Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1978 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

19 78 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
President’s Message of Transmittal 

To the Congress of the United States: 

I transmit this report on the Nation’s progress in space and aeronautics 

during 1978. This report is provided in accordance with Section 206 of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 as amended (42 U.S.C. 2476). 

Included in this report are statements of policy designed to maintain American 

space leadership. This report concentrates on the most significant Federal space 

and aeronautical activities. These emphases have enabled us to reduce the 

amount of detail and number of separate agency program descriptions. 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

July 1979 

JIMMY CARTER 

iii 
Table 

I. Summary of U.S. Aeronautics and 

Space Activities of 1978 ___________ In traduction _ ___ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ Communications _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ____ _ _ Earth’s Resources _____-__-_____ 

Space Science __________________ Transportation _ _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ - __ __ _ Space Energy _______----------- 

Administration _ __ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ ___ _ - 

Introduction _ ___ _ _ - _ - _ _ - _ _ - - __ Applications to Earth ___________ Science ....................... Space Transportation ___________ Space Research and Technology _ _ Space Data Services ____________ NASA Energy Programs ________ Aeronautical Research and 

Development _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ 111. Department of Defense _____________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Space Activities ________________ Aeronautical Activities _________ Relationship with NASA ________ IV. Department of Commerce __--------- 

Introduction ____ ____--_------- 

Space Systems _______----------- 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

Space Support Activities __-_--__ 

Space and Atmospheric Research _ Data Programs _________________ Aeronautical Programs _________ V. Department of Energy __-_-----__-__ 

Introduction _ ___ _ _ _ ___ - _ _ ___ __ Space Applications of Nuclear 

Power ___________-____ ______ Space Programs ________________ Generator Technology - _______ __ Space Reactor _________________ Satellite Power System __________ Nuclear Waste Disposal _ ________ Nuclear Test Detection _________ 

.. 

11. National Aeronautics and Space 

of Contents 

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VI. Department of Interior _____________ Introduction ____ ______________ Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Program ___---------- 

Monitoring the Environment ____ Geology _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ Cartography _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ International Activities _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ VII. Department of Transportation ______ Introduction ____ __________ ___ - Air Traffic Control and Air 

Navigation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ - 

Aviation Safety ________________ Aviation Medicine _____________ 

.. .. 

.. .. 

Appendixes 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

C 

D 

E- 1 

E-2 

F 

U.S. Spacecraft Record __-__-__-__- 

World Record of Space Launchings 

Successful in Attaining Earth 

Orbit or Beyond ______________-_ 

Successful U.S. Launchings-1978 ___ US. Applications Satellites, 1974-1978 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads, 

1974-1978 ____________-_________ 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1974- 

1978 ____L______________________ 

History of United States and Soviet 

Manned Space Flights ___________ U.S. Space Launch Vehicles _______ _ 

Space Activities of the U.S. 

Government .................... U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority 

Space Activities Budget ____________ Aeronautics Budget - ______________ White House Statements on U.S. 

Space Policy _________-__-___-___ 

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V 
Aerospace Events of 1978 

This twentieth year of the United States space program saw the awarding of the first Congressional 

Space Medals of Honor, progess of the Space Shuttle toward orbital flight, sensor results from new 

environmental and planet-ary-spacecraft, aid continued research on improGernent of aviation. 

On October 1, 1978, President Carter presented the first six Congressional 

Space Medals of Honor to Mercury, Gemini. Auollo. and Skvlab astroniuts (above) I- I 

In the Space Shuitle program, the orbiter Enterprise, 

having flown the approach and landing 

test flights in 1977, was airlifted to the 

Marshall Space Flight Center. In May 

1978 it was hoisted (lower left) into the 

dynamic test stand and joined (lower 

right) to the external fuel tank and two 

solid-rocket boosters for vibration testing 

of the total Shuttle configuration. 

vi 
Seasat 1, orbited on June 27, 1978, returned 

interesting data during its 3G-month reporting lifetime. In views by its synthetic aperture radar, above is a portion of the Beaufort Sea ice pack, some 800 kilometers inside 

the Arctic Circle. The light area (right) is 

Banks Island, Canada; the dark strip adjacent is first-year sea ice, 1 to 2 meters thick. 

To the left of it is open water, and the dark 

area (left) is the main polar ice pack. The 

other radar image (right) shows a complex 

ocean structure northeast of Miami. Striations (upper left) may be related to motion 

of the Gulf Stream, while the irregular pattern at bottom may show surface wind and 

rainfall from a local squall (center). 

Pioneer Venus orbiter took the image at left 

in December 1978. An infrared view of the 

north pole of Venus, it shows the pole (center) with cloud-top temperatures of 250 K 

(-10°F) and flanked by cooler clouds (215 

K, -72°F). At mid latitudes the cloud 

temperature of 240 K (-28°F) shows a different spectral signature. In aeronautics, the 

Army-NASA Rotor Systems Aircraft (below, 

left) began flight testing in 1978. Equipped 

with auxiliary jet engines and fixed wing, 

it can safely test a wide variety of rotors 

and propulsion systems. Below, Lewis Research Center tested small-diameter 8-bladed 

propellers which offer the same aircraft 

speeds as current turbofan engines but at 20 

to 40 percent better fuel economy. 

vii 
Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1978 I 

Introduction 

For the United States, the year 1978 marked 

the 20th anniversary of the official beginning of a 

national program in space. It was in 1958 that 

President Eisenhower proposed, the Congress enacted, and the Executive Branch began operating 

under the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 

1958. 

During this anniversary year, the national programs in aeronautics and space continued to make 

progress toward their goals. In aeronautics, advances were made in aircraft fuel economy and 

emission and noise control. In space, the Space 

Shuttle surmounted several development and test 

barriers in preparation for its first orbital flight, 

scheduled for late 1979. Two Pioneer spacecraft 

arrived at Venus and returned a harvest of information about our shrouded sister planet. United 

States expendable launch vehicles attempted 33 

launches into space, with 32 successes, orbiting a 

total of 41 spacecraft. NASA’s 20 launch attempts 

-including 2 launches by NASA for the Department of Defense (DoD)-were all successful, placing 25-plus 2 DoD-spacecraft into orbit: 16 were 

for NASA’s own programs, 1 was a “piggyback” 

Oscar amateur radio satellite, and the remainder 

were reimbursed launches for governmental, international, and commercial customers. DoD orbited 

16 satellites in 14 successful launches out of 15 

attempted (including the 2 DoD launches performed by NASA). Among the NASA spacecraft 

were the second of three big high-energy-astronomy 

satellites; Tiros-N, prototype of a new generation 

of high-data-rate weather satellites; and two Pioneer spacecraft headed for Venus. 

In October the President issued a statement that 

constitutes a positive source of policy direction on 

the future of our country’s efforts in space. The 

text of this statement is reprinted as Appendix F. 

In this chapter, highlights of the year in the 

national aeronautics and space programs are organized topically rather than by agencies responsible for particular activities. The other chapters 

enlarge on the activities of the six Federal agencies 

with the largest programs in aeronautics and space. 

Communications 

Communications satellites were the earliest, and 

remain the largest, commercially successful offspring of the United States investment in space. 

Operational Space Systems 

Zntelsat. The International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization increased its worldwide membership in 1978 to 102 nations. On March 31, 

NASA launched for Intelsat the last of the Intelsat 

IV-A satellites, this one to serve in the Indian 

Ocean region. Future satellites will be of the Intelsat V series, which will double the communications 

capability of the IV-A. At the close of 1978, three 

active Intelsat satellites were serving the Atlantic 

Ocean region and two were serving the Indian 

Ocean region. 

Marisat. Commercial satellite services to shipping 

continued to increase. As in 1977, the Marisat 

system served the U.S. Navy in the Atlantic, Pacific, 

and Indian Oceans and commercial shipping in the 

Atlantic and Pacific; service may soon be added 

for commercial shipping in the Indian Ocean. 

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 

issued rules under which commercial shipping can 

be licensed to operate with the Marisat system and 

has participated in the work of the preparatory 

committee laying the groundwork for the establishment of the international INMARSAT 

organization. 

Military Navigation Satellites. The existing Navy 

navigation satellite system is Transit, a two-dimensional position-fixing system primarily in support 

of ballistic missile submarines. The five satellites 

permit a user to take position fixes every two hours 

or less. Thirteen years old in 1978, the system has 

also been used in offshore oil exploration and 

measurement of the drift of polar ice. A modified 

Transit satellite, launched in October 1977, car1 
ried two special transponders called translators: 

these will support tests of Trident I missiles. 

The other military navigation satellite system is 

the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. It is a 

joint-service system to provide high-accuracy, global 

position fixing in three dimensions. When fully 

operational, it will consist of 24 satellites in three 

orbital planes at 20,400 kilometers altitude and 

will serve 25,000 to 35,000 users. Still in the concept-validation phase, NAVSTAR orbited the 

fourth of its satellites on December 10, 1978; two 

more will be launched in early 1979. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites. 

In 1978, domestic communications satellites totaled 

7, operating in the 4 and 6 gigahertz bands; 2 were 

in KCA Americom’s SATCOM system, 2 in Western Union’s WESTAR system, and 3 in AT&T’s 

COMSTAR system. All transmit and distribute 

voice, television, and digital data. Satellite Business 

Systems, which has proposed to have 2 satellites in 

operation by 1981, would operate in the 12 and 

14 gigahertz bands to provide integrated digital 

transpission of voice, data, and image traffic for 

large industrial and government users. The FCC 

authorized Satellite Business Systems to use transponders on a domestic satellite for tests of its 

ground equipment. FCC’s authorization to proceed 

with construction was reversed by the Court of 

Appeals. 

In early 1977, the FCC decided to allow Earth 

stations with antennas less than 9 meters for cable 

television. The first large users were the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and the Public Broadcasting Service, which have put into operation 150 

Earth stations linking all public television stations 

in the 50 states plus Puerto Rico and the Virgin 

Islands. Another 750 applications have been approved for small-antenna, receive-only stations for 

cable television. In addition, the Corporation for 

Public Broadcasting has joined National Public 

Radio in applying for the right to distribute, via 

satellite, multiple audio programming to their network radio stations. The Mutual Broadcasting 

Company has filed for authority to construct and 

operate 500 small receive-only stations operating 

through domestic satellites. In mid-1978 the FCC 

authorized the American Satellite Corporation to 

transmit and receive 132-kilobit digital service with 

5-meter antennas. Another 130 Earth stations have 

been authorized for communications services using 

satellites and Earth antennas as small as 4.5 meters 

in remote locations in Alaska, offshore drilling 

rigs, and drilling ships. The total of all domestic 

small-antenna Earth stations that the FCC has 

authorized to date exceeds 1200. 

lllilita y Communications Satellites. Three broad 

categories of space communications are identified 

for the defense establishment: 

worldwide point-to-point communications for 

fixed users with high capacity and high data 

rate 

communications for mobile users, with moderate capacity and low data rate 

0 command and control of strategic nuclear 

forces. 

Serving the first of these needs, the Defense Communications Satellite Program is configured for 

four active satellites and two on-orbit spares. By 

the end of 1978, the four active satellites were in 

place-two launched in May 1977 and two in December 1978-but the launch of the spares failed 

in March 1978. 

The mobile-user requirement is to be met by the 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. The first 

of five spacecraft was launched in February 1978; 

installation of broadcast receivers in ships of the 

fleet is almost complete, with nearly 300 ships and 

150 submarines now equipped. 

Strategic command and control will be provided 

by the Air Force Satellite Communications System. 

Deployment of airborne, mobile, and fixed terminals began in 1978 and will continue for another 

four or five years. The space component presently 

consists of transponders on several types of host 

spacecraft. 

Space Commum‘cations Experintents 

Experimental Satellites. NASA’s Applications 

Technology Satellites (ATS) continued to be used 

for experimental public-service communications. 

Two of these satellites have narrow-band VHF 

transponders that are being used by 9 experimenters sending voice communications to 24 receiving stations. Messages deal with medical emergencies, state government operations, and church 

administration. This year 5 educational experimenters used ATS 6, a high-powered “broadcast” 

satellite, to relay high-quality video containing college-level courses designed to update teacher training. These signals have gone to 30 small, inexpensive antennas scattered around a sizable part of the 

U.S. Canada’s Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) has been tested in the higher 12-14 

gigahertz band. NASA experimented with teleconferencing over CTS; representatives of Indian 

tribes in Montana and New Mexico talked with 

Federal officials in Washington, D.C., about tribal 

problems. 

Communications Research. Increasing demands 

on the world’s crowded radio spectrum have led 

2 
NASA to investigate means of compressing the 

bandwidth of digital transmissions, thereby making 

room for additional transmissions. A development 

completed this year enables transmission of fullmotion, color television in one-tenth of the usual 

bandwidth. An international program using communication satellites to improve the ability of 

search and rescue teams to find distressed ships and 

aircraft progressed toward a demonstration flight in 

1982. 

Communications Studies. A US. delegation participated in the Aeronautical Mobile Conference in 

February 1978. A worldwide plan was developed 

for the frequencies used by international airlines. 

Preparations continued for major U.S. participation in the General World Administrative Conference to be held in the fall of 1979. Meeting once 

every 20 years to reallocate the use of the radio 

spectrum, this conference is the first since space 

communications achieved maturity and is considered crucial to their continued growth. 

Planning and coordination of U.S. telecommunications activity were consolidated in a new National Telecommunications and Information Administration, formed in May 1978 in the Department of Commerce by Executive Order. Consolidating the functions of the former White House 

Office of Telecommunications Policy and Commerce’s Office of Telecommunications, the new organization will plan and monitor government aspects of commercial communications satellite systems and will coordinate technical compatibility 

of the systems with other communications systems 

in the U.S. and abroad. 

Earth’s Resources 

Spacecraft and aircraft continued in 1978 to 

operate as platforms for sensors that inventoried 

and monitored changes on Earth’s land surface, on 

and in its waters, and in its surrounding environment. Some of these sensing systems remained tentative and experimental, others were semi-operational, and a few were fully operational. 

Znvelztorying and Mom’torilzg 

Earth Resources Experiments. Landsat 3 was 

launched on March 5, 1978, and is producing good 

data from all sensors except for the thermal band. 

Landsat 1 had finally ended operations in February, after five and a half years. Landsat 2 continued to function well. On the ground, the new 

all-digital Landsat data-processing system was being 

checked out at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland and the Department of Interior’s 

EROS Data Center in South Dakota. It should reduce the delivery time of Landsat data products to 

customers by more than 50 percent. 

A new kind of experimental sensor joined the 

NASA family of Earth resources satellites in 1978. 

The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) 

satellite was placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit on 

April 26. From this orbit the spacecraft can take 

readings of same-day maximum and minimum 

ground-surface temperature at selected locations. 

Temperature comparisons may offer a new tool for 

distinguishing rock types and amounts of soil 

moisture. 

A number of experiments using Landsat data 

have demonstrated the applicability of space-sensed 

data for management of land and water resources. 

The largest single project relating to agriculture 

was the Department of Agriculture’s Large Area 

Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) , which completed its three-year analysis in 1978. Results were 

promising: LACIE’s crop predictions were 90 percent accurate for the wheat yield in the U.S. 

Southern Great Plains and the U.S.S.R. Another 

demonstration included use of Landsat data by 

NASA and 13 agencies of the state of Texas to 

update and maintain a multipurpose inventory of 

natural resources. 

Land use of a different type was the subject of a 

study by the Department of Commerce’s Bureau of 

the Census; Landsat data were used to update 

urban-area boundaries for 5 cities. An effort will 

be made to detect urban change in 5 cities in 1979. 

Similar studies on an international scale were conducted by the Bureau of the Census and funded 

by the Agency for International Development. Evaluation of tests in Bolivia and Kenya concluded that 

Landsat images could help developing nations improve or update maps and boundary locations in 

preparation for a national census or to interpret 

physical-cultural land cover. 

Several bureaus of the Department of the Interior are using Landsat imagery for planning and 

land-management purposes. The National Park 

Service is inventorying the vegetation of the Lake 

Mead National Recreation Area, training personnel 

in planning and management of 25 large recreation 

areas. The Bureau of Reclamation is using Landsat 

data to inventory the irrigated lands in the Colorado River basin, detect changes in land use, and 

map wildlife habitats-part of developing a plan 

for meeting the future water requirements of the 

river basin. 

Monitoring the Sea State. Seasat 1, NASA’s experimental satellite equipped to measure global 

ocean dynamics and physical characteristics, was 

launched on June 27, 1978. All sensors returned 

3 
excellent data. By mid-July, a wide range of ocean 

phenomena had been observed and measured, and 

many of the measurements could be validated by 

independent ground-truth data gathered by aircraft 

and ships deployed by NOAA. Then on October 9, 

the Seasat satellite suffered a total electrical failure 

from which it never recovered. The data that it returned in its three-and-a-half-month lifetime will be 

valuable from a scientific standpoint and as an evaluation of the instrumentation carried on the 

satellite. 

In a five-year program to update hydrographic 

charts, the Defense Mapping Agency began working with NASA and the Department of Interior’s 

EROS Data Center to acquire data from Landsat’s 

multispectral scanner covering 3000 shallow-water 

areas of the world. 

NOAA investigators worked with the University 

of Alaska on use of satellite and other remotely 

sensed data to study ice development and sediment 

density and movement along the coast of Alaska. 

The university, with funding from NOAA, operates 

a center for storing, processing, and developing 

techniques for use of remotely sensed data. 

With the launch on October 24, 1978, of NASA’s 

experimental environmental satellite Nimbus 7, 

NOAA increased its ocean-color research substantially to take advantage of the capabilities of a new 

sensor aboard the satellite, the Coastal Zone Color 

Scanner. An experiment conducted in the Gulf of 

Mexico in October 1977 demonstrated that measurements of ocean radiance varied in proportion to 

concentrations of both suspended particulate 

matter and chlorophyll. If such measurements 

could be corrected for atmospheric influences, the 

Nimbus 7 Color Scanner should make it possible to 

estimate six to eight ranges of suspended particulates and chlorophyll. After the Nimbus 7 launch, 

scientists from NOAA, NASA, Scripps Institution 

of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, and the 

University of Southern California made in situ 

measurements in the Gulf of Mexico to correlate 

with data from the Color Scanner. 

For several years NOAA scientists have been 

studying charts of monthly sea-surface temperatures 

that were compiled from satellite data. The study 

shows a gradual, slight cooling of oceans in the 

Southern Hemisphere since 1975. In the North Pacific a large cold-water anomaly developed during 

the 1976-1977 winter, reappeared the following 

year, and appears to be forming again in the 1978- 

1979 winter. Evidence continues to indicate the 

existence of an ocean-to-atmosphere link between 

this sea-surface temperature anomaly and colderthan-normal winters over much of the U.S. east of 

the Rocky Mountains. 

Monitoring Pollution. The Coastal Zone Color 

Scanner aboard the Nimbus 7 satellite offers promise of detailed information about oil spills if its 

data can be properly calibrated. To that end, the 

Environmental Protection Agency’s test facility in 

Leonardo, New Jersey, measured the optical characteristics of 10 samples of crude oil that were aged 

over the course of a week in simulated ocean conditions. In the visible region, the tests showed the 

oil had increased reflectance beyond that of the 

water: in the infrared range, equivalent blackbody 

temperatures increased. NOAA scientists will apply 

these controls to Color Scanner data from actual 

oil spills. 

Another use NOAA plans for data from the 

Color Scanner is in evaluating water quality in the 

Great Lakes. When enough surface-truth samples 

have been gathered, the scanner will be evaluated 

for the accuracy of its data on algae, suspended 

sediment, and calcium carbonate. 

The “urban plume” problem in air pollutionthe aggregate of pollutants emitted from an urban 

area aiid then transported through the atmosphere 

for some distance while its constituents change 

character under the influence of sunlight and mixing-has been a subject of research by the Environmental Protection Agency and NASA for several 

years. In 1977, NASA joined with the Virginia State 

Air Pollution Control Board to measure constituents of the urban plume from the Norfolk-Hampton Roads area. Instrumented aircraft from NASA’s 

nearby Langley Research Center flew sampling 

flights through the plume during the summer, 

while the Virginia agency measured ozone concentrations at ground level. Downwind from the urban 

complex, typical buildups of ozone were as much 

as double the normal. Two NASA-developed laser 

systems were brought into the study in July 1978, 

taking measurements of the total ozone burden in 

the mixing layer-usually from the surface to two 

kilometers. One laser system was mounted in an 

aircraft, the other on the ground. If the accuracy 

of their measurements compares favorably with 

those from conventional methods, the NASA lasers 

may be used as sensors on spacecraft. 

Another environmental concern has been the 

reduction of aircraft noise and emission pollution. 

In one attempt at noise reduction, EPA joined 

NASA in research on the design of propellers for 

general-aviation aircraft, seeking a design for optimum aerodynamic performance at the lowest 

noise level. Propellers on two different generalaviation aircraft were being redesigned according 

to new theories on propeller noise. In another 

study, NASA monitored the vibration response of 

buildings near Kennedy and Dulles airports during 

4 
overflight by jet transport aircraft, including the 

Concorde. Vibrations were at levels that could be 

heard by persons within the buildings, though well 

below levels that would cause structural damage. 

Vibration levels from Concorde were higher, but 

only in proportion to its generally higher noise 

level. 

In one approach to reduction of aircraft emissions, NASA has for several years been working on 

new combustor technology for large turbine engines, aiming particularly to reduce emissions of 

carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons during engine idle. Three advanced combustors reduce 

emissions by 20 to 30 percent, and the technology 

proved effective in reducing emissions from small 

aircraft during takeoffs and landings. 

Environmental Analysis and Protection 

One of the early successes of the U.S. space program was the weather satellite. For more than a 

decade complex systems of weather satellites have 

been operational in weather forecasting. In the last 

few years, research has started on the less-discernible trends of world climate and effects on Earth's 

upper environment caused by man-generated 

pollutants. 

Weather Satellite Operations. During 1978 

NOAA operated two polar-orbiting satellites, Noaa 

4 and 5, the last of the series of Improved Tiros 

Operational Satellites (ITOS). The first of the 

third generation of polar orbiters, NASA's prototype Tiros-N, was launched October 13, 1978; Noaa 

4 was deactivated on November 18 and Tiros-N 

began functioning in the network in December. 

NOAA's first operational satellite of the new series, 

Noaa-A, is scheduled for launch in mid-1979. The 

Tiros-N system will consist of two satellites in nearpolar, Sun-synchronous orbit, crossing the equator 

about 12 hours apart. Each satellite features four 

primary sensors: a very-high-resolution radiometer, 

a vertical sounder comprised of three complementary sounding instruments, a data collection 

and location system, and a space environment 

monitor. The new series will have improved resolution in both visual and infrared imagery of 

Earth's cloud cover, will measure moisture and 

temperature, and will monitor proton and electron 

flux. To handle the much larger flow of digital 

data that these satellites will generate, a new 

ground system was completed in June 1978. 

The other system of weather satellites is the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

(GOES). The usual configuration of this system is 

two spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit located over 

the equator at longitudes approximating the east 

and west coasts of North America. Throughout 

1978, Goes 2 remained in position at 75" west longitude as the eastern operational satellite. Goes 3, 

launched on June 16, was positioned at 135" west 

longitude in July, replacing Goes 1 as the western 

operational satellite. Because of the special circumstance of the Global Weather Experiment, Goes 

1 was moved in November to 60" east longitude 

over the Indian Ocean, where it will be operated 

by the European Space Agency for the duration of 

the global program. 

The DoD weather satellite system is the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program. It supports military operations with high-quality visual and infrared imagery and other specialized weather data, 

as well as furnishing supplemental data to NOAA. 

Two satellites in polar orbit acquire data on the 

world's weather four times a day, store it, and later 

transmit it to the Air Force and Navy weather centrals in Nebraska and California respectively. They 

also transmit the data in real time to mobile readout stations at key locations around the world to 

support tactical operations. During 1978, the third 

Block 5D satellite was launched and became operational. In addition to imagery, these satellites take 

high-quality profile measurements of vertical tem, 

perature and moisture and count precipitating electrons in auroral regions. 

Weather Research. In December 1978 the World 

Meteorological Organization's long-anticipated 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) 

began. Its first phase was the year-long Global 

Weather Experiment. Several U.S. agencies are contributing equipment and research personnel, with a 

central role being played by NOAA and NASA environmental satellites. The interconnecting and 

sometimes overlapping coverage by satellites from 

several nations, together with the more extensive 

ground-truth data being collected by observers from 

many nations, should produce a high-density data 

bank as well as provide for intercalibration of 

data and interpretation techniques. NOAA continued research on the use of imagery from 

geostationary satellites to derive wind speed and 

direction. Joint experiments with NASA indicated that automatic cloud tracking produced 

accurate wind vectors under uncomplicated conditions. Computer programs have been written for 

the first international comparison of winds derived 

from cloud motions that were in the field of view 

of neighboring geostationary satellites-namely, 

those of the U.S., Japan, and the European Space 

Agency. 

Satellite data were used by NOAA to produce 

operational snowmaps for 30 U.S. and Canadian 

river basins during the 1977-1978 snow season. 

Some 600 snowmaps were used by Federal and state 

5 
agencies to aid in prediction of water runoff, flood 

prevention, dam and reservoir regulation, hydroelectric generation, and monitoring of consumption. January 1978 was a record snowcover month 

for North America, but was quickly exceeded by 

February. Snowcover in the Northern Hemisphere 

was about 8 percent above the 10-year average for 

the 3 winter months. 

Atmospheric and Magnetospheric Research. For 

some years a number of Federal agencies have been 

making various kinds of measurements of constituent gases and particles in the several layers of the 

Earth’s outer environment. Chronologically the 

range of interests has grown from concern for 

charged-particle effects on radio communications, to 

the pass-through effects on weather, to effects of 

man-generated pollutants on the ozone layer, and 

most recently to the effect on Earth’s climate. 

NOAA and the U.S. Air Force have for some time 

operated the Space Environment Services Center, 

which not only collects and analyzes data but is the 

national and international warning agency for disturbances on the Sun, in space, in the upper atmosphere, and in the Earth’s magnetic field. Recently 

the center has been predicting solar activity so as 

to estimate the orbital lifetime of the Skylab space 

station. In addition to the data gathered from its 

regular satellite and watch-group sources, the center 

was assisted in the Skylab instance by the Bureau 

of Standards, which analyzed sunspot variations 

over the last 30 years. 

In stratospheric research, NOM developed a 

technique using pulsed Doppler radar to measure 

wind profiles from the ground up to about 100 

kilometers. To make a measurement from the 

ground through the troposphere and lower stratosphere to about 30 kilometers takes one minute. 

NASA has been charged by Congress with defining the effects on stratospheric ozone of man-generated pollutants. There is now a program plan, a 

measurement strategy, and some 130 funded tasks 

being worked on by government, universities, and 

industry. Stratospheric balloons with instruments 

from the University of Michigan and Canada have 

simultaneously measured about a dozen constituents of the stratosphere; the data are being used to 

test photochemical models. The most significant recent advance in theory and data analysis has been 

the intensified awareness of the close coupling in 

the stratosphere among the nitrogen, hydrogen, 

and chlorine families. This principle has been used 

in a number of models that have helped define the 

measurement strategy. Data analysis is setting a 

baseline against which changes in the ozone layer 

can be measured. NOAA scientists are also researching the chemistry of the stratosphere. With 

ground-based long-path optical absorption techniques, they have been able to measure nitrogen 

trioxide for the first time. 

Methane, a compound almost entirely of natural 

origin, is always present in the stratosphere in trace 

amounts; its distribution is a key to stratospheric 

chemistry. NOAA scientists this year measured the 

concentrations of methane at various latitudes and 

at altitudes to 30 kilometers. 

At the request of the Environmental Protection 

Agency, the National Academy of Sciences prepared 

Response to the Ozone Protection Sections of the 

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977: An Interim 

Report. It found the danger to stratospheric ozone 

from release of chlorofluoromethanes to be roughly 

double that of earlier estimates, while the effect on 

ozone from exhaust gases of high-flying aircraft, including SSTs, was found so slight as to be of no 

immediate concern. 

As in other areas of space research, the recent 

advances in sensors for stratospheric research and 

the increased numbers of users of such sensors have 

created a need for agreed-upon calibration of instruments and standardized baselines against which 

measurements can be made and interpreted. From 

June 2-20, 1978, NASA, NOM, and the Soviet 

Union performed a calibration exercise. From 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Center, Wallops Island, 

Virginia, NASA launched 3 sounding rockets; from 

their research ship positioned off the island, the 

Soviets launched 5 of their rockets. NOAA’s Wallops Ionosphere Station monitored local ionospheric conditions to provide a common data base 

for both nations. The results may clear up differences in past interpretation of ionospheric data in 

the altitude range of 80-120 kilometers. 

The two International Sun-Earth Explorer satellites launched in 1977 have been observing the interactions between particles in the solar wind and 

Earth’s magnetosphere. With the improved resolution and spatial coverage of the energetic-particles 

experiment on board one of the two satellites, it 

has been possible to describe much more completely 

the particle environment. Research by NOAA and 

the Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy has delineated characteristics of the magnetospheric boundary not known before. NOAA scientists have 

demonstrated that the geomagnetic disturbances 

called substorms-storms that affect Earth’s radio 

communications, electric power distribution, and 

long-line telephone systems-can now be predicted. 

Earth Dynamics. Investigations of Earth dynamics focus on mineral and energy reserves, earthquake forecasts, and geodetic surveys. 

Major earthquake areas mark the zones of contact between tectonic plates-continent-size floating 

6 
pieces of the Earth’s crust. Measurement of the rate 

of movement along the fault line between plates 

also indicates the amount of subsurface stress, 

which can eventually release itself in an earthquake. This year NASA made the first direct measurement of lateral movement along a fault. Using 

a technique called Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), NASA had positioned mobile laser 

systems in California along the San Andreas Faultthe contact zone between the Pacific and North 

Atlantic plates-and bounced laser pulses off satellites. Analysis of the triangulation data indicated 

an observed movement more rapid than that predicted by other methods. More observations began 

in December 1978, to verify and extend the earlier 

data. 

Experiments continued to try to refine VLBI 

measurements. NASA made VLBI measurements of 

radio stars from radio observatories located on the 

east and west coasts of the U.S.; mobile laser systems were used for the ground-to-satellite signals 

from both coasts. Repeatable accuracies of 4-6 centimeters seem to have been attained. With improvements in correction for atmospheric distortion, it 

should be possible to attain the 1-2 centimeter accuracy needed to detect crustal deformation. 

Although much is known about average motion 

of the tectonic plates, we know very little about the 

mechanisms of the plate motion. Is it episodic? Is 

the movement smooth-or is it jerky? One set of 

answers to these questions may come from the use 

of VLBI. Under the auspices of the National Science Foundation, new wideband recording systems 

are being installed on antennas in the U.S. and 

Sweden; these should enable detection of the expected continental drift of about 1.7 centimeters 

per year between those parts of North America and 

Europe. This experiment will be the first real-time 

measurement of plate motion and should provide 

important clues to the nature and behavior of the 

driving mechanism. 

In studies of the Earth’s magnetic field, NASA 

and the U.S. Geological Survey, Department of the 

Interior, have agreed to construct a mathematical 

model of the magnetic field and to analyze magnetic anomalies, using data from Magsat. 

Space Science 

Looking outward from Earth, space science is 

considered to begin in the region where interactions occur between the Earth’s magnetic field and 

the incoming solar wind. Beyond that, it encompasses the solar system and the entire detectable 

Universe. 

Sult-&th Studies 

Much remains to be learned about the Sun, the 

sole source of Earth’s light, life, and energy; and 

about the interactions between solar emissions and 

the layers of Earth’s environmental shell. 

The Solar Wind. On August 12, 1978, NASA 

launched the last of three International Sun-Earth 

Explorer (ISEE-C) satellites to study the spatial 

and energy fluctuations of the solar wind and the 

interactions at the boundary of Earth’s magnetosphere. ISEE-C was programmed to orbit much farther out from Earth than the other two ISEE satellites. For the first time a satellite would orbit about 

the L1 libration point-a spot about 1.5 million 

kilometers away, where Earth’s and Sun’s gravitational fields equalize. Solar-wind data from this 

outpost will arrive at Earth antennas about an hour 

before the same portion of the solar wind arrives 

at ISEE-A and B, stationed near the edge of the 

magnetosphere. In this international project, 

ISEE-B is furnished by the European Space Agency, 

the other two by the U.S. 

Studies continued of the causes and effects of the 

spectacular displays in the upper atmosphere 

known as the aurora borealis in the northern polar 

region and the aurora australis in the southern 

polar region. These displays disrupt radio, radar, 

and satellite communications and cause navigational problems. NASA investigated the measurement of small electric fields operating over large 

distances in space, thought to be the agent for 

propelling the kinds of particles visible in the auroral displays. Some scientists feel such fields also 

affect solar climate relationships and anomalous 

effects seen in the ionosphere. The National Science 

Foundation has been supporting research at the 

University of Alaska, where scientists, building on 

20 years of worldwide studies, have succeeded in 

describing the complex interactions between solar 

radiation and Earth’s environmental shield. With 

this understanding and the data arriving from 

ISEE-C, it should be possible to forecast the occurence and intensity of major auroral activities. 

NOAA examined the interactions of various 

fluid motions within the solar wind. In steady-state 

conditions, it was found that when non-radial flow 

occurs in some coronal holes, the ratio of alpha 

particles to protons near the Sun is reduced by 

frictional drag on the protons by alpha particles. 

At Earth distance, alpha particles arrive at higher 

speeds than protons when heated to much higher 

temperatures at the Sun. 

The Sun. The origins and processes of solar flares 

continued to be studied. The National Bureau of 

Standards worked on the development of technology for accurate measurement of the physical prop 

7 
erties-temperatures, density, velocity, and magnetic 

field-of the atmospheres of the Sun and other stars. 

Data will be received from such satellites as the 

Orbiting Solar Observatory, the International U1- 

traviolet Explorer, and the Solar Maximum 

Mission. 

From April 24-May 8, 1978, a large sunspot 

group moved across the solar surface. The first 

major activity since 1976, it peaked on April 28 

into the largest flare ever observed, one of four 

peaks that significantly affected Earth’s outer atmosphere. The Department of Commerce’s World 

Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics is 

preparing a report documenting these observations. 

The Navy and Air Force were also studying solar 

flares, primarily out of concern for their effect on 

radio communication. The Navy used Solrad-Hi 

and Goes satellite data, measuring solar events in 

real time, to perform R&D on a prediction system. 

The Naval Research Laboratory continued basic 

research in solar physics, solar-terrestrial relationships, and plasma processes. The Air Force performed thedretical studies of the processes leading 

to solar flares. Working closely with the National 

Science Foundation, Air Force scientists are installing a worldwide radio-solar-telescope network and 

are developing techniques for forecasting the timehistory of high-energy particles that solar flares 

eject toward Earth. 

Study of the Plunets 

The planets are studied not only for the sake of 

pure scientific knowledge, but for what other 

planets and their processes can teach us about Earth 

and its processes. 

Mars. During 1978 all 4 Viking spacecraft at 

Mars contributed important data. Especially the 

two orbiters were active, returning data on Martian 

geology and atmospheric behavior. By the end of 

the year one orbiter and one lander had gone 

silent and the other two were expected to end their 

missions in the spring of 1979. NASA started funding a 5-year program by the U.S. Geological Survey to further analyze data from the two Viking 

landers, especially some 50,000 photographs. USGS 

published a geologic map of the surface of Mars, 

taken from over 2000 photographs from the Mariner 9 orbiter in 1971-1972. 

Venus. Early in December 1978, two NASA spacecraft arrived in the vicinity of the planet Venus. 

Our nearest planetary neighbor and the most like 

Earth in size and distance from the Sun, Venus is 

always obscured by massive cloud layers and blanketed in a heavy, hot atmosphere. 

The first of the two Pioneer spacecraft to arrive 

was an orbiter; flying an elliptical orbit, it dipped 

into the atmosphere once each orbit and reported 

on the atmosphere and ionosphere. The second 

spacecraft was a “bus” from which four probes split 

into widely separated descents through the atmosphere to the surface; they were not designed to survive impact, though one of them did for a time. 

By the end of the year, only the real-time data 

were available; though only a sampling, these data 

indicated that the whole group of mission objectives would be well covered. Possible surprises are: 

three distinct cloud decks, differentiated in particle 

types; beneath the clouds, very similar pressure and 

temperature variation with altitude, the presence 

of water vapor and oxygen just below the clouds, 

and unexpectedly large amounts of helium, neon, 

and argon. 

Jupiter. NASA’s two Voyager spacecraft, 

launched toward Jupiter in 1977, flew through the 

asteroid belt and continued toward the planet. The 

first spacecraft will begin observations of the huge 

planet and its moons early in 1979, with the nearest 

encounter on March 5; Voyager 2’s encounter will 

occur on July 9. As they pass Jupiter, both spacecraft will be able to use the planet’s gravitational 

field for acceleration toward Saturn. Meanwhile 

development continued on the Galileo spacecraft to 

be launched in 1982-a Jupiter orbiter for intensive 

study of the planet and its moons, and a Jupiter 

probe to descend through the atmosphere for in-situ 

measurements. 

Saturn. Saturn is the target for several visits by 

NASA satellites. In September 1979, Pioneer 11 will 

arrive from its 1974 flyby of Jupiter, pass just outside the rings of Saturn, and then tilt in close to 

the planet. Voyagers 1 and 2 are expected to arrive 

at Saturn in late 1980 and mid-1981 respectively; 

Voyager 2 will have the option of using Saturn’s 

gravitational field to swing on out past Uranus. 

Charon. NASA-sponsored ground-based astronomers discovered this hitherto unknown minor 

planet in an orbit between those of Saturn and 

Uranus. 

Uranus. One of the major planetary discoveries 

of 1977 was the existence of 5 faint rings around 

Uranus, enabling that planet to join Saturn as a 

select group of known ringed planets. In 1978 this 

discovery was extended by astronomers sponsored 

by the National Academy of Sciences, using the 2.5- 

meter-diameter telescope at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. Employing infrared techniques 

from this excellent observing site, at a time when a 

faint star passed behind Uranus, the astronomers 

were able to count the rings as they passed in front 

of the star, detecting another 3 rings for a total of 

8. The orbit of Uranus was crossed by a manmade 

object for the first time, as Pioneer 10 reached that 
point in its journey out of the solar system. Uranus 

might be visited by Voyager 2 in 1984. 

Pluto. Another discovery of NASA’s ground-based 

astronomy program in 1978 was that distant Pluto 

has a previously unknown moon. 

Study of the Um’uerse 

Answers to the most profound questions man can 

ask about physical existence and processes may well 

be found in study of the complexities of the 

Universe. 

Research with Spacecraft. The second of the big 

High-Energy Astronomy Satellites (HEAO 2) was 

placed in orbit in November 1978. The largest automated spacecraft yet launched in the U.S. space 

program, this series of 3 astronomy satellites is instrumented to inventory and study the high-energy 

sources of the Universe. HEAO 1, launched in 

August 1977, has surveyed the sky, identifying 

x-ray sources in large numbers; by the end of its 

mission in early 1979 it should have identified as 

many as four times the number of x-ray sources 

that were known before. HEAO 2 is the largest 

x-ray telescope yet placed in space; from the map 

of x-ray sources made by HEAO 1, HEAO 2 will 

point at the most interesting sources-some of them 

two-thirds of the way to the edge of the Universefor detailed study. HEAO 3, to be launched in 

1979, is another mapping satellite, but operates in 

the gamma-ray and cosmic-ray bands. 

Aside from pinpointing further x-ray sources, 

HEAO 1 also identified a hot plasma which encompasses our galaxy and may exist throughout the 

Universe. This is of great potential importance to 

cosmologists; if plasma of similar temperature and 

density exists throughout the Universe, it would 

contain half the mass required to close the Universe. 

The Explorer class of satellites continued their 

useful work. Smaller and cheaper than observatoryclass satellites, Explorers are instrumented for specialized investigations. This year the Small Astronomy Satellite-C, in its third year of operation, 

discovered a QuasiStellar Object. The IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer) satellite, launched 

in January 1978, is a joint project of NASA, the 

European Space Agency, and the United Kingdom. 

It records the spectral lines showing atomic radiation in the atmosphere of stars, in the interplanetary medium, and in objects within the solar system. 

The early observations centered on subluminous 

stars, which are the last step in stellar evolution. 

The last of the Orbiting Astronomical Observatories, OAO 3, named Copernicus, has been in orbit 

more than six years. This year it supplied useful 

information on a possible black hole located in the 

constellation Scorpius. 

One of the two blanks being cast for the primary 

mirror of the Space Telescope was finished this year 

on schedule. The Space Telescope will be the first 

general-purpose astronomical observatory launched 

into space for an expected lifetime of more than 

10 years. To be carried by the Space Shuttle in late 

1983, the telescope is designed to be repaired in 

orbit, have Shuttle crews change experiments, or 

even be brought back to Earth for rework and 

relaunch. 

Research from Suborbital Vehicles. A NASA 

sounding rocket acquired a well-calibrated spectrum 

of the Seyfert (active) galaxy NGC 4151, especially 

useful because it can help calibrate a spectrum of 

the same galaxy obtained by the IUE satellite. 

Three superpressure balloons made complete circuits of the southern hemisphere monitoring ozone. 

The aircraft-mounted Kuiper Airborne Observatory 

detected the first infrared “Bok Globule.” These 

globules have appeared as black spots in our galaxy, opaque to any radiation. With this identification, the emissions of a whole new class of objects 

can be measured directly. 

Research from the Ground. Scientists sponsored 

by the National Academy of Sciences, using recently 

developed instruments at the Haley observatories 

and Kitt Peak National Observatory, reported the 

best evidence yet for the existence of a supermassive 

black hole. In the center of the galaxy M 87, a dark 

compact mass has all the characteristics of a black 

hole, with a mass of about 5 billion times that of 

the Sun. Since the 1960s scientists have speculated 

that supermassive black holes may be the hyperefficient energy sources for the extremely powerful 

processes in quasars, radio galaxies, Seyfert galaxies, 

and BL Lac objects, as well as similar but weaker 

events in more normal galaxies. 

The youngest star yet discovered, less than 2000 

years old, has been identified by the staff of NSF’s 

Kitt Peak National Observatory. Using the Fourier 

Transform Spectrometer with the Observatory’s 4- 

meter telescope, observers were able to reclassify an 

unusual object, Becklin-Neugebauer (BN) -previously thought to be a collapsing pre-stellar object-as a young but full-fledged star. 

Observations by the Smithsonian Institution complementing those of the IUE satellite discovered 

optical counterparts to two more x-ray sources as 

well as optical bursts from an x-ray burst source. 

Study of the Life Sciences 

US. Experiments on Soviet Spacecraft. In October 1978, the final-results symposium on Cosmos 

936, the Soviet Life Sciences mission that flew 7 U.S. 

experiments, was held in Moscow. The mission fea297-034 0 - 79 - 2 
tured the first in-flight use of a centrifuge as a 1-g 

control. 

Studies in Planetary Biology. NASA and the National Science Foundation supported studies that 

extended our understanding of planetary biology. 

In an area of Antarctica which had been labeled 

abiotic, lichen-like organisms were discovered, contributing to our understanding of the distribution 

of life in the Universe. Another study found amino 

acids, the building blocks of life, in a clay deposit 

rich in the heavy metal zinc; this metallized clay 

rejected certain organic molecules and fostered 

others, building them into amino acids. 

Transportation 

The national programs in aeronautics and space 

include extensive research and development for new 

transportation systems and for improving the operations and flexibility of existing systems. 

Space Trawsportatim System 

A fundamentally new way of using the space environment, the Space Transportation System embraces future mission planning, logistics, and Right 

and ground operations. The Right component is the 

Space Shuttle, scheduled to make its first orbital 

Right test in 1979. Its components are: the orbiter, 

housing the crew of 3 to 7 persons and the payload, 

and able to reenter from space, land on a runway, 

and fly again; the two solid-fuel rocket boosters, 

attached to the orbiter for the launch phase, then 

parachuted into the ocean for recovery and reuse; 

and the external tank, carrying liquid oxygen and 

hydrogen for the orbiter’s three main engines during the launch phase. All Right hardware passed 

critical tests in 1978. Similar progress was made 

with ground facilities and with planning and 

booking of missions. 

The operational capability of the orbiter will be 

extended by supplemental systems contributed by a 

number of sources. The first Spacelab, a set of 

modules including a shirtsleeve laboratory and pallets exposing instruments directly to the space environment, is being funded, designed, and built by 

the European Space Agency. The remotely operated 

loader-unloader arm, being funded and built by 

Canada, will lift payloads out of and into the cargo 

bay while in space. The Inertial Upper Stage, a 

three-configuration set of upper stages to propel 

heavy orbiter payloads into orbits or planes beyond 

the reach of the orbiter, is being funded and built 

by DoD. The Spinning Upper Stages, smaller 

boosters to put smaller payloads into higher orbits, 

are being funded and built by U.S. aerospace industries as commercial ventures. 

Space Shuttle. Assembly and testing of all flight 

elements passed through critical phases in 1978. 

The first of the four flight orbiters neared completion of its assembly and would be delivered to 

Kennedy Space Center in 1979. Its high-pressure 

liquid-hydrogen, liquid-oxygen engines have to be 

capable of repeated firings in 55 missions. Every 

new engine system has to be debugged during testing, and as problems came under control, testing 

time accumulated beyond 35,000 seconds, toward 

the preflight goal of 80,000. 

Another challenging development problem was 

thermal protection for the orbiter from the searing 

heat of reentry. The kind of ablative heatshield that 

protected each Mercury, Gemini, or Apollo spacecraft for one Right had to be supplanted by insulation material that would protect an orbiter for its 

design 100-flight lifetime. The insulation project 

included a search for new materials, new computercontrolled machining techniques, and new means 

of cementing thousands of tiles to the skin of the 

orbiter. The problems gradually yielded and were 

under control by the end of the year. 

The orbiter test vehicle, which in 1977 had flown 

the series of approach and landing tests, spent most 

of 1978 at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center for 

vibration testing. The orbiter that will make the 

first orbital test Right was being outfitted with its 

Right systems at the end of the year and wilp be 

delivered to Kennedy Space Center in 1979 for 

preparation for launch. Another orbiter was finished this year and is in structural testing. When 

refurbished and fitted with Right equipment, it 

will join the Right program in 1981. Fabrication of 

the third orbiter began, and long-lead-time components were ordered for the third and fourth; they 

will join the fleet in FY 1983 and 1984 respectively; 

an option exists for a fifth orbiter if demand warrants it. 

The solid-rocket boosters got their second and 

third firing tests in 1978. Subsystem tests, including 

6 parachute drops, were completed. Boosters for 

the first Right were being fabricated at the end of 

the year. 

Three external tanks were fabricated and delivered in 1978 for use in testing; fabrication began 

on the first three Right versions. 

Ground Equipment. At NASA’s Kennedy Space 

Center in Florida and Dryden Flight Research Center in California, the facilities and instrumentation 

for checkout, launch, and recovery were being installed on schedule in 1978. Installation of computerized equipment for the launch processing system-connecting the control center with the orbiter 

processing facility, the launch pad, and the fuel 

facility-was on schedule. 

10 
Planning for Operations. Up to six orbital flight 

tests of the Space Transportation System are 

planned, with the operational system beginning 

early in 1981. The first few years of operational 

flights are fully booked, partially by NASA, DoD, 

and other U.S. Government agencies, partially by 

foreign agencies and commercial customers. After 

intensive selection competition, 35 astronauts-6 of 

them women-were selected and began training. A 

program begun by NASA in 1977 for inclusion of 

small, partial payloads proved to be very successful. 

By the end of 1978, more than 250 advance payments for such payloads had been received. Universities have been accorded special priorities on 

payloads to encourage students to develop such 

packages. 

DoD completed most of the design for Shuttle 

launch facilities at Vandenberg AFB, California, 

from which launches into polar orbit will be conducted for both military and commercial customers. 

Operational status is scheduled for mid-1983. 

Spacelab. Early in 1978 the European Space 

Agency’s Spacelab passed its critical design review; 

this was followed by fabrication of many components and their delivery to Bremen, Germany, 

where assembly of the flight unit was begun. The 

first Spacelab flight is scheduled for mid-1981. 

Inertial Upper Stage. DoD’s development of the 

Inertial Upper Stage continued in 1978. The twostage configuration will be used by NASA mostly 

for delivery of heavier Shuttle payloads to geosynchronous orbits; the first such use will be to 

launch the Tracking and Data Satellite into geosynchronous orbit in 1981. The three-stage version 

will be used by NASA for planetary flights, the first 

being the orbiting of the Galileo mission in Jupiter 

in 1982. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stages. These smaller, 

solid-propulsion upper stages will for the most part 

replace Delta and Centaur launch vehicles for boost 

of payloads from Shuttle orbit to geosynchronous 

orbit. Flight hardware is being manufactured; 

NASA has already placed orders in behalf of Comsat’s Intelsat V missions and for NOAA’s GOES 

satellites. 

Skylab 

Skylab, the first U.S. orbiting laboratory, has 

been in orbit since May 1973; after housing 3 successive crews in 1973-1974, it was expected to stay 

in orbit until about 1983. More sunspot activity 

than forecast increased the density of the upper atmosphere and shortened Skylab’s orbital lifetime to 

1979-1980. Concern about the uncontrolled reentry 

of such a large object led to an early attempt to 

gain the means to boost or deboost Skylab. Ground 

controllers reactivated the dormant Skylab and 

manipulated its controls to align it in the leastresistance attitude, extending its orbital lifetime by 

a few months; also work was begun in October 

1977 on a Teleoperator Retrieval System, a booster 

rocket that could be orbited on an early Shuttle 

flight and used to adjust Skylab’s orbit. A reassessment in November 1978 found irreconcilable difficulties with continued high levels of sunspot activity, deterioration of Skylab onboard systems, and 

delays in the Shuttle flights. In December the effort 

to adjust Skylab’s orbit was discontinued. 

Expendable Luunch Vehicles 

The United States space program had a total of 

33 launches in 1978; 32 were successful in launching 41 payloads. Two lost payloads in the one 

launch failure were DoD’s DSCS communications 

satellites on a Titan 111. Titan 111, Scout, Delta, 

Thor, and Atlas F vehicles were used for space 

launches this year. 

Research for Spacecraft lmprovememt 

A number of research projects in materials and 

structures, electronics, and propulsion were conducted in 1978. 

Materials and Structures. NASA developed a new 

iron-based alloy for walls of cryogenic-fuel tanks 

that is 100 percent stronger than stainless steel and 

400 percent tougher than commercial cryogenic 

steel. Also, a new surface insulation proved to be 3 

times as strong and 5 times as strain-resistant as 

material planned for use on the Space Shuttle. 

Graphite-polyimide structures, which promise 

major reductions in structural weight for spacecraft, 

were studied to develop techniques for processing 

and fabricating that wilI be consistent in quality 

and be reliable. 

Electronics. Research was completed in 1978 on 

a long-life attitude-control system for spacecraft. 

Designed to function for more than 8 years, it also 

attained a pointing accuracy of 0.01 degrees. To 

improve spacecraft-derived imagery for terrestrial, 

astronomical, and planetary missions, NASA has 

been developing charge-coupled solid-state microelectronic devices to replace vidicon tubes. In 1978 

an 800 x 800-element array was built on a single 

silicon chip 1.2 centimeters square; in tests it provided TV-quality imagery. It will be used on the 

Space Telescope and Galileo missions. Another 

failure problem in space electronics has been microwave tubes, plagued by burnouts in the filaments of 

their heaters. An advanced cathode under development produces electrons by field emission, requiring 

no heater. Successfully fabricated this year, it holds 

11 
promise of increasing the lifetime of microwave 

amplifiers to over 20 years. As spacecraft have increased in capacity to collect and return larger 

volumes of data, a growing bottleneck has developed on Earth in the processing of raw data 

through a general-purpose computer, NASA has 

completed design of a specialized, multispectralimage processor that can reduce by a factor of 100 

the time required for processing data. 

DoD continued a broad range of developments 

in electreoptics, microwave, and computers for use 

in spacecraft and aeronautics. Electro-optics are being used to improve such devices as range finders 

and trackers, navigational systems, target designators, and miniature solid-state TV cameras. Microwave technology continues to improve the generating of microwave power and miniaturization of 

electronics with solid-state components. Computer 

improvements in mass memory are fostering computer correlation of terrain features with stored 

maps for precise navigation over long distance. 

Space Propulsion. In rocket propulsion, NASA 

tested a long-duration chemical rocket burning 

liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, this year with 

both high-pressure turbopumps operating at rated 

speeds. In solar electric propulsion, NASA completed the baseline processor and operated it with 

an ion thrustor; this is technology for a 3-kilowatt, 

3000-second specific-impulse thrust subsystem for 

orbital control of spacecraft. Fabrication was begun 

on NASA’s one-millipound auxiliary thruster, to be 

test-flown on an Air Force satellite in 1981. 

Amomtical Transportation 

Aeronautical transportation, like space transportation, comprises military as well as civil systems 

and those already operational as well as those in 

development. 

Operational Airborne Systems. In the United 

States national system, DoD has responsibility for 

operational airborne systems. 

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT. The F-15 continued to be 

deployed to tactical units, totaling 360 production 

aircraft by the end of the year. Improvements 

added in 1978 were an increased fuel capacity and 

improved radar capability. The F-16 multinational 

fighter completed most of its developmental test 

program in 1978 and will enter the Air Force operational inventory early in 1979. The F/A-18 

carrier-based fighter flew for the first time in November and has been approved for full-scale development; it will replace Navy and Marine F-4 Phantom fighters. The A-10 close-support aircraft is 

being delivered to tactical units in the U.S. and 

Europe, 175 of them by the end of the year. The 

AV-8B, the improved light attack vertical/short 

12 

takeoff and landing aircraft for the Marine Corps, 

completed the first phase of wind-tunnel testing at 

NASA’s Ames Research Center. NASA data confirm 

superior V/STOL characteristics that will enable 

it to double the range or payload of the A,V-8A. 

The first flight of one prototype aircraft took place 

in November. 

BOMBER AIRCRAFT. The B-1 bomber, though canceled for production and deployment, continued a 

3-aircraft development and test program at Edwards AFB, California, to measure performance 

and structural airloads, complete development of 

the FlOlX engine, and evaluate the offensive 

avionics. 

TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT. The E-3A Airborne 

Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft, 

activated into an operational wing in April, were 

evaluated during the Brave Shield XVII exercise in 

the Pacific Northwest. Two aircraft were operationally deployed to Iceland in October to replace 

aging EC-121s for airborne surveillance and control 

over the North Atlantic. The advanced E-4 concept 

(E-4B), intended for command and control of 

strategic nuclear forces, was in an extensive test program to determine final systems and configuration. 

HELICOPTERS. The CH-47 helicopter program 

completed the modernization of 7 major systems 

in 2 of 3 prototypes. When testing is completed, the 

modernized systems are to be installed in all A, B, 

and C models, greatly simplifying logistics and 

maintenance. The Advanced Attack Helicopter was 

in test and evaluation of design modifications on 2 

flight prototypes. Fabrication began on 3 more prototypes. Initial actions were taken on the H-X 

helicopter, a concept for an advanced replacement 

of the “Jolly Green” search and rescue helicopters 

that performed so well in Vietnam. This version 

would be capable of long-range penetration of 

enemy territory at night and in bad weather. 

CRUISE MISSILES. Flight tests continued with the 

Tomahawk, a high-subsonic-speed, turbofan, longrange cruise missile. Designed for launch from submarines or surface vessels and to carry conventional 

armament, it can also be a land-attack missile with 

a nuclear warhead. In full-scale development were 

three other configurations of cruise missile: the AirLaunched Cruise Missile will fly a competition of 

prototypes in the second half of 1979; the SeaLaunched Anti-Ship Cruise Missile is planned for 

offensive or defensive use from submarines, cruisers, 

and Spruance-class destroyers; the GroundLaunched Cruise Missile, planned for a theater-ofoperations role, could, by providing more nuclear 

firepower, relieve aircraft for use in conventional 

missions. 
Operational Airway Systems. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the Department of 

Transportation is responsible for operating the 

National Aviation System. NASA assists with R&D 

for the airborne portions of the system. 

AIR SAFETY. FAA continued to improve aircraft 

equipment and to study safety-related problems for 

aircraft on the ground, in takeoff, and in landing. 

As a result of research into the problems of controlling aircraft traffic on the surface areas of airportsrunways, taxiways, etc.-particularly in bad weather, 

a new radar has been developed. The ASDE-3 (Airport Surface Detection Equipment) is better able to 

detect and track stationary and taxiing aircraft in 

all weather conditions. A development model will 

be evaluated. 

To provide warning of potential wind-shear 

problems during takeoffs or landings, the FAA has 

developed and tested the Low-Level Wind Shear 

Alert System. Remoted anemometers are mounted 

6 to 12 meters above the ground in the approach 

and departure corridors at busy airports. When a 

wind vector difference of as much as 28 kilometers 

per hour develops between any of the remoted 

anemometers and the centerfield anemometer, the 

air traffic controllers relay the information to all arriving or departing aircraft. 

A machine-generated wind problem of increasing 

concern has been the wake vortices-strong rotational wind gusts-that trail behind large jet aircraft as they approach and land; following aircraft, 

especially smaller ones, are endangered and must 

be protected by enlarging the separation distance 

between aircraft, which reduces the airport’s traffic 

capacity. A prototype of a Vortex Advisory System 

is being tested at Chicago’s O’Hare International 

Airport. A network of anemometers in the runway 

approach zones assesses wind conditions, determining when aircraft separation can be set at 5 

kilometers. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. Since 1971 the Departments of Defense and Transportation and NASA 

have jointly worked on R&D for a Microwave 

Landing System (MLS). There are both operational 

and economic advantages to equipping the national 

air network with a universal system that can handle 

civil and military air traffic for the remainder of 

this century. 

The same deficiencies in the existing Instrument 

Landing System (ILS) that motivated the U.S. to 

develop a new landing system also affect the international aviation community and generated wide 

support for a new international standard. The 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 

set out to select and standardize an international system. There were several competing systems and a series of demonstrations narrowed the 

field. In April 1978 the U.S. entry, the Time Reference Scanning Beam, was selected by the ICAO 

as the international standardized system. Concurrently the development of MLS prototypes continued; the Basic (Wide Aperture) System will be 

tested in 1979. Test and evaluation of the Basic 

(Narrow Aperture) and Small Community Systems 

were completed. 

Another system entering evaluation is the Discrete Address Beacon System; the first of 3 models 

began evaluation in mid-1978, another in October. 

The beacon system provides discrete identification 

of individual aircraft by use of code-numbered 

transponders in the aircraft. In the increasingly automated environment of the airways system, this 

automatic identification factor is important. 

Airway Modernization. The airway system is 

moving toward greater automation and conversion 

to digital operations. An all-digital terminal automation system was demonstrated in the TampaSarasota area in December 1978. In this system, 

satellite control towers as far as 32 kilometers from 

an air traffic control center can be fed radar data 

for safe separation and control of aircraft. 

To increase the productivity of the air traffic 

controller, FAA began development of TIPS (Terminal Information Processing System) to relieve 

the controller of manual duties by providing an 

improved system for processing and distributing 

flight and other operational data. The system may 

be installed in as many as 60 high- and mediumdensity terminals and 70 low-density terminals. 

Research for Aerorututics Improvement 

An essential element in a competitive national 

aviation establishment is a continuing flow of innovations and refinements. NASA and DoD research improvements in present and future aircraft, 

while FAA develops improvements in the National 

Aviation System. (Research on environmental effects of aircraft will be found in the Earth’s Resources section of this chapter.) 

Engines. For current transport aircraft, NASA 

research concentrated on improving the technology 

of individual components in engines to make them 

more efficient in fuel conservation and to improve 

the durability of engine systems. For future turbofan engines for transport aircraft, NASA began 

research in 1978 on component technology with the 

goal of reducing fuel consumption by 12 percent. 

DoD operated two programs: one assessed core components of engines under realistic test conditions, 

seeking to improve reliability and reduce costs in 

manufacturing and maintenance; the other program studied the interaction of high-pressure engine 

13 
components, such as turbine engine cores, with lowpressure fans and compressors to evaluate the total 

engine system as an installation problem. 

Aerodynamics. NASA wind tunnels tested a series 

of high-lift devices, winglets, and extended wing 

tips. High-lift flaps and slats showed greater lift 

coefficients with the supercritical wing than with 

the current transport-aircraft wing. Winglets and 

wing extensions, when applied to current transport 

aircraft, recorded drag reductions of 3 to 5 percent. 

A joint NASA-Air Force flight-test program will 

evaluate winglets mounted on KC-135 aircraft in 

1979. 

A problem in design of modern fighter aircraft 

has been that the high power levels of modern engines generate so much turbulence that it distorts 

the basic aerodynamics of the airframe, thereby 

compromising the overall performance of the aircraft. NASA has test-flown the F-15 aircraft and 

subjected it to wind-tunnel testing; the combined 

data have improved our ability to predict interactions between propulsion aerodynamics and airframe aerodynamics. 

Structures. DoD and NASA research on aircraft 

structures is mostly concentrated on development 

of composite structures that can substitute for conventional aircraft structures, with reductions in 

weight and fatigue problems. Conservative in approach, the testing thus far has involved relatively 

small components of larger structures, building up 

a design data base in static, fatigue, and sonic experience. The largest parts now in flight test are a 

%meter section of the B727 elevator and a 2.5-meter 

segment of a spar for the LlOll vertical fin. 

DoD continued research and test of a number of 

applications of composite materials to aeronautical 

structures, helicopter blades, etc., to reduce weight 

and cost. Another area of exploration is adhesive 

bonding of structures in large cargo aircraft, with 

the intent of reducing assembly demands from 

hundreds of pieces to a few large bonded modules. 

Improvement of LonglShort-Haul Aircraft. 

NASA’s research on technology for future long-haul 

supersonic aircraft centered on flight tests of systems 

and components on the YF-12 aircraft. Extensive 

flight tests were completed using a cooperative 

flight control system that successfully integrated 

engine and engine inlet control systems. Attempts 

to lower costs and lengthen the life span of supersonic aircraft focused on concepts for advanced 

superplastically formed/diffusion bonding of structural elements. 

Research on quiet short-haul aircraft reached a 

high point in 1978 with delivery of NASA’s Quiet 

Short-Haul Research Aircraft. In August it began 

a year-long proof-of-concept flight test program. So 

far the aircraft has demonstrated 3 times as much 

approach lift coefficient as conventional jet transports, making possible very low approach spds 

at extremely low noise levels. 

Aircraft Fire Safety. FAA intensified its research 

into post-crash cabin fires in several parallel programs. One set of tests examining the hazards to 

cabin occupants from burning fuel spills showed 

that for 5 minutes after the crash, stratified heat 

and smoke were major barriers to escape, but that 

the lightest winds could blow combustion gases into 

the cabin and increase the dangers. Another continued the examination of various cabin materials 

to identify those that gave occupants the best 

chance of escape. An agreement was signed with 

the United Kingdom to do enough research on 

antimisting kerosene to determine whether preliminary tests justified a full test program on this 

approach to minimizing the fireball that often accompanies crashes that otherwise would be 

survivable. 

Aviation Security. This year the FAA focused its 

R&D for deterring air-travel terrorism and sabotage 

on improved techniques for the detection of explosives in luggage. Investigations included a testing of a bomb-detector system based on nuclear 

magnetic resonance; examination of computeraided dual-energy x-rays, used in medicine for “cross 

section” x-ray pictures, for possible application to 

bomb detection; and development of computer 

software that substantially increases the contrast in 

an automated radiation system for detecting bombs. 

Space Energy 

The standard means of producing or storing electrical energy in space have been solar cells, batteries, fuel cells, and radioisotope thermoelectric 

generators. Future space missions now being planned by NASA and DoD will require dynamic 

power systems to provide notably higher voltages 

over a mission profile lasting several years. Attention is also being given to the possibility of capturing large quantities of solar energy in space 

and beaming it to Earth as a supplemental power 

source. 

Energy for Use k Space 

Solar Cells and Arrays. NASA’s work on improving the efficiency of solar cells broke through a longstanding barrier in 1978. The voltage limitation 

that had existed for silicon solar cells since 1954 was 

finally exceeded. Since higher voltage means increased cell efficiency, future solar arrays can be 20 

percent lighter, smaller, and cheaper. In a separate 

development, lightweight solar arrays were success14 
fully tested at full scale-32 meters long and producing 66 watts of electricity per kilogram of 

weight. 

Batteries. Batteries have limited the effective life 

of Earth-orbiting satellites. The most limiting factor in battery life has been the separators, used to 

deny contact between the active ingredients. NASA 

research has produced a new separator that can 

double the life of batteries; the separator is now 

being tested in nickel-cadmium batteries. In another approach, DoD is working on development of 

a nickel-hydrogen battery, intended to replace current nickel-cadmium batteries. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators. The 

Department of Energy (DOE) is developing a new 

form of radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

(RTG) for NASA’s Galileo mission. Scheduled for 

launch in January 1982, Galileo will require two 

200-electrical watt RTGs for reliable power sources 

lasting 5 or 6 years. DOE chose a power source new 

to the space program, a selenide isotope, as the 

power generator. Conversion efficiency should run 

8-9 percent as opposed to the 6-7 percent of previous silicon germanium generators. 

A further improvement in the efficiency of this 

system is called for by the International Solar Polar 

Mission, operated jointly by NASA and the European Space Agency. Two spacecraft are to be 

launched early in 1983; each will need a power 

supply of 275 watts two years after launch. DOE’S 

work this year was in concepts for the design of the 

selenide generator to a new conversion-efficiency 

standard of 10-11 percent. 

Dynamic Power Systems. At space power levels 

greater than 500 watts, dynamic power systems are 

expected to take over from the static selenide conversion systems because of improved efficiency, endurance, reliability, and weight ratio. In the Kilowatt Isotope Power System (KIPS) program, an 

Organic Rankine Cycle was selected during 1978 

to be further developed for use in missions in the 

1980s. The goal of the KIPS program is 1000-2000 

watts at an efficiency of 18 percent. 

Reactor Power Systems. Potential DoD missions 

in the 1980s foresee electrical power requirements 

in the range of 10 to 100 kilowatts. DOE is continuing studies of several possible reactor concepts, 

fuel forms, and conversion systems. 

Energy from Space fm Use on Emth 

The concept of a Satellite Power System in geostationary orbit, spreading massive collectors to 

capture solar energy, concentrate it, and beam it to 

Earth antennas, has been studied since 1968. Several years ago NASA operated a modest investigation of the concept; in 1976 responsibility was 

transferred to DOE, with NASA continuing to provide baseline technology. In 1978 DOE and NASA 

published a joint plan for concept development 

and evaluation. Under this plan NASA will identify the concepts that are most attractive from technical and economic standpoints. DOE will assess 

.&he possible consequences in terms of environmental, health, and safety effects. Also DOE is 

doing a comparative study of solar power systems 

versus other advanced energy systems. 

15 
II Administration 

National Aeronautics 

and Space 

1 I 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is charged with the planning, direction, and conduct of research and development in 

space and aeronautics for civil purposes. Activities 

are shared or joined by a number of other civilian 

agencies of governments-foreign, Federal, state, 

and local-with research or operational interests in 

these fields. The Department of Defense (DoD) 

conducts the portion of the space program that is 

peculiarly military; in aeronautics, NASA supports 

DoD with research data which may be of use with 

current and future military aircraft. 

In space, NASA’s long-standing goals have been 

the development of technology and techniques for 

more effective space operations; development and 

demonstration of an increasing range of practical 

applications of space technology and data; and 

scientific investigations of the Earth and its immediate environment, of the bodies comprising our 

solar system, and of the origins, entities, and physical processes of the Universe. In aeronautics, the 

goals have been improvement in the aerodynamics, 

structures, engines, and overall performance of aircraft, to make them safer, more efficient, and more 

compatible with our environment. 

Applications to Earth 

NASA’s programs for applying space research and 

technology to specific needs of the nation made 

substantial progress in 1978. The emphases continued to center on space observations of Earth’s 

environment and resources, experimenting in space 

to acquire new knowledge about materials, and improving technology for space communications. 

Enzhwnuzewt 

In envirogmental observation, NASA applies 

space technology to information systems so that we 

may better understand and forecast environmental 

behavior. There are five major research areas; 

weather, climate, severe storms, ocean processes, 

and environmental quality. 

Weather. Weather research focuses on techniques 

and instruments that can significantly improve 

forecasting, Much of the work is carried out jointly 

with teams from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the Department of Commerce, and is largely developmental support of NOAA’s operational National 

Environmental Satellite System. 

Both NASA and NOAA have been preparing 

major support for the international project called 

GARP, the Global Atmospheric Research Program. In 1978 GARP moved from the planning 

stage into the Global Weather Experiment 

(GWE) . Beginning on December 1, 1978, the oneyear experiment will study worldwide atmospheric 

patterns essential to understanding the transient 

behavior of weather (both near- and mediumterm) and to learning about the physical processes 

involved. Work in NASA concentrated on the collection and processing of satellite-sensed data, preparation of data sets derived from Nimbus and 

Seasat satellite observations, and analysis and applications of such data. NASA supported NOAA 

in updating its operational system-a system crucial 

to the first GARP effort-by orbiting the Goes 3 

spacecraft and by completing the experimental 

Tiros-N spacecraft and launching it on October 13, 

1978. Tiros-N incorporates technology developed in 

NASA’s R&D programs as well as two major instruments contributed by France and the United Kingdom. Designed to requirements stated by NOAA, it 

emphasizes the acquisition of quantitative data 

from Earth’s atmosphere and surface. When used 

in numerical models of the atmosphere, these data 

should significantly enhance NOAA’s ability to 

make extended (1-2 week) forecasts. To this end, 

Tiros-N will be a primary data source €or the 

GWE. 

Goes 3, launched June 16, 1978, completes a 

series of Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites (GOES). Currently the mainstay of 

NOAA’s operational system, the GOES satellites 

16 
were derived from NASA’s experimental synchronous meteorological satellites. Goes 3 is stationed at 135 degrees west longitude, from which 

position it constantly monitors weather conditions 

over the Pacific Ocean and the western U.S. 

As the time drew near for the beginning of the 

GWE, a void in the global data collection system 

seemed likely when the Soviet Union informed the 

participants that it would not be able to launch its 

synchronous meteorological satellite in time for the 

experiment. NASA, NOAA, the National Science 

Foundation, and the European Space Agency 

(ESA) jointly decided that the gap should be filled 

by moving one of the GOES satellites. NOAA relocated Goes 1; it started operating from its new 

position over the Indian Ocean in December 1978 

under control of an ESA ground station near 

Madrid, Spain. 

After 5 years of development, Nimbus 7 was 

launched into polar orbit in October 1978. The 

nation’s first research satellite dedicated primarily 

to measurement of environmental quality, the 8 

sensors on Nimbus 7 will monitor pollution (measuring stratospheric constituents such as ozone, 

aerosols, and other trace gases); observe ocean conditions (measuring water color in the coastal zones 

to determine chlorophyll and sediment distribution, sea-ice distribution, and sea-surface winds, 

temperatures, precipitation, etc.) ; and will monitor 

Earth’s radiation budget, a key climatic factor. 

Climate. In 1978 NASA defined its goals and objectives for a broad research program in support of 

the evolving National Climate Program. They included development of space capability for global 

observations of those parameters that will contribute to understanding the processes that influence 

climate and climate change. NASA’s climate research program will include 

the use of space-derived data sets for climate 

applications and studies 

development of a global climate observation 

system 

0 special studies of important climate processes. 

Also in 1978, a major sensor system was defined 

that will make significant contributions to the 

climate program-the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. It will be designed to provide long-term, 

continuous measurements of energy arriving at and 

leaving from the Earth. Detailed scientific and 

technical requirements were coordinated with 

NOAA and other users, agreed upon, and procurement of flight hardware was begun in late 1978. 

Also NASA began measuring the solar constant 

using Earth-radiation-budget data collected by 

Nimbus 6 and 7. The value of the solar constant 

during the last two years was found to have remained stable within 0.2 percent. 

A major study begun in 1978 is analyzing the 

effects of atmospheric aerosols on Earth’s climate. 

Key scientific areas being investigated are the contribution of volcanic aerosols to climate changes, 

human contributions to stratospheric aerosol layers, 

influences of human-generated tropospheric aerosols on the heating or cooling of Earth, and regional climatic effects related to all these factors. 

In situ measurements and the remotely sensed data 

from the Nimbus and SAGE satellites will be used 

in this investigation. 

Severe Storms. NASA’s goals for severe storms research are to reduce the geographic size of early 

warning areas for these violent events and to identify meteorological indicators that enable early 

diagnosis of individual storms as they develop. 

Subject of investigation include indicators of storm 

severity, development of storm prediction models, 

improvement of understanding of the atmospheric 

dynamics involved, and development of groundtruth requirements. 

Another effort in severe storms research is the Atmospheric Cloud Physics Laboratory. Planned for 

launch on Spacelab 3, this laboratory is expected to 

provide new information on precipitation and 

warm-cloud formation, factors essential to improvement of rain forecasts. The project is progressing 

satisfactorily. After experiment design was reviewed 

in detail in May, hardware development was begun. 

An instrument that looms very important in 

local-storm research continued its progress toward 

flight readiness. The VISSR (for Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer) Atmospheric Sounders 

(VAS) will operate from geosynchronous orbit, providing highly dense and continuous measurements 

of factors vital to storm generation. The VAS 

demonstration will be conducted in cooperation 

with NOAA. The NASA-funded first instrument is 

to be provided for the Goes-D spacecraft, to be 

launched in mid-1980. 

Ocean Processes. NASA conducts ocean-processes 

research in several areas: use of remotely sensed 

data for understanding and forecasting the marine 

environment, demonstration and validation of advanced ocean-sensing techniques, development of 

marine geophysical models; and evaluation of the 

benefits from satellite-derived ocean data. 

Launched in 1975, Geos 3 continues to provide 

useful information. Altimeter data have been used 

to define ocean geoids for many parts of the world. 

Of particular importance was the completion of 

the detailed western North Atlantic geoid. Users of 

GEOS data include the Defense Mapping Agency, 

NOAA, and the Department of the Interior. 

17 
Seasat 1 was successfully launched on June 26, 

1978. The objectives of the Seasat mission were to 

measure the global ocean dynamics and physical 

characteristics, to determine the key features of an 

operational system, to improve the body of scientific knowledge about oceans, and to demonstrate 

the utility of the data to the user communities. All 

sensors were turned on by July 7. 

By mid-July, measurements had been made of the 

open ocean, the Gulf Stream, Beaufort Sea ice, and 

Hurricane Fico. This range of targets provided 

initial data on all the principal objectives for the 

Synthetic Aperture Radar. Ocean features observable in the data included waves, air-sea interactions 

marked by natural slicks, Gulf Stream shear, surface winds, sea ice, storm seas, and orographic 

steering of on-shore winds by terrain features. The 

pass over the hurricane also produced quantitative 

wind speed and direction data, supplemented by 

NOAA’s surface-truth data from aircraft and ships. 

It is fortunate that such a range of data types was 

acquired early in the mission, for on October 9 

Seasat had a massive electrical failure; all attempts 

to receive or communicate with the satellite since 

then have been unsuccessful. The categories of data 

that had been acquired were being analyzed to 

determine their productivity and potential for 

future applications. 

On Nimbus 7 the Coastal Zone Scanner is measuring patterns of reflected sunlight associated with 

water-quality indicators such as sediments, chlorophyll, and certain pollutants. A Scanning Multi 

Channel Microwave Spectrometer, identical to the 

one on Seasat 1, is measuring sea-surface temperature, atmospheric water vapor, and winds. 

Environmental Quality. In NASA’s research on 

environmental quality there are three broad areas 

of investigation: the quality of the surface waters 

of lakes, rivers, and ocean coastlines; the quality of 

the lower atmosphere, or troposphere, with its regional air pollution problems; and the problems of 

the upper atmosphere, or stratosphere, especially 

of ozone variability and the interacting constituent$ 

which influence ozone. 

In a study of air quality, an investigation was 

begun on applying remote sensing technology to 

studies of pollutant chemistry and the transport of 

pollutants downwind from urban centers-the 

“urban plume” problem. To determine the design 

parameters of mature remote sensing instruments 

that could measure urban-plume constituents such 

as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH,), ozone 

(Os), sulfur dioxide (SO,), and particulates, NASA 

joined with the Virginia State Air Pollution Control Board in a measurement program to characterize the urban plume from the Norfolk-Hampton Roads area of Virginia. From its nearby Langley Research Center, NASA flew instrumented aircraft to sample the plume during the summer of 

1977, while the Virginia agency measured the 

ground-level concentrations of ozone. The studies 

showed that typical buildups of ozone downwind 

from the urban complex were as much as double 

the concentrations nearby. In July 1978 two NASAdeveloped laser systems were used to take measurements of the total ozone burden in the mixing 

layer-normally from the surface to two kilometers 

-with one laser flown in an aircraft and the other 

operating from the ground. The results are now 

being compared with other measurements made at 

the same time by more conventional techniques. If 

their accuracy is confirmed, the NASA instruments 

may become prototypes for advanced sensors in 

future space missions. 

Long-term monitoring of stratospheric ozone is 

essential for the years ahead not only because the 

ozone layer filters out much of the harmful solar 

ultraviolet radiation which would otherwise reach 

Earth’s surface, but because of the role that ozone 

and other stratospheric gases and aerosols play in 

the environment’s energy balance and in the 

world’s climate. In the last year considerable progress was made in reducing the backlog of ozone 

data collected earlier by Nimbus spacecraft and 

awaiting analysis. Refined methods of analysis have 

produced more effective data products for use in 

further scientific studies. Color-coded images clearly 

show geographical variations in ozone; a sequence 

of such images can show temporal variability and 

transport phenomena. 

NASA has been an active participant in international groups interested in ozone monitoring. 

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) , 

for example, supplements satellite observations by 

data collection from balloons, sounding rockets, 

and ground-based measurements. In April, an International Intercomparison of Ozonesondes met in 

the Federal Republic of Germany. Ozonesonde balloons were launched during a two-week period by 

East and West Germany, Japan, and the U.S. Intercomparisons help to ensure the compatibility of 

the data these countries contribute to WMO’s 

Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project. 

Resource Observations 

Space observations are developed and their application demonstrated to meet national and international needs for improved management of agricultural production, water, and land resources; for 

improved exploration of mineral and energy resources; and for better understanding of the dynamic characteristics of Earth. 

18 
For the decade of the 1970s, the principal instrument for gathering the remotely sensed data needed 

for such purposes has been the Landsat series of 

Earth observation satellites. For five and one-half 

years Landsat 1 had provided data; its operations 

were finally terminated in February 1978 because 

of mounting instrument and system problems. 

Landsat 2, launched in January 1975, is operating 

nearly flawlessly. The remaining onboard tape 

recorder has now logged more than 11 50 hours of 

use, exceeding all lifetime expectations based on 

ground tests and orbital experience with Landsat 

1. Landsat 2’s orbit was adjusted to counteract its 

natural degradation and to lag Landsat 3 by 9 

days for better spacing of Earth coverage. Landsat 

3, launched on March 5, 1978, is producing good 

data from the 4 reflective bands on the Multispectral Scanner. Excellent data, with improve resolution, are coming from the upgraded Return Beam 

Vidicon system. The only anomaly is the malfunction of the thermal band. One of the two detectors 

in this band has faiIed, decreasing the resolution 

along the orbital path by a factor of two. 

In addition to Landsat receiving stations in the 

U.S., receiving stations also operated in Brazil, 

Canada, Iran, Italy, Japan, and Sweden. These 

stations function under agreements between NASA 

and their sponsoring agencies. More stations are in 

process in Argentina, Australia, and India, and 

others are under discussion. 

The new all-digital Landsat data processing system has been installed at NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center and the Department of Interior’s 

EROS Data Center and at year’s end was in the 

final phases of checkout. It will significantly improve the delivery time for requested Landsat 

photographic products and computer-compatible 

tapes. Previous delivery times of 30-60 days should 

decrease to 15-25 days with the new system. When 

a communications-satellite data link is established 

between the ground receiving stations and these 

two data-processing facilities in early 1979, delivery 

times should be reduced another 5 days. 

RENEWABLE RESOURCES. During 1978, NASA researched, developed, and tested techniques for extracting from space-acquired data the information 

that is important to the management of agriculture, 

forestry, range land, water, and land resources. 

AGRICULTURE. Over the last several years, most of 

the R&D effort on applying space-derived data to 

agricultural needs has been in support of the Department of Agriculture’s Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) . Extending over three 

crop-years, the experiment was completed in the 

summer of 1978. On the whole, the results were 

very promising. LACIE met the “at harvest” accuracy goal of 90 percent prediction of wheat production in the U.S. Southern Great Plains and 

did as well in the U.S.S.R. 

The major technical accomplishments have been: 

Techniques and procedures were developed 

for using remotely sensed data to forecast 

wheat production in foreign areas on a timely 

and objective basis. 

Acceptable accuracies were achieved for prediction of wheat production in the U.S.S.R., 

although the repeatability of this accuracy over 

a longer time frame has yet to be demonstrated. 

In foreign and domestic situations where current crop information is inadequate, Landsat 

data were studied to develop improved sampling techniques and to obtain better understanding of farming techniques. 

Analysis techniques that were developed made 

digital data more cost effective; analyst time 

was reduced from 12 hours per segment early 

in the LACIE program to 3 hours, while improving accuracy. 

LAND AND WATER RESOURCES. During 1978, NASA 

operated in a number of geographical locations 

demonstrating Landsat’s capability to provide 

meaningful, repetitive data for such diverse problems as land-use change, forest clear-cutting practices, the status of irrigated lands, and population 

growth on the urban fringe. 

Three Application System Verification and 

Transfer (ASVT) projects continued this year with 

the Pacific Northwest states of Oregon, Idaho, and 

Washington in a Land Research Inventory Demonstration; the Army Corps of Engineers in a Water 

Management and Control project using Landsat 

data for delineation of hydrologic land use; and 

with several states (California, Colorado, and 

Arizona) and Federal agencies (Departments of 

Agriculture, Interior, Energy, and Army Corps of 

Engineers) using Landsat data for improved snowmapping and water-runoff predictions. Measurements of snowcover areas have been correlated to 

snowmelt runoff in California and Colorado. Yearto-year comparison of snowcover measured by Landsat provided data that were closer to actual flow 

than forecasts using conventional techniques, which 

ran 8-11 percent higher. Planning is under way to 

make this technology available for routine use in 

western states. 

Two new ASVT projects were started in 1978: 

one was a demonstration of the capability of Landsat data to assist the Navajo Nation to assess and 

better plan for development of their lands; the 

other was a demonstration in conjunction with a 

consortium of 13 Texas state agencies using Land- 
sat data to update and maintain a multipurpose 

natural resources inventory. 

Four Applications Pilot Test (APT) projects 

continued in 1978: one with the Department of 

Interior in a Wildland Vegetation Inventory demonstration and another in a Land Use and Change 

Detection demonstration; one with the St. Regis 

Paper Company demonstrating a Forest Resource 

Information System; and one with the Bureau of 

the Census for an Urban Area Boundary Delineation study. Five cities have been classified-Boston, 

Orlando, Houston, Seattle, and Richmond-as to 

land use and the outer boundary of the urbanarea fringe zone delineated by means of remotely 

sensed data. The next phase will begin in FY 

1979; 5 cities will be studied to determine the capability of remotely sensed data to detect urban 

change. 

In 1978 major emphasis was placed on transfer 

of resource observations technology to state and 

local governments. A cooperative effort was initiated with the National Governors Association to 

make state agencies more aware of potential uses 

of remote sensing. In combination with a parallel 

arrangement with the National Conference of State 

Legislatures, this effort provides a basis for continued assessment of state needs for NASA technology and for development of long-term programs 

for meeting those needs. 

The Regional Remote Sensing Applications Program assists state and local government agencies in 

developing a capability to use Landsat data for 

meeting resource and environmental management 

information needs in response to Federal and state 

legislation. Since early 1977, over 250 state personnel have been trained in the use of Landsat 

digital data processing techniques. Multi-discipline 

technology demonstration projects were underway 

or completed in 17 states during 1978. Transfer 

programs resulted in development of a Georgia 

Natural Resources Inventory System operated by 

the state’s Department of Natural Resources. Demonstrations of land-cover inventory from Landsat 

data were begun in Maryland, Montana, and North 

Carolina and are under way in seven other states. 

North Carolina has acquired a data processing system for utilizing geo-based information and is 

rapidly integrating Landsat data into land-cover 

analysis. In agricultural applications, a project 

demonstrating Landsat use in cotton-crop inventory 

was completed in California. Similar agricultural 

land-use demonstrations were begun in Florida and 

Montana and are under way in three other states. 

Other demonstration projects included inventories 

of water resources (6 states), forests and rangeland 

(7 states), environmental management (10 states) , 

and wildlife habitat management (6 states). 

Non-Renewable Resources. Earth-observation 

data are obtained from a family of specially instrumented satellites applied to land-form analysis. 

OBSERVATION AND DATA SYSTEMS. A new tool, the 

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) spacecraft, was launched on April 26, 1978, into a Sunsynchronous orbit. The 620-kilometer-high track of 

the spacecraft enables its instruments to obtain 

maximum and minimum ground-surface temperatures at selected locations within a 24-hour period. 

Comparison of these two temperatures may provide a new way of identifying rock types and deriving soil moisture. The first data products were 

provided to investigators in early August. 

An ASVT was started this year with 7 Appalachian states-New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West 

Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee-to 

demonstrate the use of Landsat data in identifying 

and locating geological lineaments associated with 

natural gas found in Devonian shale. 

Several instruments are being developed for flight 

on the Shuttle in experiments to define their value 

to geological prospecting: 

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A. This synthetic 

aperture radar, developed from residual Seasat 

hardware, will be used to evaluate the applicability of L-band imaging radar for analysis of 

geological land forms and structure. It is scheduled for an Orbital Flight Test mission. 

The Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer. This IO-channel instrument should 

help determine the most useful region of the 

spectrum for discriminating among rock types 

and different surface compositions. It too will 

fly on an early Shuttle mission. 

The Large Format Camera. To be available 

for flight in late 1980, this camera will provide 

high-resolution stereo photography with several 

base-to-height ratios. A single picture from an 

altitude of 190 kilometers will cover 26,000 

square kilometers on Earth, an area equal to 

that of the Florida peninsula from Miami to 

Orlando, with a resolution of 10-15 meters. 

GEODYNAMICS. Research in geodynamics contributes to understanding of earthquake mechanisms, 

to the processes leading to the formation of mineral 

and energy resources, and to a general improvement 

in scientific knowledge of Earth. 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), using 

signals from radio stars or laser-ranging to satellites 

and the Moon, provide a basis for ultra-precise 

geodetic measurements that are theoretically capable of accuracies to within centimeters over continental distances. These techniques can be used 

to measure the motion and rotational rate of 

20 
Earth’s polar axis, tectonic plate motion, or crustal 

deformation at plate boundaries. 

NASA made VLBI measurements using large 

fixed antennas at radio observatories on the U.S. 

east and west coasts and mobile systems in California. For ground-to-satellite signals, mobile laser 

systems made measurements in Massachusetts and 

California and these were compared with ground 

geodometer systems. While the laser results are still 

being analyzed, the VLBI experiments demonstrated a repeatable accuracy of 4-6 centimeters 

for both continental and local-scale distances. Improvements in atmospheric correction techniques 

are now being made which should provide the 

precision (1-2 centimeters) required for detection 

of crustal deformation. 

Using satellite laser ranging, NASA succeeded in 

detecting the relative motion of the North American and Pacific plates across the San Andreas Fault 

in California-the first direct measurement of plate 

motions ever made. These results were derived 

from distance measurements made in 1972 and 

1974 and again in 1976 as part of the San Andreas 

Fault Experiment. More observations started in 

December 1978, using improved Mobile Laser Stations and the Laser Geodynamics Satellite 

(Lageos) , to verify and extend the earlier results. 

Eight mobile ground laser stations are now being 

readied for global deployment in mid-1979 to acquire data for the Lageos investigations. 

Improved models of the Earth’s gravity field are 

being developed. These will contribute to understanding of Earth’s interior composition, structure, 

and density distribution, all of which relate to the 

location and formation of natural resources; to 

understanding of the forces that product tectonic 

plate motions; and to analysis of satellite altimetric 

data for studies of Ocean current systems and ocean 

circulation. The latest Goddard Earth Model 

(GEM-IO) accounts for features as small as 750 

kilometers in size. The gravimetric geoid derived 

from this model clearly delineates gravity variations 

associated with tectonic features, such as the subduction occurring at deep trenches. Gravity models 

currently being deveIoped will make it possible to 

define features that are about 500 kilometers in 

size. In addition to using conventionaI satellite 

tracking data, these new models will contain satellite altimetry data from Geos 3 and Seasat 1, as 

well as additional surface gravimetry measurements 

that are now becoming available. 

Materials Processing in Space 

At present NASA’s work in materials processing 

in space concentrates on developing methods of 

experimenting so as to learn more about materials 

behavior and developing space processes to produce materials. 

The unique physical effect in space that cannot 

be duplicated on Earth is, of course, weightlessness. 

It interests materials processors because it voids two 

of the effects of the law of gravity that have limited 

materials processing on Earth: one is the convective 

motions that gravity compels in fluids; unstable 

and uncontrolled, these motions cause variations in 

temperature and composition of the forming material. The other is the contamination suffered by 

chemically reactive materials when they come in 

contact with their container while processing. Experiments have verified that weightlessness could 

mitigate these problems. The work done in space 

thus far has developed some of the basic techniques 

that will be needed for more sophisticated 

investigations. 

For several years NASA had worked to draw together a combination of scientific interests and 

space capabilities to take advantage of the routine 

access to space that will be afforded by the Shuttle. 

The past year has seen major progress in seeking 

participation from the materials R&D community, 

beginning with a National Academy of Sciences 

study which endorsed the scientific investigations of 

materials and recommended a research strategy 

leading to private and non-NASA government support of such investigations after an initial phase of 

technology development and demonstration. NASA 

worked closely in 1978 with an advisory committee 

from the materials community, making detailed 

technical and management plans to implement the 

strategy recommended in the NAS study. Candidate 

subjects found to be attractive for early experiments include detector materials, inertial confinement fusion targets, containerless processing, floating zone experiments, heat-pipe technology, space 

vacuum research, and bioprocessing studies. 

Concurrently NASA has proceeded with development of the experiments proposed by the scientific 

community and selected in 1977 for flight on early 

Space Shuttle missions. A contractor was selected 

in 1978 and has been working with the experimenters to arrive at design requirements. 

In preparation for the transition to private research, NASA has established a Commercial Space 

Processing Development Office at the Marshall 

Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. It 

studies institutional, legal, and economic issues involved in private space processing, operates an information program for industry, and negotiates 

with U.S. companies interested in long-range joint 

undertakings with NASA. Two proposals for joint 

projects leading to commercial manufacturing operations in orbit have been received from industrial 

sources and are being evaluated. 

21 
Space processing experimentation continued in 

1978 with the September 11 flight of the Space 

Processing Applications Rocket (SPAR). All experiments performed well. Four films and some 20 

experiments were recovered and are being analyzed 

by the experiments. 

Much of the SPAR equipment is readily adaptable for use on the Shuttle as a “piggyback” payload, 

since it can operate nearly autonomously. NASA 

has begun development of a package of interface 

hardware that will support SPAR payload apparatus on the Shuttle. The Materials Experiment Assembly includes mounting hardware, power supply, 

heat rejection and command subsystems, data recording equipment, and acceleration measuring instrumentation. To be flight-ready by 1980, this 

inexpensive rental equipment, when combined with 

the SPAR equipment, will provide the capability 

for space-processing investigations in crystal growth, 

alloy solidification, formation of particle dispersions 

in solid electrolytes, containerless processing of 

glasses, and growth of large polymer particles. 

Commumicdions 

NASA continued research in communications 

technology aimed at alleviating problems in use 

and allocation of the increasingly crowded geosynchronous orbit and the radio spectrum. These are 

finite resources that must be used with maximum 

efficiency. 

Bandwidth Compression. One improvement now 

in design and development is a spaceborne antenna 

that, on command, can quickly form, shape, and 

point its transmit and receive beams in response to 

the needs of users on the ground, while avoiding 

interference. Based on technology used by DoD, the 

agile beams of this Adaptive Multi-beam Phased 

Array can greatly increase the effective capacity 

within any frequency band. The new antenna will 

be tested in orbit in a Shuttle/Spacelab flight. 

With the coming of the digital era to space communications, the designated frequency allocations 

require the use of special systems for transmitting 

digital television signals within a minimum bandwidth. NASA has developed a bandwidth compression technique, demonstrating full-motion color 

television transmission on only one-tenth the bandwidth otherwise required for digital transmission. 

Low-Cost Data Collection. Several agencies have 

encountered problems in low-cost data collection 

from remote areas. Commonly, low-rate data from 

the user’s sensors are relayed by a small, standardized ground terminal through a NOAA satellite to 

a central analysis point. 

NASA in the past year completed a joint pilot 

project with the California Division of Forestry using satellite systems to demonstrate forest fire protection. Local weather and ground moisture data 

were sent from remote regions through a NOAA 

satellite’s repeater to meteorologists in Sacramento 

who can interpret from the data the probability of 

a forest fire’s occurring in a specific region. 

Also in 1978 NASA concluded arrangements with 

the U.S. Coast Guard to demonstrate the use of 

satellite communications technology for identifying 

and locating fishing vessels and controlling tanker 

traffic within our 870-kilometer offshore conservation zone. In the planned experimental system, 

ships to be monitored would be required to carry 

a receiver / transmitter that would receive navigation data derived from the Coast Guard’s Loran-C 

system and automatically send it through an existing geostationary satellite to a ground computation 

center. The shipborne equipment is now in design; 

experiments with the equipment aboard Coast 

Guard ships are planned for 1980. 

Land-mobile communications via terrestrial radio 

links have grown explosively in the last 10 years, a 

trend that is expected to continue. By 1990 there 

may be 200,000 mobile telephone subscribers, 1 million private dispatch users, and over 3 million subscribers to radio paging services, comprising a $10- 

billion market in the U.S. alone. The Federal Communications Commission recently allocated more 

bandwidth for domestic land-mobile use to permit 

the growth anticipated in metropolitan-area communications. In 1978, NASA began studying how a 

satellite system could be integrated with this growing terrestrial “cellular” system to make operations 

possible in medium- and small-sized towns and in 

rural areas, which cannot be economically served by 

a terrestrial system. This has generated a U.S. position in support of allocation of a primary frequency 

(806-890 megahertz band) for land-mobile satellite 

service for North, South, and Central America. 

NASA has also sought allocations of multiple primary international frequencies for active and passive space sensors of Earth resources satellites. 

Public Service Communications. The international space research program to significantly improve the capability of search and rescue forces to 

locate aircraft and ships in distress is progressing 

toward its first demonstration flight in 1982. NASA 

and NOAA are providing design modifications for 

the NOAA-E, F, and G spacecraft to accommodate 

a Canadian-built transponder package and a 

French-built distress-signal processor. As a part of 

the demonstration, the U.S.S.R. plans to equip 

Soviet spacecraft similarly so as to interoperate with 

the U.S.-Canadian-French system. An operational 

lifesaving network such as this is expected to improve the speed and success rate of search and 

22 
rescue while substantially reducing operational 

Public service communications experiments continued through use of the joint U.S.-Canadian CTS 

spacecraft and on the NASA ATS satellites. More 

than 300 such experiments and demonstrations 

have now been conducted. In the Appalachian region, college-level courses are being transmitted via 

ATS 6 from the University of Kentucky to teachers 

throughout the region, exploring a potential satellite role in upgrading teacher skills. The West 

Indies was the scene of another ATS project; a 

joint NASA/Agency for International Development 

experiment, completed in March 1978, transmitted 

live course lectures among the islands. 

CTS was used in cooperation with several large 

industrial corporations to test the utility of stateof-the-art communications and terminal equipment 

in transmitting high-speed digital data and videoconferencing. Another CTS experiment is the College Curriculum Sharing Experiment, between 

Carleton College in Canada and Stanford University in California. It is demonstrating the use of 

communications satellites for extending curricula 

by video sharing of classes among universities and 

countries. CTS also demonstrated delivery of public-service telecommunications useful to Indian communities. Indian tribes in Montana and New 

Mexico talked via CTS with Federal officials in 

Washington, D.C., about health, agriculture, education, and other tribal concerns. 

costs. 

Science 

Study of Earth’s Upper Atmosphere 

When the NASA Upper Atmospheric Research 

program began several years ago, the emphasis was 

on assessing the effect of man-generated perturbations of the stratospheric ozone. By 1978 the program had matured into an extensive scenario of 

field measurements, theory and data analysis, and 

laboratory studies centering on understanding the 

mechanisms of Earth’s stratosphere and mesosphere. 

With the active participation of the NASA Stratospheric Research Advisory Committee and other 

Federal agencies, NASA has developed both a program plan and a measurement strategy. These are 

being implemented through approximately 130 

funded tasks participated in by government agencies, universities, and industrial research communities, plus international efforts. 

During the past year, NASA-sponsored field 

measurements provided significant new data. In a 

pair of joint flights of the University of Michigan 

and the Canadian Stratoprobe balloon payloads, 

simultaneous measurements were obtained of ozone 

(O,), water (H,O), methane (CH,), nitric acid 

(HNO,), nitrogen dioxide (NO,), nitric oxide 

(NO), nitrogen pentoxide (N,O,), hydroxyl radical 

(OH), HO, radical, C10 radical, and hydrogen 

chloride (HC1). The data are being used to test 

photochemical models and examine the hypothesized steady-state relationships among the HO,, 

NO,, CIO,, and 0, families. The C10 radical has 

been independently measured in the stratosphere 

by resonance fluorescence, laser hetrodyne, and 

microwave radiometric techniques. Seasonal and 

day-to-day changes in HNO, column density and 

the steady increase with time in Freon 11 (CFC1,) 

concentration have been noted from ground-based 

infrared measurements. Altitude profiles of HCl, 

hydrogen fluoride (HF) , CH,, nitrous oxide 

(N,O) , H,O, carbon monoxide (CO) , and 0, have 

been obtained with a balloon-borne infrared interferometer. New mass-spectrometric measurements 

indicate that carbon dioxide (CO,) mixing ratios 

may not be constant at altitudes of 30-38 kilometers as had been generally assumed. Further advances in stratospheric measurements are expected 

from several techniques now under development 

for measuring trace species, radiation levels, photolysis rates, and atmospheric dynamics. 

In theory and data analysis, the most significant 

recent advance has been in increased appreciation 

of the close coupling among the nitrogen, hydrogen, and chlorine families of species. A variety of 

I-, 2-, and 3-dimensional models have aided understanding of stratospheric observations and helped 

define the future measurement strategy. Analysis of 

satellite and ground-based data is establishing a 

baseline from which perturbations in the ozone 

layer can be measured. For example, calculations 

on production and loss rates of hypochlorous acid 

HOCl, and N,O, in the infrared region; and C10 

reservoir for atmospheric chlorine (CI). 

Laboratory studies are using conventional and 

new laser-related techniques to measure reaction 

rates among key atmospheric species. Extension of 

existing rate measurements to stratospheric temperatures and pressures is continuing. Kinetic 

studies of the formation of ClNO radical, chlorine 

nitrite (ClNO,), chlorine nitrate (CIONO,) , and 

HOCl in the stratosphere have been performed. A 

Reaction Rate Panel has been formed to analyze 

research priorities and provide up-to-date kinetic 

data for use by atmospheric modelers. 

In laboratory spectroscopy, the emphasis on highresolution measurements reinforces related field 

measurements. Recent results include spectra of 

C10, HCl, hydrogen bromide (HBr), NO, oxygen 

(O?), and sulfur dioxide (SO,) in the ultraviolet 

region; of CH,, methyl chloride (CH,CI), fluo23 
romethane (CH,F), CIO, ClONO,, Freon 22, HCI, 

formaldehyde (H,CO), hydrogen peroxide (H,O,), 

HOCI, and N,O, in the infrared region; and CIO 

in the microwave region. 

Study of the Sun and its Ewth Relatiomhips 

Research and exploration in this field is centered 

on understanding the basic characteristics of the 

Sun and the solar, interplanetary, and terrestrial 

phenomena which occur during transmission of 

solar energy. 

Study of the Sun. In collecting data on the quiet 

solar atmosphere, OS0 8 (Orbiting Solar Observatory 8) concluded a successful mission in September 1978. Reduction of the more than three years 

of data will continue for another year, but the results are already being put to good use. For example, the observations by the high-resolution 

spectrometers have allowed derivation of a refined 

temperature model of the solar atmosphere from 

the region of minimum temperature just above the 

Sun’s visible surface all the way up to the overlying 

solar corona. This model is of critical importance 

for interpreting changes in this region caused by 

solar flares. 

The study of solar flares will become more detailed (buildup, release, and decay of energy) with 

the launch of the Solar Maximum Mission, scheduled for October 1979. Instrumentation, the first of 

which NASA received in November, included a 

gamma-ray spectrometer, hard- and soft-x-ray detectors, a versatile ultraviolet spectrometer/polarimeter, a coronagraph to observe flare-related disturbances in the outer solar corona, and a radiometer 

to measure the total solar flux to an accuracy of 

0.1 percent. A major development was the start of 

a Guest Investigator Program; there were 43 proposals, 16 of them from foreign countries. 

Another future solar mission is the International 

Solar Polar Mission, for which a tentative payload 

was selected this year. A joint venture with the 

European Space Agency, this mission will send an 

ESA and a NASA spacecraft over the poles of the 

Sun, the first time manmade objects have flown a 

solar trajectory in so far different a plane from the 

one of Earth and the other planets. One of the 

main purposes of the mission is to gather data on 

the origins of the high-speed solar wind that fans 

out from the Sun to the edges of the solar system 

and whose surges are known to cause geomagnetic 

storms and aurorae in Earth’s upper atmosphere. 

Detailed definition of experiments and spacecraft 

design were in progress by the end of the year. 

Research tools other than satellites also made 

important contributions to solar research in 1978. 

Using sounding rockets, the Joint American-Soviet 

Particle Intercalibration project operated from 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Center in June 1978 to investigate sources of ionization in the upper atmosphere and compare particle-measuring instrumentation. Another sounding rocket, taking ultraviolet 

high-resolution spectra of the Sun, found small jets 

of hot gas moving outward from the lower atmosphere into the solar corona. These jets may help 

explain the very high (in excess of 1 million 

kelvins) temperatures of the corona. This mission 

will be reflown to confirm the evidence of the 

abundance of these features. 

Study of Solar Eflects Near Earth. The third International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-C) was 

launched on August 12, 1978, as the last leg of a 

three-spacecraft program investigating how fluctuations in the solar wind affect magnetospheric 

boundaries near Earth. ISEE-C is heading toward a 

unique orbit around the L1 libration point, where 

the Earth’s and Sun’s gravity interact in such a way 

that L1 appears stationary on the Earth-Sun line 

about 1.5 million kilometers out from Earth. To 

prevent the tracking antennas on Earth from being blinded by interference from the Sun, a small 

propulsion unit will propel the satellite on a halo 

orbit about the libration point, circling far enough 

out so that the Sun is not directly behind it in the 

antennas’ line of sight from Earth. ISEE-C, the 

first spacecraft ever to make use of a libration point 

in space, will transmit its data on the state of the 

solar wind to Earth antennas about an hour before 

the effects of the same portion of the solar wind 

come near enough Earth to be observed by ISEE-A 

and -B. ISEE is an international cooperative project, with the European Space Agency providing 

Data from the low-orbit satellites, Atmospheric 

Explorers C, D, and E, were combined with data 

from sounding rockets and backscatter radar to 

form a new model of the upper atmosphere. It 

makes possible much better predictions than before 

of how the atmosphere will respond to changes in 

solar ultraviolet activity during the solar cycle. For 

example, study of the data showed that ultraviolet 

activity in the present cycle has not followed the 

old pattern, which depended on ground-based indicators keyed to 10.7-centimeter radio measurements. The latter predicted a much slower rise in 

atmospheric density than occurred with the observed decay in Skylab’s orbit, while the new model 

agreed well with it. This marks a significant improvement in our understanding of solar control of 

the upper atmosphere and has immediate application in more accurate predictions on the reentry of 

space objects. 

ISEE-B. 

24 
A difficult problem with which progress was made 

is the one of measuring electric fields in space. 

Small electric fields acting over large distances are 

believed to be responsible for accelerating the kinds 

of particles that are seen in auroral displays at high 

latitudes. They have other influences that are more 

subtle: they may be responsible for effects on the 

neutral atmosphere through interactions with moving plasma; some scientists believe they also hold 

the key to solar-climate relationships and to anomalous effects seen in the ionosphere. Techniques 

that are being used for measurement of electric 

fields include the release of chemical tracers, the 

deployment of very long conductors, and the use 

of conductivity probes on sounding rockets. 

Study of the Plats 

Through the last decade and a half of systematic 

exploration of the planets and other bodies within 

the solar system, the NASA planetary program has 

grown in capability from simple flyby spacecraft 

with very basic instrumentation to much more capable planetary spacecraft. Outfitted with extensive complements of instruments, these spacecraft 

can measure a great variety of planetary 

characteristics. 

Pioneer Venus. Two Pioneer-class spacecraft with 

entirely different payloads were launched from the 

Kennedy Space Center in the summer of 1978, to 

study the planet Venus. Our nearest neighbor 

among the planets, Venus is almost a twin of Earth 

in size and distance from the Sun, yet some fundamental dissimilarity has led to a major difference 

in the evolutions of the two planets. Venus has a 

heavy, thick, hot atmosphere. Its surface is entirely 

hidden by massive clouds thought to be composed 

of sulphuric acid. One of the two Pioneer spacecraft, an orbiter, arrived at the planet in December. 

Once in orbit about Venus, it was largely dedicated 

to investigating the atmosphere and ionosphere, 

both by remote sensing techniques and by direct 

sampling as it dipped into the atmosphere to within 

a couple of hundred kilometers of the surface once 

on each revolution. It was also to measure the magnetic field of Venus, if there is one, and report on 

the interactions between the solar wind and the 

planet’s ionosphere. The radar altimeter was to 

measure the figure of Venus, sketching a relatively 

crude surface map and allowing some inferences to 

be made about the internal composition and structure of the planet. 

The second Pioneer Venus spacecraft was a 

“bus,” carrying four highly instrumented probes 

that were released in November, three weeks before planetary encounter on December 9. Each 

probe was targeted to a different point on the 

planet; after a high-speed entry into the atmosphere 

behind a special heat shield, each probe made a 

variety of measurements of the composition and 

physical state of the gases and clouds making up the 

hostile atmospheric environment. The probes descended slowly to the surface, radioing measurements back to the orbiter until they crashed (although the probes were not designed to survive impact, one of them did briefly). Sophisticated radio 

tracking from Earth translated probe motions into 

readings of wind direction and speed. The bus 

spacecraft also had a science role, taking measurements in the upper atmosphere before it burned up 

in its descent. 

Only the real-time data, which represented a 

small sampling of the total return, were available 

by the end of the year. From these data, it appeared that excellent information had been obtained on all mission objectives. Several surprises to 

standard scientific conceptions of the environment 

of Venus were suggested in the early data: three 

distinct cloud decks were penetrated, the upper 

containing particles of a single size, the middle being sharply bimodal, and the lowest distinctly 

trimodal, with cloud compositions and levels very 

similar at all locations where probes descended; 

just below the douds oxygen and water vapor were 

detected, and unexpectedly large amounts of argon, 

neon, and helium were observed in the atmosphere; 

as the probes descended, as much as 50 percent of 

the absorbed sunlight was seen to be absorbed 

above 55 kilometers, and very similar variations of 

pressure and temperature with altitude were seen 

on the day and night sides of the planet. 

Voyager. The two Voyager spacecraft were 

launched toward the planet Jupiter in 1977. The 

first spacecraft is to encounter that planet on March 

5, 1979. Observations will be taken for the previous 

two months, including detailed study of not only 

Jupiter but its large satellites in the last few days 

before encounter. Voyager 2 begins science observations in April, with closest approach on July 9. 

Jupiter’s gravitational influence will be used to 

redirect the trajectories of both spacecraft toward 

Saturn; arrival there is targeted for the end of 

1980 and the middle of 1981, respectively. Depending on the condition of the spacecraft at that time, 

there is an option for Voyager 2 to use the gravitational field of Saturn to deflect itself on to an encounter with Uranus. 

Viking. The Mars missions of the Viking landers 

and orbiters are now almost complete. During 1978 

all the vehicles conducted important science operations, with the two orbiters being particularly active. Major acquisitions of data were returned on 

planetary geology and the dynamical behavior of 

25 

297-034 0 - 79 - 3 
the Martian atmosphere. At the end of the year, 

Lander 1 was operating at a reduced level, with end 

of its mission set for March 1, 1979-although there 

is still a possibility of continuing minimal automatic reporting (principally meteorology) . Lander 

2’s science operations were terminated in November 

1978 and Viking Orbiter 2 ran out of attitudecontrol gas in July. Viking Orbiter 1 was still in 

excellent health but its control gas is expected to 

run out in the spring of 1979. 

Pioneer 10 and 11. After five years of reconnoitering the solar system, these two veteran spacecraft are still carrying out their assignments. 

Pioneer 10, picked to be the first man-made object 

to fly beyond the solar system into interplanetary 

space, has traveled almost out to the orbit of Uranus. Some interpretations of its cosmic-ray data 

suggest that the spacecraft is nearing the outer edge 

of the Sun’s influence. Pioneer 11 has headed back 

across the solar system after its encounter with 

Jupiter and is heading toward a flyby of Saturn. In 

September 1979 the spacecraft will pass just outside 

the famous rings of Saturn, then dip in close to the 

planet, telemetering back to Earth the first closelook information about the environment there. 

Galileo. This planetary mission will feature two 

payloads: an advanced orbiter will circle Jupiter 

making a prolonged study of that planet and its 

bevy of satellites; a probe will detach and plunge 

down through Jupiter’s atmosphere for unique in 

situ measurements. The project, which involves 

substantial cooperation with West Germany, is on 

schedule for launch in January 1982. 

Research and Analysis. Work continued on interpretation of data sent back from previous missions and on acquiring new information about the 

solar system by means of ground-based telescopes. 

A new program was begun for more thorough interpretation of Viking data from Mars. Over the next 

few years this mass of data will be analyzed in 

depth to extract the greatest possible benefit from 

these outstanding missions. From ground-based astronomy came two discoveries of note in 1978: a 

new minor planet, named Chiron, was found in an 

orbit lying between those of Saturn and Uranus. 

And the planet Pluto was found to have a close-by 

moon, which has been given the name of Charon. 

Studies of the Universe 

NASA’s study of astrophysics is directed toward 

answering some of the most fundamental questions 

that human beings have ever posed: what is the 

origin of the Universe? What is the origin of the 

chemical elements from which Earth, our bodies, 

and everything we know are constructed? What is 

the nature of the exotic high-energy processes OCcurring in space? 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories. A major 

event in the astrophysics program was the successful launch on November 13, 1978, of HEAO 2 

(High Energy Astronomy Satellite-2). The lowaltitude, low-inclination orbit (537 kilometers at 

an inclination of 23.50 degrees) was selected to 

provide a low radiation background to the view of 

the experiments. 

The HEAO program is composed of the three 

largest Earth-orbiting automated spacecraft yet 

launched. They are intended to investigate some of 

the most recently discovered and most mysterious 

objects in the Universe-including pulsars, quasars, 

and possibly black holes. HEAO 1 and 3 are mapping satellites, rotating slowly and plotting sources 

throughout the sky in their spectral band-HEAO 

1 in the x-ray band, HEAO 3 to follow in 1979 

for the gamma-ray and cosmic-ray bands. HEAO 2 

is a pointing satellite, focusing its large x-ray telescope on the sources pinpointed by HEAO 1. 

HEAO 1, which celebrated its first year in orbit 

in August 1978, has been a success. By the time its 

second sky survey is completed in the spring of 

1979, 1100 or more x-ray sources should have been 

catalogued, four times as many as were known before. Another major result from HEAO l was the 

identification of a hot plasma-apparently about 

half a billion degrees-extending beyond our galaxy and possibly throughout the entire Universe. If 

a plasma of this temperature and density were distributed uniformly throughout the entire Universe, 

it would contain about half the total mass required 

to close the Universe. This new concept is of such 

importance for cosmologists that fresh data are being analyzed as soon as they come from the spacecraft. Other data from HEAO 1 have identified a 

new black-hole candidate in the Constellation Ara. 

This brings the total number of candidates thus 

far to four. 

HEAO 2 is functioning well, with all experiments performing. The large size of its x-ray 

telescope should enable it to see two-thirds of the 

way to the edge of the Universe, recording events 

that occurred as much as 10 billion years ago. Experimenters feel that the first photos reconstructed 

from HEAO 2 data have brought x-ray astronomy 

up to the same state of maturity that has been enjoyed by other specialties. 

Space Telescope. The Space Telescope, designed 

as the first general-purpose astronomical observatory in space with an anticipated lifetime of more 

than a decade, is to be launched by the Space Shuttle in late 1983. Availability of the Space Shuttle 

will allow in-orbit repair of the observatory, ex26 
change of experiments by the Shuttle crew, and, if 

necessary, return of the entire system to Earth for 

refurbishment and relaunch. 

The body of the Space Telescope is a cylinder 

some 14 meters in length and 4.3 meters in diameter, with an equipped weight of about 9000 kilograms. The primary mirror will be 2.4 meters in 

diameter, comparable to those in the larger Earthbased telescopes. Contractors are working on the 

two major hardware elements, the Support Systems 

Module and the Optical Telescope Assembly, confirming and refining the requirements. Preliminary 

design is well under way. Because of the long lead 

time involved, fabrication of the blanks for the telescope’s primary mirror was begun as soon as the 

project started. The casting of the first of two such 

blanks was completed this year on schedule. 

Five versatile scientific instruments (four American and one European) have been selected for 

flight at the focal plane of the telescope, where 

they will carry out a wide range of observations. 

Their preliminary design is being developed by participating scientists and their subcontractors. Final 

evaluation and confirmation of the payload will 

occur early in 1979. The European Space Agency is 

funding and providing one of the scientific instruments at the focal plane, the solar array portion of 

the electrical power subsystem, and a number of 

personnel for support of science operations. 

Explorer Satellites. More modest than the observer class of satellites, Explorers have relatively 

low-cost payloads designed to explore new fields of 

scientific research. The SAS-C (Small Astronomy 

Satellite-C), for example, in this its third year of 

operation continued to provide outstanding astronomy data, including the discovery of a QuasiStellar Object. 

The IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer) 

satellite was launched on January 26, 1978, into an 

eccentric geosynchronous orbit. A joint undertaking 

of NASA, the United Kingdom’s Science Research 

Council, and the European Space Agency, IUE can 

study the spectral lines marking the transmission 

and absorption of atomic radiation in the atmosphere of stars, in the interplanetary medium, and 

in objects within the solar system. Early observations concentrated on subluminous stars, at the end 

point of star evolution. IUE can also study hot stars 

at ultraviolet wavelengths. The IUE spectrum of 

the star HZ 43 appears to confirm this star as a 

white dwarf. Early observations of active galaxies 

have proved particularly interesting and will keep 

astrophysicists busy for some time to come. In fact, 

there have been over 200 proposals for observing 

time on IUE during the year 1979, while only 40 to 

50 observing programs can be accommodated. 

Another international Explorer, the IUS (Infrared Astronomical Satellite) , will be the first 

satellite designed to study the cold infrared in the 

Universe. A cooperative project of NASA, the 

Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, IRAS is 

scheduled to go into orbit in 1981 with a “first of 

its kind” cryogenically cooled telescope system. The 

primary objective is to produce an unbiased all-sky 

survey of discrete sources, identifying the locations 

and kinds of objects radiating in the infrared. The 

U.S. portion of the project, which includes the 

telescope system, is managed by the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory and the Ames Research Center. The 

project is on schedule, with the detectors for the 

focal plane being selected in September 1978. 

Detailed study continues on two future Explorers. 

The Cosmic Background Explorer will measure the 

residual three-degree background radiation believed 

to be left over from the “big bang” origin of the 

Universe. The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer will 

perform a sky survey of very hot objects such as 

white dwarf stars, one of the last unexplored regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatories. OAO 3, 

named Copernicus, is still operating after more 

than six years in orbit; it recently furnished valuable information on an apparent black hole detected 

in the Constellation Scorpius. 

Suborbital Vehicles. Sounding rockets, balloons, 

and aircraft continued their contributions to the 

development of technology and advancement of 

science. A NASA sounding rocket obtained a wellcalibrated spectrum of the Seyfert (active) galaxy 

NGC 4151. This was not only important in its own 

right but served to calibrate the spectrum obtained 

later with the newly launched IUE satellite. The 

usefulness of months-long balloon flights was demonstrated early this year when three superpressure 

balloons “orbited” the southern hemisphere in support of long-duration ozone monitoring. These superpressure flights also showed initial evidence of 

large-magnitude atmospheric motions. In the aircraft science program, the Kuiper Airborne Observatory detected the first infrared “Bok Globule.” 

These globules are very small dark clouds in our 

galaxy which appear on photographs as black spots 

and up to now have been opaque to any radiation. 

This identification opens up a whole new class of 

objects whose emissions can now be measured 

directly. 

Physics and Astronomy Spacelab Payloads. Planning for use of the Shuttle/Spacelab system for 

scientific investigation continued in its third year. 

Investigations were solicited from the scientific community for three missions: Orbital Flight Test-4, 

and Spacelab 1 and 2. The science payload of the 

Orbital Flight Test mission (OFT-4) will be from 

27 
the astronomy and life sciences disciplines, including an instrument to measure the Orbiter’s flight 

environment. The flight is scheduled for 1980. 

Work on both Spacelab missions is on schedule. 

All investigations have been confirmed and investigators are contracted to develop their instrumentation. Initial design evaluation has been completed. 

The payload specialists have been selected. 

A Multi-User Instrument program has been approved, in which very large instruments can be 

“used” by several investigators. The concept is similar to procedures at ground-based astronomy 

observatories. 

Life Sciences 

Flight Experiments on Spacelab. An Announcement of Opportunity was issued in February 1978 

to the Life Sciences community. It solicited proposals for experiments for the first three Spacelab 

missions dedicated to Life Sciences (one per year). 

A gratifying response of 370 proposals was received 

and evaluation is proceeding. 

Space Shuttle Life Sciences. As a follow-on to the 

Class I, 11, and I11 medical standards published in 

1977 for Astronaut Pilots, Mission Specialists, and 

the non-retention category of Payload Specialists, 

Retention Medical Standards were published for 

the career categories of Astronaut Pilots and Mission Specialists. 

US. Experiments on Soviet Spacecraft. The finalresults symposium for the Soviet Life Sciences flight 

Cosmos 936, which flew seven U.S. Life Sciences 

experiments, was held in Moscow in October 1978. 

The flight marked the first inflight use of a centrifuge as a 1-g control. It was a significant contribution and aided in the interpretation of the 

results of the experiments. Soviet acceptance of 13 

U.S. experiments proposed for the U.S.S.R. biosatellite scheduled for launch in late 1979 seems 

to ensure continuation of this form of international cooperation. 

Souiet Experiments on US. Spacecraft. At the 

joint U.S./U.S.S.R. Space Medicine and Biology 

Working Group meetings held in the U.S.S.R. from 

October 10-18, 1978, the U.S. invited the Soviet 

Union to submit proposals for experiments to fly 

on the Spacelab mission, dedicated to Life Sciences, 

in 1982. 

Studies in Planetary Biology. The discovery, in 

what had been designated an abiotic area of Antarctica, of lichen-like living organisms has contributed to our understanding of the distribution of 

life in the Universe. Also the origin of life as we 

know it may have been illuminated by the finding 

of a clay deposit that was rich in the heavy metal 

zinc. It acts as a sort of template, rejecting certain 

organic molecules and accepting others and building them into amino acids essential for life. These 

areas of research were supported by grants from 

NASA and the National Science Foundation. 

Space Transportation 

Space Transportation is responsible for placing 

payloads into their proper orbits and trajectories 

in space. For the past 20 years, and for at least part 

of the workload over the next several years, the 

means used for this purpose has been expendable 

rockets. But now, after seven years of planning, designing, fabricating, integrating, and testing, the 

versatile, economical Space Transportation System 

is being readied for its first space flight. This will 

mark a major improvement in the way man travels 

to, in, and from space. 

The Space Transportation System embraces not 

only the flight hardware but the planning and 

scheduling of payloads and the ground facilities 

and logistics for launch, recovery, and refurbishment of the flight hardware. The launch-to-orbit 

carrier is the Space Shuttle. At launch the Shuttle 

has several separate but mated components: the 

aircraft-like orbiter, housing the cockpit area for 

the crew of up to seven men and women, the cargo 

bay in which payloads are stored, and the threeengine main propulsion system; mated to the orbiter are the external tank-a large cigar-shaped 

tank carrying the launch-phase fuel supply of liquid 

oxygen and liquid hydrogen-the only portion of 

the Shuttle that is expendable; and the two big 

solid rocket boosters that supplement the power of 

the main engines during launch and then fall away 

into the ocean, to be recovered and reused. 

Extending the capability and flexibility of the 

Space Shuttle, systems are being developed by other 

organizations: Spacelab, being developed by the 

European Space Agency, will outfit the Shuttle 

cargo bay with adjustable combinations of a pressurized, shirtsleeve-environment scientific laboratory and various pallets that will mount scientific 

instruments for direct exposure to space; the Remote Manipulator System, from Canada, a long, 

remotely operated mechanical arm that while in 

orbit will move payloads out of and into the cargo 

bay; the Inertial Upper Stage, being developed by 

DoD, that, deployed in low Earth orbit from the 

cargo bay, will propel payloads to orbits beyond the 

capability of the Shuttle; and Spinning Solid Upper Stages, being developed by U.S. industry as a 

commercial venture for economical transportation 

of smaller payloads from the Shuttle orbit to geosynchronous orbit. 

28 
Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle, scheduled to begin orbital 

flight tests in 1979, is designed to provide frequent, 

comfortable, efficient access to the space environment in future decades. The national fleet of four 

Shuttle orbiter vehicles (a fifth is an option if traffic by NASA, DoD, and other domestic and international users justifies its use) offers a greater range 

of capabilities compared to previous systems-a 

transition to reliable, reusable space transportation. 

These advances include: 

flight into orbit and deorbit, yet subjecting the 

flight crew and payload to only mild 

accelerations 

from 3 to 7 persons can live and work in a 

comfortable, shirtsleeve environment; payload 

specialists do not require lengthy astronauttype training 

cost effectiveness markedly improved by use of 

recoverable, reusable systems. 

major reduction in the difficulty and cost of 

transporting payloads and people to and from 

Earth orbit 

placement, servicing, and recovery of spacecraft 

deorbit to routine landing on a runway. 

All principal elements of the Space Shuttle have 

been in development for some time and moved 

nearer their final form in 1978. Development milestones of the year included the delivery of the 

structural test article, later to be converted to become the second flight orbiter; accumulation of almost 50 percent of the firing time planned for the 

main engine tests; delivery of three external tanks 

for use in various kinds of testing; and installation 

on schedule of launch equipment and facilities at 

Kennedy Space Center. Some crucial tests have been 

completed on major systems. A considerable 

amount of testing still lies ahead to verify reliability and durability, but flight hardware of all elements will be readied for shipment to KSC early 

in 1979 for the first manned orbital test flight, now 

scheduled for near the end of 1979. 

Shuttle Orbiter. After completing the approach 

and landing tests in late 1977, the orbiter test vehicle was delivered to Marshall Space Flight Center 

for full-scale ground vibration testing with other 

elements of the Shuttle system. The orbiter scheduled for the first orbital flight is nearing the end of 

assembly at the Rockwell International Space Division in Palmdale, California. After installation of 

the last systems and checkout, this orbiter (No. 102) 

will be delivered to KSC. The orbital flight test 

program will involve up to six flights. 

The structural test article was completed this 

year and is now being tested in the structural test 

facility at the Lockheed Corporation. Following 

these tests, it will be refurbished and equipped as 

the second flight vehicle, with delivery scheduled 

for 1981. 

The main propulsion systems testing began in 

1978 at the National Space Technology Laboratories in Mississippi. The assembled hardware includes an orbiter aft fuselage, an external tank, and 

three main engines. 

Main Engine. The main engine represents one 

of the largest advances in the state of the art, principally in the requirement for long life and the 

much higher thrust-to-weight ratio achieved by operating at high pressure. As has been true in the 

development history of all new rocket engines, the 

main engine experienced a number of problems in 

development and testing. A comprehensive component and system test program in 1978 identified 

and resolved most operational problems. Although 

some difficulties remain, the main engine has been 

tested a number of times at the rated power level 

and full-duration runs. Over 35,000 seconds of test 

time have been accumulated, which is well on the 

way to the 80,000-second requirement prior to the 

first orbital flight. 

External Tank. The external tank combines 

tanks for liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen and 

an inter-tank structure. Three development external tanks were manufactured and delivered in 1978. 

They are being used for structural testing, system 

ground vibration testing at MSFC, and testing of 

the main propulsion system at National Space 

Technology Laboratories. Also in 1978, fabrication 

was started on the first three flight tanks, to be 

delivered to KSC in 1979. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The second and third motor firing tests were completed successfully in 1978, 

with one more to come. Qualification tests have 

also been completed on a number of subsystems 

such as the recovery package, the electrical subsystem, and the instrumentation subsystem. Parachute 

tests were completed, with six successful drop tests 

showing that the boosters can be brought down 

from altitude to the ocean surface and recovered 

for reuse. The boosters for the first orbital flight 

are now being fabricated and will be delivered to 

KSC in 1979. 

Launch and Landing. The ground equipment 

for launch and landing of the Space Shuttle comprises both instrumentation and facilities at KSC 

and the Dryden Flight Research Center in California for use in checkout, processing, launch, and 

recovery. Installation of the computerized equipment of the launch processing system is on schedule. 

The stations of this system connect the launch control center with the orbiter processing facility, the 

launch pad, and the hypergolic maintenance facility. Other ground-support equipment was installed 

29 
in the vehicle assembly building, the solid rocket 

booster disassembly facility, the parachute refurbishment station, and at the orbiter landing 

facilities. 

Follow-On Production. Looking beyond the orbital test flights, NASA continued in 1978 the production of Space Shuttle equipment that will be 

needed for the operational Space Transportation 

System. Fabrication began on major structural parts 

of the third flight orbiter, as well as procurement 

of long-lead-time raw materials and components for 

the third and fourth flight orbiters: delivery of 

these orbiters is scheduled for FY 1983 and 1984, 

respectively. 

Operation of the Space Transpmtatiolz System 

When the Space Transportation System becomes 

operational early in 1981, a greatly expanded range 

of space activities will be possible. A wide variety 

of users have already made firm commitments to 

use the system-civilian and military components of 

the U.S. government, several categories of domestic 

and foreign customers, and others will be able to 

place a wide variety of payloads and experiments 

into Earth orbit. Payloads can be reburbished in 

orbit or returned to Earth for repair and relaunch: 

space laboratories can be launched, operated, and 

returned to Earth for examination; scientists can 

fly along to operate their experiments; geosynchronous or planetary orbits are available with the 

use of supplemental upper stages. With the art of 

the possible expanding so rapidly, and with flight 

hardware coming off the production line, NASA 

has placed major emphasis in 1978 on planning and 

preparing for operations. 

Policics and Procedures. Policies on user charges 

during the early years of operations have been published in the Federal Register, describing the price 

structure and stipulating other conditions under 

which NASA will furnish launch services and flight 

hardware to government and commercial users. 

User handbooks and pricing guides, which describe 

types and costs of standard and optional services, 

will be published in 1979. A reimbursement formula for DoD use of the Shuttle was negotiated 

and incorporated in a memorandum of agreement. 

As a product of extensive negotiations during the 

past year, nine commercial and foreign users, including Comsat, Western Union, RCA, Telesat/ 

Canada, and the governments of India, Iran, Indonesia, and the Federal German Republic have made 

payments or deposits on STS flight reservations. 

Together with NASA’s own payloads, plus firm 

commitments from DoD and other U.S. government 

agencies, all flights planned for the first few years 

of STS operations are guaranteed to have payloads. 

A program to provide for small, self-contained 

payloads was begun by NASA in 1977. Individuals, 

educational institutions, and industries can fly small 

payloads requiring minimal support from the Shuttle on a space-available basis at very reasonable 

prices. Both in the U.S. and abroad, this program 

has been extremely successful in attracting new 

users; by the end of 1978, advance payments had 

been received for more than 270 individual payloads, with a wide variety of ideas and experiments. 

The response from educational institutions has 

been particularly gratifying, since it indicates renewed interest from young people in space research 

and exploration. Several universities are offering 

science scholarships or grants for students to develop payloads. 

DoD has received approval to install STS launch 

and recovery facilities at Vandenberg AFB, California, to handle high-inclination missions. NASA has 

been negotiating for maximum commonality of 

ground equipment at KSC and Vandenberg. Agreement was reached this year and procurement 

initiated of common equipment, reducing both acquisition and operating costs. 

Flight Crew. In anticipation of STS operations, 

35 new astronaut candidates, including six women, 

were selected in 1978 and began training at NASA’s 

Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The 

training includes classroom sessions, survival training, and familiarization with the flight environment of space. 

Spacelab 

When the concept of the Space Shuttle was 

taking form some years ago, many discussions were 

held between NASA and European agencies in pursuit of a mutual goal-that Europe participate from 

the outset in the Space Shuttle and in a form that 

was, first, a major contribution, and, second, a discrete and readily identifiable element. The result 

was Spacelab, a science laboratory housed in the 

cargo bay of the orbiter and used for a variety of 

experiments in one or many science disciplines, 

and that can be reused for as many as 50 flights. 

Under the 1973 agreement between the European 

Space Agency and NASA, ESA is responsible for the 

design, development, manufacture, and delivery to 

NASA of the first Spacelab flight unit, an engineering model, two sets of ground-support equipment, 

and spares to support the first two missions. Total 

cost of Spacelab development to Europe is estimated at $600 million. On the other side, NASA 

agreed to be responsible for operations with Spacelab and for secondary equipment such as the crew 

tunnel joining the orbiter cabin and Spacelab. In 

addition, NASA plans to begin in 1979 the pur30 
chase of additional Spacelab production items from 

ESA. 

In 1978, a major development milestone for 

Spacelab was achieved when it passed the overallsystem critical design review. Many components for 

the first flight unit were fabricated and delivered to 

the integration site in Bremen, Germany. 

Testing of systems and components accelerated 

in 1978. All testing of electrical system integration 

was completed. Subsystem qualification is past the 

halfway point at subcontractor facilities. The first 

set of electrical ground-support equipment passed 

the acceptance test, is now supporting testing of the 

engineering model, and will be delivered to NASA. 

Deliveries are on schedule to support the first 

Shuttle/Spacelab mission planned for August 1981. 

NASA expects to complete modification of the operations and checkout building at KSC in February 

1979. This is the building in which the Spacelab 

will be prepared for launch. 

Inertial Upper Stages 

The Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) system is being 

designed and developed by DoD to extend the capability of the Space Shuttle into orbits that are 

beyond the capability of the Space Shuttle alone. 

The solid-propellant IUS and its payload will be 

carried to low Earth orbit in the cargo bay of the 

orbiter, where the IUS will be deployed to reboost 

its payload. NASA will use a two-stage configuration of the IUS primarily to achieve geosynchronous orbit, a three-stage version for planetary orbit. 

The first NASA use of the two-stage version will be 

for the launch of the Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite System into geosynchronous orbit in early 

1981; the first planetary mission will be Galileo, 

scheduled for launch in January 1982. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stages 

Two sizes of Spinning Solid Upper Stages 

(SSUS) are being developed by industry at its own 

expense for launch of smaller spacecraft to geosynchronous orbit. The SSUS-D is configured for satellites that have been using the Delta expendable 

launch vehicle, the SSUS-A for those using the Atlas-Centaur. Both versions use spin stabilization 

and solid motors for simple, reliable, economical 

systems that provide easy transition to the Space 

Shuttle. Designs are nearing completion and flight 

hardware is being manufactured. NASA has ordered SSUS-As for Comsat’s Intelsat V communications satellite missions and for NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite missions. 

Commercial users are buying SSUS-Ds directly 

from the developer. 

Skylab Reboostl Deorbit 

Skylab was the first U.S. orbiting laboratory; 

launched in May 1973, it was operated by three 

successive crews for a total of 171 days and was 

left dormant in February 1974 with an orbital life 

projected to extend to about 1983. Since that time, 

sunspot activity has been higher than predicted, 

making the upper atmosphere more dense and accelerating Skylab’s rate of orbital decay. NASA 

made studies of how Skylab might best be boosted 

into a higher orbit or, alternatively, powered into 

a controlled, safe reentry. In October 1977 the Teleoperator Retrieval System was approved; to have 

been carried into orbit by an early flight of the 

Space Shuttle, it would have had the capability to 

adjust Skylab’s orbit. 

In late November 1978, NASA reassessed the entire concept of altering Skylab’s orbit. In December 

the effort was discontinued because of its limited 

chance of success. The reasons: 

a general deterioration of systems onboard 

Skylab made it unlikely that spacecraft responses could be counted on through April 

1980 

sunspot activity in recent months was at a high 

level, further accelerating the decay of Skylab’s 

orbit 

the mission for Skylab, intended for the second 

Space Shuttle orbital flight, would have been 

difficult to execute before April 1980, whereas 

Skylab was now predicted to reenter the atmosphere sometime between mid- and late-1979. 

Studies will continue on possible applications of 

the Teleoperator Retrieval System to other payload 

delivery and retrieval requirements in the 1982- 

1983 time period. 

Advanced Programs 

Advanced studies continued in 1978 to look at 

future options for improved space concepts and 

more advanced hardware. 

One group of studies centered around the Shuttle, particularly concepts for new stages and systems 

that would augment Shuttle capabilities. One continuing series of studies examined the electrical 

power extension module, for use with Spacelab 

missions, and lower-power and high-power modules 

for future missions. Evaluation of the concept for 

the low-power module (25 kilowatts) was completed; consideration of the high-power module 

(250 kilowatts) began. In concepts for Shuttle-associated stages, studies continued of orbit-transfer 

vehicles with liquid-fueled engines for propulsion 

to geosynchronous orbit and of solar electric propulsion stages for orbital transfer and planetary 

31 
missions. Design of the latter was brought to the 

point where project development could begin. 

Another set of studies concentrated on the development of and uses for large platforms and structures in space. The studies ranged from groundfabricated structures that can be deployed in space 

as integral units, to systems that can be assembled 

in space froin prefabricated components, to systems 

that can be constructed in space, using fabrication 

equipment such as beam builders. Applications of 

these systems range from high-powered radars, 

radiometers, and multibeain communications systems to very large assemblies for large power 

modules. Of special interest is the concept of a geosynchronous platform to house a large, advanced 

communications system. Here studies have investigated both the design and construction of the platform and the communications applications and economics. Work begun in 1977 on techniques for 

fabricating and assembling large structures in space, 

as well as for deploying large antennas, was continued. Ground tests of a beam builder demonstrated the capability to fabricate virtually endless 

aluminum beams in space, working out of the 

orbiter cargo bay. These concepts are basic to construction of a variety of large structures in spacenot only to support power plants to energize scientific and applications missions but also to support 

very large solar power arrays that might harness 

the energy of the Sun and beam it back by microwave to Earth. Promising studies in the latter category are partially sponsored by the Department of 

Energy. 

Expendable knch Vehicles 

During 1978, NASA conducted a total of 20 

launches for itself and a variety of other users including 2 launches for DoD. Launch vehicles included the Scout, Delta, Atlas-Centaur, and Atlas F. 

Scout. The single launch by this vehicle system 

was of the NASA Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 

in April from the Western Test Range. 

Delta. Still the most popular of the expendable 

launch vehicle family, Delta had 10 launches in 

1978; 2 NASA scientific satellites, the WE and the 

ISEE-C; 2 NASA applications satellites, Landsat-C 

and Nimbus-G; the 6 reimbursable launches were a 

communications satellite for Japan, an experimental communications satellite for the European 

Space Agency, a synchronous weather satellite for NOAA, a scientific satellite for the European Space Agency, and a communications satellite 

each for NATO and for Canada. By the end of 

1978, Delta had a career total of 147 launches. 

Atlas-Centaur. This system had 7 launches: 2 

NASA Pioncer-Venus planetary satellites, a NASA 

scientific satellite HEAO; the reimbursables were 2 

international commercial satellites, a domestic communications satellite for Comsat, and a communications satellite for DoD. 

AtZas F. Developed and managed by DoD, this 

system was used in 1978 for 2 launches: Seasat-A 

and the Tiros-N weather satellite. 

Launch success rate for the year was 100 percent. 

Space Research and Technology 

Expanding our capability for space exploration 

depends on improvements in equipment through 

space research and technology. The areas of technology that NASA has emphasized are materials 

and structures; guidance, control, and information; 

space propulsion systems; and space energy systems. 

Much of this research could also be described as 

applied science, and many of its products have potential applications on Earth. 

Mat&Is and Structures 

Considerations such as weight, strength, and durability in a hostile environment are always important elements in development of advanced launch 

vehicles, efficient orbiting spacecraft, and planetary 

entry probes. Use of improved materials or new 

lightweight structures can significantly reduce the 

cost and increase the payloads of future space 

missions. 

Materials. A new iron-based alloy was developed 

for use in cryogenic fuel tanks; it has the highest 

combination of toughness and strength at low temperatures of any known material. Made by adding 

small amounts of copper and aluminum to a commercial iron-nickel alloy, the new alloy is 100 percent stronger than commonly used stainless steel 

and 400 percent tougher than commercial cryogenic 

steel. 

A new surface insulation material developed in 

1978 is about three times as strong as the highest 

strength material currently planned for use as reusable surface insulation on the Shuttle, to withstand the high temperatures of reentry. Of equal 

promise is its strain resistance: it is five times more 

resistant to strain than present materials, making it 

a prime candidate for use with composite structures 

of graphite-polyimide that are being developed for 

advanced space transportation systems. 

Structures. Development of graphite-polyimide 

structures for use in advanced space transportation 

systems offers promise of dramatic reduction in 

structural weight by making possible a substantial 

reduction in the thickness of thermal insulation. 

This year processing and fabricating methods have 

32 
been identified that will repetitively produce highquality structural components. The effort in the 

coming year will center on fully characterizing the 

usable properties of the material so that test components can be designed and developed. 

It is likely that the next decade or two will see 

the need for spacecraft that are too large to fit 

in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Concepts 

were further defined in 1978 for spacecraft that 

could be constructed in elements and modules, to 

be packed in the cargo bay and then assembled in 

space. The intent for the coming year is to develop 

many of these concepts into experimental hardware 

and test them to derive operational design 

characteristics. 

Guidance, Control, and InforMiort 

NASA's work in guidance, control, and information in 1978 continued to focus on developing a 

technology base that would enable a 1000-times increase in flow of space-derived information at onetenth the cost of mission operations. 

Guidance and Control. Completed this year was 

an extended-life attitude control system for spacecraft, designed to improve reliability, accuracy, and 

flexibility over previous systems. It consists of an 

advanced solid-state star tracker, magnetic-bearing 

reaction wheels, a long-life inertial reference system, and fault-tolerant programmable microprocessor electronics. In tests the system met design 

goals of 0.01 degrees pointing accuracy and a lifetime longer than eight years. 

Sensing and Detection. Seeking to improve the 

effectiveness of photographic imaging for terrestrial, 

astronomical, and planetary missions, NASA has 

emphasized the development of solid-state devices 

to improve performance and reliability of sensors. 

Charge-coupled devices-two-dimensional arrays of 

solid-state devices-have been tested as replacements 

for the bulkier, more complex vidicon tubes. In 

1978 the first 800 x 800-element array was built and 

has been evaluated for use in advanced planetary 

and astronomical cameras. Contained on a single 

silicon chip 1.2 centimeters square with a spacing 

of 15 microns between elements, the array provides 

television-quality imagery over the complete visible 

spectrum and into the near infrared bands. Its first 

use will be in high-resolution cameras to be flown 

on the Space Telescope and the Galileo missions. 

Data Reduction and Distribution. Microwave 

tubes are a key component in space communications 

but have been limited in lifespan because of failures in their filament heaters. An advanced cathode 

that emits electrons by field emission, thereby eliminating the need for a heater, has shown promise of 

extending the life of microwave amplifiers by a 

factor of five, upping amplifier lifetime to over 20 

years. This year the first field-emitting cathodes 

were successfully fabricated; they exhibited current 

densities of 20 amperes per square centimeter, 10 

times the capacity of heated cathodes. 

Space-Derived Data Processing. A major bottleneck in converting raw data from spacecraft into 

useful information is the time and expense involved in processing millions of bits of information 

in a general-purpose computer. In an attack on one 

aspect of this problem, NASA has been developing 

a specialized multispectral image classifier which 

can reduce data-processing time to 1/100th the 

present rate. Functional design of the processor 

has been completed; special analog-to-digital 

charge-transfer-device classifiers have been designed 

and tested. A laboratory model of the processor is 

being readied for verification tests of system 

performance. 

Space Propulsion Systems 

Another way in which NASA seeks to reduce cost 

and increase capability of future exploitation of 

space is by research on space propulsion technology. Work in both chemical and electric propulsion 

is aimed at three kinds of space operations: Earthto-orbit and return, orbit-to-orbit transfer, and interplanetary transfer. 

Chemical Propulsion. Technology development 

for a long-duration rocket engine of 92,000 newtons 

(20,000 pounds) of thrust, burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, continued. All engine components have operated at design performance levels. 

In 1978 for the first time both the high-pressure 

liquid-hydrogen and liquid-oxygen turbopumps 

were operated at the rated speeds. The next step 

will be to demonstrate that the components can 

meet the requirements of 10 hours of operation and 

300 restarts. 

For future launch vehicles, this year saw the beginning of combustion studies involving the main 

combustor and preburner. Studies on potential 

high-density fuels and the heat transfer of supercritical liquid oxygen have been completed. In the 

use of new materials in propulsion research, a key 

accomplishment was the successful operation of a 

carbon-carbon composite thrust chamber at 2250" C 

(4000" F). 

Electric Propulsion. In solar electric propulsion, 

NASA is progressing toward a demonstration in 

1980 that the technology is available to build a 

3-kilowatt, 3000-second specific-impulse thrust subsystem which could increase the flexibility of orbital control. This year the baseline power processor has been completed and operated successfully 

with an ion thruster. Final assembly began of a 

33 
dual-mode thrust subsystem (two thrusters, power 

processors, and heat rejection system) . Fabrication 

of the solar array was completed, with extensionretraction tests scheduled for early 1979. 

The one-millipound auxiliary thruster developed 

under the NASA technology program is to be flighttested on an Air Force satellite in 1981. NASA 

began fabrication for the flight hardware and diagnostic instruments. 

Space Elzergy Systems 

NASA’s research in space energy seeks to develop 

high-power, low-cost energy systems and to improve 

their efficiency and lifespan. 

Energy Generation. A major achievement in 1978 

was exceeding the voltage limitation for silicon 

solar cells that had existed since 1954. With high 

voltage comes increased cell efficiency, meaning a 

20 percent reduction in the size, weight, and cost 

of future solar arrays. In development of lightweight solar arrays, ground testing was successful 

on a full-scale, 66-watt-per-kilogram solar array 

wing 32 meters in length; with a full complement 

of solar cells, it will produce 12,500 watts. 

Radioisotope generators employ thermoelectric 

materials for generating electricity. A new thermoelectric material has been developed by the addition of gallium phosphide to silicon germanium 

alloys. Efficiency is 30 percent higher than that of 

material planned for use in the Galileo mission. 

Energy Storage. Batteries often limit the effective 

life of Earth-orbiting satellites. The weak link in 

battery life has been the separators used to prevent 

contact between active materials. Now a new separator has been developed that can double the life 

of batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries incorporating this material are now being tested to verify 

the extension of battery life. 

Energy Management and Distribution. Using a 

new process, the highest power, fast-switching transistor ever made has been fabricated. Prototypes 

have been tested on spacecraft power controllers 

and a DC motor controller. Proposed applications 

include power regulators, linear amplifiers, induction heaters used in kitchen stoves, and in the 

drives of electric vehicles. 

Space Data Services 

Linking the investigator on the ground with the 

spacecraft above are information systems operating 

through the facilities of two worldwide tracking 

networks, a cluster of mission control centers, a 

large-scale data processing complex, and a unifying 

global communications system. From manned 

flights and planetary expeditions to simpler balloon, rocket, and research aircraft flights nearer to 

Earth, flight programs are provided tracking, telemetry reception, command, and voice communications as well as real-time data processing for mission 

control, computational support for determination 

of orbit and trajectory, plus data processing of engineering and science telemetry data. 

Operationu1 Activities 

Data services were provided to some 50 Earthorbital missions in 1978. Some of them were new 

missions that were indicative of future datahandling requirements: Landsat 3, the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission, and Seasat 1 required the 

delivery of high-rate telemetry-exceeding all previous rates-and rapid processing for the production 

of image products. In deep space, 15 missions received support. 

International Tracking Activities 

During the year many foreign space missions were 

provided data services on a reimbursable basis, 

mostly tracking and telemetry during the launch 

phase. Two missions of the European Space Agency, 

GEOS and OTS, and the Canadian Telesat-D received such support while being launched on U.S. 

rockets. Four Japanese missions were provided 

launch support even though they used their own 

launch vehicles. Two French missions, Signe I1 and 

Starlette, received support under a reciprocal agreement under which France provided support to some 

U.S. missions. These were in addition to the many 

cooperative projects that used tracking and data 

services supplied by NASA. 

One of the most important international activities during the year was the intensive preparation 

for the General World Administrative Radio Conference to be held in 1979. Every 20 years such a 

conference convenes to revise the international regulations and frequency allocations that govern the 

use of the entire radio spectrum. NASA assists other 

bodies, both national and international, in developing papers and coordinating technical information. 

Network Progress 

Data Processing Improvements. The Image Processing Facility at Goddard Space Flight Center was 

improved in 1978. New master data processing 

units were delivered; they are the heart of an alldigital image processing system. Special pre-processor equipment was also procured to convert HCMM 

and Nimbus 7 data into a form suitable for use in 

the new master processors. When fully operational, 

this new system will produce more accurate and 

higher resolution images from these missions as 

34 
well as Landsat. Images will be corrected for distortion and delivered to the user within 24 to 48 

hours. The end product is a high-density digital 

tape rather than an expensive, slow-to-produce 

photograph. Rapid delivery of data is especially important to missions that investigate transient phenomena such as the weather. 

Deep Space Network Improvement. Conversion 

of the first 26-meter-diameter antenna to a dualfrequency (S- and X-band) 34-meter antenna has 

been completed at Goldstone, California. This improved facility will be ready to support the Voyager 

missions in their Jupiter encounters early in 1979. 

The addition of the X-band will allow higher rates 

of data return from interplanetary distances and 

reflects the general trend toward higher frequencies 

to improve the science return. Similar conversions 

were begun on antennas located in Spain and 

Australia. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA supports work in the field of energy to 

ensure the effective use of NASA experience and 

technology in support of national energy needs. 

The majority of NASA activity in energy is in 

direct, reimbursable support for the programs of 

the Department of Energy (DOE). 

NASA investigates in 14 energy technology areas; 

the largest are wind, solar heating and cooling, 

photovoltaics, and advanced ground transportation. 

Energy work in NASA totaled almost $150 million 

in 1978 and used the expertise of more than 500 

scientists and engineers. 

Wind Energy 

During 1978 NASA’s Lewis Research Center 

made major advances in the technology for large 

wind turbines. Two systems, each capable of supplying power for approximately 100 homes, are now 

in place-one in Clayton, New Mexico, the other 

in Culebra, Puerto Rico. A larger system, intended 

to supply power for about 250 homes, is in fabrication and scheduled for installation at Boone, North 

Carolina, in 1979. 

Solar Heatirtg 

Development of solar heating hardware, begun 

at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in 1976, 

is now in its final phase. Thirty-five heating systems 

have been installed at various locations throughout 

the country with on-site data feeding into a systems 

evaluation. 

Photovoltaic Cmersion (Solar Cells) 

Photovoltaic research and development is under 

way at several NASA laboratories, with the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory in the lead role. The goal 

is to achieve a cost for electricity generated by silicon solar cells of $0.50 per peak watt in 1986. Since 

the program began in 1974, the cost has been 

reduced from an average of $50 per peak watt to a 

range of $7 to $10, and the prospects lead to optimism that the $0.50 goal will be met. Techniques 

for automated production and new production 

technology will be required, but the requisite processes appear to have been identified. 

Since today’s cost of electric power supplied by 

solar cells is high compared to conventional power 

sources, cost-effective applications are largely restricted to remote sites where power is unavailable 

or is available only at a substantial premium. This 

situation exists in some of the less developed countries. To gain experience in this kind of environment, NASA recently joined with the Agency for 

International Development (AID) in a project to 

provide solar cell power for grinding grain and 

pumping water in Upper Volta. System development is now complete. Lewis Research Center and 

AID personnel are working together to develop the 

operational and maintenance procedures that will 

enable the equipment to be operated and maintained by local personnel. 

Aeronautical Research and Development 

NASA’s aeronautical research seeks improvements in performance and safety of the current aircraft fleet and a base of high technology that designers can use to improve aircraft of the next 

generation. These objectives focus research onto 

reducing energy consumption of aircraft 

reducing undesirable environmental effects of 

improving aircraft terminal-area operations 

advancing the concepts for future long-haul 

solving problems in support of development of 

aircraft noise and pollution 

and safety 

and short-haul air transportation 

military aircraft. 

lmprouing the Energy Eficiemy of Aircraft 

NASA made progress in 1978 toward its goal of 

developing the technology that would reduce fuel 

consumption by derivative and future aircraft engines by as much as 50 percent. 

Engine Systems. For derivative engines some 130 

potential improvements were identified in compo. 

nent technology for the JT8D, JTSD, and CF6 

35 
engines. The 17 selected for development should 

reduce fuel consumption by as much as 5 percent; 

as an example, flight tests with a B-52 aircraft verified a 1.3 percent reduction in fuel consumption by 

use of turbofan blades with a 3.8 aspect ratio in a 

JT9D engine. For the CF6 engine, an engine mount 

was tested to investigate reduced blade-to-case 

clearance in the compressor; this could lead to 

reducing fuel consumption and direct operating 

Studies of performance deterioration in revenue 

service engines showed that deterioration in perforlnance is more dependent on the number of engine cycles than on length of service. Diagnostic 

data from ground and flight evaluations, plus historical engine and parts data, confirmed that the 

core of the engine accounted for about two-thirds 

of performance loss, with compressor deterioration 

predominating at higher cycles. Further analysis 

will improve understanding of deterioration and 

means of recovering losses. 

For new turbofan engines, research was begun in 

1978 on longer-range component technology intended to reduce fuel consumption by 12 percent. 

Each of the following components will be studied: 

the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and exhaust nozzle, and seals and clearance control. 

New propeller configurations, designed to increase efficiency and reduce noise, were tested. 

Models (62 centimeters in diameter) of three new 

designs for eight-bladed propellers achieved maximum efficiencies of up to 79 percent at design conditions of mach 0.8 and 10,500 meters altitude. Qne 

of the three was 10 times quieter than the other 

Aerodynamic and Active Controls. Through a 

series of wind-tunnel tests, substantial progress was 

made in study of the effects of high-lift devices, 

winglets, and wing-tip extensions. Several high-lift 

designs using flaps and slats achieved greater lift 

coefficients with the supercritical wing than those 

obtained on current transport aircraft. Winglets designed to improve efficiency of current transports 

were verified to reduce drag by 3 to 5 percent. 

Similar wind-tunnel studies of wing-tip extensions 

showed drag reductions of as much as 3 percent. 

The joint NASA/Air Force experimentation with 

winglets mounted on a KC135 aircraft completed 

checkout of instrumentation and calibration flights 

in preparation for flight-verification tests in 1979. 

The previously instrumented LlOl 1 was modified 

with wing-tip extensions to verify in flight the 

wind-tunnel predictions. Also there was to be flight 

evaluation of an active control system for wing 

maneuver and gust load control. Since system reliability is the key to the use of active controls, 

two redundancy concepts were selected for further 

costs. 

two. 

development of the central computer. One design 

uses software to obtain fault tolerance in the control system; the other uses hardware redundancy. 

Research in control of laminar flow is seeking a 

practical, reliable system that will reduce drag by 

20 to 40 percent. Theoretical and wind-tunnel investigations have produced computer programs that 

enable prediction of the flow parameters and suction requirements needed to maintain laminar flow. 

These predictions will be used in developing three 

structural concepts that, for the least increase in 

weight, will provide the needed surface smoothness 

and amount of suction. 

Structures. Structures research is presently concentrated on advanced composite structures and 

demonstrating their practical application in flight 

with six components now flying on transport aircraft. A design data base is being built from static, 

fatigue, and sonic test data from materials coupons 

and structural elements. For the DClO rudder components made of composites and installed on aircraft, their test continued this year; periodic inspections showed no degradation after three years of 

flight. The manufacturing concept for these components was validated with the production of a batch 

of 10 of them. Testing of the first full-scale parts, 

such as a 3-meter section of the B727 elevator and a 

2.5-meter segment of the spar for the LlOll vertical fin, is leading up to test verification of fullscale subcomponents. 

Redzicing Undesirable Environmental Effects 

NASA made gains in 1978 in its research to reduce the undesirable noise and exhaust pollution 

from aircraft. 

Aircraft Noise Reduction. This year a computer 

program that predicts noise sources and propagation effects for individual aircraft became operational. Validation studies compared predictions to 

measured aircraft noise for six types of aircraft 

ranging from the Learjet to the Concorde. The 

predictions were consistently good. Further validation is applying the predictions to high-bypass-ratio 

engines, and modules are being added for prediction of noise from helicopters and propeller-driven 

aircraft. 

Work was begun on accurate ground simulation 

of inlet noise from inflight turbomachinery. 

Neither static ground tests nor wind-tunnel tests 

had been able to produce data that could be extrapolated with confidence to flight conditions. Preliminary data indicate that the information can be 

produced in ground tests if a turbulence control 

structure is placed in front of the engines. 

Together with the Environmental Protection 

Agency, NASA began research on a design for gen36 
eral-aviation propellers that optimizes aerodynamic 

performance at the lowest noise level. New theories 

on propeller noise are being applied to redesign 

of propellers on two different general-aviation 

aircraft. 

Two noise studies were conducted in cooperation 

with the Federal Aviation Administration. In one 

study that was part of an international study on 

noise certification requirements for helicopters, 

ground observers at NASA’s Wallops Flight Center 

evaluated the annoyance level of the blade-slapping 

noise associated with some overflying helicopters. 

Results showed no significant increase in individual 

annoyance; the certification scale does not need 

modification to be applied to helicopters. In the 

other study, NASA monitored the vibration response of buildings affected by Concorde and other 

aircraft flying over communities near Dulles and 

Kennedy Airports. Though well below levels that 

could cause -damage to the buildings, vibration 

levels were high enough to be detected by people 

within the buildings. Vibration levels from Concorde noise were generally higher, but in accord 

with the amount that Concorde noise exceeded the 

noise of other jet transports rather than being a 

unique feature of the Concorde’s noise spectrum. 

Emissions Reduction. For several years NASA has 

been experimenting with new combustor technology for large turbine engines in an effort to reduce 

undesirable emissions. Three advanced combustor 

concepts designed for significant reductions in emissions of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons during engine idle tested very well. Carbon 

monoxide emissions were reduced by a factor of 

20 to 30 less than current combustors and a factor 

of 10 less than previous low-emission designs. In 

1978 the new combustor technology was successfully 

applied to reduction of emissions from small aircraft during takeoff and landing. 

Work was begun to develop and evaluate concepts for ultra-low emission combustors. Fundamental investigations of the combustion process 

have indicated that further substantial reductions 

in emissions of oxides of nitrogen may be possible. 

This would be especially useful in minimizing the 

environmental effects of high-altitude flight. Studies 

on further reducing emissions during takeoff and 

landing have explored lean fuel/air burning 

through premixed/prevaporized and catalytic combustion techniques. 

Improvilzg Terminal-Area Operatiom cmd Safety 

Since terminal-area operations are very demanding on facilities, personnel, and money and since a 

high percentage of aircraft accidents are associated 

with takeoffs and landings, concern for improvement in these areas is unremittant. 

Terminal-Area Operations. NASA and FAA have 

a continuing cooperative effort to develop technology for advanced airborne systems and flight procedures that will provide more efficient operations 

in terminal areas. In one joint program, a NASA 

B737 aircraft with advanced digital display, navigation, and flight control systems demonstrated 

coupled, curved approaches and automatic landings 

and roll-out at Montreal’s Dorval Airport using the 

U.S. Time Reference Scanning Beam Microwave 

Landing System (MLS). These flights demonstrated 

the U.S. system to representatives of the International Civil Aviation Organization. This group 

subsequently selected the U.S. system as the new 

international precision-guidance landing system, 

supplanting the 35-year-old Instrument Landing 

System. 

To encourage industry to develop low-cost MLS 

airborne equipment for use by general aviation and 

small communities, NASA is demonstrating the 

flight performance of an MLS receiver designed to 

an installed cost of less than $1500. 

Safety. As part of its concern for air-transportation safety, NASA has operated a continuing research program to improve runway traction, 

braking effectiveness, and directional control of aircraft under adverse conditions such as slippery runways, strong crosswinds, or landing-gear problems. 

During 1978 a three-year flight investigation of the 

limitations of crosswind landing was completed. 

The research vehicle used in this investigation was 

a Twin Otter aircraft. It was evaluated with both 

a conventional tricycle landing gear and with an 

experimental crosswind gear. The most critical 

problem was control of the aircraft during landing 

roll-out. With the conventional gear, maximum 

tolerable crosswind was 25-35 kilometers per hpur 

(15-20 knots); with the crosswind gear, satisfactory 

landings were made with crosswinds between 45 

and 55 kilometers per hour (25-30 knots), about 

half the stall speed of the aircraft. The experimental gear also eliminated the demands on the 

pilot and the need for large control movements to 

decrab or slip the aircraft prior to touchdown. This 

allowed the controls to be near their neutral position at the start of the landing roll, leaving the 

full control range available for additional correction. This technology is available to commuterclass aircraft serving small airports offering little 

choice of runway or orientation. 

NASA continued the Aviation Safety Reporting 

System (ASRS) which receives, processes, and transmits processed data to the Federal Aviation Administration on reports of unsafe events that are submitted by persons in the aviation community. The 

aviation community continues to submit about 100 

reports per week; a data bank of more than 9000 

safety reports can now be studied. 

37 
Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft 

Efforts continued to develop and prove the technology for supersonic aircraft more efficient and 

much quieter than today’s version. And considerable progress has been made on demonstrating the 

feasibility of future very high-lift, very quiet shorthaul aircraft that operate at very low approach 

speeds. 

Long Haul. Research continued on technology 

for supersonic aircraft that could be economically 

attractive and environmentally acceptable. Aeroacoustic tests of models with small-scale nozzles 

verified noise predictions, including forward-velocity effects. Engine nozzle concepts for both double 

bypass and variable stream control were investigated. Predictions of jet noise were found to correlate very well with the experimental acoustical 

data. In addition, significant reductions in shock 

noise were verified for annular plug nozzles with 

inverted velocity profiles. Construction was completed for large-scale testing of a plug nozzle that 

would be mated with a core engine as part of the 

research on variable-cycle-engine components. 

Flight tests of components for supersonic aircraft 

research continued to use the high-speed YF-12 aircraft. Extensive flight tests of a cooperative control 

system were completed, successfully demonstrating 

in high-supersonic-speed flight the integration of 

aircraft inlet and engine controls. Recently inlet 

control aspects of the system were being refined. 

To investigate YF-12 structural dynamics, a shaker 

vane system was installed and initial testing was 

completed. In airframe research on the ground, investigations were started of structural concepts for 

advanced superplastically formed/diffusion bonding 

in long-life, low-cost supersonic cruise aircraft. 

Fabrication of various structural elements was 

begun. 

Quiet Propulsiye-Lift Technology. In early 1978 

NASA’s Quiet Short-Haul Research Airplane rolled 

out of the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington. 

This was a major step in NASA’s research program 

to obtain data for the design and certification of 

short-haul, powered-lift transports. 

After flight acceptance tests, the airplane was 

delivered to NASA’s Ames Research Center, where 

in August it began its year-long proof-of-concept 

flight test program. Results thus far indicate that 

actual performance meets the design goals and predictions. The airplane has demonstrated a wide 

range of research capability, including a very high 

approach-lift coefficient-about three times that of 

conventional jet transports-and very high control 

power which makes possible terminal-area operations at very low approach speeds-about 100 kilometers per hour (55 knots). And it is extremely 

quiet. During its test phase, the airplane will be 

used to investigate control requirements, handling 

qualities at low approach speeds, steep approach 

and takeoff flight paths, and operational procedures 

and techniques with one engine inoperative. 

Technical Support of the Military 

NASA aeronautical programs include broadbased research in support of military aeronautics. 

The emphasis is on advances in technology that 

offer opportunities for significant improvements in 

capability. These can then be considered by DoD 

in planning and developing the next generation of 

military aircraft. 

Stall-Spin Research. For several years NASA, in 

cooperation with DoD, has conducted an intensive 

series of investigations into the undesirable stallspin characteristics of modern fighter aircraft. In 

1978 the program continued to yield valuable data, 

this time in determining the influence of aircraft 

nose shape on spin characteristics. Out of the study 

have come several design approaches for control 

systems that would inhibit the high-angle-of-attack 

departures that lead to stalls and spins. 

AirframelPropulsion Interactions. Another problem with modern, very high-powered aircraft has 

been that the large interactions generated by the 

powerful propulsion system have distorted the aerodynamic design of the airframe and thus degraded 

the overall performance. Flight data from the 

USAF F-15 and wind-tunnel data have provided the 

correlations needed to improve our ability to predict interactions between propulsion aerodynamics 

and airframe aerodynamics. 

NASA-Military Flight Research. The long tradition of NASA and the military services using military-funded research aircraft to gather design and 

operating data continued in 1978. The two NASA/ 

Army Rotor Systems Research Aircraft are being 

flown, one in the pure helicopter configuration, the 

other in the compound configuration using wing 

and auxiliary engines. 

The NASA/Army Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft 

has been successfully tested in the full-scale wind 

tunnel at speeds up to 335 kilometers per hour (180 

knots). The first of the two prototypes is now 

entering its NASA flight-research phase. 

The two NASAIAir Force Highly Maneuverable 

Aircraft Technology remotely powered vehicles 

have been delivered to NASA and are in integration and checkout prior to flight testing. 

Cargo Aircraft Studies. In cooperation with the 

Air Force, NASA completed this year a series of 

studies defining the advanced technology needed to 

support the eventual development of cargo aircraft 

that would meet the future needs for both military 

strategic airlift and commercial air cargo. 
III 

Introduction 

The Department of Defense’s activities in space 

and aeronautics are fundamental to the national 

security. These activities range from scientific research and development, which support a strong 

technological base, to implementation of new concepts and systems, which provide better and more 

efficient ways of satisfying requirements in such 

areas as communications, command and control, 

environmental forecasting, navigation, surveillance, 

and experimentation. Although those activities are 

military in nature, close cooperation between the 

DoD and other governmental agencies continues to 

produce benefits for the civilian sector. 1978 witnessed a broad spectrum of advances in space activities, including continued progress in the DoD 

program to use the Space Shuttle, while aeronautical efforts were highlighted by new technological 

applications which promise improved aircraft operating efficiencies and navigational aids. The year 

also witnessed continued activity in developing 

concepts, designs, and technology for implementation of new spaceborne space surveillance systems. 

Department of Defense 

This report simmarizes the major 

nautics activities for 1978. 

space and aeroSpace Activities 

Militmy Satellite Commumications 

Satellite communications systems have become 

an important asset for both commercial and military applications because they offer a number of 

distinct capabilities: near-global coverage, service 

to isolated areas, wide transmission bandwidths, 

contingency operations, and mobile platform connectivity. The DoD uses leased satellite service in 

support of its communications needs, but it cannot 

depend upon commercial satellites alone for satellite communications for worldwide command and 

control of U.S. military forces. 

Defense requirements for satellite communications call for three categories of capability: (1) 

high-capacity, high-data-rate, long-haul, point-topoint communications for fixed users; (2) moderate-capacity, low-data-rate communications for 

mobile users; and (3) command and control of 

strategic nuclear forces. Military satellite communications systems which satisfy these mission capabilities must be hardened against nuclear effects; have 

jamming and cryptographic protection; and, in the 

near future, include antisatellite protection. These 

additional design requirements and high-capacity 

communication links are unique to DoD, enhancing communications and command/control 

continuity in a hostile or crisis environment. Currently these three categories of capability are satisfied by: (1) the Defense Satellite Communications 

System Phase I1 (DSCS 11) ; (2) Fleet Satellite 

Communications System (FLTSATCOM) , plus 

leased services on the Marisat Satellite System 

(Gapfiller I); and (3) the Air Force Satellite Communications System (AFSATCOM) , consisting of 

transponders on the Satellite Data System (SDS), 

FLTSATCOM, and other host satellites. During 

the coming decade, these existing systems will be 

replaced in an evolutionary manner by (1) DSCS 

111, (2) Leased Satellite (LEASAT) System, and 

(3) Strategic Satellite System (SSS) . Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS). The mission of the DSCS is to provide 

secure voice and high-data-rate transmissions in 

support of unique, vital national security requirements for worldwide military command and control and crises management. The DSCS supports 

critical, globally distributed communication requirements of the National Command Authorities, 

the Worldwide Military Command and Control 

System (WWMCCS), the Ground Mobile Forces 

(GMF) , the Defense Communications System, the 

Diplomatic Telecommunications Service, the 

White House Communications Agency, selected allies, and other U.S. agencies. When fully operational, the DSCS space segment will consist of four 

active satellites and two on-orbit spares and will 

provide global (less polar) coverage with near 100 

percent availability through the 1980s. To ensure 

continuity of essential communications and enhance survivability during crises situations and a 

potential hostile communications environment, 

39 
evolving DSCS satellites will include an improved 

anti-jam capability in addition to nuclear-effects 

hardening. 

The initial research and development phase of 

the Defense Communications Satellite Program 

provided a limited operational system from 1966 

through 1974. The space subsystem currently consists of four operational spacecraft: two DSCS I1 

satellites (numbers 7 and 8) launched in May 1977 

and DSCS I1 satellites (numbers 11 and 12) 

launched in December 1978. DSCS I1 satellites 

(numbers 9 and 10) failed to achieve orbit in 

March 1978 due to a launch vehicle failure. A successful December 1978 launch of satellites 11 and 

12 will permit the return to NATO of the NATO 

IIIB satellite which was obtained on loan for temporary use. DSCS I1 satellites (numbers 13 and 14) 

will be available for dual launch in May 1979 to 

achieve the desired six-satellite configuration, while 

satellites (numbers 15 and 16) will become available for replenishment in late 1979 and 1980. 

The next generation of DSCS satellites will be 

DSCS 111 models, with improved performance capabilities and protective devices to enhance survivability. During 1978, development of a qualificationmodel satellite, two R&D flight satellites, and 

ground command and control equipment continued. The qualification model is scheduled for 

completion, test, and evaluation in 1979. 

The DSCS 111 satellite will have multiple, independent transponders to efficiently handle both 

small and large terminals. Its communications 

channels will have improved anti-jam protection 

through the use of multiple-beam antennas capable 

of nulling or minimizing uplink jamming signals. 

In addition to the normal S-band tracking, telemetry, and command functions operated by the Air 

Force SCF, the DSCS 111 satellite will have a superhigh-frequency (SHF) command capability, controlled operationally by the Defense Communications Agency. This capability will improve response 

time for reconfiguration of antenna systems. The 

satellite will conform to nuclear survivability guidelines and will have a mean mission duration of 

about ten years. Since the Space Shuttle will become operationally available during the life of the 

DSCS I11 program, the new satellite is being designed to be Shuttle-compatible. The SHF communications satellite requirements of the 1980s and 

beyond will be satisfied by the increased capability 

and flexibility of the DSCS I11 satellite. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FL TSA TCOM). Moderate-capacity, mobile-user 

service will be provided by the FLTSATCOM. Its 

objective is to implement a satellite communications system to satisfy the most urgent, worldwide, 

tactical peacetime and crisis management communications requirements of the Navy and strategic 

communications requirements of the Air Force. 

Production contracts for five FLTSATCOM spacecraft have been awarded and the first spacecraft 

was launched in February 1978. Installation of fleet 

broadcast receivers is virtually complete, with systems installed in nearly 300 ships and 150 submarines. Additionally, over 120 ships are now 

equipped for reliable, long-range, secure voice operation. Shipboard terminal equipment is now 

operating through both the MAKISAT and 

FLTSATCOM systems. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System 

(AFSA TCOM). AFSATCOM will provide command and control communications for strategic 

forces. The terminal segment will consist of airborne, mobile, and fixed terminals. Terminal 

deployment began in 1978 and will continue for 

the next four to five years. The space segment consists of three phases. Phase I, the current system, 

employs transponders on several types of spacecraft, including FLTSATCOM and the Satellite 

Data System (SDS). Phase 11 will employ single 

channel transponders on host satellites and an upgraded SDS. Planning for phase 111, the Strategic 

Satellite System (SSS), is underway. It could include further upgrades to the phase I1 system or a 

new satellite system. 

Satellite Communications Ground Support. The 

Army Satellite Communications Agency is responsible for the development and acquisition of 

strategic and tactical satellite communications 

ground terminals for use by all services. Two major 

projects in this program element are the DSCS I1 

and the Ground Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite 

Communications Program. A third and smaller 

project in this program is devoted to the exploratory development required to support the two 

major projects. 

During 1978, the last of 18 fixed DSCS terminals 

(AN/FSC-78) were certified and put into operational use. Also 23 Digital Communication Subsystems, which convert the existing analog system 

to digital operation, were shipped to DSCS terminals, making a total of 30 such shipments to the 

field. Activity continued on six transportable DSCS 

terminals (AN/TSC-86) scheduled for delivery 

commencing in late 1979. A production contract 

was awarded in 1978 for 21 AN/GSC-39 DSCS terminals which will have two deployment configurations: fixed and van mounted. 

Tactical Satellite Communications. Several small 

SHF terminals have been under test since June 

1975. These small terminals are now under contract for low-rate initial production. When fully 

40 
deployed, they will provide mobile, multi-channel 

communications for the ground mobile forces 

transmitting through the DSCS satellites from the 

field. A contract for 200 UHF vehicular terminals 

was awarded in September 1978. Deployment of 

these terminals will commence in 1980 in support 

of NATO. A UHF manpack terminal is presently 

scheduled for procurement in 1979. The interim 

operational capability provided by the test models 

continues to support various contingencies and 

field exercises. Operational testing through the year 

has refined concepts for use of this significant 

transmission medium in support of combat 

readiness. 

International Cooperation in Space. In April 

1978 the U.S. and United Kingdom implemented 

an arrangement whereby the U.S. provides capacity 

on DSCS I1 satellites to the U.K., in exchange for 

which the U.K. provides an equivalent amount of 

telecommunications services to the U.S. Earth terminals of the U.S. and U.K. continued to interoperate in mutual support of each other’s 

operations. 

The U.S., U.K., and NATO continued in agreement for a post-1975 communications satellite arrangement. The parties exchange satellite capacity 

during specified contingency conditions and allocate channels temporarily on a day-to-day basis 

when difficulties are experienced. 

As a result of an agreement signed in September 

1976 between the U.S. and NATO, and two extensions signed in 1978, the U.S. has had exclusive use 

of the NATO IIIB satellite during 1977 and 1978. 

In return, the U.S. will provide NATO with equivalent DSCS satellite capacity at a time to be designated by NATO and agreed to by the U.S. 

By agreement with the Soviet Union, the new 

Direct Communications Link between the U.S. and 

U.S.S.R. was officially activated for use on 16 January 1978. This communications link utilizes the 

Soviet Molniya and the commercial Intelsat satellite systems. The occasion was marked by simultaneous press releases and the transmission of an 

inaugural message by working level personnel. 

With this new capability, it was possible to cancel 

one of the terrestrial “hotline” circuits, designated 

TGP-2, on 1 July 1978. 

Navigdim Satellite Activity 

Navy Navigation Satellite System (Transit). The 

Transit system had its thirteenth year of operation 

in 1978. The purpose of developing Transit was to 

provide a worldwide, two-dimensional system for 

position fixing, primarily in support of strategic 

ballistic missile submarines. Transit usage has been 

expanding, both militarily and commercially. It 

has been adapted to such diverse activities as offshore oil exploration and measurement of the drift 

of ice over the poles. The five satellites provide an 

opportunity for a user to take a position fix every 

two hours or less, depending upon the latitude. In 

October 1977, a modified Transit satellite was 

placed in orbit carrying two specially instrumented 

transponders, or radio relays, called translators. 

These translators will test a Trident Missile Tracking System (SATRACK) and check out and calibrate range safety ground stations and equipment, 

in support of Trident I missile testing. 

Since the early 1970s, a Transit improvement 

program has been under way. The improved satellites will provide greater survivability, as well as a 

compensation system to adjust for orbital disturbances caused by solar radiation pressure and atmospheric drag. The first of these satellites is planned 

to be launched in the fall of 1979, the second in the 

spring of 1980. 

The NAVSTAK Global Positioning System 

(GPS). GPS is a joint service program to provide an 

increased capability for three-dimensional, highaccuracy, continuous, worldwide navigation. The 

operational NAVSTAR GPS will consist of 24 satellites at 20,400 kilometers altitude in three orbital 

planes, a ground segment for calibration and control of the satellites, and 25,000 to 35,000 user 

equipments of various classes. The GPS will provide all-weather coverage using a common grid, 

enabling users to passively determine position to 

within 10 meters and velocity to within .03 meter 

per second. A lower cost receiver will provide less 

accurate information (100-200 meters) suitable for 

most navigational purposes. The system may also 

be used to provide precise worldwide time transfer. 

NAVSTAR GPS is in the concept-validation 

phase. The fourth GPS satellite was launched into 

orbit on December 10, 1978. Two additional satellites will be put into orbit in 1979 to form a constellation of six satellites. Development models of 

all classes of user equipment, including highaccuracy, low-cost, and man-pack models, are being 

extensively field tested. Initial test results confirm 

expectations for this system. 

Navigation Technology Satellite 2 (NTS 2), developed by the Naval Research Laboratory, was 

launched in 1977. The NTS 2 allowed (1) cvaluation of cesium frequency standards, (2) initial 

checkout of the NAVSTAR GPS launch vehicle, 

and (3) evaluation of NAVSTAR GPS orbits. Secondary experiments aboard NTS 2 include various 

solar cells, dosimeters, and a laser retroreflector. 

41 
Meteorological Activities 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP). DlMSP continued to provide high-quality 

visual and infrared imagery and other specialized 

meteorological data to support military operations. 

The DMSP obtains weather data for the entire 

Earth four times a day, using two satellites in polar 

orbits. These weather data are stored aboard the 

satellites and later transmitted to Air Force Global 

Weather Central in Nebraska and the Fleet Numerical Weather Central in California. The imagery is 

also transmitted in real time to transportable readout stations at key locations worldwide to support 

tactical operations. DMSP weather data are also 

provided to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration for its weather prediction activities. 

During 1978, the third Block 5D satellite became 

operational. In addition to imagery, these satellites 

provide high-quality vertical temperature and moisture profile data for the entire globe and provide 

precipitating electron counts from the auroral regions. The second of these satellites also provides 

data on the state of the ionosphere. 

A joint Air Force/Navy program was initiated 

in FY 1977 to develop and procure a four-channel 

(19 MHZ-94 MHZ) passive microwave imager for 

DMSP. The sensors will provide data on precipitation location, rate, and type; soil moisture; and on 

sea surface/atmosphere interface. Four of the sensors are planned for deployment on DMSP satellites in 1980-1984. Conceptual design studies for 

the Shuttle-optimized meteorological satellite were 

begun in 1978. 

Surveillrmce Activities 

Early Warning Satellites. Early warning capabilities are provided by an intricate system of groundbased sensors and a constellation of three geostationary satellites which provide the earliest 

indication of a hostile ballistic missile launch 

against the U.S. During 1978, activities continued 

for the development of modifications to ensure 

compatibility of early warning satellite payloads 

with the Titan IIID and Shuttle Inertial Upper 

Stages (IUS) as well as development of improvements to the satellite communications elements. 

The development of improved sensors and onboard processing systems was also completed in 

1978. These developments will be incorporated 

into satellite procurements and retrofitted into 

existing spare satellites with promise to improve 

system accuracy as well as increase on-orbit operational life. 

Space Surueillance. The current capability for 

locating, tracking, and identifying objects in space 

is provided by a network consisting primarily of 

ground-based radar sensors that are deployed for 

purposes other than space surveillance (e.& missile 

warning). This sensor network has a limited capability to detect objects above 5500 kilometers altitude and has gaps in the coverage below this 

altitude. The DoD is currently procuring a 

Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) system to enhance detection and 

tracking of satellites at high altitudes. 

A viable approach, in the long-term, for providing responsive surveillance up to geosynchronous altitudes appears to lie in spaceborne sensors. 

Several research and development activities to develop technology supporting this concept have 

been initiated. 

The first of a series of Air Force Multi-Spectral 

Measurement Program (MSMP) probe launches to 

collect ultraviolet and infrared data on small rocket 

engines in space failed in September 1978. After 

corrective actions are completed, these launches are 

to resume in January 1979. The first series of three 

launches is scheduled for completion in September 

1979 after which a determination will be made to 

launch two additional but higher probe flights. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) continued to develop concepts, designs, 

and technology for advanced strategic surveillance 

from space during 1978. New concepts in optics, 

detector arrays, signal processing, cryogenic cooling, and control systems providing a wider range 

of future missions reached a degree of maturity 

which justifies demonstration in space. The 

DARPA 301 gamma-ray spectroscopy project, to be 

launched in early 1979, employs state-of-the-art intrinsic germanium sensors and newly developed 

long-lived mechanical cryogenic coolers for remote 

location and characterization of radiation sources 

in the upper atmosphere and near space. Responsibility for this project will be transferred to the 

Air Force at the end of FY 1979. Progress in focalplane technology allowed DARPA to initiate the 

Teal Ruby experiment scheduled for Shuttle 

launch in May 1981 to demonstrate detection of 

strategic air vehicles from space, to collect spectral 

and spatial infrared scene data, and to provide a 

demonstration of advanced focal-plane technology. 

The DARPA Mini-Halo experiment is scheduled 

to be launched in 1984 to validate the readiness of 

technology for advanced early warning and multimission surveillance. In 1978, DARPA also initiated 

the Talon Gold Experiment to develop and demonstrate technology to support space applications 

which require precision acquisition, tracking, and 

pointing at long range. 

42 
Space Test Program 

The space test program provides spaceflight test 

and evaluation for DoD R&D experiments and certain operational spacecraft not authorized their 

own means for space flight. Two payloads were 

launched in 1978 on host vehicles: one, a Navigational Package (NAVPAC), was the second of three 

such geodetic satellites placed in orbit; the second 

payload was a Host Vehicle Pallet (HVP) carrying 

four experiments for learning more about the space 

environment. The last NAVPAC is scheduled for 

launch in 1979. 

Three new spacecraft missions were initiated in 

1978: Satellite Infrared Experiment (SIRE), Teal 

Ruby, and Long Duration Exposure Facility 

(LDEF). The SIRE spacecraft, to be launched on 

an Atlas-F, carries seven experiments; the primary 

experiment tests a new Air Force long-wavelength 

infrared sensor for the detection of satellites. The 

Teal Ruby and LDEF missions will be placed in 

orbit by the Shuttle. The Teal Ruby spacecraft 

carries three experiments; the primary experiment 

tests a new DARPA infrared sensor for the detection of aircraft. The LDEF mission consists of four 

experiments to study the effects on materials and 

will be flown on NASA’s free-flyer, reusable 

spacecraft. 

A new policy was established which specifies that 

the Space Test Program is to become DoD’s pathfinder for exploiting the Shuttle as a manned laboratory in space. 

Space Shuttle Activities 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). The IUS is under 

development by the Air Force to enable higher 

energy missions than the Shuttle can perform directly. The Defense Systems Acquisition Review 

Council conducted a review of the IUS program in 

March 1978. As a result, the Air Force was authorized to proceed with full-scale development of the 

IUS. The first use of IUS with Shuttle is planned 

to deploy the NASA Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite. The IUS will support both NASA and 

DoD needs throughout the Shuttle era. 

Classified Shuttle Operations. Present planning 

for Shuttle operations is predicated on use of 

NASA’s Johnson Mission Control Center (MCC) 

for simulation, training, and flight control for DoD 

Shuttle missions. During 1978, a low-cost approach 

was defined for modification to the MCC which 

will protect classified payload launches on Shuttle 

with minimum disruption to civil users. 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) Shuttle Facilities. Efforts continued during 1978 to acquire 

Shuttle launch and landing capabilities at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California. Vandenberg facilities are required by both civil and DoD 

users to support polar launches and hence complement Kennedy Space Center (KSC) capabilities 

which will support launch to low-inclination orbits 

such as geosynchronous equatorial deployments. 

Commonality of equipment and procedures between KSC and VAFB will minimize acquisition 

costs and operations complexity. 

The requirements definition contract for VAFB 

was completed in mid-1978 and follow-on effort, 

such as design of unique support equipment, development and acquisition of the launch processing 

and computer applications software, preparation of 

installation designs, has begun. Facility construction is planned to start in early 1979 after a review 

of the program by the Defense Systems Acquisition 

Review Council. The initial capability for Shuttle 

operations from VAFB is planned for 1983. 

Space Boosters 

The DoD family of space boosters is comprised 

of the Atlas and Titan 111 standard launch vehicles 

and the surplus IRBM SM-75 Thor and ICBM 

Atlas E/F vehicles. These boosters launched 15 

DoD space missions during 1978: 7 Titan IIIs, 1 

SM-75 Thor, 6 Atlas, and 1 Delta (2 DoD launches 

were conducted by NASA). One launch failure occurred on 25 March 1978, when a Titan IIIC failed 

to orbit two Defense Satellite Communications 

System satellites. 

Space Resertrch md Techology 

Space-related research and technology by the Department of Defense includes efforts defining the 

space environment and assessing its effect on the 

performance of DoD systems operating within it. 

Solar Radiation Monitoring Program. The Navy 

solar monitoring program in 1978 consisted primarily of developing additional applications for operational predictions of propagation phenomena 

affecting HF and VLF radio systems. Solrad Hi and 

Goes satellite data provided significant real-time 

solar measurements for the research and development of a prediction system under evaluation at 

the Naval Communication Station, Stockton, California. The Naval Research Laboratory continues 

to explore basic research studies in solar physics, 

solar terrestrial relationships, and plasma processes 

to determine these solar effects on Navy systems 

and operations. 

As part of the continuing Air Force technology 

program in prediction of propagation environment, solar processes are being investigated and 

solar emissions are measured. The programs in 
solar emissions include the theoretical study of the 

processes leading to solar flares. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory works closely with the National Science Foundation’s Sacramento Peak Observatory. Air Force scientists are developing techniques to forecast the time-history of high-energy 

solar particles that may impact the Earth following 

a major solar flare. The Air Force is installing a 

worldwide radio-solar-telescope network for use 

with the Solar Optical Observing Network. 

Air Force scientists are also participating in 

rocket and satellite observations of solar ultraviolet 

(UL7) emissions. Working closely with NASA 

scientists, Air Force personnel are studying the 

variations in solar UV observed by spectrophotometers on Atmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. Rocket flights designed to measure solar UV 

flares between 230 and 3500 Angstroms continue to 

be flown and, in conjunction with satellite measurements, used to develop models of the solar UV 

emission spectrum. 

Environmental Remote Sensing. Navy accomplishments in 1978 included the initial operation 

of the Satellite Data Processing Center at the Fleet 

Numerical Weather Central, Monterey, California. 

This center processes real-time DMSP data and had 

planned to receive and process the real-time data 

from NASA’s Seasat 1 satellite launched in June 

1978. Data from the DMSP satellites provide 

limited global ocean data for inputs to atmospheric 

and oceanographic operational analyses and forecasts supporting fleet operations and special DoD 

operations. Because of the early failure of Seasat 1, 

real-time processing of the data was not possible. 

An after-the-fact evaluation of the utility of the 

available data will be performed. Continued progress has been made in developing applications of 

satellite-derived infrared imagery in observing seasurface thermal structures and locating oceanic 

fronts, eddies, and water masses. The Navy research community, interfacing with fleet exercises 

conducted during the year, demonstrated the potential of using satellite-collected sea-surface temperatures for tactical applications in antisubmarine 

warfare and undersea warfare. The sea-surface 

temperature measurements and analysis also support the National Climate Program. 

Spacecraft Charging Technology. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory (AFGL) is actively involved 

in the Joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft Charging 

Technology Program. In addition to developing 

theoretical and empirical models of the natural 

environment leading to spacecraft electrical 

charging at synchronous altitude, AFGI, continued 

preparation of a handbook that will document the 

full range of variability of charged particles and 

44 

fields that can be expected at this altitude. Data 

from the Air Force Scatha satellite, to be launched 

in 1979, will be included in a future supplement 

to the handbook. Scatha satellite instrumentation, 

supplied by the Air Force, will include electrostatic 

analyzers, charged particle flux spectrometers, and 

electron and ion beam systems to assess the feasibility of actively controlling satellite charging and 

discharging. Close coordination between the interdependent activities of the Air Force and NASA 

continue through the joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft Charging Technology Program. Models of the 

energetic electron flux at satellite altitudes wiIl be 

implemented to measure energetic electrons in the 

1 10-megavolt range. These measurements are 

needed to determine the dosage rates that satellite 

microcomponents will be subjected to under operational scenarios. 

Aduanced Space Communications. The Advanced Space Communications Program has as its 

goal the development and demonstration of advanced spacecraft and airbornel ground terminal 

technologies to meet future DoD needs for Military 

Satellite Communications (MILSATCOM) systems. 

During 1978, the space technology portion of the 

program concentrated on null steering antennas 

and on-board processors to provide the means for 

future jam-resistant MILSATCOM systems. Spacequalified solid-state amplifiers at 40 and 60 gigahertz were also pursued to provide a reliable alternative to travelling-wave-tubes. During the same 

period, the terminal technology portion of the 

program consisted of a dual-frequency (SHF/EHF) 

terminal, a lightweight SHF terminal, a solid-state 

UHF transmitter, and a command post processor 

for interfacing with multiple MILSATCOM systems. In addition, the Laser Communications Program completed its laboratory test program and 

moved to the White Sands Test Range for initial 

field tests prior to a flight test program in an EC135 aircraft. 

Othel- Technological Activities. Significant efforts in on-board satellite data processing and 

navigation continued. Major emphasis is being 

placed on solid-state mass memories which will be 

more reliable and less vulnerable than current systems and on a high-accuracy, autonomous-navigation, and self-test-and-repair computer. 

In missile surveillance technology, the Air Force 

has developed detector modules for a mosaic starring sensor which may lead to a follow-on missile 

surveillance system having improved survivability 

in laser and nuclear environments. 

In satellite space power systems development, efforts continued on a nickel-hydrogen battery intended to replace current nickel-cadmium units. In 
cryogenic cooling for payloads, a broad complementary program was established between DoD and 

NASA organizations. 

Space Gromd Support 

DoD space activities are principally supported by 

the Air Force’s Eastern and Western Test Ranges, 

Satellite Control Facility, and Arnold Engineering 

Development Center; the Navy’s Pacific Missile 

Test Center; and the Army’s White Sands and 

Kwajalein Missile Ranges. These facilities are 

available for use by Federal agencies, industry, and 

other nations and support a wide variety of test 

and evaluation activities. 

Eastern Test Range (SAMTECIETR). The objective of the Air Force’s ETR is to support a variety of DoD space and ballistic missile operations, 

NASA space programs, and commercial or international satellite launches under the sponsorship of 

NASA. Current improvement emphasizes the enhancement of telemetry, radar tracking, and range 

safety. During FY 1978, ETR provided support to 

Navy testing of Poseidon and Trident Fleet Ballistic Missiles. Launch and data-acquisition support 

were provided to NASA’s Viking program, satellites 

for commercial organizations and foreign governments, and operational space payloads for the Air 

Force and NASA. ETR was also actively engaged in 

conducting planning and analyses in support of the 

Space Shuttle, which will be launched for orbital 

test flights from the Kennedy Space Center in 

1979. 

Western Test Range (SAMTECIWTR). WTR is 

a national range providing range tracking, data 

acquisition, and flight safety support for all ballistic missile and space launches, as well as aeronautical tests. Approximately 45 ballistic missile and 

space launches were conducted in 1978, along with 

20 aeronautical flights. Major aeronautical programs include the F-15 and E-3A. WTR is actively 

engaged in planning for the Space Shuttle launches 

from Vandenberg AFB, which involves extensive 

construction of launch, logistic, and maintenance 

facilities. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF). Fifteen launches 

(DoD, NASA, and ballistic), 72,103 satellite contacts, and 63,732 network hours were supported by 

the SCF during FY 1978. The Guam Tracking 

Station restoration was completed. The network 

initiated support to the NAVSTAR Global Positioning Phase I satellites and to the Navy’s FLTSATCOM satellites. Actions were initiated for the 

data systems modernization/upgrade. This will reduce data processing at remote stations and replace 

the aging (early 1960s vintage) flight-support computers. This four-year program will centralize data 

processing at the Satellite Test Center and, by 

eliminating unnecessary equipment and associated 

manpower, produce significant network savings by 

1982. Modification of the network with Timed 

Division Multiplex telemetry equipment was 

initiated. Expansion of the Thule Tracking Station 

to a dual antenna configuration was begun. Studies 

were continued of SCF support requirements generated by DoD’s transition to the Space Transportation System. 

Pacific Missile Test Center. The Pacific Missile 

Test Center operates an extensively instrumented 

Sea Test Range off the coast of southern California. 

In addition, the Center has radar and telemetry 

capabilities at the Pacific Missile Range facility 

on the island of Kauai, Hawaii. These facilities in 

1978 supported NASA launch operations of the 

Delta/ Landsat-C, Scout / HCMM, and AtlasISeasat. 

Support included radar tracking, telemetry, and 

command destruct systems. The Pacific Missile Test 

Center provided EC-121 telemetry aircraft for recording telemetry data and real-time retransmitting 

of telemetry to the NASA ATS 6 satellite for data 

relay. The Center was also engaged in planning 

support of the NASA Space Shuttle Orbiter. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The 

Army’s WSMR continued to provide support to 

DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. 

A full spectrum of launch, flight, and recovery 

services was provided, including ground and flight 

safety, surveillance, command and control, data 

acquisition, and analyses. Army, Navy, and Air 

Force programs include Nike launches, Aries and 

Astrobee sounding rockets, Aerospace Sounding 

Rocket Vehicle (ASROV), and the Atmospheric 

Measurement Balloon Program. NASA program 

support included the Space Shuttle, the calibration 

rocket program, upper atmospheric sounding using 

Aerohee and Astrobee-F rockets, Nike-series rocket 

firings, Black Brant research vehicles, as well as 

numerous smaller rocket systems and a variety of 

astronomical test programs. Two ground sites for 

calibration of meteorological satellites were also 

maintained for use by NASA. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). The Kwajalein 

Missile Range (KMR) is operated by the Army as 

the major test range for our strategic missile forces, 

both offensive and defensive. It has the sole U.S. 

capability to collect signature data on objects outside the Earth’s atmosphere, record missile reentry 

phenomena, provide terminal trajectory and impact data, recover reentry vehicles when required, 

and transmit near-real-time data to mission sponsors. KMR instruments have also provided backup 

support to NASA space programs. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC). AEDC is the Free World’s most compre45 
hensive complex of technical and support facilities 

designed to simulate flight environments on the 

ground. AEDC’s work ranges from basic R&D associated with environmental testing to full-scale 

flight-hardware testing. In 1978, AEDC provided 

over 45,000 test hours in support of programs such 

as Space Shuttle, B-1, and F-16 aircraft; Air 

Launched Cruise Missile; and support to the Department of Energy. Acquisition of the Aero Propulsion Systems Test Facility (ASTF) will permit 

simulating the severe flight environments experienced by present and future aircraft of larger sizes 

and higher speeds. With it, AEDC will be able to 

fully test air-breathing propulsion systems on the 

ground prior to flight, thus minimizing extensive 

flight tests and avoiding costly modifications to 

completed systems. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircraft and Airborne Systems 

F-16 Multinational Fighter. The development test 

program progressed exceptionally well during 1978 

and the operational application of a number of 

technologies was proven. The flight-by-wire flight 

control system, when integrated with the flight control computers, provides optimum control throughout the aircraft envelope. Aircraft performance has 

been significantly improved by the use of aerodynamic design as well as of advanced engine technologies. The extensive use of aluminum structure 

to reduce cost has been tested to twice the expected 

airframe life of 8000 hours. The F-16, the first of 

which was delivered in August 1978, is meeting requirements and will be officially introduced into 

the Air Force inventory with activation at Hill 

AFB in January 1979. 

B-1 Bomber Program. Plans for production and 

deployment of the B-1 were halted, but development and testing have continued so that the technical base will be available should alternate 

strategic systems run into difficulty. 

Three aircraft have been flying in the test program at Edwards AFB, California, to measure overall performance, gather data on structural air loads, 

complete development of the FlOlX engine, and 

evaluate the offensive avionics subsystem. The 

fourth and last B-1 aircraft is nearing completion 

and will be used to provide further data on the 

effectiveness of a modern, high-speed, low-altitude 

penetrating bomber. The program is a vital steppingstone to future strategic penetrating aircraft. 

A-10 Close-Air-Support Aircraft. The Air Force 

plans to procure 733 A-10s to provide a specialized 

close-air-support aircraft. Research and development is complete, except for new systems being 

added to improve effectiveness. Of the 485 aircraft 

approved for production, over 175 have been delivered to tactical air forces in the U.S. and Europe. 

The first operational wing has three combat-ready 

squadrons. The second operational wing, which is 

being located in USAFE, is currently receiving the 

first of 108 aircraft. Favorable reliability and maintainability factors have continued, so the anticipated low operating costs should be realized. 

F-15 Air Superiority Fighter. Deployment of F-15s 

to tactical units continued in 1978 with the equipping of a wing at Holloman AFB, New Mexico, 

and a separate squadron at Camp New Amsterdam, 

the Netherlands. More than 360 production aircraft were delivered by the year’s end, nearly half 

of the total planned buy of 729 aircraft. 

Two significant improvements were incorporated 

into the F-15 design in 1978. The first increases internal fuel supply, strengthens the landing gear, 

and adds provisions for carrying conformal fuel 

tanks. The second replaces the current radar signal 

processor with a Programmable Signal Processor 

(PSP) to enhance both the current and growth 

capability of the radar system. Deliveries of the 325 

F-15s configured with these improvements will start 

in June 1979. 

F/A-18 Carrier-Based Strike Fighter. The Navy’s 

F/A-18 aircraft is the replacement for the remaining Navy and Marine F-4 Phantom fighters as they 

reach the end of their service life. It will also replace the aging A-7 light attack aircraft in the mid1980s. Introduction of this aircraft into the fleet 

will provide the tactical commander at sea with a 

high-performance, agile strike fighter, capable of 

surviving in hostile territory. The Secretary of Defense has approved full-scale development of this 

aircraft. First flight was in November 1978. 

AV-8B. The success of the AV-SA aircraft in satisfying the light attack vertical/short takeoff and 

landing (V/STOL) requirement of the Marine 

Corps has led to the development of the more 

capable AV-8B. The airplane incorporates a supercritical composite wing, redesigned inlets, and lift 

improvement devices and will be equipped with 

angle-rate bombing systems for improved accuracy 

in weapon delivery. 

The AV-8B program completed the initial phase 

of full-scale wind tunnel testing in 1978 at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center. The NASA data confirm 

that the AV-8B aircraft will have superior V/STOL 

characteristics with approximately double the range 

or payload of the AV-SA. Two YAV-8B (AV-8B 

prototype) aircraft are under contract; the first 

flight occurred in November 1978. 

H-X. The Air Force is taking initial actions to 

provide a replacement for the aging H-3 “Jolly 

46 
Green” helicopter used by the Military Airlift 

Command’s Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service. The Jolly Green helicopters served as the 

vehicle for countless heroic rescue efforts during the 

Southeast Asia conflict but are faced with problems of age. The replacement aircraft, initially 

dubbed “H-X,” is envisioned as a highly sophisticated and highly survivable vehicle, perhaps a 

derivative of the U.S. Army Black Hawk. Equipped 

with the latest state-of-the-art avionics, the helicopter will be capable of long-range penetration of 

enemy territory under the cover of adverse weather 

conditions and/or darkness. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). The Advanced Attack Helicopter program continued in 

full-scale engineering development during 1978. 

Major activities during the year consisted of test 

and evaluation of design modifications on two 

flight prototypes. Fabrication of three additional 

prototype aircraft was started. Bench testing of the 

target acquisition and designation system as well as 

the pilot night vision system was initiated. 

CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 Modernization Program is designed to increase the life of the 

older CH-47A, B, and C model aircraft and improve the performance of the A and B models. 

The development effort is to modify three prototypes and subsequently the current CH-47 fleet 

with seven modernized systems: rotor, drive, hydraulic, electrical, advanced flight control, cargo 

handling, and auxiliary power unit. Integration of 

these changes will result in one standard CH-47 

configuration which facilitates logistical support 

and simplifies maintenance. 

Structural modification of the first two prototypes was completed in 1978. More than three ship 

sets of fiberglass rotor blades were completed and 

over 120 hours of flight testing were accumulated. 

Fabrication of a flight controls integration test rig 

to check out the complete flight control and hydraulic systems is nearing completion. 

E-?A Airborne Warning and Control System 

(AWACS). The E-3A Wing at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, reached operational status in April 1978. To 

evaluate this initial operational capability for airborne surveillance, the Air Force Test and Evaluation Center analyzed the E-SA “Sentry” for supportability during deployment and mission effectiveness during orbit coverage. These tests took 

place during the Brave Shield XVII exercise over 

the Pacific Northwest. 

The first operational deployment of the Sentry 

occurred in October 1978. Two E-3As were deployed to Iceland to replace aging EC-121s and provide airborne surveillance and operations control 

over the North Atlantic. 

Development is continuing to incorporate into 

the E-3A the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) and a maritime surveillance 

radar mode. These improvements will provide the 

E-3A with the latest state-of-the-art command and 

control communications net and enable the E-3A 

to track maritime targets in high sea states. 

E-4 Advanced Airborne Command Post. Airborne command and control of strategic forces is 

vital to ensuring survivability of connections between the National Command Authorities and 

strategic nuclear forces. The E-4 program concept 

offer prospects for survival under severely degraded conditions. 

The E-4B aircraft will have an advanced communications capability that will not be operationally limited to air-to-air or air-to-ground line of 

sight communications. This advanced capability includes the new SHF and UHF airborne satellite 

communications terminals, high powered LF-VLF 

terminal, and secure voice and improved communications processing systems. These systems provide 

the voice and data connectivity, with anti-jam features, that will support operations in a nuclear 

environment over extended distances. Together 

with the electromagnetic pulse-resistant E-4B airframe and expanded operation teams and battle 

staff, these improvements will provide an improved 

command and control capability with a substantial 

reduction in the currently operational airborne 

assets. Further, the increased operational flexibility 

provided by the E-4B will allow random flight patterns and evasive flight profiles without concern for 

loss of communications. An extensive test program 

now under way will form the basis for the final 

E-4B configuration. 

Tomahawk Cruise Missile. Tomahawk is a highsubsonic-speed, turbofan-powered, long-range cruise 

missile sized to be fired from a submarine torpedo 

tube, but also capable of being launched from surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground platforms. 

This missile is being developed in two forms, a 

conventionally armed anti-ship version and a 

nuclear-armed land attack version. 

The anti-ship Tomahawk is essential to Navy 

general-purpose forces in offensive or defensive seacontrol operations. Tomahawk will provide an important complement to carrier-based aircraft in 

extending the Navy’s anti-ship capability over a 

broad ocean area. If they are to have flexible control of the sea, Navy forces must be able to challenge the enemy at sea when neither side has air 

support. Tomahawk is designed to provide this 

capability through deployment of long-range offensive power from a variety of platforms. The standoff capability afforded by Tomahawk will pose a 

47 
credible threat to enemy surface forces at minimum 

risk to our launch platforms. 

The primary need for the land-attack Tomahawk is in the theater role, where its single-warhead, high-accuracy penetrativity and its survivability make it particularly suitable for use in limited 

nuclear attacks. 

Tomahawk is planned for installation on nuclear 

attack submarines and cruisers. A ground-launched 

version of Tomahawk is being developed for the 

Air Force. It is also being considered as one candidate for the air-launched cruise missile. 

Air-Launched, Sea-Launched, and GroundLaunched Cruise Missiles. All three versions are 

currently in full-scale development. The Air 

Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) represents a 

major new weapon for the strategic bomber force. 

The ALCM program is in competitive full-scale 

engineering development. Missile rollouts are expected in February 1979 and the first competitive 

flights should occur in June and continue through 

November 1979. A source selection process will 

pick a winner prior to the major production decision in February 1980. 

The Sea Launched Anti-Ship Cruise Missile 

(SLCM) is essential to Navy general-purpose forces 

in offensive or defensive sea-control operations. 

SLCM will provide an important complemerit to 

carrier-based aircraft in extending the Navy’s antiship capability over a broad ocean area. SLCM is 

planned for installation on attack submarines, 

cruisers, and Spruance-class destroyers. 

The Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM) 

is planned for use in the theater role. The Air 

Force’s GIXM provides increased nuclear firepower 

and could relieve dual-capable aircraft for conventional missions, thereby raising the nuclear 

threshold. 

Paue Low ZZZ. Operational evaluation of the 

Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service’s Pave Low 

I11 Combat Rescue System is underway at Military 

Airlift Command’s Kirtland AFB, New Mexico. 

Pave Low 111, integrated into an H-53 helicopter, 

provides the USAF with a highly sophisticated, advance rescue system that will permit recovery of 

downed airmen in hostile territory under conditions of total darkness and in adverse weather. Such 

a system has been necessitated by an increasingly 

lethal enemy threat that will outdate current rescue 

tactics. Production has commenced on the first of 

several systems which are to be delivered within 

the next few years. These systems will include forward-looking infrared devices, terrain avoidance/ 

following radar, and inertial /Doppler navigation. 

Joint Tactical Information Distribution System 

(JTZDS). The JTIDS program is developing a 

highly jam-resistant, crypto-secure, high-capacity 

digital information distribution system for use by 

tactical elements of all U.S. forces. Using spread 

spectrum and time-division multiple-access technology, JTIDS will be capable of interconnecting all 

participants in an area of tactical military operations to provide jam-resistant communications, 

position references in a common set of grid coordinates, and secure identification of friendly force 

elements. 

The initial application of the system will be in 

the Air Force E-3A Airborne Warning and Control 

System (AWACS). During 1978, in-plant and flight 

testing of the E-3A terminal was completed. All 

performance requirements were met or exceeded. 

Also in 1978, initial advance development models 

of a fighter-aircraft version of the JTIDS terminal 

were delivered for government test and evaluation. 

Concept definition studies for a lightweight, lowcost, man-pack version were also completed. 

Aeromutical Research and Development 

Aircraft Structures and Materials Technology. 

Each of the services has research and development 

programs directed toward improved structures and 

materials for aeronautical and space applications. 

An example is the Navy’s engineering development 

program to develop a fiberglass composite rotor 

blade as a replacement for the CH-46 metal rotor 

blade. This fiberglass blade is designed to be corrosion resistant, have no environmental degradation, be insensitive to small defects, have slow 

failure propagation with a stiffness warning, and 

require only visual preflight inspections. 

The Air Force is determining the suitability of 

cast aluminum for primary aircraft structures, offering a minimum 30 percent cost saving with no 

weight penalty. A large bulkhead from a cargo 

aircraft was redesigned from over 400 parts and 

2500 fasteners to a one-piece cast aluminum structure with no fasteners. Testing is continuing to 

validate structural integrity. 

The Air Force is conducting an advanced development program to demonstrate improvements of 

advanced technology titanium structures for airframe applications. This program applies recently 

developed fabrication technologies to airframe 

structures with a goal of reducing acquisition costs 

of conventional titanium structures by 50 percent 

and reducing weight by 30 percent. 

Primary Adhesively Bonded Structure Technology is also being developed by the Air Force. 

Through the use of adhesive bonding, fabrication 

of large cargo aircraft structures such as fuselages 

can be reduced from the labor-intensive assembly 

of thousands of parts to the assembly of a few large 

48 
bonded modules. Program objectives are to demonstrate improved structural durability while 

achieving a 25 percent reduction in acquisition cost 

and a 15 percent weight reduction. A four-year 

program, initiated in February 1975, is composed 

of four phases: preliminary design, detail design, 

fabrication, and fatigue testing of an adhesivebonded representative fuselage section 13 meters 

long and 6 meters in diameter. The first three 

phases and the limited proof pressure test have 

been completed. Full-scale fatigue testing is now 

underway. Two equivalent lifetimes (38,000 pressure cycles) of a goal of four lifetimes were successfully reached on 12 September 1978. 

Control Configured Vehicles. In the Control 

Configured Vehicles program, the Air Force flew 

military airplanes with unique maneuvering motions that enhance performance. A YF-16 fighter 

was specially modified with a flight control system 

that permits the aircraft to move sideways or up 

and down without changing its attitude in pitch 

or bank. It can also be controlled to turn or point 

to potential targets without changing the overall 

flight path. 

Experienced combat pilots have confirmed the 

potential for significantly increasing the effectiveness of air-to-air combat and weapon delivery, or 

increasing combat survivability, and for reducing 

the fuel needs of a mission. Work now is in progress to objectively assess this potential for transition to fighter, bomber, and missile applications of 

the future. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV). The Army 

completed a system technology program which 

demonstrated that an airborne RPV can obtain 

reconnaissance and target acquisition information 

beyond the forward edge of the battle area, where 

probability of survival of manned systems in a high 

threat environment is unacceptably low. The fullscale RPV, including a TV sensor and laser rangefinderldesignator, has a wingspan of 3.6 meters and 

weighs 66 kilograms. It flies at speeds under 183 

kilometers per hour. Plans are now being formulated for full-scale engineering development. 

Helicopter Avionics. The AN/ASN-28 Doppler 

navigation subsystem continues in production, providing Army helicopters a self-contained tactical 

navigation capability. In addition to present position, range and bearing to ten checkpoints are 

provided to the crew. 

Design-to-cost engineering development contracts 

continued for the Integrated Avionics Control System (IACS). The IACS will provide an integrated 

panel for the control of up to ten avionics “black 

boxes” (radios, transponder, automatic direction 

finder, etc.), saving cockpit space and improving 

. 

the man-machine interface. Prototypes were delivered during FY 1978. 

The Army completed concept formulation for a 

system to improve communications during nap-ofthe-earth operations. Using field test data and propagation models in detailed mission analyses, various system alternatives were examined with regard 

to operational effectiveness. User-desired hardware 

features and costs also were carefully considered. 

Aduanced Environmental Control System. The 

Air Force completed development of an Advanced 

Environmental Control System which will make 

aircraft avionic equipment more reliable and improve aircraft performance. Current aircraft environmental control systems provide poor control of 

dust, humidity, and thermal enviroments. They are 

relatively inefficient, require significant amounts of 

aircraft-developed energy, and are costly in terms 

of avionic equipment reliability and aircraft performance. Avionic equipment requires more maintenance manhours per flight hour than any other 

aircraft system; for fighter and bomber aircraft, it 

uses over half of the total logistic support costs. 

Improvement in avionic equipment reliability 

through future utilization of this system will decrease life-cycle costs significantly. 

Synthetic Flight Training Systems (SFTS). Following Army testing, the flight simulator for the 

CH-47 became standard in June 1978. This simulator uses a closed-circuit television system in conjunction with a three-dimensional terrain model to 

provide a realistic visual display. The first production article of the CH-47 simulator will be placed 

on contract in early FY 1979. The prototype is now 

being used in an aviator training program at Fort 

Rucker, Alabama. 

The AH-1 Flight and Weapons Simulator (FWS) 

is the first to incorporate weapons engagement 

along with other flight maneuvers. The evolution 

will continue with the development of the UH-60 

Black Hawk Flight Simulator which will use a camera model board for one cockpit and a computergenerated-imagery visual system for the other cockpit. Testing, to be conducted in 1979, will evaluate 

the training benefits of these two technologies. 

Concept formulation is underway for the AH-64 

Flight and Weapons Simulator which will have the 

capability to produce the sound and fury of the 

ha ttlefield. 

Research in Aircraft Propulsion Systems. The 

Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator (ATEGG) program is the main Air Force propulsion 

program assessing core engine components under 

realistic test conditions. The program has traditionally assessed performance and has been increasing 

in scope to include life-cycle costing and structural 

49 
testing earlier in the engine development cycle. 

Accomplishments in 1978 include several successful 

durability demonstrations of variable-area turbines, 

lower cost design concepts and manufacturing 

methods, and testing of a generator core unit. 

Realistic structural test methodologies are being 

studied by all participating contractors. 

The Aircraft Propulsion Subsystems Integration 

(APSI) program is another joint Air Force/Navy 

program. High-pressure turbine engine cores from 

ATEGG are combined with low-pressure components (fans, compressors, and fan turbines) and 

inlets, exhaust nozzles, afterburners, and control 

systems to assess full-scale engines from the standpoint of installation considerations. The Joint 

Technology Demonstrator Engine (JTDE) program is part of APSI. Accomplishments include 

demonstrations of variable-cycle-engine concepts 

and verifying installed performance increases while 

reducing fuel consumptions by matching the engine 

cycle to changing flight conditions. The first demonstration was completed in FY 1978. 

Aduanced Technology Concepts. The DoD Research, Development, Test and Evaluation 

(RDT8cE) program continued to sponsor a myriad 

of activities for the national defense. Under the 

RDT8cE program, the DoD Science and Technology Program sponsors activities in research, exploratory development, and advanced technology demonstrations. Technological areas covered by this 

program extend from propulsion for aircraft, missiles, and space systems, to guidance and control, 

communications and electronics, through materials, 

structures, information processing, and through 

environmental sciences to the vital areas of safety 

and life sciences. Technological applications in 

aeronautics and space are developed to meet more 

sophisticated requirements of current and projected 

programs. During 1978, efforts in advanced electronics-electro-optics, microwave, and computerscontinued to provide technological improvements 

for aeronautic and space systems. 

Electro-optics technology is being incorporated 

in many devices, such as infrared and chargecoupled imagers, signal processors, ring laser gyros, 

fiber optics, and displays. These devices are finding 

their way into improved aeronautical systems such 

as target designators, range finders and trackers, 

optical search and tracking devices, miniature solidstate TV cameras, and navigational systems. 

Advances in microwave technology continue to 

provide applications permitting improvements in 

microwave-power-generating efficiencies and electronic package miniaturization by using recently 

developed solid-state components. 

Emphasis continues to be placed upon computer 

science technology as computer processing requirements become more integral with the total aeronautical system. Present aircraft contain as many 

as a dozen mini-computers, handling functions such 

as navigation, altimetry, fire control, weapon delivery, search, and flight control. Recent developments in mass memory capabilities are allowing 

development of computer correlation of terrain 

features, sensed by radar or passive radiometers, 

with previously stored mapping information for 

precise navigation over long distances. 

Relationship with NASA 

Aeromutics and Astromutics Coordimtiltg Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) is the primary mechanism for addressing major policy issues of interest to DoD and 

NASA in space and aeronautics. During the past 

year the Board placed special emphasis on status 

of the Shuttle program and schedules, and problems which could impact DoD plans for Shuttle 

use. 

Space Shuttle Activity. On July 20, 1977, the 

AACB established the Ad Hoc Shuttle Security 

Group to select a low-cost approach to using NASA 

facilities at Johnson Space Center for launching 

DoD classified payloads on the Shuttle. At that 

time it was recognized that a long-term permanent 

solution might require a DoD Control Center. 

On October 12, 1977, at the 75th AACB meeting, the Group recommended a “controlled mode” 

approach to using the Johnson Mission Control 

Center (JMCC). The Board directed the Group to 

initiate an engineering and management validation 

study for controlled mode operation at JMCC. 

NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) and the Air 

Force Space and Missile Systems Organization 

(SAMSO) both participated extensively in this 

validation phase. JSC defined changes required at 

MCC to provide secure data and voice links, separate classified/unclassified data streams, hardware 

switching, secure areas, a dedicated flight control 

room, separate secure lines, disconnected remote 

terminals, and procedural changes (estimated cost 

$37 million in FY 1978 dollars). SAMSO reviewed 

the JSC proposal and added items associated with 

Tempest considerations, software validation and 

verification, and automated data processing implementation and certification requirements (estimated cost $44 million). Thus the total estimated 

projected cost was $78 million. 

The Ad Hoc Shuttle Security Group recommended to the Board the following: 

Pursue controlled mode at JSC for operational 

use in 1982 which is properly phased and funded 

at minimum levels, and meets following criteria: 
a. Supports classified launches in mission model. 

b. Is independent of initial availability of any 

DoD dedicated facility, Le., does not drive 

that decision. 

The Co-Chairmen agreed to initiate action 

within their respective agencies to implement the 

controlled mode approach at JMCC to meet the 

need for classified payload launches beginning in 

1982. 

On 30 September 1978 the Deputy Secretary of 

Defense directed the Air Force to acquire the controlled mode capability at Johnson Space Center 

in time to support the first DoD classified launch 

on the Shuttle in 1982. Investment for that purpose 

will be held to a minimum consistent with essential 

security needs and projected classified launches on 

the Shuttle through the mid-1980s. 

During the year the AACB closely reviewed the 

Space Shuttle orbiter’s projected payload budget 

for selected missions along with weight reduction 

measures, performance enhancement, and uprated 

propulsion gains to provide a 1350-kilogram positive payload margin for polar launches. Shuttle 

main engine development progress, the Air Force 

Inertial Upper Stage development status, and progress on the design of the Air Force Shuttle launch 

and landing facility at Vandenberg AFB were also 

examined. 

The Board agreed that the revised NASA schedules for Shuttle First Manned Orbital Flight, initial 

operations at Kennedy Space Center, and orbiter 

deliveries do not require overall changes in DoD 

planning for Shuttle use. 

National Aeronautic Facilities Program. In its 

final form as defined by DoD and NASA, the National Aeronautic Facilities Program (NAFP) contained three large facilities necessary to continue 

the efficient development of aeronautical technology and systems through the end of this century. 

The facilities contained in the NAFP are: 

Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility (ASTF)- 

sponsored by the Air Force to support the economical development of advanced engines for 

fighter, large strategic transport, and bomber 

aircraft. 

National Transonic Facility (NTF)-sponsored 

by NASA to permit research and development 

testing at high Reynolds number in the transonic mach-number range (combines the requirements of the earlier High Reynolds Number Tunnel, sponsored by the Air Force, and 

the Transonic Research Tunnel sponsored by 

NASA). 

40 X 80 Foot Subsonic Tunnel Modificationsponsored by NASA to meet subsonic research 

needs for the study of rotor craft and large 

powered lift vehicles. 

Significant progress was made on all three facilities during 1978. 

Cooperative Progrmzs/E#mts 

DoD continued to actively participate in joint 

activities with NASA and other agencies during 

1978. Efforts already described are the Solar Radiation Monitoring Program, Spacecraft Charging 

Technology, and activities associated with the 

Space Shuttle. Other areas of interest: 

Space Launch. The major space launch vehicles 

used by NASA have characteristically been direct 

applications or derivatives of Air Force ballistic 

missile systems (Thor, Atlas, and Titan). The Air 

Force continued to provide Atlas E/F launch vehicles to NASA in support of Seasat 1, Tiros-N, and 

the NOAA environmental satellites; the Air Force 

6595th Space Test Group manages the prelaunch 

checkout and launch of these systems. Air Force 

personnel at both the eastern and western launch 

sites provide support to NASA for range operations, range safety, tests, and procurement on a continuing basis. 

Orbital Control. The Air Force Satellite Control 

Facility (SCF) provides prelaunch, launch, and onorbit telemetry, tracking, and commanding support 

for most DoD satellites. Currently, as in the past, 

the SCF provides support to various NASA satellite 

programs as an augmentation to the NASA STDN 

network. Support has been in the form of telemetry 

gathering and tracking information. With the advent of the Space Transportation System, the SCF 

will continue to provide support to NASA through 

STDN augmentation. 

Tiros-N. As previously described, a new DMSP 

Block 5D satellite has been put into service. Development of this satellite series was extended to include the basic spacecraft bus for the Tiros-N civil 

system as agreed between NASA and DoD in 1975, 

a considerable saving of developmental costs to the 

government. In addition, there was a joint DoD/ 

NASA buy of the long-lead items from the spacecraft contractor at a lower per-unit cost than if 

procured independently. This continuing cooperative effort is being coordinated by the joint DoD/ 

DOC /NASA meteorological satellite coordinating 

board. 

Multi-Mission Modular Spacecraft (MMS). The 

Air Force is supporting NASA’s development of a 

standard satellite called the MMS. The Air Force is 

requiring that all new DoD Space Test Program 

missions needing a free-flyer spacecraft give first 

consideration to using the MMS. 

51 
Seasat 1. In June 1978 the Navy began its cooperative effort with NASA for Seasat 1 satellite 

data processing. This support was short-lived as the 

satellite stopped transmitting in October 1978. 

Under the support agreement, NASA was to deliver all Seasat l data collected at Fairbanks, Alaska, 

to the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Weather Central 

(FNWC) , at Monterey, California, within six hours 

of sensing. FNWC was to process these data into 

Earth-located geophysical units (wave heights, sea 

surface temperatures, surface winds, etc.) . Although 

real-time data processing was not possible, after-thefact evaluations of the data and the program should 

prove the experiment’s importance in several areas: 

(a) demonstrating the advantages of a joint user 

system, (b) demonstrating the usefulness of oceanographic satellite data in naval operations, (c) providing useful information on the performance and 

capabilities of Seasat 1 sensors, (d) determining 

methods needed to fully employ these data in 

weather and ocean forecasting. Surface temperature 

measurement and analysis capabilities support the 

objectives of the National Climate Program. 

Standard Atmosphere. The joint effort between 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), NASA, and USAF which produced the 

US. Standard Atmosphere (1976) continues. The 

joint publication has disseminated the wealth of 

knowledge on the upper atmosphere obtained during the past solar cycle. Extensive rocket and satellite data acquired over more than one complete 

solar cycle are incorporated. This stratospheric 

measurement capability will provide important 

spin-off benefits to the National Plans for Stratospheric Research and Monitoring which are now 

being prepared at the Federal level as a result of 

the growing concern over ozone depletion and environmental deterioration. 

Transonic Aircraft Technology. In a successful 

joint USAF/NASA program, significant improvements in airplane performance at transonic speeds 

have been demonstrated through the use of an advanced “supercritical” airfoil on a full-scale flighttest vehicle. Results have been transmitted to the 

aerodynamic community by symposia and technical 

reports. 

Supercritical airfoil technology is a major aerodynamic breakthrough. The TACT program flightdemonstrated a 36-percent decrease in wing drag 

and a 14-percent increase in mach number before 

drag rise begins. The program has established sufficient confidence in this new technology to permit 

its use on the next generation of military and commercial airplanes. 

KC-135 Winglets. The joint USAFiNASA KC135 Winglet Demonstration Program is an advanced development program with the objective of 

proving, through flight testing, that total aircraft 

drag reduction can be achieved with winglets. 

Winglets are small airfoils of optimum shape located at the wing tip in a near-vertical position. 

Drag reduction translates into a fuel saving which 

is dependent on aircraft fleet utilization rates. Based 

on recent rates, an 8-percent drag reduction on the 

KC-135 tanker aircraft could save 164 million liters 

of fuel annually. Winglets also increase the tanker 

off-load capability because less fuel is used to 

transit to and from the refueling point. 

The final design has been completed and fabrication has started on the test winglets. Flight testing 

is scheduled for March to October 1979. This development will have application to both commercial and military transports. 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). A joint 

ArmyINASA contract will provide two rotor-systems aircraft to serve as “flying wind-tunnels” for 

helicopter research. The aircraft design will permit 

the in-flight testing of full-scale main rotor systems 

having from two to six blades. The design also allows the addition of fixed wings and thrusting engines that will permit rotor testing at flight speeds 

up to 550 kilometers per hour. These two aircraft 

will provide data on aerodynamic problems that 

are currently mathematically intractible and cannot be solved without the aid of precise flight research results. The research aircraft, with its first 

set of rotor blades, completed its first phase of flight 

testing in 1978 as a pure helicopter, as a compound 

with thrusting engines, and as an all-up compound 

with thrusting engines and augmenting wings. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (XV-15). Under a 

joint Army/NASA contract awarded in 1973, two 

tilt-rotor research aircraft, the XV-15, were built. 

The first of the two aircraft completed full-scale 

tests in mid-1978. The second XV-15 is being 

ground-tested prior to entering contractor flight 

tests to establish the basic flight characteristics for 

both helicopter and airplane modes of operation. 

Alternate Fuels Program. The alternate fuels program is part of a long-term coordinated effort 

among the services, NASA, and the Department of 

Energy to ensure that liquid fuels obtained from 

domestic resources such as oil shale, tar sands, and 

coal will be acceptable in high-performance engines. The initial DoD effort is an experimental 

program to produce aviation turbine fuels from 

shale oil and coal. Results to date provide encouraging evidence that the aviation industry can 

use fuel produced from the vast U.S. resources of 

oil shale. 

Technical Deuelopment Support. DoD has detailed a number of technically trained persons to 

NASA to assist in programs of mutual interest. 

The technological transfer back to DoD in unique 

52 
functional areas is important. The detailees are Astronaut Program. DoD continued to support 

working in a variety of operational and R&D pro- this program by providing astronaut candidates 

grams but most are associated with the Space Trans- for the Space Shuttle program. Of 35 new canportation System. The latter activities include space didates chosen by NASA in 1977, 21 were from 

mission planning, avionics and communications DoD. These new astronaut selectees started their 

security, crew procedures, payloads software, logis- training program on 1 July 1978. A call for additics, and facilities construction. tional candidates is being considered for 1979. 

53 
IV Department of Cornrnerce 

Introduction 

Five agencies in the Department of Commerce 

contribute directly to the nation’s aeronautics and 

space programs. They are the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the Maritime 

Administration (MARAD), the National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA), and the Bureau of the Census (BOC). 

The long-range goal of NOAA is to improve the 

safety and quality of life through greater comprehension of the Earth’s environment and through 

more efficient use of its resources. To meet this 

mission, NOAA operates, manages, and improves 

the nation’s operational environmental satellite 

systems; provides satellite data to assess the impact 

of natural factors and human activities on global 

food and fuel supplies and on environmental quality; uses satellite data and aerial photography for 

charting, coastal mapping, and geodetic research; 

employs satellite data to improve the assessment 

and conservation of marine life: and improves 

weather services by automating forecast and observation stations, by installing better radar systems, 

and by continued atmospheric research. 

A goal of the NBS is to improve the standards 

and related services for uniform and reliable measurements. The NBS provides engineering data for 

the design and construction of complex aeronautics 

and space equipment. 

MARAD strives to improve ship safety, operations, and management. Satellites are used to increase the efficiency of commercial ship communication, navigation, and surveillance of operations. 

The NTIA provides Federal agencies with 

engineering, management, and advisory assistance 

on national telecommunications issues. The NTIA 

analy7es telecommunications and information policies and conducts navigation, telecommunications, 

and remote sensing studies to support communication services. 

An aim of the ROC is to improve information on 

population trends, urban growth, and the internal 

structure of national land areas. Satellite data are 

used for demographic studies and population 

estimates. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

The National Environmental Satellite Service 

(NESS) of NOAA operates two satellite systems: 

the polar-orbiting system and the geostationary 

system. 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. During 1978 NESS operated two polar-orbiting satellites. They were Noaa 

4 and Noaa 5, the last of the Improved Tiros Operational Satellite (ITOS) series. Noaa 4 was deactivated November 18, 1978. NOAA’s third generation of polar-orbiters, the Tiros-N series, began 

to replace the ITOS series in December 1978. TirosN, the NASA prototype and the first of this series, 

was launched October 13, 1978. Noaa A, NOAA’s 

first operational satellite of this series, is scheduled 

for launch early in 1979. The Tiros-N system will 

overlap the ITOS system for a short time to ensure 

uninterrupted service. The Tiros-N system consists 

of two satellites in orbit, so there will not be instrumental redundancy on either satellite. Tiros-N 

was launched into a near-polar, Sun-synchronous 

833-kilometer orbit crossing the equator in a northward direction at 1500 local time. Noaa A will orbit 

at 870 kilometers, crossing the equator in a southward direction at 0730 local time. 

The Tiros-N series satellites carry four primary 

instruments: An Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer; a Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder, 

consisting of three complementary sounding instruments, one of which is provided by the United 

Kingdom; an Argos Data Collection and Platform 

Location System, which is furnished by France: and 

a Space Environment Monitor. 

Because of the extremely large volume of digital 

data being delivered by these satellites, it was necessary to install a new ground system. This installation was completed in June 1978. The system is 

functionally divided into two subsystems called the 

Data Acquisition and Control Subsystem (DACS) 

54 
and the Data Processing and Services Subsystem 

(DPSS). The DACS equipment is located at Wallops, Virginia; Gilmore Creek, Alaska; San Francisco, California; Suitland, Maryland; and Lannion, 

France. Satellite data acquired at the Wallops and 

Gilmore Creek sites are relayed to the NESS Suitland Facility via a domestic commercial communications satellite. The DPSS, located in Suitland, 

preprocesses and conditions the data for archiving 

and storage and directs it to the NOAA Central 

Computer Facility. Products are then developed 

and distributed to the users. The data are archived 

in a mass storage system and retained by NOAA's 

Environmental Data and Information Service. 

Geostationary Satellites. NOAA's designation for 

its Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites is GOES. Goes 3 was launched June 16, 1978. 

On July 13, 1978, it was positioned over the equator at 135" west longitude and replaced Goes l as 

the western operational satellite. Goes 1 was moved 

to 59" east longitude over the Indian Ocean on 

November 29, 1978, where it will be operated by 

the European Space Agency throughout 1979 to 

support the Global Weather Experiment. Goes 2 

remained at 75" west longitude as the eastern operational satellite. 

Equipment to improve the gridding and registration accuracy of the images produced by Goes 

satellites was delivered to NESS and will become 

operational in early 1979. This equipment improves 

the placing of grids on satellite images and permits 

registration of sequential images to an accuracy 

which allows animation of these images 

automatically. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Determining Winds and Temperatures. During 

1978 research continued on the derivation of winds 

by tracking cloud motions from geostationary satellite images. NESS and NASA joined in experiments 

with a man-computer interactive system. Results indicated that automatic cloud tracking yields accurate vectors in all but complex situations. 

Experiments also were performed in error characteristics of satellite-derived winds. NESS developed 

computer programs to determine error in wind 

data provided by the University of Wisconsin and 

by NESS operations. These error statistics are required by data users for the Global Weather 

Experiment. 

NESS researchers have implemented plans and 

written computer programs for the first international comparison of winds determined from cloud 

motions common to the fields of view of neighboring geostationary satellites. The derived winds to 

be examined are those from the geostationary satellites operated by the US., the Japanese Meteorological Agency, and the European Space Agency. 

These comparisons were proposed to study the 

global compatibility of geostationary winds prior 

to the Global Weather Experiment. 

The NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory completed the first phase of a systems analysis on the 

feasibility of measuring the global winds with a 

satellite-borne Lidar. Assuming available infrared 

detector technology and the laser pointing accuracies attainable with current platforms, it was found 

feasible to measure the average winds through a 

one-kilometer thickness of the atmosphere to accuracies greater than one meter per second from a 

satellite in a 300-kilometer orbit. 

The Earth's background radiation has an unknown influence on atmospheric temperatures derived from satellite radiometer data. A joint study 

between NESS and the Wave Propagation Laboratory has been initiated to determine how temperature data obtained from ground-based radiometers 

can be used to correct for this radiation effect on 

satellite systems. 

Numerous case studies were conducted in 1978 

using Nimbus 6 infrared and microwave sounding 

data. This research contributed to modification of 

the computer programs used to process Tiros-N 

radiance data, with the goal of improving temperature and water vapor measurements. 

As part of a joint effort with NASA, and the 

University of Wisconsin's Space Science and Engineering Center, NESS scientists have developed 

and tested computer programs for manually interacting with the computer to process satellite temperature sounding data. This approach allows the 

meteorologists, through instant video presentation, 

to judge the quality of the soundings and edit the 

data. The technique was successfully tested using 

research satellite data, and the processing system is 

being applied to direct read-out Tiros-N sounding 

data for experimental application to short-term 

weather forecasting. The technique also will be 

used to edit and enhance global sounding data obtained during the Global Weather Experiment. 

Monitoring Global Radiation. Radiation budget 

data derived from the Noaa 5 Scanning Radiometer 

continued to be compiled through February 1978. 

Mapping of monthly, seasonally, and annually 

averaged data, and seasonal and annual differences 

was completed. This effort began in June 1974, 

and these maps are an important climate diagnostic 

tool for examining seasonal and annual global 

patterns of various head budget components. 

Maps showing the annual differences in outgoing 

longwave radiation and albedo were used to examine major strengthening in clouds over the 

central tropical Pacific Ocean from June 1976 to 
February 1978. Longwave radiation decreases for 

two consecutive winters were 40 to 70 watts per 

meter along the equator from 170 E to 150 W. 

A display of satellite-derived quantities, used to 

monitor current climate-scale fluctuations on the 

Earth, was established. The display shows radiation 

budget data, sea surface temperatures, tropical 

winds, Northern Hemisphere snowcover, and the 

solar constant. 

The Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment 

on Nimbus 6 continued to monitor the solar constant. Preliminary analysis of the observations from 

July 1975 to May 1978 showed a decrease of 0.35 

percent. Nimbus 7, launched October 24, 1978, 

carried a second ERB experiment. During the past 

year many studies were conducted to develop and 

improve the data processing. Much of the work 

centered on sensor calibration and computer program development, especially for angular models 

and data validation. 

Environmental Warning Services. The GOES 

Data Collection System (DCS) has a total of 30 national and international users that operate more 

than 600 Data Collection Platforms (DCP). During 

1978, there were eight new users and about 200 

DCPs added to the program. The frequency assignment program was refined for the GOES DCS by 

assigning all odd-numbered reply channels to the 

eastern satellite and even-numbered reply channels 

to the western satellite. This allows a larger frequency spread on each channel and lessens the 

chance of interference between adjacent channels. 

Another change to the system included the addition 

of a higher speed transmission line between the 

NOAA processing center and the users so that data 

can be extracted more rapidly from the system for 

the users. A multiple-dissemination capability is 

now being installed in the GOES DCS. This feature 

will allow the same data to go to a maximum of 

four separate users. This capability is being installed in response to hydrology requirements of 

the National Weather Service, US. Army Corps of 

Engineers, and the Department of Interior’s Geological Survey. 

The GOES-Tap system, begun in 1975 to provide 

for the dissemination of weather images by geographic sectors from GOES, was expanded in 1978. 

By year’s end there were more than 90 Federal and 

25 civil users of the system. Also, more than 165 

other Federal and non-Federal offices received limited amounts of GOES data through connections to 

the National Weather Service Forecast Offices. 

A Customer Controlled Switching System was 

implemented at the Washington, Kansas City, and 

San Francisco Satellite Field Services Stations 

(SFSS). This system allows GOES-Tap users to 

select sectors of interest merely by tapping several 

buttons on a touch-tone telephone. Formerly, each 

GOES-Tap user had to make a long-distance telephone call to the SFSS, and SFSS personnel had 

to make the switching change manually. The procedure now is completely automatic. 

Meteorologists at NOAA’s National Hurricane 

and Experimental Laboratory and the Miami Satellite Field Services Station used digitally enhanced 

GOES visible and infrared images to estimate rainfall from tropical storms. The National Hurricane 

Center used these estimates when issuing severe 

weather warnings. This technique is experimental 

and is under evaluation. In addition, satellitederived rainfall estimates were provided to NWS 

Weather Service Forecast Offices to aid them in 

issuing flash flood warnings. 

During the past several winters, NWS and NESS 

have been using GOES enhanced infrared images to 

determine ground temperatures critical to freeze 

situations. This forecasting technique has been 

tested in support of the Florida citrus industry. 

During the 1978-1979 winter, the satellite-derived 

temperature data will be displayed in digital rather 

than image form. These digital thermal patterns 

will be color enhanced and shown on television 

when frost conditions are expected. 

A “heat island’ is a city or major industrial area 

where human activities are sufficient to warm the 

area significantly with respect to the undisturbed 

environment. These local “hot spots” increase convection above them and distort local weather patterns, which influence pollution levels, cloud cover, 

temperatures, and precipitation. Enhanced infrared images from NOAA satellites have been used 

experimentally to quantitatively monitor these 

“heat islands.” One example was seen in a Noaa 

5 satellite image of the Washington-Baltimore area 

where the central parts of both cities were 6°C 

warmer than the surrounding rural areas. 

Determining Ocean Conditions. Seasat 1, the 

NASA oceanographic satellite, was launched June 

27, 1978. Circling the Earth 14 times a day in a 

near-circular, 850-kilometer polar orbit, the satellite covered most of the Ocean area every 36 hours. 

The microwave sensors aboard the satellite have 

demonstrated the capability to measure oceanic 

features. On October 9, 1978, Seasat 1 experienced 

a massive short-circuit which permanently shut 

down the satellite. More than 90 days of data had 

been obtained from the microwave instruments. 

NOAA mounted a comprehensive surface-truth experiment in the Gulf of Alaska during September 

1978 to assess the application of Seasat data to its 

oceanic and atmospheric monitoring responsibilities. This experiment involved U.S. and Canadian 

56 
ships and aircraft and NOAA buoys. The surface 

and airborne measurements obtained during this 

experiment will be correlated with the Seasat data 

to determine oceanographic parameters, such as 

waves, winds, currents, circulation dynamics, surface temperatures, geodesy, and sea ice. Studies of 

the relationship of these factors to living marine 

resources are in progress and demonstrations of 

their applicability are planned. 

NOAA’s Wave Propagation Laboratory developed computer programs for estimating significant 

wave heights using Geodynamics Experimental 

Ocean Satellite (GEOS) radar altimeter data. Wind 

speed and wave height in hurricanes, observed by 

satellites, were compared with measurements of the 

same parameters from aircraft. A mathematical 

model was completed on the effects of wave motion 

using measurements made by Seasat’s Synthetic 

Aperture Radar. 

Ocean color research increased substantially in 

support of the October 24, 1978, launch of Nimbus 

7, which carried the Coastal Zone Color Scanner. 

Results of an experiment conducted in the Gulf 

of Mexico in October 1977 demonstrated that ocean 

radiance measurements vary systematically with increasing concentrations of both suspended particulate matter and chlorophyll. If sea surface radiance 

measurements can be corrected for atmospheric influences, it should be possible to estimate six to 

eight concentration ranges of chlorophyll and suspended particulates using the Nimbus 7 Color 

Scanner. A post-launch experiment was carried out 

in the Gulf of Mexico during October and November 1978 by scientists from NOAA, NASA, Scripps 

Institution of Oceanography, Texas A&M Un‘iversity, and the University of Southern California. 

The objectives were to gather in-situ measurements 

of chlorophyll and total suspended particulate matter to correlate with data obtained from the Color 

Scanner. 

To evaluate oil spill detection capability from 

the Nimbus 7 Color Scanner, measurements were 

made of the optical characteristics of 10 samples of 

crude oil at the Environmental Protection Agency 

test facility in Leonardo, New Jersey. Visible and 

thermal infrared measurements were made for a 

one-week period as the oil was aged under conditions simulating those found in the ocean. The 

measurements showed increased reflectance, above 

background water, in the visible region, and increased equivalent blackbody temperatures over 

surrounding waters in the infrared. 

Continued research by NESS scientists, using 

monthly mean sea-surface-temperature fields derived from satellite data, has revealed a slight, 

gradual cooling of the oceans in the Southern 

Hemisphere since 1975. The large cold water 

anomaly in the North Pacific that developed over 

the 1976-1977 winter reappeared last winter and 

appears to be occurring again this year. There is 

continuing evidence that an ocean-atmosphere link 

exists that will favor a colder-than-normal winter 

over much of the United States east of the Rocky 

Mountains when such a sea surface temperature 

anomaly occurs. 

A large iceberg from Antarctica, nearly the size 

of Delaware, finally drifted clear of the ice fields of 

the Weddell Sea in January 1978 and moved across 

the Drake Passage into the South Atlantic near 

South Georgia Island during March. Since March 

it has been monitored daily using Goes visible 

images, and it has lost over 50 percent of its original mass. By December it is expected to be about 

800 kilometers south of Tristan da Cunha moving 

toward South 4frica, its remnants possibly encroaching on the more heavily traveled shipping 

lanes during 1979. 

Investigators of NOAA’s Outer Continental Shelf 

Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP) 

used satellite and other remote sensing data to assess the development and decay of fast ice, coastal 

geomorphology and ecology, sediment plumes, and 

offshore suspended sediments along the Alaskan 

coast. Supported by OCSEAP, a fully operational 

facility has been established by the University of 

Alaska to provide remote sensing data to scientists 

involved in Alaskan studies. The university operates a library to acquire, catalog, and disseminate 

satellite and aircraft remote sensing data; operates 

and maintains data processing facilities; develops 

photographic and computer techniques for data 

storage and retrieval; and consults with and assists 

investigators in processing and interpreting these 

data. 

In other studies, Noaa and Landsat satellite 

images of observed ice conditions were used to correlate seismic data with major episodes of ice movement in Kotzebue Sound and ice mapping in the 

Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. Remote sensing data 

were used to determine sediment transport in the 

Bering Sea and to evaluate the hazards of volcanic 

eruptions in the Alaskan Peninsula. Also, efforts 

are underway to relate side-looking radar images of 

sea ice to seal distribution in the Beaufort Sea, and 

to map bird habitats by digital analysis of Landsat 

data. 

During 1978, a Gulf Stream Analysis was generated weekly from the Noaa and Goes high resolution infrared images. This is a composite map of 

qualitative seasurface boundaries which shows 

location and direction of the Gulf Stream, the 

warm and cold eddies in the Gulf Stream, the 

thermal interface between the slope and shelf 

57 

297-034 0 - 79 - 5 
waters, and the Gulf of Mexico Loop Current. 

Since fish congregate at thermal boundaries, fishermen use these maps to go directly to productive 

fishing grounds, thus increasing their yield and 

reducing fuel costs. Even participants in the 

Newport-to-Bermuda boat race in June 1978 benefited from knowing the latest position of the Gulf 

Stream and eddies. 

The Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin, also generated 

from satellite images, describes only the north or 

west boundary of the Gulf Stream. Updated three 

times a week and broadcast twice daily over Coast 

Guard radio, this bulletin gives a sequence of points 

that represent the west wall of the Gulf Stream. 

The maximum current lies 7 to 9 kilometers seaward at this line. Coastal shipping interests used 

this information to route their ships to take advantage of the ocean currents. The mariners were 

able to reduce their operational costs of both time 

and fuel. 

Determining Lake Conditions. The accuracy of 

the satellite derived Great Lakes Surface Temperature Analyses, used by the NWS to predict the onset of ice on the Great Lakes, was greatly improved 

in 1978 with the adoption of a new atmosphericattenuation correction. This new technique integrates observed atmospheric temperatures and corrects for absorption and terrestrial radiation. 

The NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory joined others of the Great Lakes 

Experiment Team to test the feasibility of using 

satellite data to monitor water quality in the 

Great Lakes. Scientists will be using data from the 

Nimbus 7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS). 

The objectives are to acquire enough standardized 

surface-truth samples to evaluate the potential of 

the scanner for obtaining accurate observations of 

algae, suspended sediment, and calcium carbonate; 

to develop, test, and evaluate scanner water-quality 

computer programs: and to develop products using 

the scanner data. 

Determining Hydrological Conditions. NESS 

produced operational snowmaps from satellite data 

for thirty critical United States and Canadian river 

basins during the 1977-1978 snow season. Six hundred snowmaps were compiled and used by Federal 

and state agencies to aid in water runoff prediction, 

flood prevention, dam and reservoir regulafion, 

hydroelectric power generation, and monitoring of 

irrigation and human consumption. Snowcover 

throughout the western United States was generally 

more extensive and persisted longer into the spring 

months than during the previous year. Heavy rainfall in California, combined with an above-normal 

snowpack in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, signified the end of that state’s two-year drought. 

58 

On a global basis, NESS continued the annual 

monitoring of Northern Hemisphere snowcover 

using satellite data. January 1978 proved to be a 

record snowcover month for North America. This 

record was promptly exceeded in February 1978. 

From December 1977 through March 1978, the 

average snowcover for Eurasia was 51.4 percent and 

for North America 67.2 percent. For North America, January had 7.4 percent, February had 12.1 

percent, and March had 9.1 percent more snowcover than the 10-year average for each of these 

months. For the entire winter, the Northern Hemisphere snowcover, overall, was about 8 percent 

above the 10-year average for each month. 

In 1978 a research effort was started to estimate 

rainfall from geostationary satellite data for operational input to the National Weather Service’s 

(NWS) Office of Hydrology riverflow models. The 

specific need is to determine six-hour mean rainfall 

amounts over individual river basins. Case studies 

are being investigated to compare satellite-measured 

cloud brightness and infrared temperatures with 

recorded rainfall. Initial results show good correlation between cold, bright clouds and heavy rainfall. 

The Environmental Data and Information Service is working with NASA, the University of Wisconsin, and the Environmental Research Laboratories to evaluate and calibrate techniques for using 

visible, infrared, and microwave satellite data to 

estimate rainfall over the tropical oceans. The program is using very accurate precipitation estimates 

derived from shipboard digital radar data for a 

125,000-square-kilometer area over the eastern 

tropical Atlantic. 

Monitoring Agricultural Conditions. In 1978, 

NESS joined with the Department of Agriculture, 

the Environmental Data and Information Service, 

and the National Weather Service to establish a 

Joint Agricultural Weather Facility to increase the 

use of satellite data for agricultural interests. This 

facility was designed to provide up-to-date global 

weather information to Agriculture’s decision 

makers. Specifically, satellite images are used to 

monitor rain-producing clouds and temperature 

trends for worldwide agricultural areas. Satellite 

data are used exclusively in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere to forecast movements of weather 

systems. 

From March to June 1978, NESS furnished satellite-derived ground temperatures to the Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona. These 

data were compared with surface measurements of 

solar, thermal, and moisture conditions to assist in 

stress analysis of crops in central California. There 

is increased stress on vegetation when plant temperatures increase and the moisture is low. The 
Department of Agriculture is presently evaluating 

this technique. 

Fisheries Monitoring. The National Fisheries 

Engineering Laboratory joined with NASA, U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Land 

Management to investigate the feasibility of mapping submerged seagrasses, using Landsat and aircraft measurements. Results demonstrate that grass 

beds in shallow coastal waters can be mapped, and 

work is continuing to determine how well the technique differentiates common species. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

demonstrated the feasibility of tracking marine 

turtles using remote sensing techniques. Loggerhead 

turtles were hatched and fitted with small radio 

transmitters and tracked in the Gulf of Mexico by 

aircraft for periods up to three weeks. This research was conducted in advance of a larger tracking effort to be carried out in 1979 to see if 

endangered species, like the Atlantic Ridley turtle, 

can be tracked using the Tiros-N Argos Data Collection System. The object of these experiments is 

to see if adult turtles return to the same nesting 

areas they departed as hatchlings in a manner similar to the behavior of salmon. 

The final design of a transmitter for tracking 

porpoises in the eastern tropical Pacific, using the 

Nimbus 6 Remote Access Management System, was 

completed in 1978. Three transmitters will be available for testing and evaluation on captive and wild 

animals in 1979. The transmitters are designed for 

operation for periods of up to one year from anywhere on Earth. 

Plans to evaluate the feasibility of using Seasat 1 

scatterometer data to measure Ocean surface circulation patterns were completed. These plans involve a field study to determine the relationship 

between water circulation and shrimp yield in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. If this concept proves 

feasible, it may be possible to forecast potential 

yields of shrimp and certain other estuarine dependent species significantly in advance of the fishing seasons. Enough data were collected from Seasat l to conduct this experiment. 

A theoretical investigation to establish the capabilities of airborne laser systems for assessment of 

pelagic fish schools was completed. The investigation indicated that laser systems have significant 

potential for detection and quantification of schooling fishes. Plans for a cooperative program with 

NASA and segments of the fishing industry were 

developed to demonstrate this potential in I979 

with an existing airborne laser system. 

NMFS, NASA, and the Coast Guard have demonstrated that satellite and aircraft synthetic aperture radar systems have significant potential for 

fishery surveillance and management applications. 

Analysis of radar data collected over concentrations 

of foreign fishing vessels off Georges Bank show 

that the vessels can be detected and located, and 

their speed and direction extracted from digitally 

processed data. In 1979, research will be directed 

toward vessel classification. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys. 

At the beginning of 1978, the NOAA Data Buoy 

Office was operating 19 moored data buoys-9 in 

the Northeast Pacific and Gulf of Alaska, 7 in the 

Western Atlantic, and 3 in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Three additional buoys were stationed in the Atlantic in late 1978. Sixteen of these buoys transmit 

environmental data through the Goes satellite, and 

in 1979, all buoys will use Goes. The buoys provide 

meteorological, surface and subsurface water temperature, and wave data to the National Weather 

Service for forecasting and storm warning activities, 

to the Bureau of Land Management for continental 

shelf assessment activities, and to various scientific 

programs with specialized marine data requirements. All moored buoys are equipped with position-fixing systems which permit the Nimbus satellite to locate buoys that have gone adrift. Buoys 

soon will be modified to use the Tiros-N Argos 

Data Collection System for position fixing. 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

Imternutional Cooperatiom 

Global Weather Experiment. This is a planned 

international effort scheduled from December 1, 

1978, to November 30, 1979, to provide a coordinated intensive analysis of the world's weather. It 

was organized by the World Meteorological Organization and the International Council of Scientific Unions. A major source of wind data for the 

experiment is a network of five geostationary satellites, positioned to provide contiguous weather 

coverage around the globe in tropical and mid 

latitudes. Two of these satellites were to be provided by the United States and one each by Japan, 

the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Soviet 

Union. 

In late 1977, the U.S. was informed that Russia 

could not provide the fifth geostationary satellite 

which was to be located over the Indian Ocean. 

Since the loss of this satellite would have produced 

a gap in data coverage, the U.S. and ESA were 

asked to work together to provide for a replacement 

satellite. In less than a year, Goes 1 was moved to 

59" east longitude to fill the void. A data acquisition station was constructed at Villafranca, Spain; 

the European Space Agency's Control Center at 

Darmstadt, Germany was modified to accept GOES 

59 
data; personnel were provided and trained to operate and maintain the GOES system; and a data 

processing facility was established at the University of Wisconsin. 

By the end of 1978, the fifth satellite system was 

fully installed, tested, and turned over to ESA for 

operation. During 1979, Goes 1 data will be processed at the University of Wisconsin to obtain wind 

fields over the Indian Ocean to support the Global 

Weather Experiment. 

Sharing Data. During the year, the National 

Weather Service, under the Voluntary Assistance 

Program of the World Meteorological Organization, established ground stations capable of receiving direct broadcasts from U.S. environmental 

satellites in about a dozen countries in the Caribbean area, South America, Asia, and Africa. NESS 

assisted with the assembly and installation of this 

equipment. 

Demographic Studies. Since 1973, the Census Bureau has been exploring two potential uses of satellite images. The first provided assistance to 

developing countries in using this technology for 

demographic programs, such as determination of 

settlement patterns and production of population 

estimates. This effort was supported by funds from 

the Agency for International Development (AID). 

The second was to aid in the Bureau’s domestic 

program for defining statistical areas, particularly 

those based on population density. 

The international studies were carried out in 

Bolivia and Kenya, and final reports were completed in 1978. The conclusions were that census 

planners in developing countries could improve 

their programs by using Landsat images to interpret physical-cultural land cover. Landsat images 

also could be used in developing countries to update major map features and locate boundaries in 

preparation for a national census. In addition, settlement patterns, observed by satellites, could aid in 

planning enumerator assignments. 

The study of Landsat data for domestic programs, under the terms of a NASA Applications 

System Verification and Transfer (ASVT) agreement, continued in 1978. The Census Bureau investigated the utility of using computer-processed 

Landsat data for delineating developing urban 

zones around five metropolitan areas, and compared this process with traditional techniques of 

using standard aerial photographs and map sources 

to monitor urban expansion. The urban zone 

boundaries defined from Landsat images were similar to those derived from traditional procedures. 

In 1979, the work under the ASVT will be directed 

toward determining the most cost-effective means 

of using Landsat. 

Rocket Experiment. The Environmental Data 

and Information Service participated in a joint 

American-Soviet Particle InterCalibration Project 

scheduled from June 2 to 20, 1978. Two NikeApache rockets and one Nike-Tomahawk rocket 

were launched from NASA’s Wallops Flight Center, 

and five Soviet rockets were launched from a Russian research ship, located off the Virginia coast. 

Ground-based measurements at the Service’s Wallops Ionosphere Station were used to monitor local 

ionospheric conditions for selecting specific launch 

times. The ionosphere station prepared special 

analyses of observations for daily briefings to participating scientists and relay to the Soviet vessel. 

Because of unfavorable ionospheric conditions, the 

final launch was delayed until September 27, 1978. 

Results from these measurements may answer differences in past interpretation of ionospheric data 

in the 80- to 120-kilometer-height range. 

Numerical Weather Forecastiltg 

During 1978, the National Weather Service made 

some important advances in using satellite data as 

input to their numerical weather forecasting 

models. For the large-scale computerized analyses 

and guidance forecasts, atmospheric temperature 

and moisture soundings and cloud-motion-derived 

winds from satellite data were used to supplement 

the classical observational data for rapid global 

coverage. The number of satellite-derived measurements was increased over the northern hemisphere 

and measurements in the stratosphere were extended to cover the entire globe. Detailed knowledge of stratospheric conditions is important for 

ozone monitoring and for supporting Space Shuttle 

and satellite experiments. 

Determk$ion of the Emth’s Shape and 

Gravity Field 

The National Ocean Survey worked with NASA 

to evaluate applications of space systems to geodesy 

and geodynamics. A network of accurately positioned ground stations is fundamental to all surveying and mapping. Major areas of study included 

the application of space observation systems to 

polar motion and Earth rotation, making extensive 

ground position and gravity measurements to compare with results from laser ranging to satellites 

and the Moon, Doppler tracking of satellites, and 

Very Long Base Line Interferometry. Interferometry data were analyzed to extract polar motion, 

Earth rotation, and baseline vector information. 

Polar motion values obtained by interferometry 

agreed to 10 milliseconds of arc with Doppler 

values. Baselines computed at 13 different times 

60 
over a 20-month period were accurate to within 15 

centimeters for lines as long as 4000 kilometers. 

Methods are being analyzed or developed to determine accurate positions and densify geodetic control networks with the Defense Global Positioning 

System. Precise positioning involves making observations on an array of 24 Defense satellites to be 

launched between 1978 and 1985. Simulation 

studies indicate that relative geodetic accuracies of 

10 centimeters or less can be obtained over distances 

of 10 to 100 kilometers when the requisite ground 

receiving equipment is developed. 

Altimeter data obtained from the Geodynamics 

Experimental Ocean Satellite (GEOS) 3 were used 

to track ocean eddies and currents, independent of 

surface observations. Correlations of Geos 3 data 

with Noaa 5 infrared data showed good results. A 

continuous record of Geos 3 orbits is being computed for accurate referencing of altimeter data. 

Satellite Commulzjcatiolzs 

Communications Studies. In March 1978, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) was formed within the Department of Commerce, combining the functions of 

the Office of Telecommunications and Office of 

Telecommunications Policy. In its first year, NTIA 

was active in a broad range of telecommunications 

issues involving space technology. The Administration formed an Interagency Committee on Satellite 

Telecommunications Applications, consisting of 16 

Federal agencies, to provide for cooperative development of public service satellite applications by 

Federal and public interest groups. A report was 

published reassessing the basic issues concerning 

public service telecommunication needs and satellite networks. The report identifies various issues 

which arise in connection with potential cost benefits, proposed demonstration, and apparent barriers 

to the use of satellite telecommunications for the 

public service sector. 

The Administration has the responsibility to 

monitor, coordinate, and control the overall U.S. 

Government use of the radio-frequency spectrum. 

Under these provisions, over 20 satellite networks 

were reviewed in the first half of 1978 including 

NASA’s Space Shuttle, Landsat-D, and the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System; portions of 

the Defense Global Positioning System; and the 

Defense Satellite Communications System. An assessment was made of the international advance 

publication, coordination, and registration of these 

systems under the Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union and actions 

taken to comply with them. 

In 1978, the Administration prepared a report 

on current activities concerning the technical, regulatory, and economic aspects of direct broadcast 

satellites using small Earth stations. The report discusses the current and planned activities in domestic satellite communications in the United States. 

The application of small Earth stations is emphasized, and the general technical characteristics of 

domestic satellites, presently in service, are discussed. The impact of the antenna size and preamplifier noise temperature on overall Earth station 

cost is included, and tariff cost information for 

domestic satellite and terrestrial telecommunications services is presented. 

The International Telecommunications Satellite 

(INTELSAT) Organization was created to achieve 

a single global commercial telecommunications 

satellite system. The organization now has 102 

member nations. In March 1978, the last of the INTELSAT satellites in the IV-A series was launched. 

In addition to providing international telecommunications services, INTELSAT now is providing 

domestic services for about 16 countries. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS) , planned for 

future use, will send signals directly into the home. 

Active debate on these satellites began in the 

United Nations in 1966. The basic issue is the conflict between the view of those nations that DBS 

cannot be allowed to operate without permission 

of the receiving state and the view of those nations, 

including the U.S., which advocate free and unlimited operation, subject to technical limitations. 

The Administration participated in deliberations 

of the issue during 1978 and will continue to contribute to the formulation of U.S. policy views. 

Commercial Satellite Service. The maritime community continued to add Maritime Satellite (MARISAT) communications equipment to U.S. commercial vessels to improve their operations. The 

number of vessels equipped nearly doubled again 

in 1978. The Maritime Administration (MARAD) 

continued to provide Maritime Coordination 

Center services through the General Electric timeshared computer network. This is a prototype service that provides MARISAT communications to 

the corporate offices of shipping companies. MARAD participated in final International Maritime 

Satellite (INMARSAT) Preparatory Committee 

meetings. When implemented, INMARSAT will 

assure continuity of satellite service to U.S. flag vessels and will expand the offer of service globally for 

all nations. 

The National Bureau of Standards was a consultant for the Defense Global Positioning System and 

facilitated flux density measurements from these 

satellites. The measurement techniques are based 

on work employing a radio star as a standard. The 

61 
Bureau of Standards has aided the development of 

the Navigational Signal Calibration Test Set which 

evaluates in real time eleven of the measurands 

critical to the proper performance of the Satellite 

Navigation System. 

Space Support Activities 

Launching Activities. The Environmental Data 

and Information Service prepared a climatological 

study for NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center. 

The study provides probabilities for flying weather 

conditions for “piggy backing” the Space Shuttle 

orbiter on a Boeing 747 jumbo jet during test periods. Weather conditions will determine the precise 

time schedule for the ferry flights because unfavorable weather could cause unscheduled landings or 

diversions. Favorable terminal weather is desirable 

for safe ground transfer of the orbiter to and from 

the 747. During 1978, the National Weather Service 

assigned meteorologists to the Marshall facility to 

provide operational weather support to the Shuttle 

testing program. 

Solar Activity 

The NOAA Space Environment Services Center, 

operated jointly by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force, 

is the National and World Warning Agency for disturbances on the Sun, in space, in the upper atmosphere, and in the Earth’s magnetic field. Predicted and real-time solar geophysical data were 

provided to agencies for planning and executing 

scientific experiments and for operational activities 

being conducted in the same environment. In particular, the Center provided predictions of solar 

sunspot activity used to calculate the predicted lifetime of Skylab. The National Bureau of Standards 

assisted the Center in the Skylab lifetime prediction by documenting an analysis of sunspot variations for the period of January 1848 to February 

1978 and the 13-month averaged values. The Center obtains its data from Space Environment Monitors on NOAA and GOES satellites, the global 

solar flare patrol, and data collected from the International Ursigrams and World Days Service. 

Measuremenit mrpd Ca%rrttion Services 

The National Bureau of Standards provided 

NASA with the basic thermodynamic data for the 

liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen used in the 

Gemini and Apollo projects as propellants and life 

support expendables. The Space Shuttle also uses 

these for the same purpose. Since the Shuttle’s main 

engines operate at higher pressures, more data are 

needed. New measurements have been made at pressures to 80 megapascals and the results have been 

extrapolated to 100 megapascals. The Bureau also 

provides calibrations for satellite ultraviolet instruments measuring the solar constant and monitoring 

ozone concentrations. A special deuterium calibration source for inflight calibrations has been 

developed. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Space Physics 

Interplanetary Physics. The effect of a multi-fluid 

composition in the solar wind was examined by 

NOAA’s Space Environment Laboratory. For steady 

state conditions, frictional drag on protons by alpha 

particles produced a reduction in the alpha-toproton abundance ratio near the Sun when nonradial flow occurs within some coronal holes. At 

the Earth’s orbit, the alpha particles achieved a 

velocity higher than the protons when their temperatures at the Sun were very much higher than 

the protons. For unsteady conditions, the anomalous observations of variable electron to proton 

temperatures, obtained by numerical simulations, 

were a result of the high thermal conductivity of 

the electrons and their frictional coupling to the 

protons. 

Planetary and Stellar Atmospheres. The National 

Bureau of Standards played a major role in developing the radiative transfer theory needed to interpret the ultraviolet radiation of very hot, bright 

stars, which lose substantial amounts of mass in 

high-velocity stellar winds. This theory is currently 

being used to help analyze spectra obtained from 

the Copernicus and International Ultraviolet Explorer satellites. 

The Bureau also has been developing technology 

for reliable measurement of physical properties of 

solar and stellar atmospheres using data from the 

Orbiting Solar Observatory, the International U1- 

traviolet Explorer, and the Solar Maximum Mission satellites. The properties being measured are 

temperature, density, velocity, and magnetic field. 

These programs are designed to study the evolution 

and causes of solar flare activity. 

Atmospheric Physics 

Magnetospheric Physics. The enhanced resolution and spatial coverage of the instruments comprising the energetic particles experiment on board 

one of the two International Sun-Earth Explorer 

satellites permit a much more complete description 

of the particle environment. This is very important 

to the understanding of the dynamical processes 

occurring in the magnetosphere. Initial published 

research by NOAA’s Space Environment Laboratory and the Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy 

62 
has revealed some characteristics of the magnetospheric boundary not known from earlier, less 

sophisticated measurements. Availability of data of 

this quality will significantly enhance our understanding of the magnetosphere. The Space Environment Laboratory scientists demonstrated that the 

geomagnetic disturbances called substorms can be 

predicted. Magnetic disturbances have an important impact on radio communications, power distribution, and long-line telephone systems. Laboratory scientists used the NOAA satellite data and 

observations from the 25 ground observatories of 

the North American International Magnetospheric 

Study network to analyze space and time characteristics of magnetic substorms and the associated 

magnetospheric currents. 

Ionospheric Physics. A new generation of highfrequency ionospheric sounders were constructed 

and tested. The design took full advantage of the 

latest electronics and minicomputer technology. 

These instruments will provide major improvements in ionospheric measurements of the ionization as a function of altitude and time. A field 

station is under construction near Fairbanks, 

Alaska. 

Stratospheric Physics. NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory developed a new technique to measure wind 

profiles through the atmosphere from the ground 

up to about 100 kilometers using pulsed Doppler 

radar. A single measurement through the troposphere and lower stratosphere up to about 30 kilometers takes about one minute. 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

Photochemistry. The Aeronomy Laboratory has 

made some notable contributions toward understanding the chemistry of the stratosphere. Nitrogen 

trioxide has been measured for the first time using 

ground-based long-path optical absorption techniques. The stratospheric nitrogen dioxide measurements have been extended to the southern 

hemisphere and show the winter behavior there to 

resemble that in the Arctic winter. Methane is a 

compound almost entirely of natural origin, which 

is present as a trace gas in the stratosphere. Understanding the disposition of methane in the stratosphere is an important key to understanding stratospheric chemistry. During the past year, the 

concentration of methane has been measured at 

various latitudes up to altitudes of 30 kilometers. 

The National Bureau of Standards is participating in an interagency program to improve atmospheric measurements of halocarbons and nitrous 

oxide to permit more accurate predictions of the 

effect of these species on the ozone concentration in 

the stratosphere. In the first phase of this program 

the Bureau conducted international, interlaboratory tests to assess current measurement accuracy. 

The results of these measurements by 16 laboratories on a set of common samples showed significant systematic differences among laboratories. 

Data Programs 

Eltviromenital Data 

The Environmental Data and Information Service archives about 2000 metrocket observations each 

year. The rocket obtains primarily temperature and 

wind data at altitudes of 20 to 90 kilometers. The 

data are gathered by 30 stations in the worldwide 

Cooperative Meteorological Rocketsonde Network. 

The metrocket has been an important data source 

in determining wind and thermodynamic stresses 

which manned and unmanned spacecraft must be 

designed to withstand during launch and reentry 

operations. These same data now are being used in 

the design, test, and operational phases of the Space 

Shuttle. In addition, they will be important in determining design and loading factors for vehicles 

used in the establishment and operation of the 

proposed orbiting space station. Periodic metrocket 

ozone measurements now are being made to determine the effects of aerosols and supersonic aircraft 

exhausts on the ozone layer. 

The Service operates the World Data Center A 

for Solar-Terrestrial Physics. It is preparing a report documenting observations of the first significant solar flare activity since 1976. Between April 

24 and May 8, 1978, solar rotation carried a large 

and magnetically complex sunspot group across the 

solar disk that flared four times at intensities great 

enough to significantly affect the Earth’s dayside 

and polar ionospheres and the planet’s magnetic 

field. The largest flare ever observed occurred on 

April 28. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aeromuticd Publicatiolzs 

Charts and Manuals. The National Ocean Survey 

delivered to the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) certified obstacle and terrain data for 36 of 

72 air terminals in the United States which were 

initially targeted to receive this information. The 

data are used in support of FAA’s Minimum Safe 

Altitude Warning System which alerts air traffic 

controllers when an aircraft descends below a safe 

flight altitude within a 120-kilometer radius of an 

air terminal facility. The FAA plans to expand this 

system to include 72 additional airports. 

The Survey has implemented the Aeronautical 

Chart Automation Project. A contract soon will be 

63 
awarded to develop, design, and process an operational aeronautical chart production system. The 

proposed system is predicated on several subsystems 

integrated into a total system for automation of 

the predominantly manual chart production 

methods. This will yield higher efficiencies and enhance chart updating and maintenance schedules. 

Aircraft Sapport 

Safety Services. The National Bureau of Standards aided the FAA in a reassessment of aircraft 

separation rules and analysis of data on heightkeeping performance of aircraft. The Bureau 

analyzed the sensitivity of a model used internationally to assess the risk of collision as a function 

of the separation rules, traffic levels, equipment, 

and height-keeping performance. The Bureau provides FAA field inspectors with a portable pressure 

standard for on-the-spot checks of altimeter setting 

indicators and aircraft altimeters, and for verifying 

the accuracy of calibrations. 

National Weather Service meteorologists, now assigned to FAA Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 

are using GOES satellite pictures to help them 

rapidly detect weather changes that pose a hazard 

to aviation or impede traffic flow. 

NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory developed a new 

pulsed Doppler radar technique to measure vertical 

profiles of turbulence. This has led to the development of a new turbulence model. This model can 

be used to calculate profiles of turbulence intensity 

from routine radiosonde measurements. This model 

shows considerable promise for the prediction of 

clear-air turbulence. 

64 
Department of Energy 

Introduction 

In the twenty years of the Space Age, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessors, the 

Energy Research and Development Administration 

and the Atomic Energy Commission, have had a 

growing role in our country’s exploration and exploitation of space. From a few early Earth-orbital 

missions through lunar landings to long-term outerplanetary journeys, the compactness, reliability, and 

lifetime of nuclear isotope power supplies have 

been essential to mission success. A continuing primary goal of the isotope-power-supply development 

activity is to support the nation’s civilian and 

military space efforts, with particular orientation 

toward missions which depend upon delivery of 

adequate electrical power while operating in a remote, hostile, or specialized environment. 

In addition to the space applications of nuclear 

power, the practicability of using space for applications that bear directly on the nation’s energy 

problems is being investigated. One such application is the potential use of the Space Shuttle to aid 

in the disposition of nuclear wastes; another is the 

possible use of a Satellite Power System (SPS) in 

geostationary orbit to collect solar energy and beam 

it to Earth where it would be used as a terrestrial 

energy source. A further role for the DOE involves 

sensor development in support of DoD programs 

using spacecraft for nuclear test detection. 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

DOE performs a significant role in the nation’s 

space program through the development and production of nuclear powered electric generators for 

current NASA and potential DoD space missions. 

During 1978, active projects included: 

Initiation of flight system development to design, fabricate, and test various components of 

the static selenide radioisotope generator system for the NASA Galileo mission (Jupiter 

OrbiterlProbe) scheduled for launch in January 1982. 

Preliminary ground testing of two dynamic 

radioisotope power systems, which ended in 

selection of one system for further technology 

verification testing in FY 1979-1980. 

Development of a modular heat source termed 

the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS). 

These new power systems will provide the unique 

characteristics of relatively low weight, high performance, compact size, high reliability and long 

life required for sensing, analytical, or communication systems on board spacecraft, satellites, or other 

remotely located devices operable for long time 

periods without reliance on external sources of 

energy. 

Government-owned, contractor operated laboratories provide valuable support of these activities. 

The new plutonium-238 fuel fabrication laboratories and plant facilities at Savannah River have 

been the site of preproduction studies of the MultiHundred Watt fuel form for the Galileo mission; 

supporting research in fuel studies and advanced 

heat source design was conducted at the Los Alamos 

Scientific Laboratory’s new Plutonium Facility; and 

continuing research and improvement in containment capsule materials is pursued at the Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory and at the Mound Facility, 

where the heat source is assembled. 

Additional activity pursued in 1978 included 

periodic monitoring of power being supplied to 

on-going missions, plus data reduction and analyses 

related to the Viking and Voyager space programs. 

Support of the nation’s civilian space exploration 

efforts continues as a primary goal of DOE, with 

particular orientation toward NASA missions which 

depend upon safe delivery of adequate electrical 

power while operating in remote, hostile, or specialized environment; of equal significance is a 

commitment to support the interests of DoD in its 

deployment of satellite systems for navigation, communication, or surveillance in Earth orbit. 

Space Programs 

Piolzeer 

Pioneer 10 and 11 were launched in March 1972 

and April 1973, respectively, on missions to the 

outer planet Jupiter and beyond. Each spacecraft 

65 
was supplied electrical power from four Snap-19 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) . Following more than 6 years of flight time for 

Pioneer 10 and well over 5 years of flight time for 

Pioneer 11, the power stability of both systems 

(presently about 120 watts) remained essentially as 

predicted. Since Pioneer 10 is well over 2.4 billion 

kilometers from Earth and is continuing on its 

planned solar-system escape trajectory, major attention is now focused on Pioneer 11 and the associated 

Snap-19 generator. This spacecraft is now approximately 1.1 billion kilometers from Earth and 180 

million kilometers from Saturn. Extrapolation of 

Pioneer 11 RTG power curves from the existing 

5-year data firmly supports the predicted availability of adequate power at the Saturn encounter in 

1979. 

Viking 

The two Viking Landers were successfully positioned at selected sites on the planet Mars on 

July 20 and September 3, 1976, after launch on 

August 20 and September 9, 1975, respectively. 

Each lander was powered by two Snap-19 RTGs 

designed to supply a minimum of 70 watts during 

mission operations. Transmission of scientific data 

to Earth was dependent on these RTGs for a continuing power supply. Monitoring the power characteristics for each of the Viking generators was 

continued in 1978. Latest telemetry reports, as of 

June 1978, indicate stable performance at predictable power output levels, after approximately two 

years on the Martian surface. Telemetry data reduction analyses will be continued into 1979. 

Vo yuger 

The Voyager spacecraft (formerly designated 

Mariner Jupiter/Saturn) were launched from the 

Kennedy Space Center on August 20 and September 

5, 1977. After slightly more than one year, Voyager 

1 and Voyager 2 are presently 600 and 550 million 

kilometers from Earth, respectively. Each spacecraft 

is powered by three multi-hundred watt (MHW) 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators providing a 

combined power output of approximately 475 

watts. Telemetry from the Voyagers during 1978 

indicate stable operation of the MHF generators, 

providing power in accordance with design predictions for data retrieval at Jupiter encounter, March 

5, 1979, and July 9, 1979, and for the subsequent 

Saturn encounter in 1980-1981. The generator lifetime is projected to be adequate to return information from the approach to Uranus in 1986 and 

possibly from Neptune in 1989. 

Gulileo 

The objective of the NASA Galileo mission is to 

place a spacecraft in orbit around Jupiter and drop 

a probe into its atmosphere to pursue a two-year 

program of imaging the Jupiter satellites and mapping its electromagnetic fields and particle environment. In support of this project, the DOE will 

provide two 200-electrical-watt RTGs as long-term, 

durable power sources for the scientific functions 

of the spacecraft. Jupiter encounter will take place 

three years after launch in January 1982. In support of this schedule, DOE activity during 1978 

has included efforts essential to flight system design, fabrication, assembly, and testing of components for the Selenide Isotope Generator to be used 

on this mission. Selenide thermoelectrics, new to 

the space program, indicate a potential for power 

conversion at the 8-9 percent level as compared to 

previous MHW generators which used silicon germanium thermoelectrics and operated at 6-7 percent efficiency. Contractors for systems integration 

and fabrication of components have been selected. 

Additional technical support is provided by several 

national laboratories. Plutonium-238 oxide fuel to 

power the generators will be processed at the new 

Savannah River Plant. Several modifications designed to improve launch and operational safety 

aspects of the MHW heat source to be used with 

the selenide generator were completed in 1978. 

Qualification testing of the flight design RTG is 

scheduled to be completed during FY 1980. 

Solar Polar Mission 

The Solar Polar Mission (formerly termed Outof-the-Ecliptic) is sponsored jointly by NASA and 

the European Space Agency. The NASA objective 

is to conduct science measurements of electric and 

magnetic fields and to measure the Sun’s corona 

and its magnetic characteristics. Two spacecraft are 

planned to be launched in early 1983, each requiring a power unit supplying peak power of 275 watts 

two years after launch. In support of this program 

DOE initiated preliminary studies in 1978 for a 

conceptual flight system generator design. Because 

of mission requirements, the performance goal of 

this radioisotope generator is targeted for three 

electrical watts per pound, at about 10-11 percent 

system efficiency. A modular heat source termed the 

General Purpose Heat Source is currently under 

development at the Los Alamos laboratory; coupled 

with a further improved selenide converter subsystem, it is to provide a generator of improved power 

density, performance, and safety. 

66 
Generator Technology 

The demand for nuclear electric power aboard 

spacecraft or satellites has increased dramatically 

from 2.7 electrical watts on the first Transit in 

1961 to 475 watts on each Voyager in 1977. Missions contemplated by NASA and DOD indicate the 

need for advanced higher power systems with reduced weight, increased endurance, and reliability 

at lower cost. To meet this challenge the DOE technology activities for 1978 have been mainly directed 

toward the development of the new selenide generators, as described for the Galileo and Solar Polar 

missions, development of a dynamic power system, 

and the previously described modular General Purpose Heat Source fueled with plutonium-238 oxide 

to provide the required thermal energy to the 

evolving future generator systems. This modular 

heat source is scheduled for future production at 

the Savannah River Plant. 

Competition begun in 1975 between the Isotope 

Brayton and the Organic Rankine Cycle dynamic 

power systems culminated with simultaneous 

ground demonstration unit tests in mid-1978, system evaluation, and selection of the Organic 

Rankine Cycle (Kilowatt Isotope Power System) for 

continued technology development. Static selenide 

radioisotope conversion systems are planned to 

provide space and system power requirements 

ranging up to 500 electrical watts; by contrast, the 

dynamic KIPS system is programmed to provide 

power in the range of 1000-2000 watts at approximately 18 percent efficiency for foreseeable space 

missions in the 1980s. In conjunction with dynamic 

isotope power systems, a study was initiated in mid1978 to improve definition of the attributes and 

mission applicability of the KIPS power system. 

This study is examining various missions and system integration concepts and performing life-cycle 

cost analyses, with results to be available in late 

1979. 

Materials technology and development studies 

pursued in 1978 were directed toward providing 

improved system performance and safety. A new 

iridium alloy developed at the Oak Ridge laboratory and designated DOP-26, and three-dimensional 

woven graphite composites have been subjected to 

system and safety testing to enhance the structural 

strength and containment capability for the MultiHundred Watt heat source. An alternate platinumrhodium-tungsten alloy, PT-3008, also has been 

subjected to similar system testing for use with the 

General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS). The design, 

associated analyses, and component and assembly 

testing for the GPHS, leading to technology readiness status, were completed in 1978. Composite 

graphites are intended for use as aeroshell materials 

on both the improved MHW and GPHS heat 

sources for future space systems launched on Space 

Shuttle. The improved MHW heat source is presently scheduled for use on the Galileo program. 

The flexibility of the modular GPHS should permit its use on most subsequent space electric power 

generator systems, beginning with the Solar Polar 

mission. 

Space Reactor 

Recognizing the ever increasing potential of space 

electric power systems, DOE is currently examining 

the available technology base for a 10- to 100-electrical-kilowatt reactor power system for potential 

DoD applications in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 

1978 several fuel forms and conversion systems were 

studied and fundamental questions concerning development of a space reactor were identified. This 

technology development will continue efforts toward answering these basic questions to the extent 

required to permit construction of a ground demonstration system, and to minimize associated risk 

areas. 

Satellite Power System 

A Satellite Power System (SPS) in geostationary 

orbit was suggested in 1968 as a way to convert 

solar energy in space to microwave energy for 

transmission to Earth for use as a terrestrial energy 

source. Initially NASA undertook study of this 

system. In 1976, the lead management responsibility for the SPS endeavor was transferred from 

NASA to DOE, with NASA continuing to provide 

baseline technology inputs to DOE’S broad system 

feasibility studies. 

DOE and NASA jointly published an SPS concept development and evaluation program plan in 

February 1978. This plan evolved from a task group 

study conducted by DOE in late 1976 and early 

1977. The objective of the program plan is to develop an initial understanding of the technical 

feasibility, economic practicality, and the social and 

environmental acceptability of the SPS concept. 

Based upon the detail assessments, recommendation are to be made during FY 1980 as to possible 

future directions. 

NASA is identifying and defining the most attractive SPS concepts from economic and technical considerations. The system definition efforts 

have produced a reference system. Future system 

study efforts will refine the definitions of the reference system. DOE is assessing the potential of any 

adverse environmental, health, and safety effects. 

67 
Key environmental issues have been identified and 

DOE has initiated specific studies to resolve some 

of the issues in 1978 and 1979. 

Studies by DOE are to address issues of resource 

utilization, institutional factors, international matters, and the societal effects of SPS. Current studies 

are surveying existing work in all four areas as it 

applies to the SPS and will define additional efforts 

required for societal assessment. 

Before a commitment to SPS can be considered, 

DOE is performing a comparative assessment of the 

SPS and other advanced energy systems to determine if the implementation of the SPS would offer 

a distinct advantage to the American people. A 

methodology is being formed to compare different 

energy systems on a common basis. 

Nuclear Waste Disposal 

In support of a NASA-DOE study of the potential for nuclear waste disposal in space, a baseline 

operational scenario was selected during FY 1978, 

using the Space Shuttle to place waste into a longterm stable solar orbit between Earth and Venus. 

A concept definition and evaluation study is tentatively planned through FY 1981. At that time a 

joint NASA-DOE recommendation would be submitted as a basis for decision on continuing the 

program. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

Development of satellite-borne nuclear surveillance began in the early 1960s and led to the Vela 

Hotel program. Because of its specialized knowledge of nuclear explosion characteristics and capability to detect and measure output radiations, the 

Atomic Energy Commission, one forerunner of the 

DOE, was tasked to design and develop the detector instrumentation for the proposed satellites 

while DoD held responsibility for overall management of program activities and schedules. The Vela 

satellites were launched into Earth orbits of about 

112,000 kilometers-far enough out so that one 

satellite could view nearly half the Earth’s surface 

and most of outer space. Six pairs of Vela satellites 

were placed into orbit between 1963 and 1970. Successive satellites carried improved instrumentation 

for nuclear-explosion surveillance. 

The nuclear surveillance mission of the Vela 

satellite program is now incorporated into other 

multi-mission DoD spacecraft while DOE continues 

to retain responsibility for design, fabrication, test, 

calibration, and launch and operational support of 

the nuclear test detection instrumentation subsystems. In support of this responsibility, DOE conducts a vigorous research and development program to meet changing detection requirements as 

well as to develop a detailed understanding of the 

radiation environment of space. 

68 
VI 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior is responsible for 

the nation’s public lands and for maintaining a 

balance between the use and conservation of natural resources on these lands. Effective resource 

management and research require accurate and 

timely data, whether collected on the ground, from 

high- or low-altitude aircraft, or from satellites. In 

some investigations data from various sensors such 

as multispectral scanners, cameras, and radars are 

useful. To collect data, the department relies on 

aircraft for acquiring aerial photographs, carrying 

experimental airborne instruments, and executing 

programs such as selection of utility corridors, 

cadastral surveys, and resource inventories. 

The need for surveying and repetitive monitoring of vast and often inaccessible areas has also 

created a growing interest in satellite data, primarily from the experimental Landsat system because 

of its synoptic, repetitive, and uniform coverage. 

Digital Landsat data have made possible the extraction of information by computerized techniques. 

Because of the flexibility that digital data offer in 

collecting and managing large volumes of information, resource managers in seven bureaus of the 

department are incorporating this new technology 

into their activities to varying degrees. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program 

The Earth Resources Observation Systems 

(EROS) program is administered for the Interior 

Department by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

The purpose of the EROS program is to develop, 

demonstrate, and encourage applications of remotely sensed data and aerospace technology which 

are relevant to functional responsibilities of the 

department. Efforts of EROS personnel toward 

these goals have been instrumental in bringing 

about approximately 25 routine or nearly routine 

applications of remote sensing and aerospace technology already within the department and approximately 20 applications that are in the experimental 

stage. 

The key facility of the EROS program is the 

EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South 

Department of the Interior 

Dakota, the principal archive for remotely sensed 

data collected by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

and NASA aircraft, and by Landsat, Skylab, Apollo, 

and Gemini spacecraft. EDC now serves as the national distributor of Landsat products to all agencies of the Federal government and the public. 

Sales for FY 1978 amounted to about $3.2 million, 

about 60 percent of which was for Landsat data. 

Improuements in Image Processing and Delivery 

Several long-planned improvements to the quality of Landsat products and the efficiency of the 

delivery system were achieved this year. A digital 

image system for pre-processing Landsat imagery 

was installed at NASA’s Gcddard Space Flight 

Center; a companion system at EDC provides for 

volume production and distribution of Landsat 

data. These new systems will permit a fourfold increase in information content of Landsat image 

products as compared to conventional processing 

systems previously used. NASA and USGS have 

agreed to an arrangement wherein a commercial 

communications satellite carrier, RCA Americom, 

will provide a telemetry link for Landsat data from 

Goddard to EDC. This link, together with telemetry links from Landsat reception stations at Fairbanks, Alaska, and Goldstone, California, will be 

implemented during spring of 1979 and will reduce 

the time required to deliver Landsat imagery to 

the user from 4-6 weeks to 7-10 days. On an 

emergency basis, it will be possible to examine 

within 24-48 hours imagery of floods, extent of ice 

or snow pack, or other time-dependent phenomena 

such as vigor of range grass. 

To make more foreign coverage available, EDC 

is participating in arrangements with other countries who receive and process Landsat data-Canada, Brazil, and Italy-in establishing an international exchange of data base information. 

Imagery of the Shdlow Seas 

In a 5-year program to update hydrographic 

charts, the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) entered into an agreement with NASA and the EROS 

Data Center to acquire Landsat multispectral 

69 
scanner date over certain shallow water areas of 

the world. Data within the range of foreign receiving stations may be available through the exchange of international data. Special arrangements 

with NASA are necessary to turn on the satellites’ 

tape recorders to acquire data out of range of a 

ground receiving station and to operate bands 4 

and 5 of the multispectral scanner in a high-gain 

mode to enhance shallow bottom features. A total 

of from 9000 to 12,000 data acquisitions will probably be needed to ensure cloud-free coverage of the 

3000 required areas. EDC will expedite the necessary processing of the data and provide facilities 

and consultation for its interpretation. Methods of 

analyzing imagery of the Trust Territories of the 

Pacific, developed in an earlier EROS study, were 

refined, verified, and adopted for use in the DMA 

program. 

Training Programs 

The EROS Data Center has achieved a worldwide reputation of excellence for its training programs in the uses of remote sensing data. Seven 

hundred seventy four participants, representing 

Federal and other government agencies, private industry, and educational institutions, attended 30 

training courses during FY 1978. Since 1973, 119 

courses have been given for 2572 students including 620 foreign participants from 84 countries. 

Applications and Research 

In addition to data distribution and training, 

EROS activities include technical assistance and research in the applications of remote sensing data to 

Earth resources investigations. Computer-assisted 

image analysis techniques are developed, demonstrated, and documented in the Data Analysis Laboratory at EDC in response to the particular needs 

of user agencies. Cooperative demonstrations and 

research projects often result in the development 

of techniques feasible for routine use. Some examples of promising new cooperative projects with 

potential for routine use in the department are: 

Integrated geophysical and remote sensing 

data. Experimental merging of gravity and 

magnetic data and data from Landsat, the Heat 

Capacity Mapping Mission satellite, and Seasat’s radar is being tested at sites in 8 states by 

scientists from EROS and Geologic Division 

of USGS. 

Composite mapping and topographic analysis. 

The Topographic Division, the National Cartographic Information Center, the Geography 

Program, and the Center for Astrogeology of 

USGS are cooperating with EDC’s Data Analysis Laboratory in an experiment to combine 

Landsat digital data with data from other 

sources, such as digital maps, terrain tapes, and 

census data. The techniques developed wilI be 

used to generate enhanced imagery and to produce an improved classification of types of 

land cover. In another cooperative project, 

with the Bureau of Land Management, digital 

topographic data are being combined with 

Landsat imagery to produce stereoscopic 

images. The technique is used to aid in classification of vegetation in Arizona. 

Targeting, inventorying, and monitoring 

ground water resources. Water Resources Division of USGS is cooperating with EDC in a 

comprehensive program to use remote sensing 

technology in locating new sources of ground 

water and monitoring its use for irrigation. 

Standards for prediction of ground water occurrence in particular geologic terrains are 

being developed by evaluating existing remotely sensed data. A study of the Ogalalla 

aquifer in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, and 

a demonstration project to monitor irrigated 

cropland in the Suwanee River Water Management District in Florida, are contributing to 

the development of a methodology to assess 

the environmental impact of agricultural 

irrigation. 

Monitoring desertification. EROS and the 

Center for Astrogeology of USGS have developed a precision method for measuring the 

albedo (brightness) of Landsat images of arid 

regions in Utah and Nevada in an experiment 

to monitor desertification. The United Nations 

Conference on Desertification in 1977 gave 

high priority to the development of arid region monitoring. 

Fraunhofer Line Discriminator. Research cooperatively supported by USGS and NASA has 

led to the development of an airborne electrooptical device for detecting luminescence 

which cannot be seen by the human eye. 

The device, called a Fraunhofer Line Discriminator, has been successfully tested on geochemically stressed vegetation, drought stressed 

agricultural crops, phosphate rock, oil spills 

and marine seeps, paper mill and phosphate 

processing effluents, and uranium-bearing 

sandstone. The Environmental Protection 

Agency and the Agricultural Research Service 

of the Department of Agriculture have contributed support for recent test flights. 

70 
created Office of Surface Mining and the Bureau 

of Mines. Financial support to examine the potential was provided by the EROS Program, Office of 

Surface Mining, the Bureau of Mines, and the state 

of New Mexico. The feasibility of using Landsat 

data was demonstrated at the Navajo Coal Mine 

in New Mexico by the Technology Application 

Center of the University of New Mexico, using data 

analysis techniques developed by Stanford University. Similar projects are under way in Florida and 

South Carolina. 

Conservation Division of USGS has contracted 

with the University of California at Santa Barbara 

for an analysis of Seasat radar data for the detection of oil or gas on the ocean surface in the Santa 

Barbara Channel. Data from overflights by Coast 

Guard aircraft and surface sampling will also contribute to the study. 

The Bureau of Land Management and USGS are 

responsible for regularly supplying the affected 

states with information about the environmental 

impact of offshore fuel exploration on coastal areas. 

Aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used 

routinely in environmental impact statements. 

USGS used airborne multispectral scanners to 

identify surface alteration associated with uranium 

mining and also to locate underground coal mine 

fires. Computer-processed Landsat data are combined with other remotely sensed data collected by 

USGS to aid in locating potential sites for radioactive waste storage. 

Monitoring The Environment 

Land Iwentories 

A Natural Resources Information System, primarily based on aerial photographs and orthophotographs, and updated with Landsat data, has 

been in use for several years for the Indian lands. 

A National Wetlands Inventory conducted by Fish 

and Wildlife Service became operational last year, 

relying on Landsat data in Alaska and aerial photographs in the lower 48 states. 

The National Park Service is cooperating with 

NASA in an Applications System Verification Test 

of remote sensing techniques and with EDC in a 

vegetation inventory of the Lake Mead National 

Recreation Area. The goal is to train Park personnel in techniques to be used in planning and 

management of 25 large recreational areas. 

The Bureaus of Reclamation and Land Management have also participated in cooperative demonstration projects at EDC, where their resource 

managers were trained to extract information from 

Landsat data on the interactive digital image analysis system. Mandated by recent legislation to administer large areas, both bureaus have found it 

cost-effective to procure similar systems, each representing an investment of about $I,OOO,OOO, to 

conduct inventories in their own facilities on an 

operational basis. 

The Bureau of Reclamation is required by Public Law 90-537 to develop a plan to meet the 

future water requirements of the Colorado River 

basin. The newly produced interactive analysis 

system will be used to inventory the irrigated 

lands of the area, detect changes in land use, and 

map wildlife habitat. A continuing cooperative 

project with EDC is to investigate the potential of 

data from an airborne multispectral scanner and 

from the Thematic Mapper planned for Landsat-D. 

The Federal Land Management Act of 1976 requires the Bureau of Land Management to keep 

current an inventory of the resources of public 

lands to ensure protection of the environment and 

that optimum use of the land will be made for the 

long-range public good. To inventory and monitor 

the 1,910,000 square kilometers of public lands in 

the 11 western states and Alaska for which it has 

responsibility, the bureau has devised a comprehensive information system combining data from many 

sources. The wildland vegetation inventory maintained with the Landsat image analysis system is a 

vital component of the information system. 

Ewironmemtal Impact of Fuels Exploration 

Interest in the potential for monitoring surface 

mining operations with Landsat data resulted in a 

memorandum of understanding between the newly 

Data Acquisition Through Satellite Relay 

USGS is the largest single user in the department 

of the data collection system, with about 100 platforms routinely relaying water data through Landsat, the Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES), or a commercial satellite to the 

USGS computer. Satellite data relay is also used in 

USGS experiments to monitor volcanoes and earthquakes and to collect magnetic data. 

The Bureau of Reclamation Sierra Cooperative 

Pilot Project combines hydrometeorological data 

relayed from remote ground stations via GOES 

with National Weather Service data to determine 

the best opportunities for cloud seeding. 

The Bureau of Land Management uses relay 

stations in an automatic lightning detection system 

for remote areas. Bonneville Power Authority 

tested the system successfully in retrieving hydrometeorological data from inaccessible sites. 

Geology 

Geologic Processes 

The USGS Center for Astrogeology began a 

5-year program, funded by NASA, to analyze data 

71 
from the two Viking landers on Mars, including 

about 50,000 photographs. The origin of deep alluvial channels, the history of Martian volcanism, 

the possibility of radical climate changes, and the 

lack of plate tectonic activity similar to that on 

Earth will be investigated. 

USGS published a geologic map of the entire surface of Mars made from over 2000 photographs 

taken by Mariner 9 in 1971-1972. The map shows 

landforms and structures and differentiates 23 rock 

types. 

Earth data from the Heat Capacity Mapping 

Mission satellite are used to identify rock type on 

the basis of thermal inertia properties. 

USGS and NASA have agreed to cooperate in 

the construction of a mathematical model of the 

Earth’s magnetic field and to analyze magnetic 

anomalies, using data from Magsat. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Water Resources Division of USGS, and 

several foreign organizations are cooperating with 

EROS to publish an atlas of glaciers from satellite 

imagery. 

Mineral Explmation 

Imagery from Landsat and aircraft is used 

routinely by the department as a tool for mineral 

exploration and to improve the quality and speed 

of major mineral resource mapping programs. In 

addition, USGS contracted €or approximately 

225,000 line-kilometers of aeromagnetic and aeroradioactivity surveys. 

Using an airborne multispectral scanner, a USGS 

research investigation determined that the optimum spectral band for identification of rock type 

was 2.2 micrometers. As a result, this spectral band 

has been added to the Thematic Mapper being 

planned for Landsat-D. 

Cartography 

High-altitude aerial photography is the principal 

source of data in the National Mapping program 

and the Land Use Data and Analysis mapping 

program of USGS, complemented by the use of 

Landsat imagery for specialized applications in 

select areas. For example, Landsat digital imagery 

was used to locate small water-filled potholes in 

North Dakota, important as an indicator of a wildfowl migration route, and to make an interim map 

of land cover in the National Petroleum Reserve of 

Alaska. 

Landsat Image Maps 

A color mosaic of mainland Alaska was prepared 

by the Alaskan Geology Branch of USGS. The 

mosaic consists of 128 Landsat images, and is a 

photographic product available to the public from 

EDC. 

Two mosaics of the Yemen Arab Republic were 

made by the USGS in cooperation with the Yemen 

Arab Republic, under the auspices of the Agency 

for International Development. The mosaics were 

made from 12 Landsat images at a scale of 1:- 

500,000 in lithographic format. One is a geographic 

map annotated in English and Arabic with cultural 

features, and the other is a geologic map superimposed on band 7 imagery. 

A Landsat image map was produced by Topographic Division of USGS of the Chesapeake Bay 

depicting the most severe ice conditions on record 

(February 1977), in an experiment to map a temporal phenomenon. 

Geodetic Control 

To establish geodetic control for mapping in remote areas, such as Alaska, USGS and BLM use 

portable Doppler receivers to track the Navy Navigational Satellite. Position is computed from frequency shift information from many passes and 

satellite ephemeris data from permanent tracking 

stations. The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, expected in the mid-1980s, will shorten the 

time required for accurate positioning from the 

present few weeks to only a day or two. 

Space Oblique Mercator Projectim 

A significant development this year in the application of satellite imagery to cartography concerned the Space Oblique Mercator (SOM) map 

projection. -4 map projection is the display of a 

curved surface of Earth on a flat surface, and the 

SOM was devised in 1974 to show the satellite 

ground track continually true to scale for an orbiting satellite combined with the rotating Earth. 

This year the equations necessary to incorporate 

the projection into the image processing of Landsat were developed and programmed on the USGS 

computer. The projection will significantly increase 

the geometric fidelity of Landsat imagery. 

International Activities 

Under the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act, USGS 

participates with the Agency for International Development in a technical assistance program to aid 

developing countries in Earth science and engineering. These countries frequently request assistance 

in remote sensing as the most feasible way of addressing some of their environmental and resource 

problems. 

72 
Four-week international remote sensing workshops are given at EDC twice a year as part of this 

program. In FY 1978, EDC also conducted courses 

for a group of resource managers from Central 

America (sponsored by the Inter-American Development Bank), the national mapping agency of 

Mexico, and the national space agency of Iran. An 

advanced remote sensing workshop for foreign participants was held at the USGS Center for Astrogeology. In addition, USGS scientists participate in 

many assistance programs and consultations in the 

developing countries. 

Another international activity of USGS is scientific cooperation providing for joint research and 

exchange of information. For example, last year 

EDC conducted a workshop in remote sensing at 

the Circum-Pacific Energy and Mineral Resources 

Conference sponsored by the United Nations Coordinating Committee for Offshore ProspectingEast Asia. The workshop was attended by 44 geoscientists from 11 foreign countries. A remote 

sensing project, led by USGS, is part of the International Geologic Correlations Program, jointly 

sponsored by United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and 

the International Union of Geological Sciences. 

73 

297-031, 0 - 79 - 6 
Introduction 

The Department of Transportation, through its 

aviation component, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) , manages extensive aeronautical 

research, development, test, and evaluation programs. These activities support FAA in the proper 

discharge of its mission to promote air safety, assure the safe and efficient use of the national airspace, foster civil aeronautics and air commerce 

both at home and abroad, develop and operate a 

common system of air navigation and air traffic 

control for both military and civil aviation, promote the development of a secure and effective national airport system, and ensure the compatibility 

of civil aviation with the environment. 

These research, development, test, and evaluation efforts help provide solutions to operational 

problems encountered by FAA in such areas as air 

navigation and air traffic control, aviation communications, aviation weather, aviation medicine, 

aircraft noise and air pollution abatement, energy 

conservation, and aviation safety. 

Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation 

Microwme Landing System (MU) 

A national program to develop a Microwave 

Landing System (MLS) was begun in 1971 as a 

joint effort among the Departments of Defense and 

Transportation and the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration. Program management and 

funding responsibilities for development of the 

system were vested in the Federal Aviation 

Administration. 

This new landing system is expected to overcome limitations restricting the usefulness of the 

Instrument Landing System (ILS), the existing 

standard, and to provide the operational and economic benefits associated with a universal system 

capable of meeting the needs of civil and military 

aviation into the year 2000 and beyond. The deficiencies which led the United States to establish a 

national MLS development program were also 

recognized in the international aviation community. The result was a series of actions within the 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 

to select and standardize worldwide a new international system. 

A major milestone was achieved in April 1978 

when, after nearly four years of preparation and 

detailed evaluation of candidate microwave landing systems, the ICAO Worldwide All Weather 

Operations Panel selected the Time Reference 

Scanning Beam system, developed by the U.S., for 

international standardization. As a result of the 

ICAO decision, initial steps were taken to prepare 

the necessary international standards and specifications for the system. 

Action was also taken to complete the development of selected MLS prototypes with the procurement of a Basic (Wide Aperture) System which 

will be delivered for testing in 1979. The test and 

evaluation of Basic (Narrow Aperture) and Small 

Community Systems were completed. 

Discrete Address Beacm System (DABS) 

The existing Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon 

System (ATCRBS), a spinoff from the World War 

I1 Identification Friend or Foe (IFF), is currently 

used as the primary tracking and surveillance vehicle in air traffic control (ATC) automation operations. In this system an airborne transponder 

signals an aircraft’s identity and altitude when 

triggered by ground interrogators mounted on FAA 

radar antennas. Its shortcoming is its limited ability to separate transponder replies from aircraft in 

the same immediate vicinity. This leads to the overlapping and garbling of transponder replies and 

seriously limits the system’s ability to meet the demands of the highly automated air traffic control 

system. 

The Discrete Address Beacon System (DABS), in 

effect an improved ATCRBS, overcomes this difficulty by assigning an individual address code to 

each aircraft. If an interrogation contains this code, 

the DABS transponder will respond; if it does not 

contain the code, DABS will remain silent. Because 

of this discrete interrogation capability, DABS is a 

74 
natural vehicle for a digital data link between the 

ground-based air traffic control system and the aircraft. It also provides an automatic ground-derived 

traffic advisory and separation assurance capability 

not available with the present ATCRBS. 

The transition from ATCRBS to DABS will be a 

gradual, evolutionary process, and will probably be 

completed over a 10-year period. This will allow 

amortization of FAA’s investment in ATCRBS 

while at the same time provide sufficient service for 

current aviation needs. 

In mid-1978 the FAA accepted delivery of the 

first of three engineering models of DABS. This 

engineering model is now undergoing test at the 

National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center, 

in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The second DABS, 

delivered in October 1978, contained the groundbased separation assurance capability previously 

described. 

Electronic Tubulcm Display System 

Although a significant degree of automation has 

been introduced in the 20 air route traffic control 

centers located in the contiguous 48 states, many 

routine functions are still being performed by air 

traffic controllers. These functions, usually associated with the processing of flight-plan data, entail 

manual and other labor-intensive activities, including the updating and posting of flight progress 

strips in controller consoles and the manual entry 

of new flight data into the en route computers 

through time-consuming manual devices. 

During the past decade, FAA has been experimenting with electronic tabular displays and touch 

entry devices as a means of eliminating flight progress strips and improving flight data updating techniques. Based on numerous cost-benefit studies, 

development of the Electronic Tabular Display 

System (ETABS) has great potential for increasing 

control-team productivity and capacity. The benefits and potential productivity increases of the controller through the introduction of ETABS in air 

route traffic control centers should improve operations, enhance system capacity, and reduce staffing 

requirements. 

During 1978, competitive proposals for the introduction of ETABS were received and evaluated, 

and a contract was awarded for an ETABS engineering model. 

Terminal Imf ormation Processing System 

The Terminal Information Processing System 

(TIPS), initiated in FY 1978, is an air traffic control terminal automation program that has the 

potential for increasing the productivity of the 

terminal controller. Through the automated features of the TIPS computer and associated electronic displays, terminal controllers will be provided with an improved system for processing and 

distributing flight data and other essential operational information. Today these tasks are performed 

manually at the terminals; flight data are 

distributed by means of paper flight progress strips 

that are cumbersome to handle and require manual 

updating. 

TIPS interfaces with Automated Radar Terminal Systems and computers at host air route traffic 

control centers; flight and control data can be interchanged automatically between air traffic control 

personnel, thereby providing more, and more 

timely, access to essential air traffic control information. The system could be installed in as many 

as 60 high- and medium-density terminals and at 

70 low-density terminal control facilities. 

All-Digitul Operation For Air Trafic Comtrol 

Terminal Areas 

As part of a continuing plan for improving the 

automation capabilities of terminal air traffic control services, the first developmental model of a 

full-digital data processing and display system was 

delivered to the Tampa-Sarasota terminal areas in 

early 1978. By digitizing radar data at the radar 

site and remoting that data to the terminal control 

facility over a standard telephone communication 

channel, this system will facilitate expansion and 

improvement and provide air traffic service at much 

lower cost. The all-digital design eliminates the 

normal constraints imposed on the use of analog 

data and permits limited-distance radar data to be 

transmitted over landlines. 

Another and perhaps more significant improvement from an all-digital operation is the remoting 

of radar data to satellite control towers that are 

within the operational radius of radars feeding surveillance data to terminal automation facilities. 

Through this digital technique, satellite control 

towers up to 32 kilometers from an ARTS-I11 facility can be provided digital radar data for the safe 

separation and control of aircraft within their 

operation area. 

The all-digital terminal automation system was 

operationally demonstrated in the Tampa-Sarasota 

area in December 1978. The evaluation will include the remoting of radar data to four satellite 

tower cabs and the displaying of aircraft positional 

data on a bright, all-digital display. 

Airport Surface Traffic Colztrol 

The goal of this research and development program is to develop automation and surveillance 

aids for airport surface traffic control. Such a devel75 
opment would minimize surface traffic delays and 

provide safer airport operations under all weather 

conditions. The key to this development is a new 

radar-Airport Surface Detection Equipment 

(ASDE-3) -which has improved aircraft detection 

during fog and rain. Procurement was initiated to 

obtain a development model of ASDE-3. 

Low-Leuel Wind Shear Alert System 

As part of FAA’s program to mitigate the effects 

of low-level wind shear on aircraft terminal operations, the agency has developed and tested the LowLevel Wind Shear Alert System (LLWSAS). The 

system consists of remoted anemometers mounted 

between 6 and 12 meters above the ground in the 

approach and departure corridors of a number of 

the nation’s busiest airports. Wind data from the 

remoted anemometers are linked by radio to a central airport location (normally the air traffic control tower) for processing and comparison with 

data sensed by the centerfield anemometer. 

When a wind vector difference of 28 kilometers 

per hour is detected between any one of the remote 

anemometers and the centerfield anemometer, the 

difference is displayed in the air traffic control 

tower cab. The air traffic controllers then relay the 

centerfield and remote anemometer wind information to aircraft arriving at or departing from the 

airport. Currently, the system is operating at seven 

major airports around the country. 

Vortex Aduiswy System (VAS) 

Wake vortices, strong rotating gusts of wind that 

trail behind large jet aircraft on approach and 

landing, present a definite danger to following aircraft, especially smaller ones; in addition these 

vortices reduce airport capacity because of the need 

to maintain large spaces between landing aircraft. 

FAA’s wake vortex program was established to deal 

with this problem. 

The program’s primary objective is to develop a 

system to provide increased airport capacity by 

minimizing the impact of trailing wake vortices on 

the safe and efficient management of air traffic in 

terminal airspace. Specifically, the Vortex Advisory 

System (VAS) will provide aircraft separation data 

to the controller based on the measurement and 

analysis of wind conditions in the approach corridor. The VAS utilizes a network of anemometers 

located in the runway approach zones to measure 

wind conditions and determine when separations 

between pairs of landing aircraft can be set at 5 

kilometers. A by-product of the system is an accurate assessment of the wind conditions in all runway 

approach corridors. 

A prototype VAS began an operational test at 

Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport. 

Aviation Safety 

Transport Safety 

During 1978 FAA conducted studies in concert 

with NASA addressed to establishing the safety and 

certification requirements of digital flight control 

and avionic systems for use in designing the next 

generation of transport aircraft. Digital systems 

were tested to determine their effectiveness in the 

presence of lightning, and studies were made of the 

reliability of multiple, redundant digital equipment. In addition, the two agencies held a seminar 

at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center to determine the general reliability of both the hardware 

and software components of these systems. Finally, 

with the successful development of a computer 

model capable of predicting the crushing and distortion of light-aircraft structures during crash impact, the two agencies initiated a special program 

to adopt this model to large aircraft structures and 

thus improve crashworthiness standards generally. 

Fire Safety 

In the area of fire safety, FAA 

Intensified its post-crash cabin fire research 

and development program. Tests quantifying 

cabin hazards created by the combustion products of burning fuel spills showed that in the 

first five minutes following impact, heat and 

smoke became stratified in the cabin and 

tended to become the principal hazards to escape. The tests also showed that concentrations 

of such gases as carbon monoxide and carbon 

dioxide were not nearly as significant in impeding or preventing escape. Winds as low as 

5 kilometers per hour readily carried combustion products into the cabin, greatly increasing 

the magnitude and growth rate of hazards 

facing cabin occupants. 

Continued to work on a two-year research and 

development effort to determine the relative 

combustion hazard of specific transport-aircraft 

cabin materials in a post-crash fire. The object 

of the program is to positively identify which 

of these materials give occupants of the plane 

the best chance to escape safely. 

Engaged in the further validation of an FAAdeveloped aircraft cabin-fire mathematical 

model, using data obtained from ongoing 

FAA-NASA cabin-fire tests. This model will 

provide an analytical definition of the cabin 

environment during a particular post-crash 

scenario. 

76 
Signed a memorandum of understanding with 

the United Kingdom concerning the antimisting kerosene program. The signatories agreed 

to bring this program to a level of activity sufficient to determine, within two years, whether 

the antimisting concept has sufficient merit to 

justify proceeding with the remaining work 

needed to determine the extent to which this 

modified fuel minimizes the fireball that so 

often accompanies impact-survivable crashes. 

Aviation Security 

Research and development work aimed at deterring acts of terrorism and sabotage aboard aircraft 

and at airports was concentrated in 1978 on the 

development of improved techniques for the detection of explosives in luggage. The work included: 

Development of a new computer algorithm 

that significantly improves the effectiveness of 

an automated radiation contrast system to 

detect bombs. This advance will be applied to 

preproduction models currently being fabricated for test. 

Delivery for testing at airports of a transportable experimental bomb detector system employing nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. 

Examination of computer-aided dual-energy 

x-ray techniques for detection of explosives. 

Conducting of tests with small animals to 

verify some initial findings of Canadian researchers that gerbils, for example, can detect 

minute quantities of explosive vapor-quantities too minute to be detected with existing 

electronic equipment. 

Beginning of construction on a transportable 

model of a bomb detector using thermal 

neutrons. 

Nondestructive Testhg of Airport Pmemws 

Airport pavements must be evaluated periodically 

for strength characteristics and load carrying capabilities. The evaluations are necessary because they 

provide the airport owners with valuable diagnostic 

information that can be used in scheduling major 

repairs or rehabilitations rather than having emergency pavement failures. 

Conventional evaluation calls for cutting 1.2- 

meter-square test pits into the pavement, conducting plate-bearing tests, and sampling materials. 

Destructive tests such as these are costly and time 

consuming; more important, they require shutting 

down the runway or taxiway. There is, however, an 

alternative: nondestructive testing that makes shutdowns unnecessary. Vibratory loads are applied to 

the surface of the pavement by mobile equipment, 

which can be moved quickly out of the way. Pavement deflection in response to the vibrating load 

is measured, and pavement strength and load-carrying capabilities are calculated by computers. In 

addition, alternative rehabilitation designs are considered, as well as the cost and benefit of each. 

Thus airport operators receive an economic rationale for decision-making. 

A proprietary method of nondestructive testing 

known as the frequency sweep method was purchased for the public by FAA from Dr. Nai 

Yang and validated at four airports during 1978. 

Seminars explaining the method and its results were 

held at each of the four airports, and a fifth seminar was held in late fall in Washington, D.C. Attendance at the seminars was indicative of the 

strong interest among airport operators, both nationally and internationally, in nondestructive 

testing. 

Aviation Medicine 

The FAA medical research program devotes a 

portion of its resources to the analysis, assessment, 

and improvement of the role of the human operators as a part of the air traffic control system so as 

to increase efficiency, reliability, and safety. Research in this program also focuses on the performance and proficiency, as well as the mental and 

physical health, of air traffic control specialists. 

One of the most significant undertakings-a fiveyear medical study of more than 400 male air traffic 

controllers from the Boston and New York areaswas completed in 1978. The study found these controllers to be as healthy as men of similar ages in 

the general population, except for a higher than 

normal rate of hypertension. These findings contrast with the generally held aviation industry view 

that controlling air traffic is associated with an unusually high incidence of ulcers, psychiatric disorders, and other stress-related medical problems. 

Conducted for the Federal Aviation Administration by the Boston University School of Medicine, 

the study found that 135 of the 416 controllers who 

volunteered for the program already had borderline or definite hypertension at their first examination. In addition, 36 developed hypertension during 

the course of the study. The overall rate of hypertension was about twice the national norm. The 

970-page study cautions, however, against the conclusion that air traffic control work by itself causes 

hypertension. It notes that work was only one of a 

“risk factors” contributing to the development of 

this disease. 

Boston University began the five-year project in 

1972, under a $2.8-million FAA contract, to determine the nature and extent of health changes in air 

77 
traffic controllers and how these health changes 

might be predicted. The actual medical data on the 

controller volunteers was collected over a three-year 

period beginning in 1973. 

The study found that less than one percent of 

the controllers had physiological symptoms of alcoholism, substantially lower than the national average, and that the rate of alcohol abuse was about 

the same as that derived from survey data on other 

occupations. A potential health problem identified 

in the study was the high use of alcohol in social 

drinking after work. 

The study team also found that controllers experienced fewer psychiatric disorders than the general population, except for a relatively high rate of 

“impulse control difficulties,” such as an inability 

to control anger. Slightly more than one half of the 

men showed some problem at one time or another 

during the three years they were under examination, but only a few displayed a chronic problem. 

The report notes that comparisons of these findings 

with other occupational groups was not possible 

because no other group has been studied so intensively as the controllers over so long a period of 

time. 

The study was specifically related to controllers 

in the eastern United States; its applicability to 

other areas is being evaluated by FAA. 

7% 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Year Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ............... 0 1 

1958 ............... 5 8 

1959 ............... 9 9 

1960 ............... 16 12 

1961 ............... 35 12 

1962 ............... 55 12 

1963 ............... 62 11 

1964 ............... 69 8 

1965 ............... 93 7 

1966 ............... 94 12 

1967 ............... 78 4 

0 0 

0 4 

1 2 

1 2 

0 2 

4 1 

0 0 

4 0 

4 1 

7 ‘1 

10 0 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Year Success Failure Success Failure 

1968 ............... 61 15 3 0 

1969 ............... 58 1 8 1 

1970 ............... 36 1 3 0 

1971 ............... 45 2 8 1 

1972 ............... 33 2 8 0 

1973 ............... 23 2 3 0 

1974 ............... 27 2 1 0 

1975 ............... 30 4 4 0 

1976 ............... 33 0 1 0 

1977 ............... 27 2 2 0 

1978 ............... 34 2 7 0 

Total ........... 923 129 79 15 

‘This Earth escape failure did attain Earth orbit and 

therefore is included in the Earth orbit success totals . NOTES: The criterion of success OT failure used is the attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than a iudgment of mission sucress . 

This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating coun- 

“ESCAPE” flights include all that were intended to go to at 

tries which were launched by US . launch vehicles . 

least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth . 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year People’s United 

of China ~~~~~ U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic hstralia Kingdom 

~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ 

1957 ................... 2 ...................................................................... 1958 .................. 5 1 ...................................................................... 1959 ................. 10 3 ...................................................................... 1960 ................. 16 3 ...................................................................... 1961 ................. 29 6 ...................................................................... 1962 ................. 52 20 ...................................................................... 1963 ................. 38 17 ...................................................................... 1964 ................. 57 30 ...................................................................... 1965 ................. 63 48 ........... 1 .......................................................... 1966 ................. 73 44 ........... 1 .......................................................... 1967 ................. 57 66 ........... 2 ........... ............................................... 1968 ................. 45 74 ...................................................................... 1969 ................. 40 70 ...................................................................... 1970 ................. 28 81 ........... 2 .......... ll...........l ........... 1. ..................... 1971 ................. 30 83 ........... 1 ..........’ 2........... 2 ........... 1 ..................... 1 

1972 ................. 30 74 ...................... l1 ................................... 1973 ................. 23 86 ...................................................................... 1974 ................. 22 81 ...................... ‘2 ........... 1 

1975 ................. 27 89 ........... 3 ........... .............................. ................. 1976 ................. 26 99 1 2.................. 

1977 ................. 24 98 ................................... 2 .................................. 1978 ................. 32 88 ................................... 3 ........... ....................... 

1163 .......... 10 ........... 8 .......... 13 ........... ...................... 1 

........... 

.................................. 

................................... ........... .... 

Total ............ 727 

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft . spacecraft . Some launches did successfully orbit multiple 

NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft . 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-1978 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

~~ 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Jan. 26 

IUE 

12A 

Delta 

Jan. 7 Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit. 35,797 

Intelsat IV-A F-3 35,634 

2A plus two television channels simultaneously or a 1432.4 

A tlas-Centaur combination of telephone, TV, and other forms 0.4 

Satellite to provide 6250 two-way voice circuits 

of communication traffic. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shaped satellite, overall 

height of 6.99 m and 2.38 m in diameter. Consists of )two main elements: rotating cylinder 

covered with solar cells contains power subsystem; positioning and orientation subsystems: despun Earth-oriented platfop atop rotating 

cylinder contains communications repeaters 

(transponders), new antenna reflectors, and 

telemetry and command subsystems. Antenna 

reflectors are supported by a single tubular mast. 

134.6-cm transmit and 88.9-cm receive quasisquare reflectors are constructed of a metallic 

mesh on an open web frame. Feed horn arrays 

and global horns are cantilevered from the base 

of the mast. Telemetry and command omnidirectional bicone antenna is mounted on the 

mast tip. Weiqht at liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight 

after apogee motor fire: 825.5 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into elliptical geo- 45,887 

synchronous orbit. Satellite to provide an orbital 25.669 

ultraviolet observatory for investigation of stellar 1435.7 

atmospheres and interplanetary medium, and 28.6 

celestial objects of different galaxies and quasars. 

Spacecraft: Octagonal cylinder 1.5 m tall and 

1.3 m between oppohg faces. Telescope tube, 

.5 m in diameter, extends from forward end of 

cylinder and an apogee motor from Ithe rear, 

giving an overall length of 4.2 m. Weight: 

670.8 kg, of which 123.4 kg is scientific instrumentation. 

Feb. 9 Objective: To place satellite in successful transfer 35,978 

Fltsatcom 1 orbit. 167 

16A Spacecraft: Dual hexagonal satellite composed of 634.2 

A tlas-Cen taur a payload module and spacecraft module, 39.9 m 26.5 

high. Weight: 1874 kg. 

Feb. 22 

Navstar 1 

20A 

Atlas F 

Feb. 25 

Defense 

21A 

Ti.tan IIIB-Agena 

Objective: To support the Global Positioning Sys- 20,183 

tem. 20,183 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with four extended 718.0 

solar panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 63.0 

433 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflixht techniques 34.272 

and technology. 805 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 720.0 

63.5 

Fifth in a series of improved Intelsat IV-A spacecraft with almost 

two-thirds greater communications capacity 'than Intelsat IV. 

Launched by NASA for ComSat 

Corp., manager of Intelsat. 

Apogee motor fired Jan. 8 and 

satellite placed on station at 

initial position of 74' east longitude. Spacecraft later to be 

moved to 60' east longitude off 

the east coast of Africa to serve as backup spacecraft to Intelsat 

IV-A F-6 launched Mar. 31, 

1978. 

Launched into successful transfer 

orbit. Apogee boost motor fired 

Jan. 26 placing spacecraft above 

South America. Three-axis stabilization obtained Jan. 28. Scientific instrumenitation function. 

ing normally and returning data. 

Preliminary data received suggests possibility of masslive black 

hole at the center of some groups 

of stars in our galaxy called 

globular clusters. 

First of four planned satellites, 

successfully launched by NASA 

for the Navy and the Dept. of 

Defense. Apogee kick motor 

fired Feb. 11, placing spacecraft 

in desired synchronous orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

80 
APPENDIX A-&Con tinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1978 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Mar. 5 

Landsat 3 

26A 

Delta 

Mar. 5 

Oscar 8 

26B 

Delta 

Mar. 16 

Defense 

29A 

Titan IIID 

Mar. 16 

Defense 

29B 

Titan IIID 

Mar. 31 

Intelsat IV-A F-6 

35A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Apr. 7 

Defense 

38A 

Atlas-Agena D 

Apr. 7 

BSE 

39A 

Delta 

Objective: To acquire multispectral imagery over 

the U.S. and foreign countries sufficient to improve remote sensing interpretive techniques 

and to demonstrate the practical applications of 

Landsat imagery for crop inventow and ether 

data uses for a period of at least one year. 

Spacecraft: Similar basic structure and design as 

Nimbus satellites. 3.04 m high and 1.52 m in 

diameter, 3.96 m with solar panels deployed. 

Carries five-channel multispectral scanner 

(MSS), a two-camera return beam vidicon 

(RBV), a data collection system (DCS), and 

two wideband video tape recorders (WBVTR) 

capable of giving spacecraft sensors near-global 

coverage capability. Three-axis stabilized. Video 

data from RBV can be transmitted in both real 

time and from wideband recorder system. Weight: 900 kg. 

Objective: To place satellite into a Sun-synchronous orbit. Spacecraft to provide continuous 

radio communications using small amateur 

ground terminals. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular shape with solar cells on exterior; carries two transponders on same uplink frequency centered on 145.9 MHz, downlink frequencies centered on 29.4 MHz and 

435.1 MHz. Only one transponder to be used 

at any one time, because of power limitation. 

Spacecraft magnetically stabilized. Weight: 27 

kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful transfer orbit from which synchronous orbit can be 

achieved. 

Spacecraft: Cvlindrical shape, 6.99 m high and 

2.38 m in diameter. Solar panel heiqht 2.82 m. Satellite can carry 6250 two-way voice circuits 

plus two television channels, a (two-thirds in- crease in capacity over previous Intelsat series. 

Weight at liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight after apogee 

motor fire: 825.5 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite designed to conduct experiments in direct broadcast television transmission and reception technoloqy. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular electronics module 1.3 m wide, 1.2 m long, and 3.9 m hiqh. including 

apoqee boost motor. Deployable solar panels ex- tend 8.9 m in lensth and are 1.5 m wide. Threeaxis stabilized. Weiqht at launch: 665 kg. Weight 

after apogee boost motor fire: 327 kg. 

914 

890 

103.0 

99.1 

915 

902 

103.2 

99.0 

239 

172 

88.4 

96.4 

650 

635 

97.2 

95.8 

35.851 

35.730 

1436.3 

0.3 

41.411 

6528 

615.5 

28.4 

35.662 

35.115 

1415.7 

0.1 

Successfully launched into circular, 

near-polar Sun-synchronous or. bit, allowing spacecraft to photo. 

graph nearly entire globe duling an 18-day period. Landsat 1 

launched in 1972, and Landsat 2 

placed in orbit in 1975. Instru. 

mentation operating and returning data, except for fifth band 

(thermal infrared) of multiupectral scanner, which failed in 

1978. Piggyback payload Plasma 

Interaction Experiment (PIX) 

attached to the Delta second 

stage. Weight: 34 kg. 

Launched by NASA as secondary 

payload with Landsat 3, as re. placement for Oscar 6. Product 

of cooperative effort by U.S.. 

Canada, Japan, and West Ger. 

many. 

Decayed September 11 

Still in orbit. 

Sixth and last in a series of improved satellites launched by 

NASA for ComSat Corp., manager of Intelsat. Apogee kick 

motor fired Aar. 1 to place 

spacecraft in final position at 

63" east longitude off the east 

coast of Africa. Began operations 

in Nov. 

Still in orbit. 

Japanese Director Broadcast Satel. 

*lite-Experimental ( Tapan/BSE) 

launched by NASA for the National Space Development 

Agency (NASDA) . Apogee boost 

motor fired Apr. 8 and spacecraft placed in geostationary 

orbit at 110" east longitude 

above the eouator and south of 

Japan. Satellite named Yuri. 

81 
APPENDIX A-LContinued 

Successful U .S. Launches- 1978 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cosuar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data Remarks 

~~ ~ 

Apr. 26 Objective: To launch spacecraft into near-Earth, 646 

HCMM (AEM 1) circular Sun-synchronous orbit of sufficient ac- 558 

41A curacy to enable instruments to conduct re- 96.7 

scout search into the feasibility of using day/night 97.6 

thermal imagery to generate apparent thermal 

inertial values and temperature cycle data that 

could aid in: determining rock types and possible mineral deposit locations; measuring and 

monitoring surface soil moisture changes; meas- uring plant canopy temperatures at frequent 

intervals to determine water loss and plant 

stress; measuring urban heat islands: mapping 

surface thermal gradients on land and in water; 

and deriving information from snow fields for 

waiter runoff prediction. 

Spacecraft: Consists of a basic module which 

provides attitude control, data handling, com- munications, command and power subsystems; 

and instrument module containing the Heat 

Capacity Mapping Radiometer (HCMR) and 

its supporting equipment. Two solar panels 

mounted on spacecraft structure provide power. 

63.4 cm in height, 161.85 cm with solar panels 

extended. Weight: 134.3 kg. 

May 1 Objective: To support the Defense Meteorological 83 1 

AMS-3 Satellite Program. 829 

42A Spacecraft: Similar to the NASA Tiros-N. 101.3 

Thor-Burner 2 98.7 

May 11 Objective: To place satellite into synchronous 35.780 

OTS 2 transfer orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow 35.073 

44A spacecraft to achieve stationary synchronous 1417.7 

Delta orbit. To test concepts to be used in providing 0.0 

satellite links in the 1980s for routing of portions of the intra-European telephone, telegraph, 

and telex traffic as well as television relay for 

Western Europe. 

Spacecraft: Six-sided satellite includes a payload 

module, service module, and an antenna assembly, measuring 1.62 m wide, 2.39 m high. and 

9.26 m across with solar array deployed. Threeaxis stabilized. Weight at launch: 865 kg. Weight 

in geostationary orbit: 444 kg. 

Objective: To support the Global Positioning Sys- 20,182 

tem. 20.180 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with four extended 718 

solar panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 62.9 

433 kg. 

May 13 

Navstar 2 

47A 

Atlas F 

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 

(HCMM), also known as Applications Explorer Mission A 

(AEM-A) , successfully launched. 

Satellite is first in a series of 

low-cost, modular spacecraft to 

operate in special orbits that satisfy mission-unique experimental 

data acquisition requirements. 

Orbits allows measurement of the 

Earth’s surface for its maximum 

temperature and then 12 hours 

later measures the same area’s 

minimum temperature. 

Still in orbit, 

Launched by NASA for the European Space Agency (ESA) as a replacement for OTS-A which was destroyed when its launcher 

exploded 54 seconds after liftoff Sept. 13, 1977. Awgee motor 

fired May 13 and final geosynchronous position attained May 

24 at 10’ emt longitude over 

Gabon. ESA confirmed satellite 

functioning satisfactorily on July 7. 

Still in orbit. 

82 
APPENDIX A-&Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1978 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

TransVenus 

Trajectory 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

June 10 

Defense 

58A 

Titan IIIC 

May 20 Objective: To determine structure of upper 

Pioneer Venus 1 atmosphere and ionosphere of Venus: to observe 

5 1A interaction of the solar wind with Venus ionoAtlas-Centaur sphere and with the small magnetic field; observe 

characteristics of atmosphere and surface of 

Venus on a planetary scale by use of remote 

sensing; to measure planet’s gravitational field; 

and to detect gamma ray bursts. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical module 1.2 m high, including antenna mast height is 4.5 m, and 2.5 m in diameter. Power derived from solar cells 

mounted around outside surface of spacecraft, 

and two nickel-cadmium batteries. Instruments 

mounted in basic satellite structure include Retarding Potential Analyzer, Ion Mass Spectrometer, Electron Temperature Probe, Ultraviolet 

Spectrometer, Neutral Mass Spectrometer, Cloud 

Photopolarimeter, Infrared Radiometer, Magnetometer, Plasma Analyzer, Radar Mapper, 

Electric Field Detector, and Gamma Ray Burst 

Detector. Spin stabilized. Weight at liftoff: 

582 kg. Weight after Venus orbital insertion: 

368 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

June 14 

Defense 

60A 

Titan IIID 

June 16 

Goes 3 

62A 

Delta 

42,039 

29,929 

1446.3 

12.0 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 514 

and technology. 225 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 91.8 

96.9 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 35,805 

orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable satellite to 35.769 

provide continuous observations of the Earth’s 1436.1 

atmosphere on an operational basis. 09 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape 190.5 cm in diameter 

and 344 cm long from the top of the ma.gnetometer to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. 

Apogee boost motor is ejected after synchronous 

orbit is reached. Primary structural member is 

a thrust tube located in the center of the 

cylinder. Radiometer/telescope instrument. ex- itending the length of the spacecraft, is located 

in and supported by the thrust tube. The scan- ning mirror looks out through an opening in 

the cyclindrical solar arrays of the spacecra5t. 

A space environment monitor (SEM) system to 

measure the magnitude and direction of the 

magnetic field, the intensity of solar X-ray radiation, and energy level and quantity of energetic 

particles is included in the payload. Spin stabilized. Weight at liftoff: 635 kg. Weight in orbit: 

293 kg. 

Remarks 

Launched successfully on trans. 

Venus trajectory, spacecraft 

taking pictures of Venus and 

conducting detailed scientific ex- amination of the planet from 

orbit. Insertion into Venus orbit 

took place Dec. 4. First image 

received Dec. 5. Orbiter discovered that higher temperatures were present at poles than at 

equator. Cloud-top temperatures on the night side of Venus are slightly higher than on the day 

side. Additional data being re- ceived. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Third operational spacecraft of a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

launched by NASA for NOAA. 

Spacecraft successfully placed in 

transfer orbit, and apogee boost 

motor fired June 16. Satellite 

placed in synchronous orbit at 

135’ west longitude, replacing 

Goes 1 which was moved to In. 

dian Ocean to support the 

GARP Global Weather Expri. 

ment. Spacecraft turned over to 

NOAA for operational use on 

Jdy 5. Goes 3 to observe much 

of the Pacific Ocean and the 

western half of the United 

States. 

83 
APPENDIX A-L-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1978 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perlR= (kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

Remarks 

(degrees) 

June 27 

Seasat 1 

64A 

Atlas F 

June 29 

Comstar 3 

68A 

Atlas-Centaur 

AUK. 5 

Defense .~~ ~ 

75A 

Titan IIIB 

Objective: To demonstrate techniques for global 

monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and 

features, provide data for both applications and 

scientific users, and determine key features of an operational ocean dynamics monitoring system. 

Spacecraft: Two major hardware elements: Agena 

bus provides both launch function and satellite 

support, including attitude control, power, guidance, telemetry and command functions; sensor module provides platform for five sensors, an. tennas, laser retroflector, tracking aids, and a SAR downlink. Two modules measure 21 m long, with a maximum diameter of 1.5 m without antennas deployed. Three-axis stabilized. 

Weight in orbit: 2300 kg. 

Objective: To launch satellite into a transfer orbit 

of sufficient accuracy for the spacecraft !to 

achieve synchronous orbit. Satellite to provide 

14,000 two-way high-quality voice circuits. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape with overall height 

of 610 cm and 244 cm diameter. 14,000 solar 

cells mounted on exterior of satellite. Nickelcadmium batteries provide power durinq launch and twice-a-year solar eclipse periods. Weight at 

launch: 1518 kg. Weight in orbit: 792 kg. 

Objective: To place satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit that will allow the satellite to 

achieve stationery synchronous orbit. Spacecraft 

to make scientific studies of the magnetosphere. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape, 1.6 m in diameter 

and 1.1 m high. Eight booms varyinq in length 

between 1.5 m and 2.0 m. Two-thirds of cylinder 

surface covered with solar cells. Weight at 

launch: 573 kg. Weight in orbit: 237 kq. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Aug. 8 Objective: To determine the nature and composiPioneer Venus 2 tion of lthe clouds of Venus; the composition and 

78A structure of the atmosphere; and the general 

A tlas-Centaur circulation pattern of the atmosphere by means of multiple entry probes and an ins'trumented 

bus. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical bus carrying four atmospheric entry probes. From the top of the main 

probe to the bottom of the bus it measures 2.9 m; diameter is 2.5 m. Four probes carried on the bus by a large inverted cone structure. 

Three small probes equally spaced around larger 

centrally located cone. Larqe prahe is 1.5 m in 

diameter and weiqhs 316 kg. Three smaller 

probes are identical, 0.8 rn in diameter, and 

weight 90 kg. Probes are not desiqned to survive impact on Venusian surface. Spin stabilized. 

Total spacecraft weizht at launch: 904 kg, of 

which 51 kg is scientific instrumentation. 

798 

7 75 

100.6 

108.0 

35.787 

35.784 

1436.1 

0.1 

35.810 

35.772 

1436.3 

0.7 

39,053 

315 

697.1 

62.5 

TransVenus 

Trajectory 

Proof-of-concept mission successfully launched. All sensors 

turned on simultaneously July 7. 

Spacecraft ceased transmitting 

data Oct. 9. Subsequent attempts 

to reestablish contact were un- successful. NASA satellite tracking support (except laser tracking) terminated Nov. 10. Data 

being processed by the Jet Pro. 

pulsion Laboratory. 

Launched by NASA for COMSAT 

General Corp. Apogee boost 

motor fired July 1 and satel1,ite 

arrived on station Aug. 16 at 

87' west longitude over equator 

on a line south of Mobile, Ala. 

bama. Spacecraft became operational Sept. 7 when American 

Telephone and Telegraph Cmpany began commercial operations. 

Successfully launched by NASA 

for the European Space Agency 

(ESA) . Apogee boost motor fired 

July 15. Satellite reached geosynchronous orbitt on July 26 at 

6" east longitude. Spacecraft to 

perform same experiments as Geos 1, which failed to achieve 

satisfactory orbit. Geos 2 to serve as reference spacecraft for 

the International Magnetospheric Study (IMS) . 

Still in orbit. 

Successfully launched toward the 

cloud-shrouded planet. Large 

probe separated from bus Nov. 

15, three smaller probes separated Nov. 20. Four probes 

reached Venus' surface, bus 

burned up in the atmosphere. 

Preliminary results indicate the 

primary constituent of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide with 

large amounts of argon, neon, 

and sulfur. One probe trans. 

mitted data for an hour after 

impact. Dust cloud created on impact took several minutes to 

dissipate. Temperature sensor on all four probes failed at an altitude of 14.5 km when temperature climbed to 630 K (680° 

F), indicatinq that sulfuric acid 

at that high temperature could 

have caused at least a partial 

short-circuit. Data presently 

being analyzed. 

84 
APPENDIX A-LContinued 

Successful U .S. Launches- 1978 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

AUK. 12 

ISEE 3 

79A 

Delta 

Oc,t. 7 

Navstar 3 

93A 

Atlas F 

Oct. 13 

Tiros-N 

96A 

Atlas F 

Objective: To obtain detailed measurements of the 108,920 

solar wind and its fluctuations. To launch 181 

spacecraft into transfer trajectory similar to an 67,852.9 

1.0 

halo orbit near the Sun-Earth libration point. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided cylinder, 173 cm in diameter 

and 161 cm high. One solar array located forward of equipment section and another below 

that section. Majority of scientific instruments 

mounted on the equipment shelf. Four equally 

spaced rigid booms are attached to the main 

structure. Magnetometer instrument mounted on +x axis rigid boom. Weight: 479 kg. 

interplanetary mission, and insert satellite into 

Objective: To support the Global Positioning Sys- 20,314 

tem. 20.275 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with four extended 722.5 

solar panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 62.8 

433 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a Sun-syn- 865 

chronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable 850 

requirements. To measure temperature and 98.9 

humidity in the Earth's atmosphere, surface 

temperature, surface and cloud cover, water-icemoisture boundaries, and proton and electron 

flux near the Earth. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration, including the 

apogee boast motor, is 371 cm high and 188 cm in diameter. In orbit solar panel deploys. TirosN bus is a modified U.S. Air Force Block 5D 

spacecraft/bus designed to have a growth 

capability of 25%. Spacecraft structure composed 

of four major elements: reaction control equipment support structure (RSS): equipment support 

module (ESM) ; instrument mounting platform 

(IMP): and solar array. Instrumentation includes: 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) , Data Collection and Location System (DCS); Space Environment Monitor 

(SEM), Total Energy Detector (TED), Medium Energy Proton Electron Detector 

(MEPED), High Energy Proton-Alpha Detector 

(HEPAD); and the TIROS Operational Verbical Sounder (TOVS) composed of the three 

following instruments: High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS/P), Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU), and the Micro- wave Sounding Unit (MSU). Weight at launch, 

including aposee kick motor: 1405 kg. Weight 

in orbit. 723 kg. 

satellite to accomplish i'ts operational mission 102.0 

Third spacecraft in a series of 

three International Sun-Earth 

Explorers. Successfully inserted 

into halo orbit Nov. 20. All 12 

experiments are operational. Unusual orbit of ISEE 3 will enable it to detect solar wind or particles speeding away from the 

Sun a full hour before the two 

other spacecrafit do so. ISEE 1 

managed by the Goddard Space 

Flight Censter, ISEE 2 by the 

European Space Agency, and 

ISEE by GSFC. 

Still in orbit. 

Successfully launched by NASA. 

Apogee kick motor fired Oct. 13. 

Spacecraft turned over to 

NOAA for operation Nov. 6. 

First of a series of eight thirdgeneration operational meteorological polar orbiting space. 

craft. Tiros-N, as series prototype, will provide operating ex- perience for subsequent NOAA 

satellites in this series. Satellite 

is a primary source of data for 

the Global Atmospheric Research Program's Global 

Weather Experiment, an international cooperative program involving some 140 countries, 

which began Dec. 1, 1978. 

85 
APPENDIX A-&Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1978 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(denrees) 

Oct. 24 

Niimbus 7 

98A 

Delta 

Oct. 24 

Cameo 

98B 

Delta 

Nov. 13 

HEAO 2 

103A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Objective: To provide continuous environmenltal 

data to help scientists throughout the world 

determine the physical characterization of the 

global atmosphere, the oceans, the dynamic 

atmosphere-ocean (interface, and 'the Earth's heat 

balance. 

Spacecraft: Butterfly shaped when in orbit, meas- ures 3 m high and 2 m wide. Solar panels provide about 550 watts of peak power. Earthoriented, three-axis stabilized. Scientific instrumenstation composed of Coastal Zone Color 

Scanner (CZCS) ; Scanning Multichannel Mi- crowave Radiometer (SMMR) ; the Limb Infrared Monitoring of the Stratosphere (LIMS); 

Solar Backscattered Ultraviolet and Total Ozone 

Mapping System (SBUV/TOMS) ; Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (SAMs) ; Stratospheric 

Aerosol Measurement I1 (SAM 11); Earth 

Radiation Budget (ERB) , and TemperatureHumidity Infrared Radiometer (THIR) . Weight 

987 kg. 

Objective: To study solar energy and plasma flows 

and electric fields in Arctic regions through re- lease of barium and lithium in and above the 

Earth's ionosphere. 

Experiment is attached to the second stage of the 

Delta launch vehicle. Composed of five canisters. 

Contents will be ejected at specified intervals; one over northern Scandinavia, and four over northern Alaska. 

Objective: To obtain high resolution data on x-ray 

sources in the range from 0.2 to 4 thousand 

electron volts, to perform high spectral sensitivity measurements with both high and low dispersion spectrographs, and to perform high sen- sitivity measuremenfts of transient x-ray behavior; to operate spacecraft and acquire scientific data for at least 1 year. Spacecraft: Octagonal shape, 9 m in length and 

3 m in diameter. Spacecraft equipment module 

(SEM) contains all functional subsystems neces- sary to operate and conrtrol the observatory and 

experiments, except solar array, forward antenna, and the experiment accommodation assemblies (EAAI, which are attached to the ex- periment module (EM). This module provides 

maximum experiment volume while minimizing 

overall observatory length, and meets all requirements for experiment support. Instrumentation 

includes focusing x-ray telescope, a hiqh resolution imaging detector (HRI). an imaging pro. 

portional counter (IPC), a solid state spectrometer (SSS). a focal plane Braqg crystal 

spectrometer (FPCS). and a monitor proportional counter (MPC). Solar cells mounted on exterior panels. Weight: 3152 kg, inicluding 1465 

kg of experiments. 

953 

938 

104.0 

99.3 

953 

952 

104.1 

99.3 

543 

522 

95.3 

23.5 

Last in a series of Nimbus meteowlogical satelli'tes first launched 

in Aug. 1964 achieved satisfactory orbit. All eight sensors have 

been activated and are returning data. First satellite designed 

to monitor the Earth's atmosphere for manmade and natural 

pollutants. 

Project Cameo (Chemically Active 

Materials Ejected in Orbit) suc- cessfully launched as piggyback 

payload with Nimbus 7. Barium 

contents released from four can- isters attached to Delta second 

stage Oct. 29. Cloud observed by 

sensitive instruments in western 

U.S., Canada, and Hawaii. 

Lithium ejected over Scandinavia Nov. 6 in daylmight. Instrumentation picked up cloud 

in Norway. 

Second in a series of three NASA 

High Energy Astronomical Observatories. Launched success- fully into orbit. Telescopes may 

be able to detect x-rays from 

objects two-thirds d the way 

toward. the edge of the Universe-i.e., radiation created 10 

billion years ago. Unlike HEAO 

1, this spacecraft will be able to 

investigate specific stars or points in the sky; reaction wheels 

that control torque are instaliled 

to provide a precise and highly 

accurate pointing capability of one arc minute or better for the 

planned mission lifetime of one year. 

86 
APPENDIX A-%-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches- 1978 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Nov. 19 

NATO I11 C 

106A 

Delta 

Objective: To place satellite into transfer orbit 

with sufficient accuracy to allow spacecraft to 

be placed into a stationary synchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shape, 2.18 m in diameter, 

2.23 m long, with an overall length of 2.92 m including antennas. Spin-stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 706 kg. Weight after apogee kick motor 

fire: 346 kg. 

Dec. 11 

Navstar 4 

112A 

Atlas F 

Dec. 14 

113A 

Titan IIIC 

DSCS 11-1 1 

Dec. 14 

113B 

Titan IIIC 

Dec. 16 

DSCS 11-12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

116A 

Delta 

Objective: To support the Global Positioning System. 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with four extended 

solar panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 

433 kg. 

Objective: Communications. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Communications. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a highly 

elliptical orbit of sufficient accuracy ,to enable 

satelli'te ,to achieve geosynchronous orbit. Satellite to provide transmission of television, voice, 

and other data throughout Canada. 

Spacecraft: Box shaped with a length of 325.9 cm including antenna of 112 cm and a diameter of 

217.4 cm. Weigh,t at liftoff: 887 kg. Weight in 

orbit: 474 kg. 

35,891 

184 

632.8 

27.2 

20,314 

20.266 

722.3 

63.2 

36.41 1 

35.796 

1,452.3 

2.4 

36,415 

36.262 

1464.4 

2.4 

35,896 

185 

632.9 

27.3 

Successfully launched by NASA. 

Third in a series of advanced 

NATO communicahons satellites. Apogee kick motor fired 

Nov. 20. Sateltlite on station 

above the equator over the 

Atlantic Ocean between 45' and 

50° west longitude. NATO I11 

A launched Apr. 1976, and in 

Jan. 1977 NATO 111 B placed 

in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Launched successfully by NASA. 

Second generation satellite, 

fourth in a series orbited for 

Canada's Domestic Communications Satelmlite Sysrtem. Replaces 

Anik A1 (Telesat A) launched 

Nov. 9, 1972. Anik 4 apogee 

boost mator fired Dec. 9, 1978. 

Satellite stationed at 109' west 

Ionetude, due youth of California. 

87 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1974-1978 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delita (TAT) 

Thor-Debta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

the proper orbit. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic 

communications link. 

Multipurpose experimental satellite especiakly designed for re- gional services in North America and later India. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic 

communications links. 

Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augmentt the DSCS program. Spacecraft posibioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of two experimental satellites for France and West Germany. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada. 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Eighth in high-capaclty series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the 

Jan. 19, 1974 Skynet 2A 

Apr. 13, 1974 

May 30, 1974 

Oct. 10, 1974 

Nov. 21, 1974 

Nov. 23, 1974 

Westar 1 

ATS 6 

Westar 2 

Intelsat IV (F-8) 

Skynet 2B 

Dec. 19, 1974 Symphonie 1 

Anik 3 (Telewt 3) 

Intelsat IV (F-1) 

Symphonie 2 

Intelsat IV-A (F-1) 

RCA-Satcom-1 

May 7, 1975 

May 22, 1975 

Aug. 27, 1975 

A tlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Del ta (TAT ) 

Atlanbic. 

Sep. 26, 1975 First of a new series double the caDacitv of its uredecessors. 

Dec. 13, 1975 

Jan. 17, 1976 

Jan. 30, 1976 

Feb, 19, 1976 

Mar. 15. 1976 

Mar. 26. 1976 

Apr. 22, 1976 

Mav 13. 1976 

.~ Positioned over the Aitlantic. 

series. Positioned over the Pacific. 

Launched for RCA as first of their communications satellite 

Canadian-US., most powerful experimental satellite. 

Posibioned over Atlantic. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over the Atlantic. 

Experimental satellites wiith radioisotope power sources. 

Second of three. 

CTS 1 

Intelsaat IV-A (F-2) 

Marisat 1 

LES 8/9- 

RCA-Satcom 2 

NATO IIIA 

Titan IIIC ' 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) First of new series. 

Comstar 1 Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

Marisat 2 

Palapa 1 

Comstar 2 

Marisat 3 

NATO IIIB 

A,tlas-Cen taur 

.lune 10; 1976 Thor-Delta (TAT) 

July 8. 1976 

July 22. 1976 

For maribime use by Comsat, over the Pacific. 

Indonesian domestic communicabions. 

Placed south of the Unsited States for AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

Second of a new series. 

Indunesian domestic communications. 

Defense communications. 

Paitioned over Atlantic. 

Italian experiment. 

Japanese experiment. 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of a new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; 

European Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic 

for amateur radio communications. 

named Yuri; domestic satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Oct, 14. 1976 

Tan. 28. 1977 

'Mar. 10, 1977 

May 12. 1977 

Mav 26. 1977 

Palapa 2 

DSCS 11-78 

Intelsat IV-A (F-4) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Auk. 25. 1977 Sirio 

Sakura 

Intelsat IV-A (F-3) 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

In'telsat IV-A (F-6) 

BSE 

OTS 2 

Comstar 3 

Dec. 15, 1977 

Tan. 7. 1978 

Feb. 9. 1978 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delmta (TAT) 

Mar. 31, 1978 

Aqr. 7, 1978 

May 11, 1978 

June 29. 1978 

Nov. 19, 1978 

Dec. 14, 1978 

Dec. 16. 1978 

satellite. 

satellite. 

Atlas-Centaur Positioned south of US. over the equator by Comsat; domestic 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Final one of this military series. 

Titan IIIC Defense communications (dual launch). 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Thor-D&a (TAT) Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Thor-Delita (TAT) Second full-time weather satelilite in synchronous orbit. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research 

Thor-Delta (TAT) First fully operational synchronous-orbit weather satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second generation operational satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of this series. 

Thor-Ddta (TAT) Japanese gemynchmnous satelllite. 

Thor-Del~ta (TAT) European Space Agency qeosynchronous satelillite. 

Thor-Burner 2 A Defense meteorological satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Third of this series for NOAA. 

Atlas F First of a third qeneration for NOAA. also experimental satelWEATHER OBSERVATION* 

Program. 

NATO IIIC 

DSCS 11-11.12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

May 17. 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

Feb. 6. 1975 

SMS _.~_ 1 ~ 

Noaa 4 (ITOS-G) 

SMS 2 

June 12, 1975 Nimbus 6 

Goes 1 

Noaa 5 (ITOS-H) 

Goes 2 

Himawari 

Meteosat 

AMS 3 

Goes 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

Oot. 16. 1975 

July 29, 1976 

Tune 16. 1977 

lulv 14.' 1977 

No;. 23; 1977 

May 1, 1978 

June 16, 1978 

Oat. 13, 1978 

lite for NASA.- 

Oct. 24, 1978 Thor-Deb (TAT) Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

88 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1974-1978 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 22, 1975 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Apr. 26, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Apr. 9, 1975 

May 4, 1976 

Jul. 14, 1974 

Oct. 12, 1975 

Sep. 1, 1976 

Tune 23. 1977 

Oct. 28.' 1977 

Feb. 22: 1978 

May 13, 1978 

Oct. 7, 1978 

Dec. 11, 1978 

Landsat 2 

Landsat 3 

HCMM (AEM-1) 

Seasat 1 

Geos 3 

Lageos 

NTS 1 

Tip 2 

Tip 3 

NTS 2 

Tramit 

Navstar 1 

Navstar 2 

Navstar 3 

Navstar 4 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delita (TAT) Second experimental Earth resources technology satellite. Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use. water re. sources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the 

environment. 

Third experimental Earth-resources satellite. 

Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping 

Proof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satelThor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

mission for Earth resources. 

lite. 

GEODESY 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delsta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. 

Atlas F Navigation technology satellite. 

scout Transit Improvement Program. 

scout Transit Improvement Program. 

Atlas F 

scout Devdopmental model. 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

NAVIGATION 

Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. ~ ~~~ 

* Does not ,include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch. 

89 

237-0311 0 - 79 - 7 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1974-1978 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Feb. 18, 1974 

Mar. 9, 1974 

June 3, 1974 

July 16, 1974 

AUK. 30. 1974 

Oct. 15, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

May 7, 1975 

June 21, 1975 

Aug. 9, 1975 

Oot. 6, 1975 

Nov. 20. 1975 

Mar. 15. 1976 

May 22, 1976 

July 8. 1976 

Apr. 20, 1977 

Aug. 12, 1977 

Ocmt. 22, 1977 

Jan. 26, 1978 

July 14, 1978 

Aug. 12, 1978 

Oct. 24, 1978 

Nov. 13. 1978 

San Marco 4 

UK X-4 (Miranda) 

Hawkeye 

(Explorer 52) 

Aeros 2 

ANS 

Ariel 5 

Intasat 

SAS-C 

Os0 8 

(Explorer 53) 

COS-B 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 54) 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 55) 

Solrad HiA/HiB 

P-76-5 

SESP 74-2 

GeoS 

HEAO 1 

ISEE 1, 2 

IUE 

Geos 2 

ISEE 3 

Cameo 

HEAO 2 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

scout 

Titan IIID 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

A tlas-Centaur 

Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Itamlian 

payload and launch.) 

Measure density of Sun-reflecting particles near the spacecraft, 

and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Plasma properties of the magnebsphere over the north polar 

cap. 

Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar 

UV. (German payload.) 

Study steller UV and x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) 

Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irregularities and scintillabion. (Spanish payload.) 

Measure x-ray emission of discrete extragalacttic sources. (Italian-launched. ) 

To study minimum phase of solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satellite.) 

Photochemical proces3es in absorption of solar energy. 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure 

Measure radiation and particles at close b 120,000 km circular. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measurements up to 8000 km. 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields 

from geosynchronous orbit (not attained). 

X-ray and gamma ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and 

Ultraviolet observation of astronommical phenomena, in elliptical 

European studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun 

Barium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body 

Hiiqh-resolution observations of astronomical x-rav sources. 

spatial distribution of ozone. 

European Space Agency respectively). 

geosynchronous orbit. 

libration point. 

of Nimbus 7 launcher. 

90 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1974-1978 

Da'te Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Dec. 10, 1974 

Aug. 20, 1975 

Helios 1 

Viking 1 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Sep. 9. 1975 

Jan. 15, 1976 

Aug. 20, 1977 

Sep. 5, 1977 

May 20, 1978 

Aug. 8, 1978 

Viking 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer Venus 1 

Pioneer Venus 2 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Flew in highly elliptic orbit to within 44 million km of the 

Sun, measuning solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic 

rays. Payload had 7 West German experiments, 3 U.S. 

Lander dexended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, 

while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings. 

tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements 

of the atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, 

while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, 

tested soil samples €or signs of life, and took measurements 

of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly el4iptical orbit to within 41 million km of the 

Sun, measurdng solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic 

rays .Payload had Same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus a cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Was to swing around Jupiter 

in July 1979 and arrive at Saturn in 1981, posibly going on to Uranus by 1986. 

Jupi'ter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the 

way, was to swing around Tupiter in Mar. 1979 and arrive at 

Saturn in Nov. 1980. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery 

and data. 

Cerried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

91 
A~PENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryMercuryRedstone 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

3 

Redstone - __ - .. - 4 - Vwtok 2 Aug. 6. 1961 

Mercury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 

Mercurv-ktlas 7 Mav 24. 1962 

Vostok 3 Aug. 11; 1962 

Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 

Mercury-ktlas 8 act. 3. 1962 

Mercury-Atlas 9 May 15, 1963 

Vostok 5 Tune 14. 1963 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

Soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 

June 16, 1963 

Oot. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21. 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3. 1966 

July 18. 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11. 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11. 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21. 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3. 1969 

May 18, 1969 

.Tuly 16. 1969 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

1. 1969 

2, 1969 

3. 1969 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman E. Titov 

John H. Glenn, .Tr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Pqvich 

Walter M. Schirra, .Tr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, .Tr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komamv 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grim 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, I1 

L. Gordon Cooper. .Tr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Tr. 

Walter M. Schirra. Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovelil, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Tr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunov 

Tames A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filbchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

1 h 48 min. 

15 rnin 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 min. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 ,h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

260 h 9 min. 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

241 h 1 min. 

192 h 3 min. 

195 h 9 min. 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

118 h 50 min. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. 

First Right exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

Firvt dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman )in space: within 5-km of Vovtok 

First 3-man crew. 

5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; firvt manual ma21-min. extravehicular activitty (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 0.3 m of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket). 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendemus (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First in,iitial rendezvous: first tethered flight; 

highest Earth-orbimt altitude (1372 km). 

Longest extravehicular acttivity to date (Aldrin, 5 h 37 min). 

Cosmonawt killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

min). 

neuvers in orbit. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit (s) of Moon: first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of influence; hiehest speed ever attained in 

manned flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of lunar module to landing and ,takeoff from lunar surface and reioining with 

command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete sysrtem 

inciludinc. lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock 

and soil samples to Earth, and manned deploymeat of experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a gmup flight 

without actually dockinq. Each conducted 

certain experiments, induding welding 

and Eanth and celestial observation. 

92 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Apollo 1 2 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Adlo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

%yuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Syuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

soyuz 19 

Apollo 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

soyuz 24 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1. 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28. 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26. 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15. 1975 

Juily 15, 1975 

July 6. 1976 

Sep. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14. 1976 

Feb. 7. 1977 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, .Tr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, .Tr. 

Fred W. Haise, .Tr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andrian G. N,ikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

N#ikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav Nikolayevich 

Volkov 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scobt 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

.John w. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattinnly, I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliv Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Poque 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarafanov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliv Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Georqiy Grechko 

Vasiley Lazarev 

Oleq Makarov 

Petr Klimuk 

Vitalliy Sevastiyanov 

Aleksey Leonov 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris Volvnov 

Vitaliv Zholobov 

Valeriy Bykovskiy 

Vladimir Aksenov 

Vyacheslav Zudov 

Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor Gorbato 

Yuriy Glazkov 

244 h 36 min. 

142 h 55 min. 

424 h 59 mlin. 

216 h 2 min. 

47 h 46 min. 

570 h 22 min. 

295 h 12 min. 

265 h 51 min. 

301 h 52 min. 

627 h 50 min. 

1427 h 

9 min. 

47 h 16 min. 

2017 h 

16 min. 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h 12 msin. 

142 h 24 min. 

709 h 20 min. 

20 min. 

1511 h 

142 h 31 min. 

20 min. 

2 17 h 28 min. 

1182 h 

189 h 54 min. 

48 h 6 min. 

425 h 23 min. 

24 min. 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor I11 spacecrafit which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled Moon, with 

crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reenttry. 

Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 

17 days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar ~l~anding. Mission demonstrated pinpaint landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked wi’th Salyut 1, but crew dtid not 

board space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apllo “J” series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight 

EVA of 38 min 12 s was performed dur. 

ing return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired 

Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

damaged station. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration misAstrophysical, biological, and Earth re- sources experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space station for over 14 days. 

Rendemused but did not dock with SalTest of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

during a 29-day flight. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew re- covered after abort. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

during a 63-day mission. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiments ASTP mission. 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments 

of ASTP mission. 

sion: last of Skylab program. 

yut 3. 

Docked wilth Salyut 5 and occupied station 

Eapth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station 

during 49-day flight. 

camera system. 

during 18day flight. 

93 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecmft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Ocit. 9, 1977 Vladimir Kovalenok 48 h 46 min. Failed. to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Valeriy Ryumin stohon. 

Dec. 10, 1977 Yuriy Romanenko 898 h 6 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Georgiy Grecho Soyuz 27; crew duration 2314 h. 

Jan. 10, 1978 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 1514 h. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Oleg Makarov Soyuz 26; crew duration 142 h 59 min. 

Mar. 2, 1978 Aleksey Gubarov 190 h 17 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was 1st Czech 

VIadimir Remek cosmonaut to orbit. 

June 15, 1978 Vladimir Kovalenok 1911 h 23 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov Soyuz 31; crew duration 3350 h 48 min. 

June 27. 1978 Petr Klimuk 190 h 4 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Heraszewski was 1st 

Mimlaw Heraszewski Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Aug. 26, 1978 Valeriy Bykovskiy 1628 h 14min. Docked with Salyat 6. Crew returned in 

Sigmund Jahn Soyuz 29; crew duration 188 h 49 min. 

Jahn was 1st German Democratic Republic 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

94 
APPENDIX D

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle Ty:rt Max. Max. Payload (kg) 

dia. 

kilo- Height 52:z7 Escape l:iz:h Stages Propellant s 

newtons) (m) (m) 

scout ........... 

ThoryDel,ta 2900 senes ......... 

A,tlas F/TE 364-4 

Atlas-Agena ..... 

Titan 111 

Titan I11 

. .l. Algol IIIA ....... .Sol,id .......... 2. Castor IIA ....... .Wid .......... 3. An,tares IIB ....... Sol,id .......... 4. Al,tair I11 ........ Solid.. ........ 

. .l. Thor plus 9 TMX LOX/RP-1 .... 354-5 ......... .%lid ......... 2. Delta (DSV-3) .. .NaOdAerozine .. 3. TE 364-4 ........ Solid ......... 

sustainer ........ LOX/RP-1 .... 2. TE 364-4 ........ Solid .......... 

(SLV/3A) ...... LOX/RP-1 .... 2. Agena .......... .IRFNA/UDMH. 

Titan IIIB-Agena ... 1. LR-87 ........... NzOdAerozine . 2. LR-91 .......... .N~Oa/Aerozine . 3. Agena .......... .IRFNA/UDMH. 

Titan IIIC ....... .l. Two 5-segment ... .Solid .......... 2. LR-87 ........... NZOdAerozine . 3. LR-91 .......... .NnOdAerozjne . 4. Transtage ........ N~O4/Aeromne . 23)D ... .I. Two 5-segment ... .Solid .......... 2. LR-87 ........... Nz04/Aerozine . 3. LR-91 ........... NaOdAerozine . 34)D ... .l. Two 5G-segment .. Solid .......... 2. LR-87 ........... NrOdAerozine . 3. LR-91 ........... NzOr/Aerozine . Titan 111(34)D/IUS. 1. Two 51A-segment . .Sollid .......... 2. LR-87 ........... NzOdAerozine . 3. LR-9 1 ........... NaOJAerozine . 4. IUS 1st Stage ..... Solid .......... 5. IUS 2nd Stage .... Solid .......... Thor LV-2F ...... .l. Thor ........... .LOX/RP-1 .... 2. TE 364-4 ........ Solid .......... 3. TE 364-15 ....... Solid .......... Thor SLV-2A/Block 

5D-2 .......... .l. Thor plus 3 LOX/RP-1 .... TX 354-5 ...... Solid .......... 2. TE 364-4 ........ Solid .......... 3. TE 364-15 ....... Solid .......... 

. . 1. Atlas booster & 

. .l. Atlas booster & 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modifica'tion 

with a date in parentheses for the initial verstion. 

a Set of 3. 

Propellant abbreviations used are as fallows: Liquid Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP.RJ: Solid propellant combinling in a single mixture both fuel and 

oxidizerSolid; Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH; Nitrogen 

481.7 1.12 

281.1 

126.8 

26.9 

911.9 2.44 

694.2 a 

46.8 

61.9 

1970.6 

61.9 

2237.5 

71.2 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

11.565.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

11,565.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

13,540.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

13,540.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

191.3 

71.2 

756.2 

61.9 

44.5 

756.2 

689.5 a 

61.9 

44.5 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

2.44 

2.44 

21.95 

35.36 

25.91 

40.54 

48.46 

40.54 

46.94 

49.36 

48.00 

23.77 

24.23 

186' 38.6' 1972(60) 

769' 476' 1973(60)' 

497' 1977(60) 

2720' 454 ' 1968(60) ' 

3629 ' 1966 

- 1461 ' 1965 

11,113' 1971 

12,564 1981 

1909' 1909' 1980 

512 lo 1976(66) 

653 lo 1980(63) I 

Tetroxide and UDMH/NzH~-N,04/Aerozine; Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

' Due east launch. 

' Polar 185 km (nominal). ' Synchronous equatorial (nominal). 

Polar 185 km (current esbimate). 

Synchronous equatorial (current estimate). 

Polar launch. 

lo Polar 833 km (from WTR). 

95 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

22-YEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(In millions of dollars) 

Com- Interior Agricul- NSF Total merce turc Snare 

NASA 

Total Defense Energy 

' Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 

~~ 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

EST. Err -- . . 

3 FISCAL YEAR T.Q -- TRANSITIONAL OUARTER 

3 EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION OTHER 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

........... 

........... .......... 

.......... 

........... 

........... ........... 

........... DEFENSE 

1-1 NASA2 

96 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1978 1979 1980 1978 1979 1980 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Est. Est. 

Federal space programs: 

NASA' .............................. Defense .............................. Energy .............................. Commerce ........................... Interior .............................. NSF ................................ Agriculmture ........................... Total .............................. 

Space flight .......................... Space sciensce, applications, & technology . Air (transportation ..................... 

Less recei,pts .......................... Total NASA ....................... 

NASA: 

Supporting operations .................. 

~ ~~~ 

' Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

..... 3622.9 

..... 2728.8 ..... 34.4 

..... 102.8 ..... 9.7 

..... 2.4 ..... 7.7 

..... 6508.7 

4032.5 

3250.4 

38.2 

104.0 

9.9 

2.4 

8.2 

7445.6 

4166.1 

4023.4 

34.1 

99.7 

11.6 

2.4 

13.1 

8350.4 

3582.4 

2457.0 

28.6 

100.7 

9.4 

2.4 

7.7 

6188.2 

3925:8 

2998.5 

36.4 

101.9 

9.5 

2.4 

8.2 

7082.7 

4053.8 

3463.3 

37.6 

97.7 

11.1 

2.4 

13.1 

7679.0 

..... 2192.4 2423.5 2332.1 2260.0 2370.6 2339.0 

..... 1065.0 1227.3 1400.8 971.8 1169.7 1309.7 

..... -3.6 -1.9 -2.0 -3.6 -1.9 -2.0 

..... 4060.1 4561.9 4723.0 3980.0 4401.3 4593.0 

..... 437.2 529.4 556.9 397.6 475.5 539.2 

..... 369.1 383.6 435.2 354.2 387.4 407.1 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority 

1978 1979 1980 

Actual Est. Est. 

Federal aeronautics programs: NASA' ........................................ Department of Defense .......................... Department of Transportation ................... Total ........................................ 

' Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, 

* Research, Devllopment, Testing, and Evaluation of airResearch and Program Management. 

craft and related equipment. 

............. 437.2 529.4 556.9 

............. 2806.6 2267.3 2083.0 

............. 94.4 94.4 92.6 

............. 3338.2 2891.1 2732.5 

Federal Aviation Administration Research and Development. 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

97 
APPENDIX F 

The White House Fact Sheets 

U.S. National Space Policy 

June ‘LO, 1978 

The President directed under a Presidential review memorandum that the 

NSC Policy Review Committee (PRC) thoroughly review existing policy and 

formulate overall principles which should guide our space activities. The major 

concerns that prompted this review arose from growing interaction among our 

various space activities. 

This review examined and the resultant Presidential directive establishes: 

-A Government policy oversight system to review and revise space policy 

as needed; 

-Ground rules for the balance and interaction among our space programs 

to ensure achievement of the interrelated national security, economic, 

political, and arms limitation goals of the United States; and 

-Modifications to existing policies, the appropriate extent of the overlapping technology, and product dissemination by the sectors. 

This Presidential directive establishes an NSC Policy Review Coniinittee to 

provide a forum to all Federal agencies for their policy views, to advise on proposed changes to national space policy, to resolve issues referred to the Committee, and to provide for rapid referral of issues to the President for decision 

as necessary. This Committee will be chaired by the Director of the Office of 

Science and Technology Policy, Frank Press. Recognizing that the civilian space 

program is at the threshold of change, the President has asked the PRC to 

assess the needs and aspirations of the Nation’s civil space program. The United 

States has built a broad national base in space and aeronautics. At issue is how 

best to capitalize on prior investments and set the needed direction and purpose 

for continued vitality in the future. 

Under the Presidential review memorandum the emphasis was to resolve 

potential conflicts among the various space program sectors and to recommend 

coherent space principles and national space policy. In focusing upon these 

issues, the Policy Review Committee concluded that our current direction set 

forth in the Space Act of 1958 is well founded and that the preponderance of 

existing problems was related to interactions and resultant stresses among the 

various space programs. For this reason, the classified portion of the recently 

signed Presidential directive concentrates on overlap questions. It does not deal 

in detail with the long-term objectives of our defense, commercial, and civil progams. Determining our civil space policy, outlined above, will be the next step. 

As a result of this in-depth review, the President’s directive establishes national policies to guide the conduct of United States activities in and related to 

space programs. The objectives are (1) to advance the interests of the United 

States through the exploration and use of space and (2) to cooperate with other 

nations in maintaining the freedom of space for all activities which enhance the 

security and welfare of mankind. The space principles set forth in this directive 

are: 

-The United States will pursue space activities to increase scientific knowledge, develop useful commercial and Government applications of space technology, and maintain United States leadership in space technology. 

-The United States is committed to the principles of the exploration and 

use of outer space by all nations for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all 

mankind. 

-The United States is committed to the exploration and use of outer space 

in support of its national well-being. 

98 
-The United States rejects any claims to sovereignty over outer space or 

over celestial bodies, or any portion thereof, and rejects any limitations on the 

fundamental right to acquire data from space. 

-The United States holds that the space systems of any nation are national 

property and have the right of passage through and operations in space without 

interference. Purposeful interference with space systems shall be viewed as an 

infringement upon sovereign rights. 

-The United States will pursue activities in space in support of its right of 

self-defense and thereby strengthen national security, the deterrence of attack, and 

arms control agreements. 

-The United States will conduct international cooperative space activities 

that are beneficial to the United States scientifically, politically, economically, 

and/or militarily. 

-The United States will develop and operate on a global basis active and 

passive remote sensing operations in support of national objectives. 

-The United States will maintain current responsibility and management 

relationships among the various space programs, and, as such, close coordination 

and information exchange will be maintained among the space sectors to avoid 

unnecessary duplication and to allow maximum cross-utilization of all 

capabilities. 

Our civil space programs will be conducted to increase the body of scientific 

knowledge about the Earth and the universe; to develop and operate civil applications of space technology; to maintain United States leadership in space science, 

applications, and technology; and to further United States domestic and foreign 

policy objectives within the following guidelines: 

-The United States will encourage domestic commercial exploitation of 

space capabilities and systems for economic benefit and to promote the technological position of the United States; however, all United States Earth-oriented 

remote sensing satellites will require United States Government authorization 

and supervision or regulation. 

-Advances in Earth imaging from space will be permitted under controls 

and when such needs are justified and assessed in relation to civil benefits, national security, and foreign policy. Controls, as appropriate, on other forms of 

remote Earth sensing will be established. 

-Data and results from the civil space programs will be provided the widest 

practical dissemination to improve the condition of human beings on Earth and 

to provide improved space services for the United States and other nations of 

the world. 

-The United States will develop, manage, and operate a fully operational 

Space Transportation System (STS) through NASA, in cooperation with the 

Department of Defense. The STS will service all authorized space users-domestic 

and foreign, commercial and governmental-and will provide launch priority and 

necessary security to national security missions while recognizing the essentially 

open character of the civil space program. 

Our national security related space programs will conduct those activities in 

space which are necessary to our support of such functions as command and control, communications, navigation, environmental monitoring, warning and surveillance, and space defense, as well as to support the formulation and execution 

of national policies; and to support the planning for and conduct of military 

operations. These programs will be conducted within the following guidelines: 

-Security, including dissemination of data, shall be conducted in accordance 

with Executive orders and applicable directives for protection of national security information. Space-related products and technology shall be afforded lower 

or no classification where possible to permit wider use of our total national 

space capability. 

99 
-The Secretary of Defense will establish a program for identifying and 

integrating, as appropriate, civil and commercial resources into military operations during national emergencies declared by the President. 

-Survivability of space systems will be pursued commensurate with the 

planned need in crisis and war and the availability of other assets to perform the 

mission. Identified deficiencies will be eliminated, and an aggressive, long-term 

program will be applied to provide more assured survivability through evolutionary changes to space systems. 

-The United States finds itself under increasing pressure to field an antisatellite capability of its own in response to Soviet activities in this area. By 

exercising mutual restraint, the United States and the Soviet Union have an 

opportunity at this early juncture to stop an unhealthy arms competition in 

space before the competition develops a momentum of its own. The two countries 

have commenced bilateral discussions on limiting certain activities directed 

against space objects, which we anticipate will be consistent with the overall 

U.S. goal of maintaining any nation’s right of passage through and operations 

in space without interference. 

-While the United States seeks verifiable, comprehensive limits on antisatellite capabilities and use, in the absence of such an agreement, the United States 

will vigorously pursue development of its own capabilities. The U.S. space 

defense program shall include an integrated attack warning, notification, verification, and contingency reaction capability which can effectively detect and react 

to threats to U.S. space systems. 

October 11, 1978 

U.S. Civil Space Policy 

The President announced today a space policy that will set the direction of 

U.S. efforts in space over the next decade. The policy is the result of a fourmonth interagency review requested by the President in June 1978. American 

civil space policy will be centered around three tenets: 

First: Our space policy will reflect a balanced strategy of applications, science 

and technology development containing essential key elements that will: 

-Emphasize space applications that will bring important benefits to our understanding of earth resources, climate, weather, pollution and agriculture, and 

provide for the private sector to take an increasing responsibility in remote 

sensing and other applications. 

-Emphasize space science and exploration in a manner that retains the 

challenge and excitement and permits the nation to retain the vitality of its 

space technology base, yet provides short-term flexibility to impose fiscal constraints when conditions warrant. 

-Take advantage of the flexibility of the space shuttle to reduce the cost of 

operating in space over the next two decades to meet national needs. 

-Increase benefits for resources expended through better integration and 

technology transfer among the national space programs and through more joint 

projects when appropriate, thereby increasing the return on the $100 billion 

investment in space to the benefit of the American people. 

-Assure American scientific and technological leadership in space for the 

security and welfare of the nation and continue R&D necessary to provide the 

basis for later programmatic decisions. 

-Demonstrate advanced technological capabilities in open and imaginative 

ways having benefit for developing as well as developed countries. 

-Foster space cooperation with nations by conducting joint programs. 

-Confirm our support of the continued development of a legal regime for 

space that will assure its safe and peaceful use for the benefit of mankind. 
Second: More and more, space is becoming a place to work-an extension 

of our environment. It the future, activities will be pursued in space when it appears that national objectives can most efficiently be met through space activities. 

Third: It is neither feasible nor necessary at this time to commit the United 

States to a high-challenge space engineering initiative comparable to Apollo. As 

the resources and manpower requirements for shuttle development phase down, 

we will have the flexibility to give greater attention to new space applications and 

exploration, continue programs at present levels or contract them. To meet the 

objectives specified above, an adequate Federal budget commitment will be made. 

Space Applications 

As a part of his overall review and in accordance with his desire to increase 

emphasis on uses of space for a wide variety of practical and economic benefits 

the President made the following decisions: 

Remote Sensing Systems. Since 1972 the United States has conducted experimental civil remote sensing through Landsat satellites. There are many successful 

applications and users, including Federal departments, other nations, a number 

of states, and a growing number of commercial organizations. The United States 

will continue to provide data from the developmental Landsat program for all 

classes of users. Operational uses of data from the experimental system will continue to be made by public, private, and international users. Specific details and 

configurations of the Landsat system and its management and organizational 

factors will evolve over the next several years to arrive at the appropriate technology mix, test organizational arrangements, and develop the potential to involve the private sector. 

Integrated Remote Sensing System. A comprehensive plan covering expected 

technical, programmatic, private sector, and institutional arrangements for remote. sensing will be explored. NASA will chair an interagency task force to 

examine options for integrating current and future systems into an integrated 

national system. Emphasis will be placed on defining and meeting user requirements. This task force will complete its review prior to the FY 1981 budget 

cycle. 

Weather Satellites. Separate operational requirements for meteorological 

data over the past two decades have led to separate Defense and Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather satellites. The 

Defense community, NASA, and NOAA will conduct a review of meteorological 

satellite programs to determine the degree to which these programs might be 

consolidated in the 1980s and the extent to which separate programs supporting 

specialized defense needs should be maintained. The possibility of integrated systems for ocean observations from space will also be examined. 

The Private Sector. Along with other appropriate agencies, NASA and Commerce will prepare a plan of action on how to encourage private investment and 

direct participation in civil remote sensing systems. NASA and Commerce will 

be the contacts for the private sector on this matter and will analyze proposals 

received before submitting to the Policy Review Committee (Space) for consideration and action. 

Communications Satellite RdrD. United States leadership in communications 

satellite systems will be supported by NASA. Selected technological opportunities 

to provide better frequency and orbit utilization and other long-term opportunities will be pursued. 

Communications Satellite Services. Some areas of communications servicessuch as educational and health services and basic communications services for 

remote areas-involve low-volume and intermittent use and have evidenced little 

interest from commercial satellite operators. The Department of Commerce’s 

National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) will 

assist in market aggregation, technology transfer, and possible development of 

101 
domestic and international public satellite services. This direction is intended 

to stimulate the aggregation of the public service market drawing on the technology that is already in existence. The Agency for International Development 

and Interior will work with NTIA in translating domestic experience in public 

service programs into potential programs for lesser-developed countries and the 

remote territories. 

Future Applications and Economic Activity. It is too early to make a commitment to the development of a satellite solar power station or space manufacturing facility due to the uncertainty of the technology and economic cost-benefits and environmental concerns. There are, however, very useful intermediate 

steps that will allow the development and testing of key technologies and experience in space industrial operations to be gained. The United States will 

pursue an evolutionary program that is directed toward assessing new options 

which will be reviewed periodically by the Policy Review Committee (Space). 

The evolutionary program will stress science and basic technology-integrated 

with a complementary ground R&D program-and will continue to evaluate 

the relative costs and benefits of proposed activities. 

Space Science d Explmution 

The President reviewed the space science and planetary exploration program 

and determined that the United States’ priorities at any given time will depend 

on the promise of the science, the availability of the particular technology, and 

the budgetary situation. The United States will maintain a position of leadership 

in space science and planetary exploration and will: 

Continue a vigorous program of planetary exploration to understand the 

origin and evolution of the solar system. The goal in the years ahead is to continue the reconnaissance of the outer planets and to conduct more detailed exploration of Saturn, its moons, and its rings; to continue comparative studies of 

the neighboring planets, Venus and Mars; and to conduct reconnaissance of 

comets and asteroids. 

Utilize the space telescope and free-flying satellites to usher in a new era 

of astronomy, as we explore interstellar molecules, quasars, pulsars, and black 

holes to expand our understanding of the universe. 

Develop a better understanding of the sun and its interaction with the 

terrestrial environment through space systems-such as the Solar Maximum Mission and the Solar Polar Mission-that will journey towards the sun and earthorbiting satellites that will measure the variation in solar output and determine 

the resultant response of the earth’s atmosphere. 

Utilize the space shuttle and spacelab, alone and in cooperation with other 

nations, to conduct basic research that complements earth-based life science investigations and human physiology research. 

Our policy in international space cooperation will include two basic elements: (1) to pursue the best science available regardless of national origin and 

expand our international planning and coordinating effort; and (2) to seek 

cooperative support for experiments-spacecraft which have been chosen on sound 

scientific criteria. 

lncreused Benefit fm Resources Expended 

As a result of the President’s review, decisions were made that will increase 

the benefit to the United States for resources expended. 

Strategy to Utilize the Shuttle. The Administration will make incremental 

improvements in the shuttle transportation system as they become necessary. Decisions on extending the shuttle’s stay time in orbit and future upper stage capabilities (e.g., the reusable space tug and orbital transfer vehicle) will be examined in the context of our emerging space policy goals. An interagency task force 

will make recommendations on what future capabilities are needed. This task 

102 
force will submit the findings to the Policy Review Committee (Space) prior to 

the FY 1981 budget cycle. 

Technology Sharing. The Policy Review Committee (Space) will take steps 

to enhance technology transfer between the space sectors. The objective will be 

to maximize efficient utilization of the sectors while maintaining necessary security and current management relationships. 

BACKGROUND 

Early in his Administration, the President directed a National Security 

Council review of space policy. The emphasis was on coherent space principles 

and national space policy and did not deal in detail with the long-term objectives of our defense, commercial, and civil programs. The review, completed in 

May 1978, resulted in a Presidential Directive that set the basic framework for 

our civil space policy completed last week. The President’s May 1978 directive 

established a Policy Review Committee (Space) to provide a forum for all Federal agencies in which to advise on proposed changes to national space policy 

and to provide for rapid referral of issues to the President for decision. This 

Committee is chaired by the Director of the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy, Frank Press. In June 1978 the President directed the Policy Review Committee (Space) to assess the future needs of the nation’s civil space program, and 

their report formed the basis for the policy decisions outlined here. The following agencies and departments participated: The National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, Commerce, Interior, Agriculture, Energy, State, National Science 

Foundation, Agency for International Development, Defense, Director of Central 

Intelligence, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 

as well as the Domestic Policy Staff, the National Security Council Staff, and the 

Office of Management and Budget. 

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 0 - 297-034 103