 

20A Spucecrufi: Shuttle orbiter carrying SRL-1 and other Mission Specialists 

payloads. Jerome Apt, Michael R. 

Clifford, Linda M. Godwin 

(also Payload Commander), 

and Thomas D. Jones. 

Launched from KSC at 7:05 

a.m. EDT. Landed at EAFB 

12:54 p.m. EDT on Apr. 20. 

Wssion duration: 11 days, 

5 hours, 50 mm. 

Apr. 13 

GOES8 

22A 

Atlas I 

May 3 

DSP 

26A 

Titan N 

May 9 

MSTI-2 

28A 

scout 

May 19 

STEP-2 

29A 

Pegasus 

Jun. 24 

UFO-3 

35A 

Atlas I 

Objecfive: To provide more precise and timely weather 35,805.0 

35,773.0 

Spacecra): Geostationary Operational Environmental 1,436.2 

0.2 

observation and data on the atmosphere. 

Satellite-8 with three-axis stabilization to permit 

continuous observation of the Earth. 

Objective: To provide DoD with enhanced missile 

Spacecra): The 17th Defense Support Program satellite, 

warning and surveillance capabilities. 

in geostationary orbit. 

Satellite positioned 

at 90' West Longitude 

during checkout, but 

plans called for it 

to be moved to 75' 

West Longitude once 

it became operational. 

In orbit. 

No elements In orbit. 

available. 

Objective: To provide ballistic missile launch detection 

Spacecraft: Miniature Sensor Technology Integration-2 

433.0 

and environmental/ecological monitoring. 415.0 

93.1 

satellite with short-wave and mid-wave inkared sensors. 97.1 

817.0 

600.0 

99.0 

level. 82.0 

Objective: To evaluate unusual detection techniques for 

the DoD so as to separate adjacent, overlapping cochannel communications transmitted at a low signal 

Spacecraft: Space Test Program Experimental Platform. 

Objedive: To provide UHF communications for DoD. 

Spacecraft: Thii Ultra High Frequency Follow-on 

satellite built by Hughes Aircraft Company for the 

Navy to replace the FLTSATCOM system. 

15,457.0 

383.0 

283.6 

27.1 

Launched by the last 

scout into sunsynchronous orbit. 

In orbit. 

First Atlas launch 

conducted by 

Martin Marietta following its purchase 

of the Atlas business 

from General Dynamics. 

In orbit, became operational over the Atlantic 

Ocean in October 1994. 

72 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1993-September 30,1994 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (mid, Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Equator (.) 

Jul. 8 Objective: To conduct research into the behavior of 304.0 Sixty-thrd flight of 

Space Shuttle materials and life in the nearly weightless 300.0 the STS. Piloted by 

Columbia environment of low Earth orbit. 90.5 Robert D. Cabana and 

(STs-65) Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter equipped with the 28.4 James D. Halsell, Jr. 

39A International Microgravity Laboratory-2 and Mission Specialists . 

kchard J. Hieb (also 

Payload Commander); Carl 

E. Walz; Leroy Chiao, PhD; 

and Donald A. Thomas, 

PhD. Payload Specialist 

Chiak! Naito-Mukai, MD, 

PhD (Japan). Launched 

from KSC at 1243 p.m. 

EDT. Landed at KSC on 

July 23 following a record 

duration flight of 14 days, 

17 hours, 55 min. 

other payloads. 

Aug. 3 

APEX 

46A 

Pegasus 

Aug. 3 

DBS2 

47A 

Atlas IIA 

Aug. 27 

USA 105 

MA 

Titan IV 

Aug. 29 

57A 

Atlas E 

DMSP F-12 

Aug. 29 

Not announced 

578-57E 

Objective: To test the impact of radiation in the 

Van Allen belt on two target instruments. 

Spacecraft: Advanced Photovoltaic Experiment, 

a test spacecraft carrying three diagnostic 

instruments. 

Objective: To provide commercial television 

service to the 48 continguous states in the 

United States. Increases channel capacity 

from DBSl (alone) to 150 channels. 

Spacecraft: Geostationary communications 

satellite owned by DirecTv and United States 

Satellite Broadcasting. Named Direct 

Broadcast Satellite-2 or DIRECTV-2. 

Objective: Classified DoD mission. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To provide specialized meteorological data 

in support of DoD operations, including cloud 

coverage, wind speed, and precipitation. 

Spacecrafi: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

Satellite F-12 (indicating the 12th satellite in 

Block 5D) with 8 sensors to measure Ocean surface 

wind speed, areas and intensity of precipitation, 

cloud water content, land surface moisture, and 

space environmental data. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

2,538.0 

362.0 

114.9 

70.0 

39,445.0 

196.0 

703.4 

26.9 

Pegasus launch vehicle 

carried by a 8-52 bomber 

that took off from Em. 

In orbit. 

Launched commercially by 

Martin Marietta. In 

orbit. 

No elements 

available. about which no information 

In orbit along with 548, 

is available. 

856.0 In orbit. 

838.0 

101.9 

98.9 

Elements vary. In orbit. 

73 
APPENDLX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1 , 1993-September 30,1994 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mid, 

Inclination to 

Equator (3 

Remarks 

Sept. 9 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(s=) 

59A 

Sept. 13 

SPART 

59B 

201 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

Sept. 30 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(SW8) 

62A 

Objective: To perform atmospheric research using a 

laser, conduct robotic processing of semiconductor 

materials, deploy and retrieve a free-flying 

astronomical sub-satellite, and perform the first 

untethered spacewalk by astronomers in over ten 

years. 

Technology Experiment, the Robot Operated Processing 

System, Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool, and 

Simplified Aid for EVA (Extra Vehicular Activity) 

Rescue, among other items. 

Spacecraft; Shuttle orbiter equipped with LIDAR In-Space 

Objective: To explain how the solar wind is generated by 

the Sun. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool-201, 

a battery-powered sub-satellite equipped with a 

pointing system and recorder for capturing data about 

the acceleration and velocity of the solar wind plus 

aspects of the Sun's corona. 

Objective: To refly the Space Radar Laboratory and provide 

scientists with detailed information to help distinguish 

between human-induced environmental changes and 

other natural forms of change. 

Spacecraft; Shuttle orbiter equipped with Space Radar 

Laboratory-2, Get Away Special experiments, and 

a number of in-cabin payloads. 

269.0 

259.0 

89.5 

56.9 

50 miles 

behind 

Discovery. 

226.0 

213.0 

88.9 

57.0 

Sixty-fourth flight 

of the STS. Piloted 

by Richard N. Richards 

and L. Blaine Hammond, 

Jr. Mission Specialists 

J. M. Linenger, MD, PhD; 

Susan J. Helms; Carl J. 

Meade; and Mark C. Lee. 

bunched at 623 pm. EDT 

and landed at 5:13 EDTat 

EAFB on Sept. 20. Mission 

duration: 10 days, 22 hours, 

50 min. 

Released from Discovery's 

payload bay and recovered 

on Sept. 15. 

Sixty-fifth flight of STS. 

Piloted by Michael A. Baker 

and Terrence W. Wilcutt. 

Commander and Mission 

Specialist Thomas D. Jones. 

Mission Specialists Steven L. 

Smith, Daniel W. Bursch, 

and Peter J. K. Wisoff. 

bunched (after an initial 

abort on August 18) at 

716 a.m. EDT from Cape 

Canaveral. Landed at EAFB on October 11. 

74 
APPENDKX B-1 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1 988-Sept. 1 994 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Sept. 29,1988 

Mar. 13,1989 

Sept. 25,1989 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 9,1990 

Mar. 14,1990 

Apr. 13,1990 

Jun. 23,1990 

Aug. 18,1990 

Aug. 2,1991 

Feb. 10,1992 

Mar. 14,1992 

May 14,1992 

Jun. 10,1992 

Jul. 2,1992 

Aug. 31,1992 

Oct. 12,1992 

Jan. 13,1993 

Feb. 9,1993 

Mar. 25,1993 

Jul. 19,1993 

Sept. 3,1993 

Sept. 12,1993 

Nov. 28,1993 

Dec. 8,1993 

Dec. 16,1993 

Feb. 7,1994 

Feb. 19,1994 

May 19,1994 

Jun. 24,1994 

Aug. 3,1994 

Feb. 2,1988 

Sept. 24,1988 

Dec. 1,1990 

May 14,1991 

Nov. 28,1992 

Feb. 9,1993 

Aug. 9,1993 

Apr. 13,1994 

Aug. 29,1994 

TD-3 

TDW 

Fltsatcom F-8 

Skynet 4A 

JCSAT 2 

Syncom IV-5 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

Palapa-B2R 

Intelsat 6 F-4 

BSB-ZR 

TDRS5 

DSCS III 

Galaxy 5 

Palapa-W 

INTELSAT K 

DSCSIII 

Satcom C4 

DR3 

TDRs-6 

OXP-1 

UFO-1 

DSCS III 

UFO-2 

ACTS 

DSCSm 

NATO IVB 

Telstar 401 

Milstar 

Galaxy 1R 

STEP-2 

UFO-3 

DBS2 

DMSP F-9 

NOM-11 

DMSP F-10 

NOM-12 

DMSP F-11 

SCD 1 

NOAA-13 

GOES8 

DMSP F-12 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

AtlasKentaur 

Titan III 

Titan III 

Space Shuttle 

Titan UI 

Delta 

Titan III 

Delta 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas I1 

Atlas I 

Delta 

Atlas KIA 

Atlas U 

Delta II 

Delta II 

Space Shuttle 

Pegasus 

Atlas-Centaur I 

Atlas II 

Atlas-Centaur I 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas I1 

Delta II 

Atlas II 

Titan IV 

Delta II 

Pegasus 

Atlas I 

Atlas LIA 

Space-based communications and trachg satellite. 

Space-based communications and tracking satellite. 

Sixth, and last, in series of geosynchronous satellites for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for British Ministry of Defense. 

Second of dual Titan US launch for Japanese Communications 

Satellite Co. 

Leasat 5, fourth in series of satellites for US. Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for British Satellite Broadcasting. 

Space-based communications and trachg satellite. 

Launched by the Air Force for DoD. 

Commeraal communications satellite. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Commercial communications satellite. 

Launched by McDonnell Douglas for German communications. 

Spacebased communications and tracking satellite. 

Experimental, demonstration satellite for transmitting brief 

messages with hand-held communicators. 

Launched for the Navy but to a useless orbit. 

Defense Satellite Communications System satellite. 

Second of nine UHF satellites to replace the Navy’s Fleet Satellite 

Communications System. 

Test of advanced communications satellite technology. 

Defense Satellite Communications System satellite. 

NATO communications satellite for communications with 

NATO military forces and between NATO nations. 

AT&T television and data communications satellite. 

Initial Milstar EHF/UHF secure voice satellite for 

the U.S. Armed Forces. 

Hughes video communications satellite. 

Test satellite to separate adjacent, overlapping co-channel 

communications. 

Third of nine UHF satellites to replace the Navy’s Fleet 

Satellite Communications System. 

Commeraal television satellite owned by DlRECTV and 

United States Satellite Broadcasting. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION^ 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Pegasus 

Atlas E 

Atlas I 

Atlas E 

DoD Meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to repair NOM-9. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOM. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Satellite to monitor doud cover, rainfall, flood and tide levels, and 

air quality over Brazil. 

Launched for NOAA but communications lost Aug. 21,1993. 

Satellite to provide data on weather and the atmosphere. 

Meteorological satellite for DoD. 

not indude Department of Defense satellites that are not individually identified at launch. 

75 
APPENDLX B-1 

(continued) 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1 988-Sept. 1 994 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Oct. 23,1992 

Oct. 5,1993 

May 9,1994 

Apr. 25,1988 

Jun. 16,1988 

Aug. 25,1988 

Feb. 14,1989 

June 10,1989 

Aug. 18,1989 

Oct. 21, 1989 

Dec. 11,1989 

Jan. 24, 1990 

Mar. 26,1990 

Aug. 2,1990 

Oct. 1,1990 

Nov. 16,1990 

Jul. 4,1991 

Feb. 23,1992 

Apr. 10,1992 

Jul. 7,1992 

Sept. 9,1992 

Nov. 22,1992 

Dec. 18,1992 

Feb. 3,1993 

Mar. 30,1993 

May 13,1993 

Jun. 26,1993 

Aug. 30,1993 

Oct. 26,1993 

Mar. 10,1994 

LAGEOS I1 

Landsa t-6 

MSTI-2 

SOOS-3 

NOVA-2 

soos-4 

GPS-1 (Block 11) 

GPS-2 (Block 11) 

GPS-3 (Block 11) 

GPS-5 (Block 11) 

GPS-6 (Block 11) 

GPS-7 (Block 11) 

GPS-9 (Block 11) 

GPS-IO (Block 11) 

GPS-11 (Block 11) 

GPS-12 (Block 11) 

GE-13 (Block 11) 

GPS-14 (Block 11) 

GPS-15 (Block 11) 

GPS-16 (Block 11) 

GPS-17 (Block 11) 

GPS-18 (Block 11) 

GPS-19 (Block 11) 

GPS-20 (Block 11) 

GPS-21 (Block 11) 

GPS-22 (Block 11) 

GPS-4 (Block 11) 

GPS-8 (Block 11) 

GPS (Block 11) 

GPS (Block 11) 

EARTH OBSERVATION AND GEODESY~ 

Space Shuttle Toint NASA-Italian satellite for a varietv of Earth 

Titan I1 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 11 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta 11 

Delta II 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

observation and geodetic missions. 

Launched to monitor Earth resources but 

communications lost. 

Satellite to detect ballistic missile launches and also 

perform environmental and ecological monitoring. 

NAVIG AT ION^ 

Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Third of improved Transit System satellites for DoD. 

Dual Satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

:Does not include Department of Defense satellites that are not individually identified at launch. 

Previously separate categories. See also Weather Observation for satellites with multiple missions including Earth observation. 

76 
APPENDIX B-2 

US.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1988-Sept. 1994 

~ 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mar. 25,1988 

Nov. 18,1989 

Feb. 14,1990 

Feb. 14,1990 

Apr. 5,1990 

Apr. 25,1990 

June 1,1990 

Jul. 25,1990 

Apr. 7,1991 

Sep. 15,1991 

Jun. 7,1992 

Jul. 3,1992 

Jul. 24,1992 

Aug. 2,1992 

Mar. 30,1993 

Apr. 11,1993 

Jun. 26,1993 

Sep. 13,1993 

Oct. 5,1993 

Jan. 25, 1994 

Feb. 9,1994 

Mar. 10,1994 

Sept. 13,1994 

San Marco D/L 

COBE 

LACE 

RME 

PEGSAT 

Hubble Space Telescope 

ROSAT 

CRRES 

Compton Gamma Ray 

Observatory 

Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Solar, Anomalous 

and Magnetospheric 

Particle Explorer 

Geotail 

Eureka-1 

SEDS-I 

SPARTAN-201 

Plasma Motor 

Generator 

ORFEUS-SPAS 

Landsat-6 

Clementine 

BREMSAT 

SEDS-I1 

SPARTAN-201 

scout 

Delta 

Delta II 

Delta I1 

Pegasus 

Space Shuttle 

Delta II 

Atlas/Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

scout 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

Delta II 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

Titan I1 

Titan I1 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

International satellite to study Earth’s lower atmosphere. 

Measurement of cosmic background. 

Low-powered atmospheric compensation experiment for DoD. 

Second payload, relay mirror experiment satellite for DoD. 

Chemical release experiment satellite for NASA and DoD. 

Long-term astronomical observations. 

Measurement of x-ray and extreme ultraviolet sources. 

Chemical release experiment. 

Measurement of celestial gamma-rays. 

Measurement of Earth’s atmosphere and ozone layer. 

Spectroscopic and wide-band observations over the entire extreme 

ultraviolet spectrum. 

Investigation of cosmic rays and other phenomena of space physics. 

Investigation of geomagnetic tail region of the magnetosphere. 

Research in the fields of material and life sciences. 

Comparison of actual tether dynamics with model. 

Study solar wind and the Sun’s corona. 

Demonstrate ability of tether to generate electrical current in space. 

Study very hot and very cold matter in universe. 

Satellite to support global change research but communications 

lost after successful launch by Titan I1 after kick motor failed to 

place it in final orbit. 

Satellite to test missile defense technologies and also provide 

mages of the Moon. 

Satellite to study such phenomena in space as heat conductivity, 

the forces of acceleration, and atomic forces. 

Suspend a tether in space with a minimum of swing. 

Second release of sub-satellite to study the solar wind and the 

Sun‘s corona. 

77 
APPENDIX B-3 

US.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-Sept. 1994 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20,1975 

Sept 9,1975 

Jan. 15,1976 

Aug. 20,1977 

Sept. 5,1977 

May 20,1978 

Aug. 8,1978 

May 4,1989 

Oct. 18,1989 

Oct. 6, 1990 

Sept. 25,1992 

Jan. 25, 1994 

Viking 1 

Viking 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer 

Venus 1 

Pioneer 

Venus 2 

Magellan 

Galileo 

Ulysses 

Mars 

Observer 

Clementine 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

AtlasCentaur 

AtlasCentaur 

Space 

Shuttle 

Space 

Shuttle 

Space 

Shuttle 

Titan III 

Titan II 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6,1976, while orbiter 

circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its 

surroundings, tested soilsamples for signs of life, and tookmeasurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20,1976, while orbiter 

circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its 

surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and tookmeasurements of atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 millionkm. of the Sun, measuring solarwind, 

corona, electrons, and cosmicrays. Payload had some West Germanand US. experiments 

as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiterand Saturn flyby mission. Swungaround Jupiter in July 1979, arrived at Saturn 

in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung around Jupiter in 

Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended throughVenus atmosphere 

Dec. 9, returned data. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Aug. 10,1990, returning radar image of surface. 

Planetary exploration spacecraft, composed of probe to enter Jupiter’s atmosphere 

and orbiter to return scientific data. 

Solar exploration spacecraft, to explore interstellar space and the Sun. 

Planetary exploration spacecraft to study the geology, geophysics, and climate of Mars; 

ceased communicating with Earth Aug. 21,1993. 

Experimental deep space probe that entered lunar orbit on Feb. 19,1994, and took 1.8 

million images of the surface of the Moon during the next 2 1/2 months. 

78 
APPENDLX C 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961 -Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12,1961 

May 5,1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6,1961 

Feb. 20,1962 

May 24,1962 

Aug. 11,1962 

Aug. 12,1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15,1963 

June 14,1963 

June 16,1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18,1965 

Mar. 23,1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21,1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15,1965 

Mar. 16,1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18,1966 

Sept. 12,1966 

Nov. 11,1966 

Apr. 23,1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21,1968 

Jan. 14,1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3.1969 

May 18, 1969 

Yury A. Gagarin 

Alan 8. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. GkM, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Ceman 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

DOM F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

0:1:48 

0:0:15 

0:0:16 

1:l:lE 

0:4:55 

0:4:56 

3:22:25 

22259 

0:9:13 

1:10:20 

4:23:6 

2.22:50 

1:0:17 

1:2:2 

0:4:53 

4:1:56 

72255 

13:18:35 

1:1:51 

0:10:41 

3:0:21 

22247 

2:23:17 

32235 

1237 

10:20:9 

3:22:51 

6:3:1 

22323 

3:0:56 

1O:l:l 

8:0:3 

First human flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; astronaut safe. 

First flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km. beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km. of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km. from target. 

First US. flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

Second dual mission (withvostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km. of Vostok 5. 

First 3-person crew. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min.). 

First U.S. 2-person flight; first manual maneuvers 

21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration human flight to date. 

Longest human flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm. of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km.). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 hrs.) 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-person mission. 

in orbit. 

Agena target rocket). 

Maneuvered near uncrewed Soyuz 2. 

First human orbit@) of Moon; first human departure 

from Earth’s sphere of influence; highest speed 

attained in human flight to date. 

from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts 

Successfully simulated in Earth-orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar 

surface and rejoining with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including 

lunar module to 14,300 m. from the lunar surface. 

79 
APPENDIX C 

(con timed) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hmmin) 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

80 

July 16,1969 

Oct. 11,1969 

Oct. 12,1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14,1969 

Apr. 11,1970 

June 1,1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22,1971 

June 6,1971 

July 26,1971 

Apr. 16,1972 

Dec. 7,1972 

May 25,1973 

July 28,1973 

Sept. 27,1973 

Nov. 16,1973 

Dec. 18,1973 

July 3,1974 

Aug. 26,1974 

Dec. 2,1974 

Jan. 10,1975 

Neil Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valery N. Kubasovf 

A. V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

AlfredM. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Ceman 

HarrisonH. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

EdwardG. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yury P. Artyukhin 

Gennady V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoly V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

8:3:9 

4:22:42 

4:22:41 

4:22:50 

10:4:36 

5:22:55 

1716:59 

9:02 

1:23:46 

23:1822 

12712 

11:1:51 

12:1352 

28:0:50 

59:11:9 

1:23:16 

84:1:16 

72055 

15:1730 

2:012 

5:22:24 

29:13:20 

First human landing on lunar surface and safe retum to 

Earth. First return of rock and soil samples to Earth, 

and human deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

actually docking. Each conducted certain experiments, 

including welding and Earth and celestial observation. 

Soyuz 6,7, and 8 operated as a group flight without 

Second human lunar landing Explored surface of Moon and 

retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed 

in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19,1967. 

circled, Moon, with crew using LEM as "lifeboat" until 

just before reentry. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship 

Longest human spaceflight to date. 

Third human lunar landing. Mission demonstrated 

pinpoint landing capability and continued human 

exploration. 

station launched Apr. 19. Crew recovered Apr. 24, 

1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied space 

station for 22 days. Crew perished in final phase 

of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on June30,1971. 

Fourth human lunar landing and first Apollo "J" series 

mission, which carried Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Worden's inflight EVA of 38 min. 12 sec was 

performed during return trip. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board space 

Fifth human lunar landing, with Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo human lunar landing, again with 

roving vehicle. 

Docked withskylab 1 (launched uncrewed May 14) for 

28 days. Repaired damagedstation. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked withskylab 1 inlong-durationmission; last of 

Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biologica1,andEarthresources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

experiments. 

station. 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days: hrs:min) 

Anomaly 

soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

SOYUZ T-2 

soyuz 37 

soyuz 38 

SOYUZ T-3 

SOYUZ T-4 

soyuz 39 

Apr. 5,1975 

May 24,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15,1976 

Oct. 14,1976 

Feb. 7,1977 

Oct. 9,1977 

Dec. 10,1977 

Jan. 10,1978 

Mar. 2,1978 

June 15,1978 

June 27,1978 

Aug. 26,1978 

Feb. 25,1979 

Apr. 10,1979 

June 6,1979 

Apr. 9, 1980 

May 26,1980 

June 5,1980 

July 23,1980 

Sept. 18,1980 

Nov. 27,1980 

Mar. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1981 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valery I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yury N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Yury V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

GeorgiI. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Valery N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

YuryV.Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yury V. Romanenko 

Amaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennady M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha 

0:0:20 

62:23:20 

5:22:31 

9:1:28 

48:1:32 

721:54 

2:0:6 

171723 

2046 

37106 

64:22:53 

722:17 

9:1523 

7z4 

6720:14 

108:4:24 

1:23:1 

718:17 

551:29 

65:2054 

3:22.21 

79:15:17 

72043 

12:19:8 

74:1838 

720:43 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered after 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiments of 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint (ASTP) experiments of 

ASP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera system. 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; crew 

duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; crew 

duration 5 days, 22 hrs., 59 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cosmonaut 

to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; crew 

duration 139 days, 14 hrs, 48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first Polish 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; crew 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 49 min. Jaehn was first 

German Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked withSalyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; crew 

duration 175 days, 36 min. 

abort. 

ASTP mission. 

Failed to achievedocking withSalyut 6station. Ivanov 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for Soyuz 32 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. Crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. Crew 

was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

crew while Soyuz 32 returned without a crew. 

duration 184 days, 20 hrs, 12 min. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 46 min. Farkas was first 

Hungarian to orbit. 

generation ferry. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 42 min. Pham was first 

Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First crewed flight of newDocked withSalyut 6. Crew returned inSoyuz36. Crew 

Docked withSalyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-person flight in Soviet 

program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

81 
APPENDLX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(davs:hrs:min) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia (STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-3) 

SOYUZ T-5 

SOYUZ T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-4) 

SOYUZ T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-6) 

SOYUZ T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-7) 

soyuz T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-9) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41B) 

SOYUZ T-10 

Apr .12,1981 

May 14,1981 

Nov. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1982 

May 13,1982 

June 24,1982 

June 27,1982 

Aug. 19,1982 

Nov. 11,1982 

Apr. 4,1983 

Apr. 20,1983 

June 18,1983 

June 28,1983 

Aug. 30,1983 

Nov. 28.1983 

Feb. 3,1984 

Feb. 8,1984 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoly Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Cluetien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

DonaldH. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

FrederickH. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

ladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

OwenK. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Roben L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

2621 

720:41 

2:6:13 

8:4:49 

211:9:5 

7:21:51 

71:9 

7:21:52 

5214 

5:0:24 

2:0:18 

6:2:24 

149:9:46 

6:1:9 

10:7:47 

7:23:16 

62:22:43 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in orbit. 

First landing of airplane-like craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian cosmo 

naut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific payload 

(OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. Returned 

for reuse. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific payload 

(OSS 1). Second test of remote manipulator arm. Flight 

extended 1 day because of flooding at primary landing 

site; alternate landing site used. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. Crew 

returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French cosmonaut to 

orbit. 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD payload, 

additional scientific payloads. Returned July4. 

Completed testing program. Returned for reuse. 

to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet woman 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational flight; 

launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C- 3); 

first flight with 4 crew members. EVA test canceled 

when space suits malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched TDRS 1. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station. 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 commercial 

satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa B-I), also 

launched and retrieved SPAS 01; first flight 

with 5 crewmembers, including first woman 

US. astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched one commercial 

satellite (Insat I-B), first flight of U.S. black 

astronaut. 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of Spacelab 1, 

first flight of 6 crew members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-US. astronaut to fly in US. space 

program (Merbold). 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication 

satellites failed to achieve orbit. First 

use of Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space duration 

record of 237 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-11. 

82 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(davs: hmmin) 

SOYUZ T-1 1 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1 C) 

SOYUZ T-12 

Spaceshuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1 G) 

Space Shuttle Nov. 8,1984 

Discovery 

(STSdlA) 

Space Shuttle Jan. 24,1985 

Discovery 

(STS-51C) 

Spaceshuttle Apr. 12,1985 

Discovery 

(STS-51 D) 

Space Shuttle Apr. 29,1985 

Challenger 

(STS-518) 

SOYUZ T-13 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51 C) 

Apr. 3,1984 Yury Malyshev 181:21:48 

Gennady Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Apr. 6,1984 Robert L. Crippen 6:23:41 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 11:19:14 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnik 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shiver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Garn 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk van den Berg 

Taylor Wang 

June 5,1985 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112:3:12 

Viktor Savinykh 

June 17,1985 Daniel C. Brandenstein 71:39 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Aziz AI-Saud 

July 17,1984 

Aug. 30,1984 Henry W. Hartsfield 6:0:56 

Oct. 5, 1984 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first Indian in 

space. Crew returned in Soyuz T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment of LDEF-1, 

for later retrieva1,Solar MaximumSatellite retrieved, 

repaired, and redeployed. 

Docked withSalyut 7station. First female 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of U.S. 

non-astronaut. 

8:5:24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first of 7 crew 

members, including first flight of two U.S. women and 

one Canadian (Gameau). 

723:45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first retrieval and 

retumof twodisabled communicationssatellites. 

(Westar 6, Palapa 82) to Earth. 

3:1:33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

6:23:55 SixteenthSTS flight. Two communications satellites. 

First U.S. Senator in space (Gam). 

7:0:9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay of 

shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to Earth with 

Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, Sept. 26,1985. 

Eighteenth STS flight. 'Iluee communications satellites. 

One reusable payload, Spartan-I. First US. flight 

with French and Saudi Arabian crewmembers. 

83 
APPENDLX C 

(continued) 

US. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(davs:hrs:min) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-51F) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1 I) 

SOYUZ T-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-51 J) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-61A) 

Spaceshuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-618) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS41C) 

July 29,1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Sept. 17,1985 

Oct. 3.1985 

Oct. 30,1985 

Nov. 27,1985 

Jan. 12,1986 

SOYUZ T-15 Mar. 13,1986 

soyuz TM-2 Feb. 5,1987 

soyuz TM-3 July 22,1987 

sop2 TM-4 Dec. 21,1987 

soyuz TM-5 June 7,1988 

Charles G. Fullerton 72245 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladirnir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

Emst Messerschmid 

Reinhard Furrer (FRG) 

Wubbo J. Ockels (ESA) 

Brewster H. Shaw 62254 

Bryan D. O'Connor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Shenvood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steve A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 125:l:l 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo bay. 

7218 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. Repaired Syncom 1V-3. 

64:21:52 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Viktor Savinykh, 

Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin returned 

to Earth Nov. 21,1985, when Vasyutin became ill. 

4:1:45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DOD mission. 

70:45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German Spacelab 

D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. First flight of Mexican astronaut (Neri Vela). 

Yury Romanenko 174:326 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

Aleksandr Viktorenko 160:716 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

624 Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one communications 

satellite. First member of US. House of Representatives 

in space (Bill Nelson). 

Vladimir Titov 1805 

Musa Manarov 

Anatoly Levchenko 

Viktor Savinykh 9:20:13 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Aleksandur Aleksandrov 

Docked with Mir space station on May 5/6 transferred 

to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26 transferred from 

Salyut 7 back to Mir. 

Docked with Mir space station. Romanenko established 

long distance stay in space record of 326 days. 

Docked with Mir space station. Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

remained in Mir 160 days, returned with 

Yury Romanenko. Viktorenko and Faris returned in 

Soyuz TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin who 

experienced medical problems. MohammedFaris first 

Syrian in space. 

Docked with Mir space station. Crew of Yury Romakenko 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov, and Anatoly Levchenko 

returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Docked with Mir space station, Aleksandrov first 

Bulgarian in space. Crew returned June 17 in 

soyuz TM-4. 

84 
APPENDLX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

SO~Z TM-6 Aug. 29,1988 Vladimir Lyakhov 

Valery Polyakov 

Abdul Mohmand 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilmers 

George D. Nelson 

soyuz TM-7 Nov. 26,1988 Aleksandr Volkov 

Sergey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

STS-26 Sept. 29,1988 Frederick H. Hauck 

STS-27 Dec. 2,1988 

STS-29 

STS-30 May 4,1989 

STS-28 Aug. 8,1989 

SOYUZ TM-8 Sept. 5,1989 

STS-34 Oct. 18,1989 

STS-33 

STS-32 

Robert "Hoot" Gibson 

Guy S. Gardner 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jerry L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

Mar. 13,1989 Michael L. Coats 

John E. Blaha 

James P. Bagian 

James F. Buchli 

Robert C. Springer 

David M. Walker 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Nomman E. Thagard 

Mary L. Cleave 

Mark C. Lee 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Richard N. Richards 

James C. Adamson 

David C. Leestma 

Mark N. Brown 

Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Donald E. Williams 

Michael J. McCulley 

Shannon W. Lucid 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Ellen S. Baker 

Nov. 23,1989 FrederickD. Gregory 

John E. Blaha 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manley L. "SOMY" Carter 

DanielC. Brandenstein 

James D. Wetherbee 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

G. David Low 

Soyuz TM-9 Feb. 11,1990 Anatoly Solovyov 

Aleksandr Balandin 

STS-36 Feb. 28,1990 JohnO. Creighton 

John H. Casper 

David C. Hilmers 

Richard H. Mullane 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Jan. 9,1990 

8:19:27 

4:l 

Docked with Mir space station, Mohmand first 

Afghanistani in space. Crew returned Sept. 7, 

in Soyuz TM-5. 

Twenty-sixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

151:ll Docked with Mir space station. Soyuz TM-6 returned 

withChretien,VladimirTitov, andMusa Manarov. 

Titov and Manarov completed 366-day mission Dec. 

21. Crew of Krikalev, Volkov, and Valery 

Polyakov returned Apr. 27,1989 in Soyuz TM-7. 

4:9:6 Twenty-seventhSTS flight. Dedicated DoDmission. 

4:23:39 

4:0:57 

5:l 

166:6 

4:23:39 

5:0:7 

10:21 

178:22:19 

4:20:19 

Twenty-eighthSTS flight. Launched TDE-4. 

Twenty-ninthSTS flight. Venus orbiter Magellan 

launched. 

ThirtiethSTSflight. Dedicated DoDmission. 

Docked with Mir space station. Crew of Viktorenko and 

Serebrov returned in Soyuz TM-8, Feb. 9,1990. 

Thirty-first STS flight. Launched Jupiter probe and 

orbiter Galileo. 

Thirty-second STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission 

Thirty-third STS flight. Launched Syncom IV-5 and 

retrieved Long-Dura tion Exposure Facili ty (LDEF) 

Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned Aug. 9, 

Thirty-fourthSTS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

1990, in Soyuz TM-9. 

85 
APPENDIX C 

(con timed) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

STS-31 

soyuz TM-10 

sTS-41 

STS-38 

STS-35 

soyuz TM-11 

STS-37 

STS-39 

soyuz TM-12 

Apr. 24,1990 

Aug. 1,1990 

Oct. 6,1990 

Nov. 15,1990 

Dec. 2,1990 

Dec. 2,1990 

Apr. 5,1991 

Apr. 28,1991 

May 18,1991 

Loren J. Shriver 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Steven A. Hawley 

Bruce McCandless I1 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Gennady Manakov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Richard N. Richards 

Robert D. Cabana 

Bruce E. Melnick 

William M. Shepherd 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard 0. Covey 

Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 

Charles "Sam" Gemar 

Robert C. Springer 

Carl J. Meade 

Vance D. Brand 

Guy S. Gardner 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

John M. "Mike" Lounge 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Viktor Afanasyev 

Musa Manarov 

Steven R. Nagel 

Kenneth D. Cameron 

Linda Godwin 

Jerry L. Ross 

Jay Apt 

Michael L. Coats 

Blaine Hammond, Jr. 

Gregory L. Harbaugh 

Donald R. McMonagle 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

Lacy Veach 

Richard J. Hieb 

Anatoly Artsebarskiy 

Sergei Krikalev 

Helen Sharman (UK) 

5:1:16 

130:20:36 

4:2:10 

4:21:55 

823:5 

175:01:52 

6:0:32 

Thirty-fifth STS flight. Launched Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST). 

Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned 

Dec. 10,1990, with Toyohiro Akiyama, 

Japanese astronaut. 

Thirty-sixth STS flight. Ulysses spacecraft to 

investigate interstellar space and the Sun. 

Thirty-seventhSTS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Thirty-eighthSTS flight. ASTRO-1 incargo bay 

Docked with Mir space station. Toyohiro Akiyama 

returned Dec. 10,1990, with previous Mir crew of 

Gennady Manakov and Gennady Strekalov. 

Thirty-ninth STS flight. Launched Gamma Ray Observatory to measure celestial gamma-rays. 

8:722 Fortieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

144152 

9:2:15 

Docked with Mir space station. Helen Sharman first 

from United Kingdom to fly in space. Crew of Viktor 

Afanasyev, Musa Manarov, and Helen Sharman 

returned May 20,1991. Artsebarskiy and Krikalev 

remained on board Mir, with Artsebarskiy returning 

Oct. 10,1991, and Krikalev doing so Mar. 25,1992. 

(SLS-1) in cargo bay. 

STs-40 June 5,1991 Bryan D. O'Conner Forty-first STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life Sciences 

Sidney M. Gutierrez 

James P. Bagian 

Tamara E. Jernigan 

M. Rhea Seddon 

Francis A. "Drew" Gaffney 

Millie Hughes-Fulford 

Michael A. Baker 

Shannon W. Lucid 

G. David Low 

James C. Adamson 

STS-43 Aug. 2,1991 John E. Blaha 8:21:21 Forty-second STS flight. Launched fourth Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-5). 

86 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961 -Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

STS-48 Sept. 12,1991 John Creighton 

Kenneth Reightler, Jr. 

Charles D. Gemar 

James F. Buchli 

Mark N. Brown 

Soy~z TM-13 OCt. 2,1991 Aleksandr Volkov 

Toktar Aubakirov 

(Kazakh Republic) 

Franz Viehboeck (Austria) 

Tom Henricks 

Jim Voss 

Story Musgrave 

Mario Runco, Jr. 

Tom Hennen 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Stephens. Oswald 

Norman E. Thagard 

David C. Hilmers 

William F. Readdy 

Roberta L. Bondar 

Ulf Merbold (ESA) 

Alexandr Viktorenko 

Alexandr Kaleri 

Klaus-Dietrich Flade 

(Germany) 

STS-44 Nov. 24,1991 Frederick D. Gregory 

STS-42 Jan. 22,1992 

Soyuz TM-14 Mar. 17,1992 

STS-45 

STS-49 

STS-50 

SOYUZTM-15 

May 7,1992 

Mar. 24,1992 Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Brian Duffy 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

David C. Leestma 

Michael Foale 

Dirk D. Frimout 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Kevin P. Chilton 

Richard J. Hieb 

Bruce E. Melnick 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard N. Richards 

Kenneth D. Bowersox 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

Ellen S. Baker 

CarlMeade 

Anatoly Solovyov 

Sergei Avdeyev 

MichelTognini (France) 

June 25,1992 

July 27,1992 

5:8:28 

901600 

62251 

8:1:12 

14515:ll 

9:O:lO 

8:16:17 

13:19:30 

189:1743a 

Forty-third STS flight. Launched Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite (UARS). 

Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned Oct. 10, 

1991, with Anatoly Artsebarsky. 

Forty-fourthSTS flight. Launched Defense Support 

Program (DSP) satellite. 

Forty-fifth STS flight. Carried International 

Microgravity Laboratory-1 incargobay. 

First manned CIS space mission. Docked with Mir space 

station Mar. 19. The TM-13 capsule with Flade, 

Aleksandr Volkov, and Sergei Krikalev returned 

to Earth Mar. 25. Krikalev had been in space 313 days. 

Viktorenko and Kaleri remained in the TM-14 

spacecraft. 

for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1). 

Forty-sixth STS flight. Carried Atmospheric Laboratory 

Forty-seventh STS flight. Reboosted a crippled 

INTELSAT VI communications satellite. 

Forty-eighthSTS flight. Carried US. Microgravity 

Laboratory-1. 

Docked withMir Spacestation Jul. 29. Tognini returned 

to Earth in TM-14 capsule with Alexandr Viktorenko 

and Alexandr Kaleri. Solovyov and Avdeyev spent 

over six months in the Mir orbital complex and 

returned to Earth in the descent vehicle of theTM-15 

spacecraft on 1 February 1993. 

~~ 

aFigures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in Tnss. 

87 
APPENDR C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date 

STS-46 July 31,1992 

STS-47 

STS-52 

Sept. 12,1992 

Oct. 22,1992 

STS-53 

STS-54 

STS-56 

STS-55 

Dec. 2,1992 

Jan. 13,1993 

Soyuz TM-16 Jan. 24,1993 

Apr. 8,1993 

Apr. 26,1993 

Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Loren J. Shriver 723:16 Forty-nineth STS flight. Deployed Tethered Satellite 

Andrew M. Allen 

Claude Nicollier (ESA) 

Marsha S. Ivins 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Franco Malerba (Italy) 

System-1 and Eureka-1. 

Robert L. Gibson 

Curtis L. Brown, Jr. 

Mark C. Lee 

Jerome Apt 

N. Jan Davis 

Mae C. Jemison 

Mamoru Mohri (Japan) 

72230 FiftiethSTS flight. Carried Spacelab J. Jemison first 

African American woman to fly in space. Mohri first 

Japanese to fly on NASA spacecraft. Lee and Davis 

first married couple in space together. 

James D. Wetherbee 

Michael A. Baker 

William M. Shepherd 

Tamara E. Jernigan 

Charles L. Veach 

Steven G. MacLean 

David M. Walker 

Robert D. Cabana 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

James S. Voss 

Michael Richard Clifford 

John H. Casper 

Donald R. McMonagle 

Gregory J. Harbaugh 

Mario Runco, Jr. galacticgases. 

Susan J. Helms 

Gennady Manakov 

Aleksandr Poleshchuk 

9:20:57 Fifty-first STS flight. Studied influence of gravity on 

basic fluid and solidification processes using U.S. 

Miarogravity Payload-1 in an international mission. 

Deployed second Laser Geodynamics Satellite and 

Canadian Target Assembly. 

77:19 Fifty-second STS flight. Deployed the last major DoD 

classified payload planned for Shuttle (DoD 1) with 

ten different secondary payloads. 

6:23:39 Fifty-third STS flight. Deployed Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite-6. Operated Diffused X-ray Spectrometer 

Hitchhiker experiment to collect data on stars and 

179:0:44a Docked with Mir space station Jan. 26. On July 22,1993, the 

TM-16 descent cabin landed back on Earth with 

Manakov, Poleschuk, and French cosmonaut JeanPierre Haignere from Soyuz TM-17 on board. 

Kenneth D. Cameron Fifty-fourth STS flight. Completed second flight of 

Stephen S. Oswald 

C. Michael Foale 

Kenneth D. Cockerell 

Ellen Ochoa 

Steven R. Nagel 9:23:39 Fifty-fifth STS flight. Completed second German 

Terence T. Henricks 

Jerry L. Ross 

Charles J. Precourt 

Bernard A. Harris, Jr. 

Ulrich Walter (Germany) 

Hans W. Schlegel (Germany) 

9:6:9 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Saence 

and deployed SPARTAN-201. 

microgravity research program in Spacelab D-2. 

aFigures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in Tuss. 

88 
APPENDLX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

STS-57 June 21,1993 Ronald J. Grabe 

Brian J. Duffy 

G. David Low 

Nancy J. Sherlock 

Peter J. K. Wisoff 

Janice E. Voss 

Vasiliy Tsibliyev 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Jean-Pierre Haignere 

SOyUZ TM-17 July 1,1993 

STS-51 

STS-58 

STS-61 

Sept. 12,1993 

Oct. 18,1993 

Dec. 2,1993 

Sopz TM-18 Jan. 8., 1994 

STS-60 

STS-62 

STS-59 

Feb. 3,1994 

Mar. 9,1994 

Apr. 9,1994 

Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 

William F. Readdy 

James H. Newman 

Daniel W. Bursch 

Carl E. Walz 

John E. Blaha 

Richard A. Searfoss 

M. Rhea Seddon 

Shannon W. Lucid 

David A. Wolf 

William S. McArthur 

Martin J. Fettman 

Richard 0. Covey 

Kenneth D. Bowersox 

Tom Akers 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Kathryn C. Thomton 

Claude Nicollier 

F. Story Musgrave 

Viktor Afanasyev 

Yuri Usachev 

Valery Polyakov 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Kenneth S. Reightler, Jr. 

N. Jan Davis 

Ronald M. Sega 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Sergei K. Krikalev (Russia) 

John H. Casper 

Andrew M. Allen 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Charles D. Gemar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

Sidney M. Gutierrez 

Kevin P. Chilton 

Jerome Apt 

Michael R. Clifford 

Linda M. Godwin 

Thomas D. Jones 

9:23:46 

196:17:45a 

9:20:11 

14:0:29 

10:19:58 

182:0:27a 

8:7:9 

13:23:17 

11:5:50 

Fifty-sixth STS flight. Carried Spacelab commercial 

payload module and retrieved European Retrievable 

Carrier in orbit since August 1992. 

Docked with Mir space station July 3. Haignere 

returned to Earth with Soyuz TM-16. Serebrov 

and Tsibliyev landed in TM-17 space craft on Jan. 14, 

1994, after colliding with the Mir space station the 

same day, having spent 2 112 months longer in space 

than originally planned. 

Fifty-seventh STS flight. Deployed ACTS satellite 

to serve as testbed for new communications satellite 

technology and U.S./German ORFEUSISPAS. 

Fifty-eighth STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life 

Sciences-2 payload to determine the effects of 

microgravity on human and animal subjects. 

Fifty-ninth STS flight. Restored planned scientific 

capabilities and reliability of the Hubble Space 

Telescope. 

Docked with Mir space station Jan. 10. Afanasyev and 

Usachev landed in the TM-18 spacecraft on July 9,1994. 

Polyakov remained aboard Mir in the attempt to 

establish a new record for endurance in space. 

generate new semi-conductor films for advanced 

electronics. Also carried SPACEHAB. Krikalev's 

presence signified a new era in cooperation in space 

between Russia and the U.S. 

Sixtieth STS flight. Carried the Wake Shield Facility to 

Sixty-first STS flight. Carried US. Microgravity 

Payload-2 to conduct experiments in materials 

processing, biotechnology, and other areas. 

Sixty-second STS flight. Carried the Space Radar 

Laboratory-1 to gather data on the Earth and 

the effects humans have on its carbon, water, and 

energy cycles. 

aFigures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in TUSS. 

89 
APPEND~X C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sept. 1994 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

~~ 

SOYUZ TM-19 July 1,1994 Yuri I. Malenchenko 125:22:53a Docked with Mir space station July 3. Both Malenchenko 

Talgat A. Musabayev and Musabayev returned to Earth with the Soyuz TM19 spacecraft, landing in Kazakhstan on Nov. 4 

together with Ulf Merbold of Germany, who went up 

aboard Soyuz TM-20 on Oct. 3,1994. Merbold 

gathered biological samples on the effects of weightlessness on the human body in the first of two ESA 

missions to Mir to prepare for the international Space 

Station. 

Microgravity Labora tory-2 to conduct research into the 

behavior of materials and life in near weightlessness. 

STS-65 July 8,1994 14:17:55 Sixty-third STS flight. Carried International 

STS-64 

STS-68 

Sept. 9,1994 

Robert D. Cabana 

James D. Halsell, Jr. 

Richard J. Hieb 

Carl E. Walz 

Leroy Chiao 

Donald A. Thomas 

Chiaki Naito-Mukai (Japan) 

Richard N. Richards 10:22:50 

L. Blaine Hammond, Jr. 

J. M. Linenger 

Susan J. Helms 

Carl J. Meade 

Mark C. Lee 

Terrence W. Wilcutt 

Thomas D. Jones 

Steven L. Smith 

Daniel W. Bursch 

Peter J. K. Wisoff 

Sept. 30,1994 Michael A. Baker 11:5:36 

Sixty-fourth STS flight. Used LIDAR In-Space 

Technology Experiment to perform atmospheric 

research. Included the first untethered space walk by 

astronauts in over ten years. 

Sixty-fifth STS flight. Used Space Radar Laboratory-2 

to provide scientists with data to help distinguish 

human-induced environmental change from other 

natural forms of change. 

=Figures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in Tuss. 

90 
APPEND~X D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

~ ~~~ ~ 

Max. Payload (kg)d 

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunStages: Thrust x Height 185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Vehicle Engine/Motor Propellant' (kilonewtons)bc fm) Orbit Orbit Orbite Launchf 

Pegasus 

1. Orion 50s ....................... 

2. Orion 50 ......................... 

3. Orion 38 ......................... 

Pegasus XL 

1. Orion 50s-XL ................ 2. Orion 50-XL .................. 3. Orion 38 ......................... 

Taurus 

0. Castor 120 ...................... 

1. Orion 505 ....................... 2. Orion 50 ......................... 3. Orion 38 ......................... 

Delta 11 

(7920, 7925) , 

1. RS-27A ........................... Hercules GEM (9) ..... 

2. AJlO-llaK ...................... 

3. Star 480 ' ......................... 

Atlas E 

Atlas I 

Atlas I1 

Atlas IIA 

Atlas IIAS 

1. Atlas: MA-3 ................... 

1. Atlas: MA-5 ................... 2. Centaur I: ...................... RL10A-3-3A (2) 

1. Atlas: MAJA ............... 2. Centaur 11: ..................... 

RL10A-3-3A (2) 

1. Atlas: MA-5A ............... 

2. Centaur 11: ..................... 

RLlOA-4 (2) 

1. Atlas: MAJA ................ 

Castor IVA (4)l .......... 2. Centaur IIA: .................. 

Solid .................................. Solid .................................. Solid .................................. 

Solid .................................. Solid .................................. Solid .................................. 

Solid .................................. Solid .................................. 

Solid .................................. 

Solid .................................. 

LOX/RP-l ....................... Solid .................................. 

Solid .................................. N204/A-50 ...................... 

LOX/RP-1 ....................... 

LOX/RP-1 ....................... LOX/LH2 ........................ 

LOX/RP-l ....................... LOX/LH2 ........................ 

LOX/RP-l ....................... 

LOX/LH2 ........................ 

LOX/RP-l ....................... Solid .................................. LOX/LH? ........................ 

484.9 

118.2 

31.9 

743.3 

201.5 

31.9 

1687.7 

580.5 

138.6 

31.9 

1043.0 (SL) 

487.6 (SL) 

42.4 

66.4 

1739.5 (SL) 

1952.0 (SL) 

73.4 

2110.0 (SL) 

73.4 

2110.0 (SL) 

92.53 

2110.0 (SL) 

478.3 (SL) 

92.53 

6.71~15.5~ 

1.28x8.88 

0.97x1.34 

6.71x16.93 

1.28x10.29 

1.28x3.58 

0.97x1.34 

1.28x2.66 

2.34x28.3 

2.34x11.86 

1.28x8.88 

1.28x2.66 

0.97x1.34 

2.44x29.70 

3.05x38.1 

1.01x12.95 

2.44x5.97 

1.25X2.04 

3.05x28.1 

3.05x21.3 

4.2x43.9 

3.05x22.16 

3.05x9.14 

4.2x47.5 

3.05x24.9 

3.05x10.05 

4.2x47.5 

3.05x24.9 

3.05x10.05 

42x47s 

3.05x24.9 

1.01x11.16 

3.05x10.05 

380 

280e 

460 

350e 

1400 

1080e 

5089 

3890e 

- 210 1990 

- 335 19948 

255 1020 Not 

scheduled' 

1842l 3175 1990, 

Delta-7925 

(1960, Delta] 

820e - 

1860ek 

- 2255 

6580 2810 

5510e 

7280 3039 

6170e 

8640 3606 

7300e 

910k 1968, Atlas F 

[1958, 

Atlas LV-3AJ 

- 1990, Atlas I 

[ 1966, 

At1 Centaur] 

4300 1991, Atlas I1 

11966, 

Atl Centaur] 

4750 1992, Atlas 

IIA [1966, 

At1 Centaur] 

5800 1993,IIAS 

(1966, 

Atl Centaur] 

- 

RLlOA-4 (2) 

91 
APPENDLX D 

(continued) 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kdd 

Stages: 

Vehicle EngindMotor 

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunThrust x Height 185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Propellanta (kilonewtons)bc (m) Orbit Orbit Orbite Launch' 

Titan I1 

1. LR-87-AJ-5 (2) ............... 2. LR-91-AJ-5 ..................... 

Titan 111 

0. Titan I11 SRM (2) .......... 

(5-1/2 segments) 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) .............. 2. LR91-AJ-11 .................... 

Titan IV 

0. Titan IV SRM (2) .......... (7 segments) 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) .............. 2. LR91-AJ-11 .................... 

Titan IV/ 

Centaur 0. Titan IV SRM ................ 

1. LR87-AJ-11 .................... 2. LR91-AJ-11 .................... 3. Centaur: 

(7 segments) 

RL-10A-3-3A .............. 

Space Shuttle" 

1. SRB: Shuttle SRB (2) .... 2. Orbiter/ETSSME (3) .. 

3. Orbiter/OMS: OMS .... engines (2) 

N204/A-50 ...................... 1045.0 

N204/A-50 ...................... 440.0 

Solid .................................. 6210.0 

N204/A-50 ...................... 1214.5 

N204/A-50 ...................... 462.8 

Solid .................................. 7000.0 

N204/A-50 ...................... 1214.5 

N204/A-50 ...................... 462.8 

Solid .................................. 7000.0 

N204/A-50 ...................... 1214.5 

N204/A-50 ...................... 462.8 

LOX/LH2 ........................ 73.4 

Solid .................................. 11790.0(SL) 

LOX/LH2 ........................ 1668.7(SL) 

N204/MMH ................... 26.7 

NOTES: 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: 

A50=Aerozine 50 (50% Monomethyl Hydrazine, 

50% Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine) 

RP-l=Rocket Propellant 1 (kerosene) 

Solid=Solid Propellant (any type) 

LH,=Liquid Hydrogen 

LOX=Liquid Oxygen 

MMH=Monomethyl Hydrazine 

N,O,=Nitrogen Tetroxide 

Thrust at vacuum except where indicated at sea level (SL) 

Thrust per engine. Multiply by number of engines for 

thrust per stage. 

Inclination of 28.5" except where indicated. 

First successful orbital launch [ditto of initial version]. 

Diameter dimension represents vehicle wing span. 

e Polar launch from Vandenberg AFB, CA. 

p. First launch was a failure. 

' Applies to Delta 11-7925 version only. 

- 1988, 

3.05x21.5 Titan II SLV 

3.05x12.2 [1964, Titan I1 Gemini] 

3.05x47.3 14515 50001 -1989, Titan III 

3.11x27.6 [ 1964,Titan IIIA] 

3.05x24.0 

3.05x10.0 

3.05x62.2 17700 6350m - 1989, 

3.11x34.1 14110e Titan IV 

3.05x26.4 

3.05x10.0 

4.3x62.2 

3.11x34.1 

3.05x26.4 

3.05x10.0 

4.3x9.0 

3.05x42.9 1905e - 

23.79~56.14~ 24900' 5900p - 1981, 

3.70x45.46 Columbia 

8.41x47.00 (ET) 

23.79~3724~ (orbiter) 

23.79~37.24~ 

- 57609 -1994, Titan N 

Centaur 

1 Two Castor IVA motors ignited at lift-off. Two Castor IVA 

' With TE-M-364-4 upper stage. 

' With Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS). 

"With appropriate upper stage. 

I' Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) fire in parallel 

with the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs), which are 

mounted on the aft end of the Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 

and bum fuel and oxidizer from the External Tank (ET). 

SRBs stage first, with SSMEs continuing to fire. The ET stages 

next, just before the orbiter attains orbit. The Orbiter 

Maneuvering Subsystem (OMS) is then used to maneuver or 

change the orbit of the OV. 

motors ignited at approximately 57 seconds into flight. 

" 204 km circular orbit. 

P With Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) or Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS). 

q TitanIV/Centaur is designed for 3 burns directly to geosynchronous orbit. 

The first Taurus launch used a Peacekeeper first stage as stage 

0 in 1994. 

GENERAL NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

Director of Space Transportation System Support Programs. 

92 
APPENDLX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions ojreal-year dollars) 

Fiscal NASA NASA Com- Inter- Agri- Total 

Year Total Spacea Defense Otherf Energy merce ior culture NSF DOT EPAg Space 

1962 .................. 

1963 ........................ 1964 ........................ 

1965 ........................ 1966 ........................ 1967 ........................ 

1968 ........................ 

1969 ........................ 

1970 ........................ 1971 ........................ 1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 ........................ 

1976 ........................ 

1980 ........................ 1981 ........................ 1982 ........................ 1983 ........................ 1984 ........................ 

1985 ........................ 

331 

524 

964 

1,825 

3,673 

5,100 

5,250 

5,175 

4,966 

4,587 

3,991 

3,746 

3,311 

3,307 

3,406 

3,037 

3,229 

3,550 

932 

3,818 

4,060 

4,596 

5,240 

5,518 

6,044’ 

6,875‘ 

7,248 

7,573 

7,766 

10,507 

9,026 

10,969 

13,073 

14,004 

14,316 

14,323 

14,568 

261 

462 

926 

1,797 

3,626 

5,016 

5,138 

5,065 

4,830 

4,430 

3,822 

3,547 

3,101 

3,071 

3,093 

2,759 

2,915 

3,225 

849 

3,440 

3,623 

4,030 

4,680 

4,992 

5,528 

6,328 

6,648 

6,925 

7,165 

9,809e 

8,302 

10,098 

12,142 

13,036 

13,199 

13,077 

13,022 

490 

561 

814 

1,298 

1,550 

1,599 

1,574 

1,689 

1,664 

1,922 

2,013 

1,678 

1,512 

1,407 

1,623 

1,766 

1,892 

1,983 

460 

2,412 

2,738 

3,036 

3,848 

4,828 

6,679 

9,019 

10,195 

12,768 

14,126 

16,287 

17,679 

17,906 

15,616 

14,181 

15,023 

14,106 

13,166 

34 

43 

69 

200 

259 

216 

244 

217 

216 

177 

141 

115 

127 

97 

109 

116 

107 

111 

31 

131 

157 

178 

160 

158 

234 

242 

293 

474 

368 

352 

626 

444 

387 

566 

624 

559 

465 

34 

43 

68 

148 

214 

210 

229 

187 

1M 

145 

118 

103 

95 

55 

54 

42 

30 

23 

5 

22 

34 

59 

40 

41 

61 

39 

34 

34 

35 

48 

241 

97 

79 

251 

223 

165 

78 

... 

... 

... 

51 

43 

3 

12 

27 

29 

28 

20 

8 

27 

31 

40 

60 

64 

72 

22 

91 

103 

98 

93 

87 

145 

178 

236 

423 

309 

278 

352 

301 

243 

251 

327 

324 

312 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1 

2 

6 

10 

9 

8 

10 

3 

10 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

3 

2 

2 

8 

14 

17 

31 

29 

34 

33 

31 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

2 

4 

1 

6 

8 

8 

14 

16 

15 

20 

19 

15 

23 

19 

18 

21 

25 

26 

29 

25 

31 

... 

0.1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

d 1.. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

... 

... 

11. 

... 

1.. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1.. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

5 

5 

5 

7 

8 

8 

785 

1,066 

1,809 

3,295 

5,435 

6,831 

6,956 

6,971 

6,710 

6,529 

5,976 

5,340 

4,741 

4,575 

4,825 

4,640 

4,914 

5,320 

1,341 

5,983 

6,518 

7,244 

8,689 

9,978 

12,441 

15,589 

17,136 

20,167 

21,659 

26,448 

26,607 

28,448 

28,145 

27,783 

28,845 

27,742 

26,653 

aExcludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). 

bIncludes $33.5 million for unobligated funds that lapsed. 

CIncludes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA. 

eIncludes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger. 

f”Other” column is the total of the non-NASA, non-DoD budget authority figures that appear in succeeding columns. The total 

is sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The ”Total Space” column does not include 

the ”NASA Total” column because it includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. 

gEPA has recalculated its aeronautic and space expenditures since 1989, making them significantly higher than reported in 

previous years. 

‘Transit Quarter 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

93 
APPENDIX E-3

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

BUDGET AUTHORITY IN MILLIONS OF EQUlVALENT FY 1994 DOLLARS 

(udjustedfor inflation) 

GDP 

Fiscal Inflator NASA NASA Corn- Inter- Agri- Total 

Year to1993$ Total Space Defense Other Energy merce ior culture NSF DOT EPA Space 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

TQ* 

4.9141 

4.8613 

4.8170 

4.7326 

4.6510 

4.5838 

4.4849 

4.3540 

4.2095 

4.0573 

3.8633 

3.6646 

3.4835 

3.3107 

3.1543 

2.9305 

2.6657 

2.4753 

2.3895 

2.2902 

2.1291 

1.9591 

1.7970 

1.6311 

1.5180 

1.4575 

1.3961 

1.3447 

1.3059 

1.2683 

1.2239 

1.1719 

1.1257 

1.0832 

1.0537 

1.0270 

1.0000 

1,627 

2,547 

4,644 

8,637 

17,083 

23,377 

23,546 

22,532 

20,904 

18,611 

15,418 

13,728 

11,534 

10,947 

10,744 

8,900 

8,608 

8,788 

2,226 

8,744 

8,645 

9,003 

9,417 

9,001 

9,175 

10,021 

10,119 

10,183 

10,142 

13,326 

11,047 

12,854 

14,716 

15,169 

15,085 

14,710 

14,568 

1,283 

2,246 

4,461 

8,504 

16,865 

22,992 

23,043 

22,053 

20,332 

17,974 

14,766 

12,998 

10,803 

10,167 

9,757 

8,084 

7,771 

7,984 

2,029 

7,879 

7,714 

7,896 

8,411 

8,143 

8,391 

9,223 

9,281 

9,312 

9,357 

12,441 

10,161 

11,834 

13,668 

14,121 

13,908 

13,430 

13,022 

2,408 

2,727 

3,921 

6,143 

7,209 

7,329 

7,059 

7,354 

7,005 

7,798 

7,777 

6,149 

5,268 

4,658 

5,119 

5,175 

5,045 

4,909 

1,100 

5,524 

5,830 

5,947 

6,916 

7,874 

10,139 

13,145 

14,233 

17,169 

18,448 

20,657 

21,637 

20,984 

17,579 

15,361 

15,830 

14,487 

13.166 

167 

210 

330 

948 

1,202 

990 

1,095 

946 

908 

718 

544 

423 

443 

320 

343 

339 

284 

275 

74 

299 

334 

348 

288 

257 

356 

352 

408 

637 

481 

447 

766 

520 

436 

613 

657 

574 

465 

167 

209 

328 

700 

995 

963 

1,027 

814 

775 

588 

456 

377 

330 

183 

171 

122 

79 

58 

11 

50 

73 

115 

71 

66 

92 

57 

48 

46 

45 

60 

295 

114 

89 

272 

235 

169 

78 

0 

0 

0 

241 

200 

14 

54 

118 

122 

114 

77 

29 

95 

104 

125 

176 

172 

177 

53 

208 

219 

193 

166 

142 

219 

259 

329 

569 

403 

352 

430 

353 

274 

272 

345 

333 

312 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

4 

7 

19 

32 

26 

22 

26 

6 

22 

21 

19 

21 

20 

18 

7 

4 

3 

3 

10 

17 

20 

35 

31 

36 

34 

31 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

6 

9 

6 

9 

2 

14 

16 

16 

25 

25 

23 

30 

27 

20 

30 

23 

22 

25 

28 

28 

31 

26 

31 

0 

0 

3 

6 

7 

14 

14 

14 

12 

13 

7 

9 

8 

9 

8 

5 

5 

6 

1 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

5 

0 3,858 

0 5,183 

0 8,712 

0 15,595 

0 25,276 

0 31,312 

0 31,198 

0 30,353 

0 28,245 

0 26,490 

0 23,086 

0 19,570 

0 16,515 

0 15,145 

0 15,219 

0 13,598 

0 13,100 

0 13,168 

0 3,203 

0 13,702 

0 13,878 

0 14,191 

0 15,614 

0 16,275 

0 18,886 

0 22,720 

0 23,923 

0 27,118 

0 28,286 

0 33,545 

0 32,564 

6 33,338 

6 31,683 

5 30,095 

7 30,394 

8 28,491 

8 26.653 

‘Transit Quarter 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

94 
APPENDIX E-2 

Federal Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars byfiscal year) 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1992 1993 1994 1992 1993 1994 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASA ......................................... 

Defense ...................................... 

Energy ........................................ 

Commerce 

Interior ....................................... 

Agriculture ................................ 

Transportation ......................... 

EPA ............................... 

13,199 

15,023 

223 

327 

34 

29 

4 

7 

13,077 

14,106 

165 

324 

33 

25 

4 

8 

13,022 

13,166 

78 

312 

31 

31 

5 

8 

12,838 

14,437 

223 

298 

31 

29 

4 

5 

13,092 

13,779 

165 

308 

31 

25 

4 

7 

12,363 

10,973 

82 

307 

31 

30 

5 

8 

TOTAL ....................................... 28,845 27,742 26,653 27,865 27,411 23,799 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDLX E-3 

Federal Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars byfiscal year) 

~~~ ~ 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1992 1993 1994 1992 1993 1994 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASAa ....................................... 1,117 1,246 1,546 1,122 1,212 1,330 

Defenseb .................................... 7,366 7,601 6,763 6,790 7,165 6,895 

TransportationC ........................ 2,627 2,532 2,309 2,099 2,378 2,604 

TOTAL ....................................... 11,110 11,379 10,618 10,011 10,755 10,829 

aResearch and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research and Program Management. 

bResearch, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

CFederal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

95 
THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release November 3,1993 

STATEMENT BY THE PRESS SECRETARY 

The President has signed the United States instrument of ratification of the Treaty on Open Skies. This 

multilateral aerial observation regime represents the broadest and most flexible effort to date to promote openness and 

transparency of military forces and activities. 

The Treaty responds to the new demands of the post-Cold War world and the desire of many states to find 

innovative means of strengthening confidence and predictability. It will give all participants an agreed way to obtain 

information about foreign military forces and activities of concern to them. Under the Treaty, each participating state 

may conduct a certain number of unarmed flights anywhere over the territory of the other participants, using approved 

observation techniques. The data collected during these flights will be available to all participants. This combination of 

breadth of coverage, flexibility of use and availability of information enables the Open Skies regime to make a unique 

contribution to building confidence and enhancing stability. 

Present signatories include all NATO Allies, the East European members of the former Warsaw Pact, Russia, 

Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia and Kyrgyzstan. The states of the former Soviet Union, and all CSCE states are eligible to join 

on an accelerated basis. The Treaty is open to any nation by consensus approval. The model developed in the Treaty 

could also be important to the reduction of local tensions and the prevention of conflict in regions beyond the scope of 

current signatories. 

The Open Skies concept was first put forward by President Eisenhower in 1955, and then revived in a Treaty 

proposal by President Bush in 1989. It was signed on March 24,1992 and received the unanimous advice and consent of 

the U.S. Senate on August 6,1993. Ratification in several countries has been completed and in others is underway. The 

United States looks forward to ratification soon by all signatories and the Treaty’s early entry into force. 

96 
APPENDLX F-2 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE March 10.1994 

STATEMENT BY THE PRESS SECRETARY 

The President today announced that the Administration will allow for the expansion of the sale of images 

taken from space and the export of the systems themselves. This decision is expected to expand American jobs and 

business opportunities by enabling US. firms to compete aggressively in the growing international market for remote 

sensing, which already accounts for nearly $400 million worldwide and is expected to grow to more than $2 billion by 

the turn of the century. 

Under the policy, U.S. companies will be licensed by the Secretary of Commerce to operate private remote 

sensing systems and sell those images to domestic and foreign entities. The export of turn-key remote sensing systems 

will also be considered under this policy on a case-by-case basis under an export license issued by the State Department. National security and international obligations will be protected through specific licensing conditions. Export of 

sensitive technologies will be considered on a restricted basis. 

Vice President Gore also highlighted the decision's importance to maintaining the competitiveness of 

America's aerospace industry. "Removing some of our barriers to the sale of space-based remote sensing systems and 

data products is a major contribution to the ability of U.S. industry, which sets the world standard for these systems, to 

compete successfully in this rapidly emerging global commercial market," he said. Equally important, the Vice President said, is the contribution which data from such satellites will make to our knowledge of the planet: "Timely, high 

quality data which we expect to become available from these systems will include global change and environmental 

information which will form a vital part of this country's National Information Infrastructure." 

Space-based images and imaging systems are increasingly being recognized by commercial entities as a means 

of dramatically improving their productivity and business operations. Farmers, city planners, environmentalists, news 

organizations, map makers, surveyors, geologists, mining companies, oil companies, timber harvesters, taxing authorities, as well as foreign governments have all recognized the utility of high quality, space-based images for purely 

commercial purposes. 

This new policy should also aid the U.S. defense industry in its efforts to find new commercial applications for 

defense technologies and enhance US. global competitiveness in the international remote sensing market. Including the 

market for images incorporating demographic or technical data with digital maps, or geographic information systems, 

the market for space-based imagery could be up to $15 billion by the year 2000. 

97 
APPENDIX F-2 

(continued) 

FACT SHEET 

FOREIGN ACCESS TO REMOTE SENSING SPACE CAPABILITIES 

Background 

Remote sensing from space provides scientific, industrial, civil governmental, military and individual users with 

the capacity to gather data for a variety of useful purposes. The US Government operates very high resolution spacebased reconnaissance systems for intelligence and military purposes. These systems are among the most valuable US 

national security assets because of their high quality data collection, timeliness, and coverage and the capability they 

provide to monitor events around the world on a near real-time basis. More nations have discovered the value of these 

satellites and are developing their own indigenous capabilities, or are seeking the purchase of data or systems. 

Policy Goal 

The fundamental goal of our policy is to support and to enhance US industrial competitiveness in the field of 

remote sensing space capabilities while at the same time protecting US national security and foreign policy interests. 

Success in this endeavor will contribute to maintaining our critical industrial base, advancing US technology, creating 

economic opportunities, strengthening the US balance of payments, enhancing national influence, and promoting 

regional stability. 

Scope of Policy 

The policy covers foreign access to remote sensing space systems, technology, products, and data. With respect to 

commercial licenses, this would include operating licenses granted under the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 

and export licenses for certain items controlled on the US Munitions List (USML). While the policy will define certain 

restrictions for export of items on the USML, export of items on either the USML or the Commerce Control List (CCL) 

would continue to be licensed in accord with existing law and regulations. 

Licensing and Operation of Private Remote Sensing Systems 

License requests by US firms to operate private remote sensing space systems will be reviewed on a case-by-case 

basis in accordance with the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 (the Act). There is a presumption that remote 

sensing space systems whose performance capabilities and imagery quality characteristics are available or are planned 

for availability in the world marketplace (e.g., SPOT, Landsat, etc.) will be favorably considered, and that the following 

conditions will apply to any US entity that receives an operating license under the Act. 

1. The licensee will be required to maintain a record of all satellite tasking for the previous year and to allow the 

USG access to this record. 

2. The licensee will not change the operational characteristics of the satellite system from the application as 

submitted without formal notification and approval of the Department of Commerce, which would coordinate 

with other interested agencies. 

3. The license being granted does not relieve the licensee of the obligation to obtain export license@) pursuant to 

applicable statutes. 

4. The license is valid only for a finite period, and is neither transferable nor subject to foreign ownership, above 

a specified threshold, without the explicit permission of the Secretary of Commerce. 

All encryption devices must be approved by the US Government for the purpose of denying unauthorized 

access to others during periods when national security, international obligations and/or foreign policies may 

be compromised as provided for in the Act. 

5. 

98 
APPENDLX F-2 

(continued) 

6. A licensee must use a data downlink format that allows the US Government access and use of the data during 

periods when national security, international obligations and/or foreign policies may be compromised as 

provided for in the Act. 

7. During periods when national security or international obligations and/or foreign policies may be 

compromised, as defined by the Secretary of Defense or the Secretary of State, respectively, the Secretary of 

Commerce may, after consultation with the appropriate agency (ies), require the licensee to limit data 

collection and/or distribution by the system to the extent necessitated by the given situation. Decisions to 

impose such limits only will be made by the Secretary of Commerce in consultation with the Secretary of 

Defense or the Secretary of State, as appropriate. Disagreements between Cabinet Secretaries may be appealed 

to the President. The Secretaries of State, Defense and Commerce shall develop their own internal mechanisms 

to enable them to carry out their statutory responsibilities. 

Pursuant to the Act, the US Government requires US companies that have been issued operating licenses 

under the Act to notify the US Government of its intent to enter into significant or substantial agreements with 

new foreign customers. Interested agencies shall be given advance notice of such agreements to allow them the 

opportunity to review the proposed agreement in light of the national security, international obligations and 

foreign policy concerns of the US Government. The definition of a significant or substantial agreement, as well 

as the time frames and other details of this process, will be defined in later Commerce regulations in 

consultation with appropriate agencies. 

8. 

Transfer of Advanced Remote Sensing Capabilities 

1. Advanced Remote Sensing System Exports: The United States will consider requests to export advanced 

remote sensing systems whose performance capabilities and imagery quality characteristics are available or 

are planned for availability in the world marketplace on a case-by-case basis. 

The details of these potential sales should take into account the following: 

the proposed foreign recipient’s willingness and ability to accept commitments to the US 

Government concerning sharing, protection, and denial of products and data; and constraints on 

resolution, geographic coverage, timeliness, spectral coverage, data processing and exploitation 

techniques, tasking capabilities, and ground architectures. 

Approval of requests for exports of systems would also require certain diplomatic steps be taken, such as 

informing other close friends in the region of the request, and the conditions we would likely attach to any 

sale; and informing the recipient of our decision and the conditions we would require as part of the sale. 

Any system made available to a foreign government or other foreign entity may be subject to a formal 

government-to-government agreement. 

Transfer of Sensitive Technology 

The United States will consider applications to export sensitive components, subsystems, and information 

concerning remote sensing space capabilities on a restricted basis. Sensitive technology in this situation consists of 

items of technology on the US Munitions List necessary to develop or to support advanced remote sensing space 

capabilities and which are uniquely available in the United States. Such sensitive technology shall be made available to 

foreign entities only on the basis of a government-to-government agreement. This agreement may be in the form of 

end-use and retransfer assurances which can be tailored to ensure the protection of US technology, Government-toGovernment Intelligence and Defense Partnerships. 

Proposals for intelligence or defense partnerships with foreign countries regarding remote sensing that would raise 

questions about US Government competition with the private sector or would change the US Government’s use of 

funds generated pursuant to a US-foreign government partnership arrangement shall he submitted for interagency 

review. 

99 
&PENDIX F-3 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

WASH I N GTON 

May 5,1994 

THE TEXT OF PRESIDENTIAL DECISION DIRECTIVWNSTC-2 WAS AS FOLLOWS: 

SUBJECT: Convergence of U.S.-Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite Systems 

I. Introduction 

The United States operates civil and military polar-orbiting environmental satellite systems which collect, 

process, and distribute remotely-sensed meteorological, oceanographic, and space environmental data. The 

Department of Commerce is responsible for the Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) program 

and the Department of Defense is responsible for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). The National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), through its Earth Observing System (EOS-PM) development efforts, 

provides new remote sensing and spacecraft technologies that could potentially improve the capabilities of the 

operational system. While the civil and military missions of POES and DMSP remain unchanged, establishing a single, 

converged, operational system can reduce duplication of efforts in meeting common requirements while satisfying the 

unique requirements of the civil and national security communities. A converged system can accommodate 

international cooperation, including the open distribution of environmental data. 

11. Objectives and Principles 

The United States will seek to reduce the cost of acquiring and operating polar-orbiting environmental satellite 

systems, while continuing to satisfy U.S. operational requirements for data from these systems. The Department of 

Commerce and the Department of Defense will integrate their programs into a single, converged, national polarorbiting operational environmental satellite system. Additional savings may be achieved by incorporating appropriate 

aspects of NASA’s Earth Observing System. 

The converged program shall be conducted in accordance with the following principles: 

- Operational environmental data from polar-orbiting satellites are important to the achievement of U.S. 

economic, national security, scientific, and foreign policy goals. 

Assured access to operational environmental data will be provided to meet civil and national security 

requirements and international obligations. 

The United States will ensure its ability to selectively deny critical environmental data to an adversary 

during crisis or war yet ensure the use of such data by U.S. and Allied military forces. Such data will be 

made available to other users when it no longer has military utility. 

The implementing actions will be accommodated within the overall resource and policy guidance of the 

President. 

- 

- 

- 

100 
APPENDLX F-3 

(continued) 

111. Implementing Actions 

a. Interagency Coordination 

1. Integrated Program Office (IPO) 

The Departments of Commerce and Defense and NASA will create an Integrated Program Office 

(IPO) for the national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system no later than 

October 1,1994. The IPO will be responsible for the management, planning, development, fabrication, 

and operations of the converged system. The IPO will be under the direction of a System Programs 

Director (SPD) who will report to a triagency Executive Committee via the Department of 

Commerce’s Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere. 

2. Executive Committee (EXCOM) 

The Departments of Commerce and Defense and NASA will form a convergence EXCOM at the Under 

Secretary level. The members of the EXCOM will ensure that both civil and national security requirements are 

satisfied in the converged program, will coordinate program plans, budgets, and policies, and will ensure that 

agency funding commitments are equitable and sustained. The three member agencies of the EXCOM will 

develop a process for identifying, validating, and documenting observational and system requirements for the 

national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system. Approved operational requirements will 

define the converged system baseline which the IPO will use to develop agency budgets for research and 

development, system acquisitions, and operations. 

b. Agency Responsibilities 

1. Department of Commerce 

The Department of Commerce, through NOM, will have lead agency responsibility to the EXCOM 

for the converged system. NOM will have lead agency responsibility to support the IPO for satellite 

operations. NOAA will nominate the System Program Director who will be approved by the 

EXCOM. NOAA will also have the lead responsibility for interfacing with national and international 

civil user communities, consistent with national security and foreign policy requirements. 

2. Department of Defense 

The Department of Defense will have lead agency responsibility to support the IPO in major system 

acquisitions necessary to the national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system. DOD 

will nominate the Principal Deputy System Program Director who will be approved by the System 

Program Director. 

3. 

NASA will have lead agency responsibility to support the IPO in facilitating the development and 

insertion of new cost effective technologies that enhance the ability of the converged system to meet 

its operational requirements. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

101 
APPENDLX F-3

(continued) 

C. International Cooperation 

Plans for and implementation of a national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system will be 

based on U.S. civil and national security requirements. Consistent with this, the United States will seek to 

implement the converged system in a manner that encourages cooperation with foreign governments and 

international organizations. This cooperation will be conducted in support of these requirements in 

coordination with the Department of State and other interested agencies. 

d. Budget Coordination 

Budgetary planning estimates, developed by the IPO and approved by the EXCOM, will serve as the basis for 

agency annual budget requests to the President. The IPO planning process will be consistent with agencies’ 

internal budget formulation. 

IV. lmplementing Documents 

b. 

a. The ”Implementation Plan for a Converged Polar-orbiting Environmental Satellite System” provides 

greater definition to the guidelines contained within this policy directive for creating and conducting 

the converged program. 

By October 1,1994, the Departments of Commerce and Defense and NASA will conclude a triagency 

memorandum of agreement which will formalize the details of the agencies’ integrated working 

relationship, as defined by this directive, specifying each agency’s responsibilities and commitments 

to the converged system. 

V. Reporting Requirements 

a. By November 1,1994, the Department of Commerce, the Department of Defense, and NASA will 

submit an integrated report to the National Science and Technology Council on the implementation 

status of the national polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system. 

b. 

C. 

For the fiscal year 1996 budget process, the Departments of Commerce and Defense and NASA will 

submit agency budget requests based on the converged system, in accordance with the milestones 

established in the Implementation Plan. 

For fiscal year 1997 and beyond, the IPO will provide, prior to the submission of each fiscal year’s 

budget, an annual report to the National Science and Technology Council on the status of the national 

polar-orbiting operational environmental satellite system. 

102 
APPENDIX F-4 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release May 10,1993 

FACT SHEET 

LANDSAT REMOTE SENSING STRATEGY 

1. Introduction 

The Landsat program has provided over 20 years of calibrated data to a broad user community including the 

agricultural community, global change researchers, state and local governments, commercial users, and the military. 

The Landsat 6 satellite, which failed to reach orbit in 1993, was intended to replace the existing Landsat satellites 4 and 

5. Landsat 4 and 5, which were launched in 1982 and 1984 respectively and are operating well beyond their three year 

design lives, represent the only source of a global calibrated high spatial resolution measurement of the Earth’s surface 

that can be compared to previous data records. 

In 1993, the joint Department of Defense and National Aeronautics and Space Administration Landsat 7 

program was being reevaluated due to severe budgetary constraints. This fact, coupled with the advanced age of 

Landsat satellites 4 and 5, resulted in a reassessment of the Landsat program by representatives of the National Science 

and Technology Council. The outcome of the National Science and Technology Council’s assessment is a new strategy 

which is designed to continue the Landsat program and extend the 20-year Landsat data set. The details of the strategy 

are provided below. 

11. Policy Goals 

A remote sensing capability, such as is currently being provided by Landsat satellites 4 and 5, benefits the 

civil, commercial, and national security interests of the United States and makes contributions to the private 

sector which are in the public interest. For these reasons, the United States Government will seek to maintain 

the continuity of Landsat-type data. The U.S. Government will: 

(a) Provide unenhanced data which are sufficiently consistent in terms of acquisition geometry, 

coverage characteristics, and spectral characteristics with previous Landsat data to allow quantitative 

comparisons for change direction and characterization; 

@) Make government-owned Landsat data available to meet the needs of all users at no more than the 

cost of fulfilling user requests consistent with data policy goals of P.L. 102-555; and, 

(c) Promote and not preclude private sector commercial opportunities in Landsat-type remote sensing. 

111. Landsat Strategy 

a. The Landsat strategy is composed of the following elements: 

(1) Ensuring that Landsat satellites 4 and 5 continue to provide data as long as they are 

technically capable of doings so. 

(2) Acquiring a Landsat 7 satellite that maintains the continuity of Landsat-type data, 

minimizes development risk, minimizes cost, and achieves the most favorable launch 

schedule to mitigate the loss of Landsat 6. 

I03 
APPENDIX F-4 

(continued) 

(3) 

(4) 

Maintaining an archive within the United States for existing and future Landsat-type data. 

Ensuring that unenhanced data from Landsat 7 are available to all users at no more than the 

cost of fulfilling user requests. 

Providing data for use in global change research in a manner consistent with the Global 

Change Research Policy Statements for Data Management. 

Considering alternatives for maintaining continuity of data beyond Landsat 7. 

Fostering the development of advanced remote sensing technologies, with the goal of 

reducing the cost and increasing the performance of future Landsat-type satellites to meet 

U.S. Government needs, and potentially, enabling substantially greater opportunities for 

commercialization. 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

b. These strategy elements will be implemented within the overall resource and policy guidance 

provided by the President. 

IV. Implementing Guidelines 

Affected agencies will identify funds necessary to implement the National Strategy for Landsat Remote 

Sensing within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President. [In order to effectuate the 

strategy enumerated herein, the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of the Interior are hereby designated 

as members of the Landsat Program Management in accordance with section 101(b) of the Landsat Remote 

Sensing Policy Act of 1992,15 U.S.C. 5602(6) and 5611(b).t Specific agency responsibilities are provided below. 

a. The Department of Commerce/NOAA will: 

(1) In participation with other appropriate government agencies arrange for the continued 

operation of Landsat satellites 4 and 5 and the routine operation of future Landsat satellites 

after their placement in orbit. 

(2) Seek better access to data collected at foreign ground stations for U.S. Government and 

private sector users of Landsat data. 

In cooperation with NASA, manage the development of and provide a share of the funding 

for the Landsat 7 ground system. 

Operate the Landsat 7 spacecraft and ground system in cooperation with the Department of 

the Interior. 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) Seek to offset operations costs through use of access fees from foreign ground stations and/ 

or the cost of fulfilling user requests. 

Aggregate future Federal requirements for civil operational land remote sensing data. (6) 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration will: 

(1) 

b. 

Ensure data continuity by the development and launch of a Landsat 7 satellite system which 

is at a minimum functionally equivalent to the Landsat 6 satellite in accordance with section 

102, P.L. 102-555. 

104 
AFTENDLX F-4 

(continued) 

In coordination with DOC and DOI, develop a Landsat 7 ground system compatible with 

the Landsat 7 spacecraft. 

In coordination with DOC, DOI, and DOD, revise the current Management plan to reflect 

the changes implemented through this directive, including programmatic, technical, 

schedule, and budget information. 

Implement the joint NASA/DOD transition plan to transfer the DOD Landsat 7 

responsibilities to NASA. 

In coordination with other appropriate agencies of the U.S. Government develop a strategy 

for maintaining continuity of Landsat-type data beyond Landsat 7. 

Conduct a coordinated technology demonstration program with other appropriate agencies 

to improve the performance and reduce the cost for future unclassified earth remote sensing 

systems. 

C. The Department of Defense will implement the joint NASA/DOD transition plan to transfer the DOD 

Landsat 7 responsibilities to NASA. 

d. The Department of Interior will continue to maintain a national archive of existing and future 

Landsat-type remote sensing data within the United States and make such data available to U.S. 

Government and other users. 

e. Affected agencies will identify the funding, and funding transfers for FY 1994, required to implement 

this strategy that are within their approved fiscal year 1994 budgets and subsequent budget requests. 

V. Reporting Requirements 

U.S. Government agencies affected by the strategy guidelines are directed to report no later than 30 days 

following the issuance of this directive, to the National Science and Technology Council on their 

implementation. The agencies will address management and funding responsibilities, government and 

contractor operations, data management, archiving, and dissemination, necessary changes to P.L. 102-555 and 

commercial considerations associated within the Landsat program. 

105 
APPENDLX F-5 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

August 3,1994 

WHITE HOUSE RELEASES NATIONAL SCIENCE POLICY REPORT 

In a report on national science policy released by the White House today, President Clinton and Vice President 

Gore called for investment in science as a national priority, and linked scientific research and education to national 

goals and the future well-being of the country. 

“The return from our public investment in fundamental science has been enormous. The principal sponsors 

and beneficiaries are the American people,” said President Clinton. “Our scientific investments are an important 

national resource which we must sustain and build on for the future.” 

The science policy report, “Science in the Nntionnl Interest,” is the first major post-Cold War review of national 

science policy by the White House, and the first formal Presidential statement on science policy since 1979. The report 

represents the Administration’s vision and roadmap for putting science to work on behalf of a broadened set of 

national goals to benefit the American people: health, prosperity, national security, environmental responsibility, and 

improved quality of life. 

The report, which was released by the Vice President at a White House ceremony, presents a new view of 

fundamental science research and technological advances as interdependent elements that underpin the nation’s 

economy. ”Today’s science and technology enterprise is more like an ecosystem than a production line,” said Vice 

President Gore. “Technology is the engine of economic growth; science fuels technology’s engine.“ 

The Vice President acknowledged that the new focus on a broadened set of post-Cold War goals will require 

the most efficient and effective use of scarce resources. ”Over the long term, U.S. investment in fundamental research 

must be commensurate with our national goals,” he said. 

The document proposes a series of actions to meet five broad goals for world leadership in science, mathematics, and engineering: 

Maintain leadership across the frontiers of scientific knowledge; 

Enhance connections between fundamental research and national goals; 

Stimulate government, industry, and academic partnerships that promote investment in fundamental science 

and engineering and effective use of physical, human, and financial resources; 

Produce the finest scientists and engineers for the twenty-first century; 

Raise the scientific and technology literacy of all Americans. 

The report calls for full and equal participation of all Americans, as both contributors to and benefactors of the 

nation’s scientific investment, and recommends a number of actions to increase diversity in the science and technology 

workforce. ”America derives great strength from its diversity, yet the country has not had a coherent policy for 

developing all our human resources for science and technology,” said Gore. He underscored the importance of role 

models and mentoring by announcing a new Presidential awards program to recognize such activities at the state and 

local level. 

The report also calls on scientists to become directly and actively involved in the ”critically important national 

challenge” to increase literacy and to meet the Administration’s “Goals 2000” education agenda. ”Our economic 

strength will depend more than ever on the ability of the American people to deal with new challenges and rapid 

106 
APPENDIX F-5 

(Continued) 

change,” said Vice President Gore. “Our scientific community must contribute more strongly to broad public understanding of scientific issues and information.” 

Highlighting an emphasis on partnerships, the policy calls for the ”creative participation of industry and 

academia” in helping to ensure the prosperity, security, and social well-being of the nation. At the same time, the policy 

acknowledges that the societal applications of fundamental science are not always immediately apparent and require 

sustained support to yield benefits. “We must not allow a short-term focus to limit the long-term potential benefits,” 

said Vice President Gore. 

“These policies and actions are significant steps in a proactive, ongoing process,” said the President’s Science 

Advisor, John Gibbons, who joined the Vice President for the release of the report. “This vision belongs to the many 

agencies and institutions which will use it as a roadmap to the future. But more importantly, it belongs to the American 

people, whose support is essential if we are to build a secure foundation for our nation and our children.” 

The 31-page policy document, as issued by President Clinton’s National Science and Technology Council, is 

available for electronic dissemination on FedWorld and through the Internet at whitehouse.gov, sunsite.unc.edu, and 

other major online sites. 

107 
APPENDLX F-5 

(continued) 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

August 3,1994 

PRESIDENT CLINTON APPOINTS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ADVISORS 

Washington-President Clinton today announced the membership of a private-sector committee to advise him 

on major science and technology issues and to help guide federal investments in science and technology toward 

national goals. The 18-member President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) is composed of 

top-level representatives from industry, education and research institutions, and nongovernmental organizations. - 

”I am very pleased to name these eminent scientists, engineers, business leaders, and educators as some of my 

key advisors,” the President said. “Drawn from a cross-section of America, they will help ensure that our science and 

technology policies reflect our nation’s needs: health; prosperity based on long-term economic growth and technological investment; national security; environmental responsibility; and improved quality of life. 

The appointment of private-sector advisors to the President highlights the Administration’s goal of fostering 

public/private partnerships to achieve national science and education goals. “To achieve our goals, we must strengthen 

partnerships with industry, with state and local governments, and with schools, colleges and universities across the 

country,” said President Clinton. “My goal for this committee is to help encourage those partnerships.” 

President Clinton established the PCAST by Executive Order in November 1993. Its members have established 

track records of significant achievement and represent the diverse perspectives and expertise in the U.S. science and 

technology establishment. The committee is co-Chaired by John H. Gibbons, Assistant to the President for Science and 

Technology, and by John A. Young, former President and CEO of the Hewlett-Packard Company. 

The PCAST will advise the President both directly and through the Assistant to the President for Science and 

Technology. The committee will also serve as a formal channel for private sector advice to the National Science and 

Technology Council. The NSTC is a cabinet-level council, chaired by the President, that coordinates science and 

technology policies and programs across federal agencies. The PCAST will ensure the private sector perspective is 

included in that policy-making process. 

Attachment: List of PCAST members 

108 
APPENDIX F-5 

(continued) 

THE PRESIDENT'S COMMITTEE OF ADVISORS 

ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 

Chairs 

John H. Gibbons 

Assistant to the President for Science and Technology 

Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy 

Norman R. Augustine 

Chairman and CEO 

Martin Marietta Corporation 

Francisco J. Ayala 

Donald Bren Professor of Biological Sciences 

Professor of Philosophy 

University of California, Irvine 

Murray Gell-Mann 

Professor, Santa Fe Institute 

R. A. Millikan Professor Emeritus of 

California Institute of Technology 

Theoretical Physics 

David A. Hamburg 

President, Carnegie Corporation of New York 

John P. Holdren 

Class of 1935 Professor of Energy 

University of California, Berkeley 

Diana MacArthur 

Chair and CEO 

Dynamac Corporation 

Shirley M. Malcom 

Head 

Directorate for Education and 

American Association for the Advancement of Science 

Human Resources Programs 

Mario J. Molina 

Lee and Geraldine Martin Professor of 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Environmental Sciences 

John A. Young 

Former President and CEO 

Hewlett-Packard Co. 

Members 

Peter H. Raven 

Director, Missouri Botanical Garden 

Engelmann Professor of Botany 

Washington University in Saint Louis 

Sally K. Ride 

Director, California Space Institute 

Professor of Physics 

University of California, San Diego 

Judith Rodin 

President, University of Pennsylvania 

Charles A. Sanders 

Chairman and CEO, Glaxo Inc. 

Phillip A. Sharp 

Professor of Biology 

Head, Department of Biology 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

David E. Shaw 

CEO, D. E. Shaw and Co. 

Charles M. Vest 

President 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Virginia V. Weldon 

Senior Vice President for Public Policy 

Monsanto Company 

Lilian Shiao-Yen Wu 

Member, Research Staff 

Thomas J. Watson Research Center 

IBM 

109 
APPENDIX F-6

THE WHITE HOUSE 

WASHINGTON 

August 5,1994 

THE TEXT OF PRESIDENTIAL DECISION DIRECTIVE/NSTC-4 WAS AS FOLLOWS: 

SUBJECT: National Space Transportation Policv 

This directive establishes national policy, guidelines, and implementing actions for the conduct of National 

space transportation programs that will sustain and revitalize U.S. space transportation capabilities. This directive 

supersedes portions of previous National Space Policy Directives that pertain, in whole or in part, to U.S. space 

transportation policy and programs. Relevant portions of National Space Policy, National Security, and Presidential 

Decision Directives dealing with technology transfer guidelines and definition of terms are unaffected by this policy 

and remain in force. 

The United States space program is critical to achieving US. national security, scientific, technical, 

commercial, and foreign policy goals. Assuring reliable and affordable access to space through U.S. space 

transportation capabilities is a fundamental goal of the U.S. space program. In support of this goal, the U.S. 

Government will: 

Balance efforts to sustain and modernize existing space transportation capabilities with the need to 

invest in the development of improved future capabilities; 

Maintain a strong space transportation capability and technology base, including launch systems, 

infrastructure, and support facilities, to meet the national needs for space transport of personnel and 

payloads; 

Promote the reduction in the cost of current space transportation systems while improving their 

reliability, operability, responsiveness, and safety; 

Foster technology development and demonstration to support future decisions on the development 

of next generation reusable space transportation systems that greatly reduce the cost of access to 

space; 

Encourage the cost-effective use of commercially provided U.S. products and services, to the fullest 

extent feasible, that meet mission requirements; and 

Foster the international competitiveness of the U.S. commercial space transportation industry, 

actively considering commercial needs and factoring them into decisions on improvements in launch 

facilities and launch vehicles. 

This policy will be implemented within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President. 

I. Implementation Guidelines 

To ensure successful implementation of this policy, U.S. Government agencies will cooperate to take 

advantage of the unique capabilities and resources of each agency. 

110 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

This policy shall be implemented as follows: 

The Department of Defense (DoD) will be the lead agency for improvement and evolution of the 

current U.S. expendable launch vehicle (ELV) fleet, including appropriate technology development. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) will provide for the improvement of the 

Space Shuttle system, focusing on reliability, safety, and cost-effectiveness. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration will be the lead agency for technology 

development and demonstration for next generation reusable space transportation systems, such as 

the single-stage-to-orbit concept. 

The Departments of Transportation and Commerce will be responsible for identifying and promoting 

innovative types of arrangements between the U.S. Government and the private sector, as well as 

State and local governments, that may be used to implement applicable portions of this policy. U.S. 

Government agencies will consider, where appropriate, commitments to the private sector, such as 

anchor tenancy or termination liability, commensurate with the benefits of such arrangements. 

The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will plan for the 

transition between space programs and future launch systems in a manner that ensures continuity of 

mission capability and accommodates transition costs. 

The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will combine 

their expendable launch service requirements into single procurements when such procurements 

would result in cost savings or are otherwise advantageous to the Government. A Memorandum of 

Agreement will be developed by the Agencies to carry out this policy. 

11. National Security Space Transportation Guidelines 

(1) The Department of Defense will be the launch agent for the national security sector and will maintain 

the capability to evolve and operate those space transportation systems, infrastructure, and support 

activities necessary to meet national security requirements. 

(2) The Department of Defense will be the lead agency for improvement and evolution of the current 

expendable launch vehicle fleet, including appropriate technology development. All significant ELV 

technology-related development associated with medium and heavy-lift ELVs will be accomplished 

through the DoD. In coordination with the DoD, NASA will continue to be responsible for 

implementing changes necessary to meet its mission-unique requirements. 

(3) The objective of DoD’s effort to improve and evolve current ELVs is to reduce costs while improving 

reliability, operability, responsiveness, and safety. Consistent with mission requirements, the DoD, in 

cooperation with the civil and commercial sectors, should evolve satellite, payload, and launch 

vehicle designs to achieve the most cost-effective and affordable integrated satellite, payload, and 

launch vehicle combination. 

(a) ELV improvements and evolution plans will be implemented in cooperation with the 

Intelligence Community, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the 

Departments of Transportation and Commerce, taking into account, as appropriate, the 

needs of the commercial space launch sector. 

The Department of Defense will maintain the Titan IV launch system until a replacement is 

available. 

111 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

(4) 

(5) 

The Department of Defense, in cooperation with NASA, may use the Space Shuttle to meet national 

security needs. Launch priority will be provided for national security missions as governed by 

appropriate NASA/DoD agreements. Launches necessary to preserve and protect human life in 

space shall have the highest priority except in times of national emergency. 

Protection of space transportation capabilities employed for national security purposes will be 

pursued commensurate with their planned use in crisis and conflict and the threat. Civil and 

commercial space transportation capabilities identified as critical to national security may be 

modified at the expense of the requesting agency or department. To the maximum extent possible, 

these systems, when modified, should retain their normal operational utility. 

111. Civil Space Transportation Guidelines 

(1) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration will conduct human space flight to exploit the 

unique capabilities and attributes of human access to space. NASA will continue to maintain the 

capability to operate the Space Shuttle fleet and associated facilities. 

(a) The Space Shuttle will be used only for missions that require human presence or other 

unique Shuttle capabilities, or where use of the Shuttle is determined to be important for 

national security, foreign policy or other compelling purposes. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration will maintain the Space Shuttle system 

until a replacement is available. (b) 

(c) As future development of a new reusable launch system is anticipated, procurement of 

additional Space Shuttle orbiters is not planned at this time. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration will be the lead agency for technology 

development and demonstration of next generation reusable space transportation systems. 

(a) The objective of NASA’s technology development and demonstration effort is to support 

government and private sector decisions by the end of this decade on development of an 

operational next-generation reusable launch system. 

(b) Research shall be focused on technologies to support a decision no later than December 1996 

to proceed with a sub-scale flight demonstration which would prove the concept of singlestage-to-orbi t. 

(c) Technology development and demonstration, including operational concepts, will be 

implemented in cooperation with related activities in the Department of Defense. 

(d) It is envisioned that the private sector could have a significant role in managing the 

development and operation of a new reusable space transportation system. In anticipation of 

this role, NASA shall actively involve the private sector in planning and evaluating its 

launch technology activities. 

IV. Commercial Space Transportation Guidelines 

(1) The United States Government is committed to encouraging a viable commercial U.S. space 

transportation industry. 

112 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

The Departments of Transportation and Commerce will be responsible for identifying and 

promoting innovative types of arrangements between the U.S. Government and the private 

sector, as well as State and local governments, that may be used to implement applicable 

portions of this policy. 

The Department of Transportation will license, facilitate, and promote commercial launch 

operations as set forth in the Commercial Space Launch Act, as amended, and Executive 

Order 12465. The Department of Transportation will coordinate with the Department of 

Commerce where appropriate. 

U.S. Government agencies shall purchase commercially available U.S. space transportation 

products and services to the fullest extent feasible that meet mission requirements and shall 

not conduct activities with commercial applications that preclude or deter commercial space 

activities, except for national security or public safety reasons. 

(d) The U.S. Government will provide for the timely transfer to the private sector of unclassified 

Government-developed space transportation technologies in such a manner as to protect 

their commercial value. 

(e) The U.S. Government will make all reasonable efforts to provide stable and predictable 

access to appropriate space transportation-related hardware, facilities, and services; these 

will be on a reimbursable basis. The U.S. Government reserves the right to use such facilities 

and services on a priority basis to meet national security and critical civil sector mission 

requirements. 

(f) U.S. Government agencies shall work with the U.S. commercial space sector to promote the 

establishment of technical standards for commercial space products and services. 

(2) U.S. Government agencies, in acquiring space launch-related capabilities, will, to the extent feasible 

and consistent with mission requirements: 

(a) Involve the private sector in the design and development of space transportation capabilities 

and encourage private sector financing, as appropriate. 

(b) Emphasize procurement strategies that are based on the use of commercial U.S. space 

transportation products and services. 

Provide for private sector retention of technical data rights, limited only to the extent 

necessary to meet government needs. 

Encourage private sector and State and local government investment and participation in 

the development and improvement of U.S. launch systems and infrastructure. 

(4 

(d) 

V. Trade in Commercial Space Launch Services 

(1) A long term goal of the United States is to achieve free and fair trade. In pursuit of this goal, the U.S. 

Government will seek to negotiate and implement agreements with other nations that define 

principles of free and fair trade for commercial space launch services, limit certain government 

supports and unfair practices in the international market, and establish criteria regarding 

participation by space launch industries in countries in transition from a non-market to a market 

economy. 

(a) International space launch trade agreements in which the U.S. is a party must allow for 

113 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

effective means of enforcement. The range of options available to the US. must be sufficient 

to deter and, if necessary, respond to non-compliance and provide effective relief to the US. 

commercial space launch industry. Agreements must not constrain the ability of the United 

States to take any action consistent with US. laws and regulations. 

(b) International space launch trade agreements in which the US. is a party must be in 

conformity with U.S. obligations under arms control agreements, U.S. nonproliferation 

policies, US. technology transfer policies, and U.S. policies regarding observance of the 

Guidelines and Annex of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). 

VI. Use of Foreign Launch Vehicles Components and Technologies 

(1) For the foreseeable future, United States Government payloads will be launched on space launch 

vehicles manufactured in the United States, unless exempted by the President or his designated 

representative. 

(a) This policy does not apply to use of foreign launch vehicles on a no-exchange-of-funds basis 

to support the following: flight of scientific instruments on foreign spacecraft, international 

scientific programs, or other cooperative government-to-government programs. Such use 

will be subject to interagency coordination procedures. 

The US. Government will seek to take advantage of foreign components or technologies in 

upgrading U.S. space transportation systems or developing next generation space transportation 

systems. Such activities will be consistent with US. nonproliferation, national security, and foreign 

policy goals and commitments as well as the commercial sector guidelines contained in this policy. 

They will also be conducted in a manner consistent with U.S. obligations under the MTCR and with 

due consideration given to dependence on foreign sources and national security. 

VII. Use of U.S. Excess Ballistic Missile Assets 

(1) U.S. excess ballistic missile assets that will be eliminated under the START agreements shall either be 

retained for government use or be destroyed. These assets may be used within the U.S. Government 

in accordance with established DoD procedures, for any purpose except to launch payloads into 

orbit. Requests from within the Department of Defense or from other U.S Government agencies to 

use these assets for launching payloads into orbit will be considered by the DoD on a case-by-case 

basis and require approval by the Secretary of Defense. 

Mindful of the policy’s guidance that US. Government agencies shall purchase commercially 

available U.S. space transportation products and services to the fullest extent feasible, use of excess 

ballistic missile assets may be permitted for launching payloads into orbit when the following 

conditions are met: 

(a) 

@) 

The payload supports the sponsoring agency’s mission. 

The use of excess ballistic missile assets is consistent with international obligations, 

including the MTCR guidelines and the START agreements. 

The sponsoring agency must certify the use of excess ballistic missile assets results in a cost 

savings to the US. Government relative to the use of available commercial launch services 

that would also meet mission requirements, including performance, schedule, and risk. 

(c) 

114 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

VIII. Implementing Actions 

(1) Within 90 days of approval of this directive, United States Government agencies are directed to 

prepare the following for submission to the Assistant to the President for Science and Technology 

and the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs: 

(a) The Secretaries of Defense, Commerce, Transportation, and the Administrator of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, with appropriate input from the Director 

of Central Intelligence, will provide a report that will include a common set of requirements 

and a coordinated technology plan that addresses the needs of the national security, civilian, 

and commercial space launch sectors. 

The Secretary of Defense, with the support of other agencies as required, will provide an 

implementation plan that includes schedule and funding for improvement and evolution of 

the current U.S. ELV fleet. 

The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, with the support 

of other agencies as required, will provide an implementation plan that includes schedule 

and funding for improvements of the Space Shuttle system and technology development 

and demonstration for next generation reusable space transportation systems. 

The Secretaries of Transportation and Commerce, with the support of other agencies as 

required and U.S. industry, will provide an implementation plan that will focus on measures 

to foster an internationally competitive U.S. launch capability. In addition, the Secretaries 

will provide recommendations to the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration that promote the full involvement of the commercial sector in the 

NASA and DoD plans. 

115 
APPENDLX F-6 

(continued) 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of Science and Technology Policy 

For Immediate Release August 5,1994 

STATEMENT ON 

NATIONAL SPACE TRANSPORTATION POLICY 

The White House today released a new National Space Transportation Policy document, as developed by the National 

Science and Technology Council and approved by President Clinton. The policy sets a clear course for the nation’s 

space program, providing a coherent strategy for supporting and strengthening U.S. space launch capability to meet the 

growing needs of the civilian, national security and commercial sectors. 

The policy commits the nation to a two-track strategy of (1) maintaining and improving the current fleet of expendable 

launch vehicles as necessary to meet civil, commercial, and national security requirements; and (2) investing R&D 

resources in developing and demonstrating next generation reusable space transportation systems with the potential to 

greatly reduce the cost of access to space. 

The new policy accomplishes four fundamental objectives: 

Establishes new national policy for federal space transportation spending, consistent with current budget 

constraints and the opportunities presented by emerging technologies. Under the new policy, DoD will 

assume the lead responsibility for modernization of the current expendable launch vehicle fleet. NASA will 

assume the lead responsibility for research and development of next generation reusable systems. NASA will 

focus their investments on technologies to support a decision no later than December 1996 on whether to 

proceed with a flight demonstration program. This program would, in turn, provide the basis for deciding by 

the end of the decade whether to proceed with a new launch system to replace the aging Shuttle fleet. 

Establishes policy on federal agencies’ use of foreign launch systems and components. With the end of the 

Cold War, it is important for the U.S. to be in a position to capitalize on foreign technologies - including 

Russian technologies - without, at the same time, becoming dependent on them. The policy allows the use of 

foreign components, technologies and (under certain conditions) foreign launch services, consistent with U.S. 

national security, foreign policy and commercial space guidelines in the policy. 

Establishes policy on federal agencies’ use of excess U.S. ballistic missile assets for space launch, to prevent 

adverse impacts on the U.S. commercial space launch industry. Under START, these assets may be used in 

certain circumstances for civilian space launch. A serious concern in developing the policy was the possible 

impact that widespread government use of these assets could have on U.S. commercial launch companies. The 

policy obliges the government to fully consider commercial services as part of the decision making process 

and imposes specific criteria on the use of excess assets. 

Provides for an expanded private sector role in the federal space transportation R&D decision making 

processes. In contrast with previous national policy on space transportation, this policy specifically directs the 

Departments of Transportation and Commerce to identify opportunities for government-industry cooperation 

and to factor these into NASA’s and DoD’s implementation plans. 

These steps will help keep America at the forefront of space transportation technology, while ensuring that we have a 

robust and reliable expendable launch vehicle fleet. 

116 
Glossary 

AADSF 

AAS 

AASE 

ABM 

ACDA 

ACLAIM 

ACRIM 

ACRV 

ACT 

ACTS 

Ada 

ADAS 

ADEOS 

ADP 

AEM 

AESA 

AESOP 

AFB 

AFS 

AFSC 

AFSCN 

AFTI 

AFW 

AGATE 

AGFS 

AGRHYMET 

AIAA 

AIDA 

AIDC 

AIDS 

AKM 

albedo 

ALEXIS 

ALOHA 

Alpha 

AMASS 

AMOS 

Advanced Automated Directional Solidification Furnace 

Advanced Automation System 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

Anti-Ballistic Missile 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

Airborne Coherent Lidar for Advanced In-flight Measurements 

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor 

Advanced Crew Return Vehicle 

Advanced Composites Technology 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

A programming language used by the DoD 

AWOS Data Acquisition System 

(Japanese) Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 

Advanced Ducted Propeller; Automated Data Processing 

Animal Enclosure Modules 

Atmospheric Effects of Stratospheric Aircraft 

ARGOS Environmental Shipboard Observer Platform 

Air Force Base 

Air Force Station 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center 

Air Force Satellite Control Network 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

Active Flexible Wing 

Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments 

Aviation Gridded Forecast System 

AGRiculture, Hydrology, and METeorology 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 

Arecibo Initiative on Dynamics of the Atmosphere 

Air Traffic Services Interfacility Data Communications 

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

Apogee Kick Motor 

The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to the amount 

incident upon it 

Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors 

Airborne Lidar and Observations of Hawaiian Airglow 

Former name of the international Space Station 

Airport Movement Area Safety System 

Air Force Maui Optical System 

1995 117 
AMSC . 

anechoic 

angle of attack 

anisotropy 

AOA 

APCG 

APE-B 

APEX 

APM 

APT 

ARFF 

Arinc 

ARPA 

ARS 

ARTCC 

ASAT 

ASCA 

ASD 

ASF 

AS1 

ASOS 

ASR 

ASRM 

AST 

ASTOVL 

ASTP 

Astro 

astronomical unit 

ATCSCC 

ATIS 

ATLAS 

ATMS 

ATN 

ATP 

American Mobile Satellite Corporation 

Neither having nor producing an echo 

The acute angle between the chord of an airfoil and its direction of motion relative to the air, 

often referred to as “alpha”; when an airfoil’s angle of attack exceeds the one that provides 

maximum lift, it goes into a stall, losing airspeed, and potentially, the capability of the pilot 

to control the airplane 

A phenomenon whereby properties of different values are exhibited when measured along 

different axes 

Angle of Attack 

Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

Auroral Photography Experiment-B 

Advanced Photovoltaic Experiment 

Ascent (or Atmospheric) Particle Monitor 

Automatic Picture Transmission-a low-cost ground terminal for receiving data from polar 

orbiting satellites, developed by NASA 

Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

Aeronautical Radio, Inc. 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (formerly Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agricultural Research Service 

Air Route Traffic Control Center 

Anti-Satellite 

Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics 

Aircraft Situation Display 

Area Sampling Frames 

Acronym for the Italian Space Agency 

Automated Surface Observing System 

Airport Surveillance Radar 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor 

Advanced Subsonic Technology 

Advanced Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing (aircraft) 

Advanced Space Technology Program; Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

Astronomy Observatory 

A measure for distances in space, equal to the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun, Le., 

93,000,000 miles (149,599,000 kilometers) 

Air Traffic Control System Command Center 

Automatic Terminal Information Service 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science 

Advanced Traffic Management System 

Aeronautical Telecommunications Network 

Advanced Turboprop 

Agency 1 

118 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Auto GCAS 

AVHRR 

AWOS 

AXAF 

baseband processor 

BATSE 

BBXRT 

BIMDA 

black hole 

BMDO 

boreal 

BOREAS 

boundary layer 

Brilliant Eyes 

canard 

C&GC 

CARA 

carbon-carbon 

CAS 

CASA 

CASS 

Cassini 

CAT 

Category I 

Category I1 

Category I11 

CCAFS 

c-CAP 

CCDS 

CCL 

CCSDS 

CD 

Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

Automated Weather Observing System 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

A computer processor similar in function to a telephone switching office 

Burst and Transient Source Experiment 

Broad Band X-Ray Telescope 

Bioserve ITA Materials Dispersion Apparatus 

A completely collapsed, massive dead star whose gravitational field is so powerful that no 

radiation can escape from it; because of this property, its existence must be inferred rather 

than recorded from radiation emissions 

Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, formerly SDIO 

Northern 

Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study 

A layer of fluid, close to the surface of a body placed in a moving stream, that is 

distinguishable from the main airflow by distinctive flow characteristics of its own caused 

by friction 

Space and missile tracking system 

An aircraft or aircraft configuration having its horizontal stabilizing and control surfaces in 

front of the wing or wings 

Climate & Global Change 

(NSF's) Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica 

In one application, an improved form of disk brakes featuring carbon rotors and carbon 

stators in place of the beryllium formerly used 

Computational AeroScience 

Controller Automation Spacing Aid 

Computer Aided Stratification and Sampling 

A Saturn Orbitermitan Probe 

Clear Air Turbulence 

An aircraft approach procedure that provides for approach to a height above touchdown of 

no less than 200 and with runway visual range of no less than 1,800' 

An aircraft approach procedure with a height no less than 100 and visual range no less than 

1,200 

An aircraft approach procedure involving no minimal decision height and three different 

minimal visual ranges-at least 700' for IIIA, 150' for IIIB, and no minimum visual range 

for Category IIIC 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

Coastwatch-Change Analysis Program 

Center for the Commercial Development of Space 

Commodity Control List 

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

Compact Disk; Conference on Disarmament 

1995 119 
CD-ROM 

CEDAR 

CEES 

CELLS 

CEOS 

CEPS 

CERCLA 

CFC 

CFD 

CGF 

CGMS 

CGRO 

CINC 

CIP 

CIRA 

CIRRIS 

CIS 

CITE 

CLAES 

c10 

CMB 

CMC 

CMOS 

CNES 

COARE 

COBE 

COCOM 

COF 

COMET 

COMPTEL 

Comsat 

CONUS 

COPUOS 

corona 

COSMIC 

cosmic rays 

COSPAS 

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory 

Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

Chlorofluorocarbon 

Computational Fluid Dynamics 

Crystal Growth Facility 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (formerly, the Coordination of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites Group) 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 

Commander-in-Chief 

Capital Investment Plan 

Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere 

Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle 

Commonwealth of Independent States, a grouping of independent states formerly part of the 

Soviet Union 

Cargo Interface Test Equipment 

Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer 

Chlorine monoxide 

Cosmic Microwave Background 

Center for Macromolecular Crystallography (at the University of Alabama at Birmingham) 

Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor 

Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales-the French Space Agency 

Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment 

Cosmic Background Explorer 

Coordinating Committee 

Columbus Orbital Facility 

COMmercial Experiment Transporter, a NASA program whose funding was terminated in 

1994 

Compton Telescope 

Communications Satellite Corporation 

Continental United States 

(UN) Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

The outer atmosphere of the sun, extending about a million miles above the surface 

Computer Software Management Information Center 

Not forms of energy, like X-rays or gamma rays, but particles of matter 

Russian acronym meaning Space System for Search of Vessels in Distress 

120 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
COSTR 

CRAF 

CRDA 

CREAM 

CRO 

CRRES 

CRS 

CSA 

cryogenic 

cscc 

CTAS 

CTOL 

CTR 

CTV 

CWG 

DAAC 

DARO 

DARP 

DARPA 

DARPASAT 

dB 

DBS 

DCS 

DC-X 

DE 

DemNal 

DEVS 

DLC 

DMSP 

DNA 

DOC 

DoD 

DOE 

Do1 

DOLILU 

DOT 

DOTS 

drag 

DSCS 

DSN 

Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial Science 

Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby 

Converging Runway Display Aid 

Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor 

Chemical Release Observation 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

Coastwatch Regional Site 

Canadian Space Agency 

Very low in temperature 

Concurrent Supercomputing Consortium 

Center-TRACON Automation System 

Conventional Take-off and Landing 

Civil Tiltrotor 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle 

Council Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

Distributed Active Archive Center 

Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office 

Dynamic Aircraft Route Planning 

See ARPA 

DARPA Satellite 

Decibel 

Direct Broadcast Satellite 

Data Collection System 

Delta Clipper-Experimental 

Directed Energy 

Demons tratioflalidation 

Drivers’ Enhanced Vision System 

Diamond-Like-Carbon 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program-DoD’s polar orbiting weather satellite system 

Defense Nuclear Agency; Deoxyribonucleic Acid 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Defense 

Department of Energy 

Department of the Interior 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update 

Department of Transportation 

Dynamic Oceanic Track System 

The force, produced by friction, that impedes a body’s motion through a fluid 

Defense Satellite Communication System 

Deep Space Network 

1995 121 
DSP 

DST 

EAFB 

ECS 

EDFE 

EDMS 

ED0 

EDOMP 

EFM 

EGRET 

EHF 

EIS 

electromagnetic spectrum 

El Niiio 

ELV 

EMAP 

EMSL-LV 

enthalpy 

envelope 

EO 

EO-ICWG 

EOS 

EOSDIS 

EOSAT 

EPA 

EPAD 

EPIC 

EPIRB 

EPM 

EPRI 

ERAST 

ERBE 

ERBS 

ERIM 

EROS 

ERS 

Defense Support Program 

Defense and Space Talks 

Edwards Air Force Base 

EOSDIS Core System 

EVA Development Flight Experiments 

Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System-an EPA-approved computer model for the 

assessment of air quality around airports 

Extended Duration Orbiter 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability 

Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 

Extremely high frequency, between 30,000 and 300,000 megacycles per second 

Environmental Impact Statement 

A collective term for all known radiation from the shortest-waved gamma rays through Xrays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared waves, to radio waves at the long-waved end of the 

spectrum 

A warm inshore current annually flowing south along the coast of Ecuador around the end 

of December and extending about every seven to ten years down the coast of Peru 

Expendable Launch Vehicle 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 

Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV-part of the EPA 

The heat content of a system undergoing change 

The operational parameters within which an aircraft can fly 

Electric Optical (sensor) 

Earth Observations-International Coordination Working Group 

Earth Observing System-a series of satellites, part of the Mission to Planet Earth, being 

designed for launch beginning near the end of the 1990s to gather data on global change 

EOS Data and Information System 

Earth Observation Satellite Company 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Electrically Powered Actuation Design 

Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center 

Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons 

Enabling Propulsion Materials 

Electric Power Research Institute 

Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (program) 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

Earth Resources Budget Satellite 

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan 

Earth Resources Observation System (or Satellites) 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing Satellite 

122 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
ERTS 

ESA 

E-scan 

ETM 

EUMETSAT 

EURECA 

EWE 

EVA 

EVD 

F 

FAA 

FAEED 

FAS 

FASA 

FAST 

FBWPBW 

FBW/FBL 

FCC 

FCCSET 

FDF 

Floquet theory 

FLTSATCOM 

FRED 

FS 

FSAR 

FTS 

fuel cladding 

FY 

G or g 

galactic cosmic rays 

gamma rays 

GAS 

GBI 

GCDIS 

GD 

GDR 

GEM 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

European Space Agency 

Electronically scanned 

Enhanced Thematic Mapper 

European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

European Retrievable Carrier 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Extravehicular Activity 

External Vision Display 

Fahrenheit 

Federal Aviation Administration 

FAA Aircraft Engine Emissions Database, which contains emissions factors for various 

aircraft engines and data correlating engines to specific aircraft 

Foreign Agricultural Service 

Final Approach Spacing Aid 

Fast Auroral Snapshot 

Fly-by-lightlpower-by-wire 

Fly-by-wirelfly-by-light 

Federal Communications Commission 

Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology 

Flight Dynamics Facility 

A method of solving a second-order differential equation 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

FAA Research Electromagnetic Database 

Forest Service 

Final Safety Analysis Report 

Flight Telerobotic Servicer 

A coating designed to contain fission products released in nuclear fuel 

Fiscal Year 

A symbol used to denote gravity or its effects, in particular the acceleration due to gravity; 

used as a unit of stress measurement for bodies undergoing acceleration 

Cosmic rays with energy levels as high as tens of billions of electron volts and velocities 

approaching the speed of light 

The shortest of electromagnetic radiations, emitted by some radioactive substances 

Get Away Special 

Ground Based Interceptor 

Global Change Data and Information System 

General Dynamics 

Geophysical Data Records 

Geospace Environment Modeling 

1995 123 
GEO 

geoid 

Geosat 

Geostar 

geostationary 

geosynchronous 

Get Away Special 

GETSCO 

GFO 

GFS 

GGS 

GGSF 

GHRS 

GHz 

GIS 

GLITeC 

GLOBE 

GLONASS 

glove 

GMDSS 

GMT 

GOES 

GPHS 

GPS 

GRID 

GRO 

ground effect 

GRTS 

GSA 

GSFC 

GTS 

GVI 

Hall effect 

HALOE 

HANG 

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit 

The figure of the Earth as defined by the geo-potential surface that most nearly coincides with 

mean sea level over the entire surface of the planet’s contiguous bodies of water 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite 

A private firm providing a satellite tracking service 

Travelling about the Earth’s equator at an altitude of at least 35,000 km and at a speed 

matching that of the Earth’s rotation, thereby maintaining aconstant relation to points on the 

Earth 

geostationary 

A low-cost, experimental payload for the Space Shuttle 

General Electric Technical Services Co., Inc. 

Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on (program) 

Generic Flight System 

Global Geospace Science 

Gas-Grain Simulation Facility 

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph 

Gigahertz (one billion cycles per second) 

Geographic Information System 

Great Lakes Industrial Technology Center 

Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment 

(Soviet) Global Navigation Satellite System 

In relation to laminar flow control, a suction device employing tiny, laser-drilled holes to 

draw off turbulent air and produce a smooth (laminar) flow of air over an aircraft’s wing 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 

Greenwich Mean Time 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

General Purpose Heat Source 

Global Positioning System 

Global Resources Information Database 

(Compton) Gamma Ray Observatory 

The temporary gain in lift during flight at very low altitudes due to the compression of the 

air between the wings of an airplane and the ground 

GRO Remote Terminal System 

General Services Administration 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

Global Telecommunications System 

Global Vegetation Index 

The development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it carries an electric 

current and is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current 

Halogen Occultation Experiment 

High Alpha Nose-down Guidelines 

124 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
HAPS 

HARV 

HAX 

HDTV 

HEAO 

HESP 

HIDEC 

high-alpha 

high-bypass engine 

HIRF 

HIRIS 

HLFC 

HMMWV 

HPCC 

HRDI 

HSCT 

HSR 

HST 

HUMS 

HUT 

hypersonic 

HyTOP 

IBM 

IBSS 

ICAO 

ICBM 

ICE 

IELV 

IEOS 

IFL 

IFM 

IFR 

IGA 

IHPTET 

IITA 

I-Lab 

IMI 

Hydrazine Auxiliary Propulsion System 

High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle 

Haystack Auxiliary Radar 

High Definition Television 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory 

High-Energy Solar Physics 

Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control 

High angle of attack 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of more than four to one, the by-pass ratio being the 

proportion of air that flows through the engine outside the inner case to that which flows 

inside that case 

High Intensity Radiation Field 

High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control 

High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle 

High Performance Computing and Communications 

High Resolution Doppler Imager 

High-speed Civil Transport 

High-speed Research 

Hubble Space Telescope 

Health Usage Monitoring System 

Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope 

Faster than Mach 4; the borderline between high speed and hypersonic is somewhat fuzzy 

but lies at about that velocity 

Hybrid Technology Project 

International Business Machines Corp. 

Infrared Background Signature Survey 

International Civil Aviation Organization 

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

International Cometary Explorer 

Intermediate ELV 

International Earth Observing System 

Interfacility Fiber Optic Link 

Internal Fluid Mechanics 

Instrument Flight Rules 

Intergovernmental Agreement 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology 

Information Infrastructure Technology and Applications 

(FAA) Integration and Interaction Laboratory 

Inner Magnetosphere Imager 

1995 125 
IML 

IMO 

IMP 

INF 

INM 

INMARSAT 

IN-STEP 

INTELSAT 

interferometry 

Internet 

IOC 

ionosphere 

IPMP 

IPO 

IPOMS 

IPPD 

IR 

IRAS 

IRT 

ISAC 

ISAMS 

ISAS 

ISB, TWIAA 

ISTP 

ISY 

ITA 

IT0 

ITP 

ITU 

ITWS 

IUE 

IUS 

IV&V 

IW 

IWG 

International Microgravity Laboratory 

International Maritime Organization 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (Treaty) 

Integrated Noise Model-a computer tool for simulation of aircraft noise 

International Maritime Satellite (Organization) 

In-Space Technology Experiments Program 

International Telecommunications Satellite (Organization) 

The production and measurement of interference from two or more coherent wave trains 

emitted from the same source 

An international computer network that began about 1970 as the NSF Net; very slowly it 

became a collection of over 40,000 independently managed computer networks worldwide 

that have adopted common protocols to permit exchange of electronic information 

Initial Operational Capability 

That region of the Earth’s atmosphere so named because of the presence there of ionized 

atoms in layers that reflect radio waves and short-wave transmissions 

Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing 

Integrated Program Office (for converged polar-orbiting satellites) 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group 

Integrated Product/Process Development 

Infrared 

Infrared Astronomy Satellite 

Icing Research Tunnel 

Intelsat Solar Array Coupon 

Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder 

(Japanese) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment-ne of several names for a 

program to succeed DSP, later integrated into SBIRS 

International Solar-Terrestrial Program 

International Space Year (1992) 

Instrumentation Technology Associates 

International Test Organization 

Integrated Technology Plan 

International Telecommunication Union, an intergovernmental organization founded in 

1865 that became a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1947 

Integrated Terminal Weather System 

International Ultraviolet Explorer 

Inertial Upper Stage 

Independent Validation and Verification 

Integrated Wing 

Intersessional Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

126 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
IWVP 

JAST 

JEM 

JGOFS 

JHU/APL 

Josephson effect 

Josephson junction 

JPL 

JSC 

JTAG 

JTAGS 

K-band 

Ka-band 

KaBLE 

KAO 

KE 

Kelvin 

KSC 

Ku-band 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory 

kWe 

LAGEOS 

laminar 

Landsat 

LANL 

laser 

LDEF 

leafy spurge 

LEAP 

LEASAT 

LEO 

LEOEX 

LEX 

LFC 

LfA 

Lidar 

Integrated Wake Vortex Program 

Joint Advanced Strike Technology (program) 

Japanese Experiment Module 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study 

Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory 

The radiative effect associated with the passage of electron pairs across an insulating barrier 

separating two superconductors 

The weak connections between superconductors through which the Josephson effects occur 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Johnson Space Center 

Joint Turbine Advanced Gas Generator 

Joint Tactical Ground Station 

Radio frequencies in the 20 gigahertz range 

A radio frequency in the 30 gigahertz range 

Ka-band Link Experiment 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory 

Kinetic Energy 

Temperature scale in which absolute zero is 0"and water freezes at 273.16' 

Kennedy Space Center 

Radio frequencies in the 1 1 - 12 gigahertz range 

A NASA C-141 aircraft equipped with a 0.97-meter telescope 

Kilowatts of electrical (power) 

Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

Of fluid flow, smooth, as contrasted with turbulent; not characterized by crossflow of fluid 

particles 

Land [remote sensing] Satellite; also known as ERTS, a series of satellites designed to collect 

information about the Earth's natural resources 

Los Alamos National Laboratory 

Light amplified by simulated emission of radiation-a device that produces an intense beam 

of light that may be strong enough to vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials, 

first constructed in 1960 

Long Duration Exposure Facility 

A tall perennial European herb, troublesome as a weed in the northern US. and Canada 

Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile 

Leased Satellite 

Low-Earth Orbit (100 to 350 nautical miles above the Earth) 

Low Earth Orbit Experiment 

Leading Edge extension 

Laminar Flow Control 

Laboratory for Astrophysics 

Light radar 

1995 127 
LIDAR 

lift 

liftldrag ratio 

lightsats 

LiH 

LITE 

LLWAS 

LMMT 

Loran 

Loran-C 

LOX 

low by-pass engine 

low-Earth orbit 

LSC 

LWIR 

M 

Mach 

MACSAT 

magnetosphere 

MALD 

maser 

mbps 

MBR 

mbs 

MCC 

MCS 

MELV 

mesopause 

mesosphere 

MESUR 

Meteosat 

Light Intersection Direction and Ranging 

The force exerted on an airfoil such as a wing by a flow of air over and around it, causing 

it to rise perpendicularly to the direction of flight 

The ratio of the lift to the drag of any body, especially an airfoil; it is the measure of the 

aerodynamic effectiveness of the wing or airfoil 

Light-weight satellites 

Lithium hydride 

LIDAR In-Space Technology Experiment 

Low Level Windshear Alert System 

Liquid Metal Mirror Telescope 

Long-range navigation-a two-dimensional, pulse-synchronized radio navigation system 

to determine position through pulse-time differencing from a master compared to two slave 

stations; it uses the frequency band 1.7 to 2.0 megacycles 

A Loran system that uses transmission at 100 kilocycles; the C stands for Cytac 

Liquid oxygen 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of of less than four to one-see high by-pass engine 

An orbit of the Earth some 100 to 350 nautical miles above its surface 

Legal Subcommittee (of COPUOS) 

Long-Wavelength Infrared 

Mach number-a relative number named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916) 

and indicating speed with respect to that of sound in a given medium; in dry air at 32 degres 

F and at sea level, for example, Mach l=approximately 741 mph or 1,192 kilometers per hour 

See M 

Multiple Access Communications Satellite 

The region of the Earth's atmosphere where ionized gas plays an important role in the 

atmospheric dynamics and where consequently, the geomagnetic field also exerts an 

important influence; other magnetic planets, such as Jupiter, have magnetospheres that are 

similar in many respects to the Earth's 

Miniature Air-Launched Decoy 

Microwave Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation-a device introduced in 

1953 with multiple applications in physics and chemistry, plus radio and television 

communication 

megabits per second 

Mars Balloon Relay 

See mbps 

Mission Control Center 

Maritime Communications Subsystem 

Medium ELV 

The layer of the Earth's atmosphere with the lowest temperature, from 50-53 mi (80-85 km) up 

That portion of the Earth's atmosphere located 34-50 mi (55-80 km) up, where temperature 

decreases with increasing altitude 

Mars Environmental SURvey (mission) 

Meteorological satellite 

128 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
METOP 

MIDEX 

MILSATCOM 

MIT 

MLS 

MMD 

MMIC 

MO 

MOA 

MOBY 

MODE 

Mode C transponder 

MOD-RTG 

MOST 

MOU 

MS 

MSS 

MSTI 

MSX 

MTBE 

MTCR 

MTD 

MTPE 

MWP 

NAPP 

NAS 

NASA 

NASCAP 

NASCOM 

NASDA 

NASM 

NASP 

NASS 

Navier-Stokes (equations) 

Meteorological Operational (satellite) 

Middle-class Explorer 

Military Satellite Communications 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Microwave Limb Sounder; Microwave Landing System 

Mean Mission Duration 

Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit 

Mars Observer 

Memorandum of Agreement 

Marine Optical Buoy 

Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment 

A radar beacon receiver/transponder capable of reporting the attitude of the aircraft aboard 

which it is installed 

Modular Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Mobile Satellite Communications via the TDRSS 

Memorandum of Understanding 

Multiple sclerosis 

Multispectral Scanner Sensors; Mobile Satellite Service 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration 

Midcourse Space Experiment 

Methyl tertiary butyl ether 

Missile Technology Control Regime 

Maneuver Technology Demonstrator 

Mission to Planet Earth-a program developed by NASA and the world scientific community to provide scientists with data that will allow them to understand the planet as a total 

system and to measure the effects of the human population upon it 

Meteorologist Weather Processor 

National Aerial Photography Program 

National Airspace System; National Academy of Sciences; Numerical Aeronautics 

Simulation 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASA Charging Analysis Program 

NASA Communications network 

(Japanese) National Space Development Agency 

National Air and Space Museum 

National Aero-Space Plane 

National Agricultural Statistics Service 

Three equations that describe conservation of momentum for the motion of a viscous, 

incompressible fluid; developed in the nineteenth century by French engineer Claude-LouisMarie Navier and English physicist Sir George Gabriel Stokes, who made the final 

derivation of the equations 

1995 129 
NCAR 

NCC 

NCDC 

NDVI 

NERVA 

NESDIS 

NETSTAR 

neutron star 

NEXRAD 

NGDC 

NHC 

NIH 

NIST 

NIXT 

NMC 

NMFS 

NOAA 

NOAO 

NODC 

nominal 

NOS 

NOx 

NRAO 

NRCS 

NRL 

NSCAT 

NSC 

NSCORT 

NSF 

NSSFC 

NST 

NTB 

NTF 

NTI 

NTIA 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

Network Control Center 

National Climatic Data Center 

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications-a program from 196 1-72 to develop a 

nuclear rocket for post-Apollo missions 

(NOAA) National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

Network System for TV and Radio 

Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be composed primarily of 

neutrons; see pulsar 

Next Generation Weather Radar 

National Geophysical Data Center 

National Hurricane Center 

National Institutes of Health 

(DOC) National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Normal Incidence X-ray Telescope 

National Meteorological Center 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, also the designation of that 

administration’s sun-synchronous satellites in polar orbit 

National Optical Astronomy Observatories 

National Oceanographic Data Center 

Functioning as designed 

National Ocean Service 

Any of several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, including nitrogen oxide 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory 

National Resources Conservation Service, formerly the Soil Conservation Service 

Naval Research Laboratory 

NASA Scatterometer 

National Security Council 

NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training 

National Science Foundation 

National Severe Storms Forecast Center 

Nuclear and Space Talks 

National Test Bed 

National Test Facility 

National Technology Initiative 

(DOC) National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the Federal 

Government’s radio spectrum manager, which coordinates the use of LEO satellite networks 

like those for Landsat, NAVSTAR GPS, the Space Shuttle, and TIROS with other countries 

of the world 

130 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
NTTC 

NUDET 

NWS 

OACT 

OASC 

OCTW 

ODERACS 

ODL 

OLR 

OMDP 

on-orbit 

order of magnitude 

osc 

OSL 

OSSE 

OSTP 

out-of-ground effect 

ov 

PAMRI 

PAM 

PARE 

Pathfinder 

PCG 

PDC 

PEACESAT 

PEM 

petrology 

piezoelectricity 

pitch-pointing 

pixels 

plasma 

plage 

National Technology Transfer Center 

Nuclear Detonation 

National Weather Service 

(NASA) Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology 

(DOC) Office of Air and Space Commercialization 

Optical Communications Through the Shuttle Window 

Orbital Debris Radar Calibration Spheres 

Oceanic Data Link 

Outgoing Longwave Radiation 

Orbiter Maintenance Down Period 

In orbit 

An amount equal to 10 times a given value; thus if some quantity was 10 times as great as 

another quantity, it was an order of magnitude greater; if 100 times as great, it was larger by 

2 orders of magnitude 

(NASA) Office of Space Commerce; Office of Space Communications 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory 

Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment 

Office of Science and Technology Policy 

See “ground effect” 

Orbiter Vehicle 

Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item 

Payload Assist Module 

Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment 

A generic term for various unrelated data sets, used separately by NASA, NOAA, USGS, 

and perhaps other agencies 

Protein Crystal Growth 

Predeparture Clearance 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite 

Particle Environment Monitor 

The science that deals with the origin, history, occurrence, structure, and chemical classification of rocks 

The property exhibited by some asymmetrical crystalline materials that, when subjected to 

strain in suitable directions, develop polarization proportional to the strain 

The pointing of an aircraft with respect to its pitch (its angular displacement about an axis 

parallel to the aircraft’s lateral axis, that is, movement of the nose up or down) 

Short for “picture elements,” which provide image resolution in vidicon-type detectors 

Bright, granular areas in the chromosphere of the Sun 

A gas formed when one or more negatively charged electrons escape from an atom’s 

positively charged nucleus, creating an electrically neutral gas composed of positive and 

negative particles; because it is ionized, plasma interacts with electric and magnetic fields; 

approximately 99 percent of matter in the Universe is thought to be in the plasma state 

1995 131 
plasma sheet 

plastic media blasting 

PLS 

PMS 

POAM 

POES 

polar orbit 

PRA 

PRC 

PROSPER 

PSC 

PSCN 

PSE 

Pu-238 

pulsar 

PVO 

quasar 

RAH 

ramjet 

R&D 

R&T 

RAWS 

RCRA 

real-time 

red shift 

Resin Transfer Molding 

resolution 

REX 

Reynolds number 

An extensive area of low-energy, ionized gases in the tail region of the magnetosphere that 

undergoes considerable change during magnetospheric storms 

A method of removing paint from aircraft skins by propelling plastic beads into them 

Personnel Launch System 

Physiological Monitoring System 

Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement 

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite 

The path of an Earth satellite that passes near or over the North and South Poles 

Probabilistic Risk Assessment 

People’s Republic of China 

PROgramme Spot Et Radar (the SPOT and radar program) 

Performance Seeking Control 

Program Support Communications Network 

Physiological Systems Experiment 

A plutonium isotope 

A pulsating radio star, which is thought to be a rapidly spinning neutron star; the latter is 

formed when the core of a violently exploding star called a supernova collapses inward and 

becomes compressed together; pulsars emit extremely regular pulses of radio waves 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

A class of rare cosmic objects of extreme luminosity and strong radio emission; many 

investigators attribute their high-energy generation to gas spiraling at high velocity into a 

massive black hole 

Reconnaissance Attack Helicopter 

A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consisting of specially shaped tubes or ducts 

open at both ends, the air necessary for combustion being shoved into the duct and 

compressed by the forward motion of the engine 

Research and Development 

Research and Technology 

Remote Automatic Weather Station 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

Immediate, as an event is occurring 

Shift of spectral lines toward the red end of the spectrum, indicating motion away from the 

observer in the lines of sight 

A process for the fabrication of composite parts for aerospace vehicles in which a dry 

preform of reinforcements is placed in a mold, resin is infused by vacuum or pressure, and 

the part is cured in the mold 

With reference to satellites, a term meaning the ability to sense an object; thus, an 80 meter 

resolution indicates the ability to detect an object of at least 80 meters in diameter 

Radiation Experiment 

A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the momentum forces in fluid flow, 

named for English scientist Osborne Reynolds (1842-19 12); among other applications, the 

ratio is vital to the use of wind tunnels for scale-model testing, as it provides a basis for 

extrapolating the test data to full-sized test vehicles 

132 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
RFI 

RFP 

RHU 

RME 

RMP 

RMS 

ROSAT 

Rover 

RSA 

RSRM 

RTG 

RTTC 

RTTM 

S 

SAGE 

SAIC 

SAIN 

SAM 

SAMPEX 

SAMs 

SA0 

SAR 

SAREX 

SARSAT 

SATCOM 

SBIR 

SBIRS 

SBUV 

scramjet 

scs 

SDI 

SDIO 

SEALAR 

Seasat 

SeaWiFS 

SEDS 

Request for Information 

Request for Proposals 

Radioisotope Heater Units 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment 

Rotorcraft Master Plan 

Remote Manipulator System-a remotely controlled arm, developed by Canada and 

controlled from the orbiter crew cabin, used for deployment and/or retrieval of payloads 

from the orbiter payload bay 

Roentgen Satellite 

After 1955, a program to develop a nuclear rocket, renamed NERVA in 1961 

Russian Space Agency 

Redesigned Solid Rocket Motor 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Regional Technology Transfer Center 

Real Time Thrust Measurement 

second 

Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment 

Science Applications International Corporation 

Satellite Applications Information Notes 

Shuttle Activation Monitor 

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer 

Space Acceleration Mapping System 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

Synthetic Aperture Radar 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment 

Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking (system) 

Satellite Communication 

Small Business Innovation Research 

Space-Based Infrared Systems-a program integrating SMTS and the DSP follow-on 

program, which has had several names 

Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (spectral radiometer) 

Supersonic-combustion ramjet 

Soil Conservation Service (renamed the National Resources Conservation Service in 

October 1994) 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

See BMDO 

Sea Launch and Recovery 

Experimental oceanic surveillance satellite launched June 27, 1978; it demonstrated that 

much useful information about the ocean could be obtained through satellite surveillance 

Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor 

Small Expendable Tether Deployable System 

1995 133 
SEI 

SEM 

SENGAP 

S-GCOS 

Sgr A* 

SHARE 

SHASA 

SIMMOD 

SLBM 

SMEX 

SIRTF 

SLAR 

SLC 

SLS 

SLV 

SMTS 

SNOTEL 

SOF 

SOFIA 

SOH0 

solar flare 

solar maximum 

solar wind 

SOLSTICE 

SOLTIP 

Space Station Alpha 

Space Test Program 

SPADE 

SPARTAN 

SPAS 

SPEAR 

SPIREX 

SPOT 

SPPD 

SRA 

Space Exploration Initiative 

Space Environment Monitor 

Small Engine Applications Program 

Space-based Global Change Observation System 

Sagittarius A*, a small but very luminous radio source located at the very center of the spiral 

Milky Way galaxy 

Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element 

Small High Altitude Science Aircraft 

Simulation Model 

Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile 

Small Explorer 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

Space Launch Complex 

Spacelab Life Sciences 

Space Launch Vehicle 

Space and Missile Tracking System (Brilliant Eyes) 

SNOWpack TELemetry 

Special Operations Forces 

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

A sudden, intense brightening of a portion of the Sun’s surface, often near a sunspot group; 

these flares, enormous eruptions of energy that leap millions of miles from the Sun’s surface, 

pose a potential radiation hazard to humans in space 

The period in the roughly 1 1-year cycle of solar activity when the maximum number of 

sunspots is present 

A stream of particles accelerated by the heat of the solar corona (outer region of the Sun) to 

velocities great enough to permit them to escape from the Sun’s gravitational field 

Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment 

SOLar connection to Transient Interplanetary Processes 

See Alpha 

A program in existence since 1965 in the DoD to test hardware in space and study the space 

environment 

Stratospheric Photochemistry Aerosols and Dynamics Expedition 

Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy 

Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

Space Power Experiment Aboard Rocket 

South Pole Infrared Explorer (telescope) 

Satellite Pour 1’Observation de la Terre (satellite for the observation of the Earth) 

Signal Processing Packaging Design 

Systems Research Aircraft 

134 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
SRAM 

SRL 

SRM&QA 

SRMU 

SSAAC 

SSBUV 

SSCE 

SSME 

SSMI 

SSMT 

SSRT 

SST 

SSTO 

stall 

START 

STDN 

STEP 

STGT 

Stirling engine or generator 

STME 

STOL 

STORM-FEST 

STOVL 

STP 

stratosphere 

smv 

STS 

STSC 

STV 

SunFUSE 

sunspot 

SUPER 

super high frequency 

supernova 

SUSIM 

SWAS 

Static Random Access Memory 

Space Radar Laboratory 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance 

Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade 

Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee 

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (spectrometer) 

Solid Surface Combustion Experiment 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

Special Sensor MicrowavelImager 

Special Sensor MicrowavelTemperature 

Single Stage Rocket Technology (program) 

Sea Surface Temperature 

Single-stage-to-orbit 

A loss of lift by an aircraft or airfoil resulting from insufficient airspeed or excessive angle 

of attack 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

Solar Terrestrial Energy Programme; Space Test Experiments Platform 

Second TDRSS Ground Terminal 

One in which work is performed by the expansion of gas at high temperature to which heat 

is supplied through a wall 

Space Transportation Main Engine 

Short Takeoff and Landing 

Storm-Fronts Experiment Systems Test 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing (aircraft) 

Space Test Program 

The atmospheric zone 12-31 mi (20-50 km) up, exhibiting increased temperature with 

increased altitude 

Space Technology Research Vehicle 

Space Transportation System 

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (of COPUOS) 

Space Transfer Vehicle 

Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth 

A vortex of gas on the surface of the Sun associated with stray local magnetic activity 

Name for a survivable solar-power subsystem demonstrator 

Any frequency between 3,000 and 30,000 megacycles per second 

An exceptionally bright nova (a variable star whose brightness changes suddenly) that 

exhibits a luminosity ranging from 10 million to 100 million times that of our Sun 

Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor 

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 

1995 135 
SXR 

TAAS 

TAOS 

TAP 

TASS 

TATCA 

TBM 

TCAS 

TDLS 

TDP 

TDRS 

TDRSS 

TDWR 

teraFLOPS 

m 

thermionics 

thermosphere 

thrust-vectoring system 

TIMED 

TIROS 

TM 

TNA 

TOGA 

TOMS 

TONS 

TOPEX 

TOPS 

TOS 

TOVS 

TPCE 

TPFO 

TPOCC 

TPV 

TR 

TRACON 

TRAM 

SeaWiFS Transfer Radiometer 

Terminal Advanced Automation System 

Technology for Autonomous Operational Survivability 

Terminal Area Productivity 

Terminal Area Surveillance System; Terminal Area Simulation System 

Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation (program) 

Theater Ballistic Missile 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

Tower Data Link Service 

Telemedicine Demonstration Project 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

TDRS System 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

IOL2 floating point operations per second 

Thermionic Fuel Element 

A field of electronics that uses electrical current passing through a gaseous medium (vacuum 

tube) instead of a solid state (semi-conductor), permitting use in high-temperature and 

radiation environments in which other electronic devices fail 

The atmospheric zone beginning about 53 mi (85 km) up and characterized by a significant 

rise in temperature with increased altitude 

A system on a jet engine to vary the direction of its exhaust nozzles so as to change the 

direction of the thrust 

Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics 

Television and Infrared Operational Satellite 

Thematic Mapper 

Thermal Neutron Analysis 

Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer 

TDRSS Onboard Navigation System 

Ocean Topography Experiment 

Toward Other Planetary Systems 

Transfer Orbit Stage 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder 

Tank Pressure Control Experiment 

TOPEXRoseidon Follow-On 

Transportable Payload Operations Control Center 

Thermo Photovoltaic 

Thrust-reversing 

Terminal Radar Approach Control 

Tilt Rotor Aeroacoustic Model 

136 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
tribology 

troposphere 

TRMM 

TRP 

TSRV 

TS/TP 

TSS 

Tv 

TVCS 

UARP 

UARS 

UAV 

UCLA 

UFO 

UHF 

UHF SATCOM 

UIT 

U.K. 

UMS 

UN 

UNEP 

UNFC 

U.S. 

USAF 

USCINCSPACE 

USDA 

USGCRP 

USGS 

USML 

USMP 

USTR 

UTTR 

uv 

uvcs 

VAFB 

VAS 

vcs 

VFC 

VHF 

The study of the interaction of sliding surfaces with respect to friction, wear, and lubrication 

That portion of the atmosphere about 7-10 mi (11-16 km) up where clouds form and 

convection is active 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

Technology Reinvestment Project 

Transportation Systems Research Vehicle 

turboshaftfturboprop 

Tethered Satellite System 

Thrust-vectoring 

Thrust Vector Control System 

Upper Atmosphere Research Program 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 

University of California at Los Angeles 

UHF Follow-On 

Ultra high frequency, any frequency between 300 and 3,000 megacycles per second 

UHF Satellite Communication 

Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope 

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 

Urine Monitoring System 

United Nations 

United Nations Environment Program 

United Nations (General Assembly’s) First Committee 

United States 

U.S. Air Force 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Space Command 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

U.S. Global Change Research Program 

U.S. Geological Survey 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory; U.S. Munitions List 

U.S. Microgravity Payload 

Office of the U.S. Trade Representative 

Utah Test and Training Range 

Ultraviolet 

Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer 

Vandenberg Air Force Base 

Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder 

Voice Command System 

Vortex Flow Control 

Very high frequency, any radio frequency between 30 and 300 megacycles per second 

1995 137 
viscosity 

VISSR 

VLBA 

VLBI 

VLSI 

VoA 

vscs 

VSRA 

V/STOL 

WARC 

WEFAX 

WGD 

white dwarf 

WINDII 

WMO 

WSGT 

WSMC 

WSMR 

WSP 

WSTF 

WUPPE 

x-rays 

XTE 

Resistance to flow or change of shape under pressure 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer-an instrument on NOAA’s GOES-7 satellite 

Very Long Baseline Array, a set of 10 radio telescopes in the continental U.S., Hawaii, and 

St. Crois 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

Very Large Scale Integration 

Voice of America 

Voice Switching and Control System 

V/STOL System Research Aircraft 

VerticaYShort Take off and Landing 

World Administrative Radio Conference 

Weather Facsimile 

(CEOS) Working Group on Data 

Any of aclass of faint stars, characterized not only by low luminosity but by masses and radii 

comparable to that of our Sun 

Wind Imaging Interferometer 

World Meteorological Organization 

White Sands Ground Terminal 

Western Space and Missile Center 

White Sands Missile Range 

Windshear Processor 

White Sands Test Facility 

Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment 

Radiations of very short wavelengths, beyond the ultraviolet in the spectrum 

X-ray Timing Explorer 

138 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Index 

Advanced Automation System (AAS), 5,44 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), 

Advanced Composite Technology (ACT) program, 38-39 

Advanced Photovoltaic Experiment, 1 1 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 3,ll. 22,34- 

Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA), 

Advanced Subsonic Technology program, 37-39 

Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS), 42 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), 22 

aerodynamics, 2,34-38 

AeroVironment, Inc., 36 

Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 6, 54 

Airborne Coherent Lidar for Advanced In-flight Measurements (ACLAIM), 4 1 

Air Force, 3,4, 11, 19,21,22,24,28-29,32,34-36,37,47, 

5 1’64, and see entries for specific missiles and spacecraft 

air traffic control, 5,41-44 

Alison Engine Company, 39 

Allied Signal Engines, 37 

American Institute ofAeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), 

American Rocket Company, 65 

Ames Research Center, 19,29, 36,41,44,48 

Applied Physics Laboratory, see Johns Hopkins University 

Arecibo radio telescope, 8, 14 

Ariane launch vehicles, 7, 25, 27, 31, 32, 33 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), see U.S. 

Army, 23, 32,33,34-37, 55 

Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS), 4, 

asteroids, 1, 16-17 

astronomy, 1-2, 7-8, 10, 11-15, 24 

Atlas E, 3, 10 

Atlas I, 3, 11, 32 

Atlas 11, 3, 10 

Atlas IIA, 7, 11,32 

Atlas IIAS, 6, 11, 31 

Atmospheric Effects of Aviation project, 39-40 

atmospheric research, 2, 10, 13,24,39-40, 50-51,55-57 

Augsburg College, 57 

Aurora Flight Sciences Corporation, 40-4 1 

aviation medicine and human factors, 49 

33 

36,65 

15 

61,62 

Arms Control . . . 

26 

Baker, D. James, 61,62 

Ball Aerospace Corporation, 22,63 

Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), 3, 10, 16, 

black holes, 12 

Boeing Company, 22,27,36,43 

Boeing 757,45 

Boeing 777,48 

Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study, 50 

Borra, E.F., 30 

Boston College, 57 

Boyer, Phil, 23 

Brilliant Eyes, 3, 23, 30 

British Satellite Broadcasting satellite, 11 

Brown, Robert L., 15 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 5,52 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 5,52-53 

Bureau of Reclamation, 5,52 

21, 22, 23-25, 29, 30, 36 

Canada, 8,26-27,47,50,56,60,61 

Cassini, 28 

Centaur upper stage, 1, 1 1 

Cerro-Tolodo Interamerican Observatory, 7, 13-14 

Chernomyrdin, Russian Prime Minister Victor, 6 1 

China, 4, 6, 8-9, 63, 64 

civil tiltrotor, 44 

Clark spacecraft, 50 

Clementine spacecraft, 1, 3, 10, 16, 23-24 

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, 1.5, 8, 15- 16 

commercial agreements, 4, 9 

commercial launches, 1 1, 62-63, and see also individual 

Communications Satellite Corporation, 33 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), 12,34 

Computational Fluid Dynamics, 37 

convergence of polar-orbiting satellites, 1,4,25,58-59,61, 

cooling flows, 8, 15 

Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 15 

COSPAS, see Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking 

Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Relaunch contractors 

62 

System 

gions program, 56-57 

1995 139 
dark matter, 8, 15 

DARPASAT, 3, 11,22 

data link services, 43 

DC-8 aircraft, 58 

Deep Space Network (DSN), 34 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 3, lo,, 

Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), 16 

Defense SatelliteCommunication System (DSCS), 3.10.32 

Defense Support Program (DSP), 3, 11,23,26 

Delta Clipper-Experimental (DC-X), 3, 21, 22, 62, 64 

Delta I, 11 

Delta 11, 3, 8, 10, 11, 24 

Department of Commerce (DOC), 1, 2.4, 9, 30-3 1.46, 50- 

DepartmentofDefense(DoD), 1,3,4, 10-1 1,16,19,22,23- 

Department of Energy (DOE), 4, 26. 27-29. 36,46, 57, 65 

Department of Interior (DoI), 2,4-5, 15-17,23,25,50, 52- 

Department of State (DoS), 8,9,51,59-63 

Department of Transportation (DOT), 1, 5-6, 9, 11, 34-49 

Deutsche Aerospace, 3, 34 

Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS), 7, 3 1-32 

DirecTv, 3 1 

Dryden Flight Research Center, 35,36 

Dunbar, Bonnie, 27 

Duvall, Thomas L., 14 

51 

52.54-59,6 1-65 

25.26, 28, 30, 32-33, 34-37, 38,40,42,47,48, 55, 65 

53 

passim, 63. 65 

Earth Observing System (EOS), 51,56,58 

Earth-Resources Observation System, 25 

Earth science, 2,4,25,50-52,55-59 

Einstein, Albert, 8, 14 

El Niiio event, 3,58 

environmental matters, 1.2, 5,7,24,25,38-41,47-48, 50- 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 5, 7, 51, 52, 55 

ER-2 aircraft, 39, 55, 58 

European Organization for the Exploitation of MeteorologiEuropean Space Agency (ESA), 13, 18,25,26-27,52,56, 

ExpendableLaunchVehicles(ELV’s), 1,3,8,10,11,21,22, 

extravehicular activity, see spacewalks 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EWE), 12 

52, 54-58 

cal Satellites (EUMETSAT), 4,25,62 

60,62 

24, 27.3 1-32,33 

F- 15 aircraft, 2 

F- 18 aircraft, 2, 37 

Fabiano, Giuseppina, 15 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 5-6, 23, 34-49 

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 6-7, 3 1-32. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEW), 29,52 

Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM), 

Flight Research Instrumentation and Test techniques, 40 

flight safety, 5-6,29-30,38,40,42-49 

Fly-by-LightPower-by-Wire, 37-38 

Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), 6, 53 

Forest Service (FS), 6,54 

France, 18,45,57-58,61 

Frayer, David T., 15 

passim 

33,64 

32 

Galaxy IR(S) satellite, 6, 31 

Galileo satellite, 1, 16-17, 28 

General Dynamics, 3,6, 1 1,3 1, 32 

General Electric, 37, 39 

General Purpose Heat Sources (GPHS), 4,28 

general relativity, theory of, 8, 14 

Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-On Satellites, 58-59 

Georgia, 18 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES), 

Germany, 3, 18,34,45,60-61 

global change, see Earth science 

Global Positioning System (GPS), 3,5,10,22-23,26,43-44, 

Goddard Spaceflight Center, 24 

Goldin, Daniel S., 27 

Gore, Jr., Vice President Albert, 51, 61 

“Great Attractor,” 7, 14 

GTE Corporation, 19 

4, 11,25-26,56 

47,49,64 

halon, 47 

halotron, 47 

Harvey, Jack W., 14 

HighPerformanceComputing and Communications (HPCC), 

High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT), 2,35,39-40 

Hinson, David, 23 

Hi-Shear Technology Corporation, 65 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 1. 8,9, 11-12, 16, 19 

41 

140 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Hughes, John P., 15 

Hughes Aircraft, 24, 32 

Hughes Space and Communications Company, 3 1 

Hulse, Russell, 8, 14 

Huntress, Wesley T., 65 

icing, 45 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology 

(IHPTET) program, 37 

integrated wing concept, 38 

INTELSAT 701 satellite, 7, 33 

INTELSAT 702 satellite, 7, 33 

Internationalnaritime Satellite Organization (INMARS AT), 

International Microgravity Laboratory (1ML)-2, 1, 10, 18 

International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 

IRIDIUM satellite, 40 

7, 8, 33, 64 

(INTELSAT), 7, 8, 33,64 

Japan, 8, 18,26-27,56,60,61 

Jeffries, Stuart, 14 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 4, 16,28,30,40,54 

Johns Hopkins University, 57 

Johnson Space Center (JSC), 27,29, 30 

Joint Turbine Advanced Gas Generator, 37 

Jupiter, 1, 5, 15-16 

Applied Physics Laboratory, 24 

Kaiser Optical Electronics, 35 

Kim, Dong-Woo, 15 

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 14-15 

Koptev, Yuri N., 27,61 

Kraut Kramer Corporation, 47 

Krikalev, Sergei, 1, 2,27 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 16 

Landsat program, instruments, and satellites, 2,4,11,25,5 1- 

Langley Research Center, 35, 39,46,47 

Latin America, 8, 61 

Lauer, Todd R., 14 

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 16,46 

Levy, David H., 16 

Lewis, 50 

Lewis Research Center, 48 

life sciences research, 1-2,9-10, 17-20 

57.61 

Light Intersection Direction and Ranging In-Space TechLincoln Laboratory, 24, 30,45 

Lockheed Corporation, 35, 36, 63 

Los Alamos National Laboratory, 4, 26, 28 

nology Experiment (LITE), 2,10,50 

Magellan spacecraft, 17, 34 

management issues, 21,25,27,29 

Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), 64 

Mars probes, 17 

Martin Marietta, 3, 7, 11,28, 32, 65 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), see Lincoln 

McDonnell Douglas, 3, 11, 21, 24, 39, 62, 64 

Meteor-3 satellite, 55 

meteorology, 10,25-26,46,56, 57 

microgravity research, 1-2, 17-19,30-31 

Microwave Landing System (MLS), 5, 43 

Midcourse Space Experiment, 24 

Milstar satellites, 3, 11, 32, 33 

Miniature Air-Launched Decoy (MALD) program, 36 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration (MSTI) satellites, 

Mir space station, 2,9, 27,60 

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), 59 

Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE), 2, 39, 50-51, 55-59 

mobile satellite communication, 33, 34, 40, 64, and see 

INMARSAT 

Motorola, 40 

Mound Plant, 28 

Mount Pinatubo, 2,55 

Laboratory 

3, 11,24 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 1- 

46-52, 55-60, 61, 63-65 and see names of NASA centers 

NASA Software Independent Verification and Validation 

3, 5, 7, 8,9-10, 11-22,23, 25-26, 28, 29-31, 33-41,45, 

and spacecraft 

Facility, 29 

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 39 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP), 2,35 

National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), 6, 53-54 

National Biological Survey, 5, 23, 53 

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 4, 

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 17-20 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

30-3 1.46, 57, 58 

1,2,4,5,25-26,45,50-52,54-59,61-62 

1995 141 
National Park Service, 5, 53 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory, see Kitt Peak 

National Resources Conservation Service, see Soil ConserNational Science Foundation (NSF), 7-8, 13-16, 19,51,55, 

National Space Transportation Policy, 1, 6, 22, 62-63 

National Weather Service, 46 

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), 16, 19 

Navstar Global Positioning System, see Global Positioning 

Navy, 16, 19, 24, 32-33, 34-35,37,38,40,47 

Netherlands, 45,49 

Neurolab satellite, 19 

Next Generation Weather Radar, 46 

NOAA-9 satellite, 55 

NOAA-11 satellite, 53-54 

vation Service 

57,65 

System 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 28 

oceanographic studies, 57-59 

Office of Air and Space Commercialization (OASC), 4,62- 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation (OCST), 1, 6, 

Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), 9,52,61, 

orbital debris, 2, 30, 61 

Orbital Debris Radar Calibration Spheres-1, 30 

Orbital Sciences Corporation, 1 1, 22, 63 

Orion Nebula, 1 

ozone layer, 2,55-56 

64 

1 1,62-63 

63 

Palomar Observatory, 15 

PanAmSat-4 satellite, 7, 32 

Pathfinder aircraft, 36 

Pathfinder data sets, 52, 56 

Pathfinder spacecraft, 17 

Pegasus, 3, 11 

Pegasus XL, 11 

Perseus A, 40-4 1 

Phillips Laboratory, 3,21,22,24,29,30 

Phillips, Mark, 7, 13-14 

phyloxera, 5 1 

planetary studies, 1, 15-17 

Pluto Fast Flyby mission, 28 

Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES), 

1,4, 25, 51, 52, 59, 61, 62 

Pomerantz, Martin A., 14 

Postman, Marc, 14 

Pratt and Whitney, 39 

pulsars, 8, 14 

quasars, 14-15 

Radarsat, 50 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators, 4,27-28 

RAPTOR Demonstrator Unmanned Air Vehicle, 36 

remote sensing by satellites, 4-5, 6, 7, 26, 50-59, 61, 62 

Robot Operated Processing System, 10, 

Rockwell International, 3, 34 

Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), 15 

rotorcraft, 2, 35-37, 38,44,48 

Russia, 1,2,4,6,8,9,9,18,26-27,29,40,43,55,59-60,61, 

licensing of, 1,4, 63-64 

63,64 

satellite telephones, 33, see also INMARSAT 

Savannah River Plant, 28 

Scaled Composites, Inc., 36 

Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), 24 

Scott, David, 65 

scout, 3, 11 

Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS), 4, 58 

Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking System 

(SARSAT), 4, 26, 61 

Shoemaker, Carolyn S., 16 

Shoemaker, Eugene M., 16, see also Comet ShoemakerShuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy 

single stage rocket technology, 21, 35 

Small Expendable Tether Deployable System (SEDS)-2, 8, 

Smithsonian Institution, 24 

Soil Conservation Service, 6, 54-55 

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, 13 

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer 

solar studies, 1,7-8, 10, 13, 14, 57 

South Pole Infrared Explorer telescope, 8, 15 

South Pole, other research at, 15, 19-20 

SP-100 Space Reactor Power System, 4,28 

Space and Missile Tracking System, see Brilliant Eyes 

Levy 

(SPARTAN) 201-2, 8, 10, 13 

26 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO), 8, 26 

(SAMPEX), 12 

142 Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
Spacebridge to Moscow Telemedicine Project, 2, 18-19 

Spacehab-2, 10 

Spacelab Life Sciences-2, 1.9, 17 

space physics, 12-13, 30, 57 

Space Radar Laboratory- 1, 1,2, 10, 50 

Space Radar Laboratory-2, 1,2, 10, 18,50 

Space Services, Inc., 11 

Space Shuttle, 1, 2, 8, 9-10, 20-21, 29 

Space Station, 1,2,8,9-10, 17,20-21,26-27,29,30,59-60 

Space SystemsLoral, 33 

Space Technology Research Vehicles, 25 

Space Test Experiments Platform (STEP) missions, 11,22, 

Space Test Program, 11 

spacewalks, 10 

Special Operations Forces Transport Program, 36 

SR-7 1 aircraft, 2,40 

Starfire, 11 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 59 

SunRISE (Radiation Inputs of the Sun to Earth) program, 57 

supernovae, 7,8, 12, 13-15 

Sweden, 49 

24 

Taurus, 1,3, 11,22 

Taylor, Joseph, 8, 14 

Technology Reinvestment Project (TRP), 64 

technology transfer, 19,28, 35, 37-40, 59.64-65 

telemedicine, 2, 18-19 

Telstar 401, 6, 31 

Telstar 402, 7, 3 1 

Terminal Area Surveillance System (TASS), 42 

Terminal Area Traffic Control Automation program, 42-43 

tether, 8, 26 

Textron Lycoming, 37 

Thagard, Norm, 27 

Thermionic Space Nuclear Power System, 4,28-29 

Tier I11 Minus Program, 36 

Titan 11, 3, 10, 

Titan IV, 1,3, 10-1 1 

TOPEX-Poseidon spacecraft, 2-3, 56,57-58 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS), 33-34 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, 41 -42 

Tu-144 aircraft, 40 

United Kingdom, 25,35 

United Nations, 56, 59,6 1-62 

United States Satellite Broadcasting, 3 1 

United Technologies Corporation, 65 

universe, evolution of, 1, 7-8, 12, 13-15 

University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), 40 

University of Michigan, 57 

Upper Atmosphere Research Program, 55-56 

Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite (UARS), 5557 

U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 9,59 

U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, see Army, Navy, Air Force 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 5,53 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 6,53-55 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 5, 53 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 2,4-5, 15-17, 25, 50,51- 

U.S. Global Change Research Program, 51 

U.S. Information Agency (USIA), 9,65-66 

U.S. Microgravity Payload (USMP)-2, 1, 10, 17-18 

U.S. Trade Representative (USTR), 6, 63 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 8,61-62 

52 

Venden Bout, Paul A., 15 

visual guidance systems, 42 

Voice Switching and Control System, 42 

Voyagers I & II spacecraft, 13,28 

Wake Shield Facility, 10 

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 19 

White House, policies of, 1, 6, 22, 25, 62-63 

wind shear, 2,5,44-45,46 

wingships, 36 

Wolczan, Alexander, 14 

World Meteorological Organization, 56 

X-3 1 Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability program, 3,34-35 

X-32,35 

UHF Follow-On satellites, 3, 32-33 

Ukraine, 18 

Ulysses spacecraft, 1, 13, 28 

1995 B U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1995 395-717/30680 143