Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1980 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1980 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Contents 

Page 

Summary ................................ 1 

Communications .............. .. 1 

Earth's Resources and Environment ...... 3 

Space Science ........................ 5 

Transport a tion ............. Space Energy ......................... 11 

Administration ..................... 13 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Applications to the Earth . . Science ................. Space Transportation .................. 25 

Space Research and Technology . Space Data Services ........... Aeronautical Research and Technology ... 32 

Department of Defense ..... 37 

Space Activities ................... 37 

Aeronautical Activities ............. 43 

Relations with NASA 46 

Department of Commerce .................. 48 

Other Uses of S ........ 55 

Space Support Activities ................ 57 

Space and Atmospheric Research ........ 58 

Space Systems ...... 48 

Nuclear Waste Disposal ................ 62 

Remote Sensing of the Earth ............ 62 

Nuclear Test Detection ................ 63 

Department of the Interior ................. 64 

Earth Resources Observation Systems 

Program .......................... 64 

Monitoring the Environment ............ 65 

International Activities . . 

Agriculture and Resource Inventories ..... 67 

Crop Condition Assessment ............. 68 

Management of Renewable Resources .... 68 

Federal Communications Commission ........ 69 

Communications Satellites .............. 69 

Experiments and Studies ............... 70 

Department of Transportation .............. 72 

Cartography ........... 

Department of Agriculture ............. 

Page 

Environmental Research ............... 74 

75 

Environmental Protection Agency ........... 78 

Energy-Related Environmental Research . . 78 

Aviation Safety ....................... 72 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ... 

Pollution Monitoring .................. 78 

National Science Foundation 

Multiple Quasars ..... Mount Saint Helens Volcano ............ 80 

Solar Maximum Year .................. 81 

Iridium and the Cretaceous-Tertiary 

Boundary ....... 

Space Sciences . . ................. 83 

Department of State ............... 86 

Lunar Research ....... 85 

............... 85 

Activities within d Nations ...... 86 

Communications Satellites .............. 86 

International Communication Agency ........ 88 

Space Shuttle Coverage ............ 88 

Unmanned Space Probe Coverage ....... 88 

General Space-Related Activities ........ 88 

Appendixes 

A.1 . U.S. Spacecraft Record ............... A.2 . World Record of Space Launchings 

91 

Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or 

Beyond ........................... 91 

92 

95 

A.3 . Successful U.S. Launchings - 1980 ...... B.1 . U.S. Applications Satellites 1975-1980 ... B.2 . U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 

B.3 . US.-Launched Space Probes 1975-1980 . 

C . US . and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 

D . U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ............ 101 

E.1 . Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

1975-1980 .......................... 96 

97 

1961-1980 ........................ 98 

Historical Budget Summary - 

Budget Authority .................. 102 

E.2 . Space Activities Budget ............... 103 

E.3 . Aeronautics Budget .................. 103 

iii 
Aerospace Events of 1980 

Voyager 1 flew past the planet Saturn in 

November 1980, discovering new planetary 

rings, photographing six new moons, and 

sending back other surprising data. At left, 

Saturn and two of its moons, Tethys and 

Dione, were photographed by Voyager I on 

3 November from 13 million kilometers 

away. The shadow of Tethys and three rings 

are cast onto the cloudtops, and the limb of 

the planet shows through the Cassini Division separating rings A and B. Two new 

moons, the 13th and 14th (middle left 

photo), were photographed 25 October from 

25 million kilometers away. The smaller, innermost of the two, at the bottom edge of 

ring A, is about 500 kilometers in diameter. 

Spacecraft also kept watch on the sun and the earth. The Solar 

Maximum Mission satellite, orbited in February 1980, returned 

important data on solar activity during the peak of the 11 -year 

sunspot cycle. A flare 7 April caused the major disruption in the 

solar corona seen in the picture (left, below) prepared from data 

sent back by the coronagraph polarimeter. The shading from 

dark to light represents densities of the corona. The May 1980 

eruption of Mount Saint Helens in Washington (below) was 

monitored by satellites Goes 3, Noaa 6, and Sage and by aircraft. Noaa 6 photographed the massive plume mushrooming 

from the volcano at 9:54 PDT 18 May, 84 minutes after the explosion. Satellite information on the spread of smoke and ash and 

communications via A TS 3 aided rescue and cleanup. 
The first Space Shuttle (right) arrived at Kennedy Space 

Center’s Launch Complex 39 on 29 December 1980 for 

extensive on-the-pad testing before its 1981 launch. The 

airplanelike reusable orbiter Columbia is mated to the 

towering external tank and reusable rocket boosters. 

Above, the inertial upper stage is being developed by the 

Air Force to deliver NASA and military payloads to 

higher orbits than the Shuttle alone can reach. 

A joint NASA-Army-Navy flight program began in 

1980 to evaluate the XV-15 tilt-rotor research aircraft (upper left). The versatile, vertical- or shorttakeoff and landing craft completed flightenvelope-expansion tests, reaching a speed of 555 

kilometers per hour. In a NASA-Navy research 

program, the QSRA (quiet short-haul research aircraft, lower left) made precision landings on the 

deck of the carrier Kitty Hawk without arresting 

gear and took off without catapult. 
Summary 

Discoveries in the outer solar system and enlarged 

understanding of the sun marked the United States 

space program in 1980, and the Space Shuttle was 

readied for its first launch. In aeronautics, technical 

advances were made in energy efficiency, environmental compatibility, safety, traffic control, and improved 

Performance of military and civil aircraft. 

As the year ended, the Voyager 1 spacecraft headed 

for the outer solar system and beyond after flying 

within 123 600 kilometers of Saturn in November to 

discover new planetary rings, photograph six new 

moons, and send back other surprising data about that 

giant planet. Voyager 2 continued toward its August 

1981 encounter with Saturn. 

The Space Shuttle Columbia was rolled out to the 

launch pad in December in preparation for the first 

flight into space of a reusable earth-to-orbit vehicle, 

scheduled for spring 1981. In November, the European Space Agency delivered the first engineering 

model of Spacelab, the laboratory that will be carried 

on Shuttle missions. 

Of 15 U.S. launches into space on expendable 

vehicles in 1980, 13 orbited 16 payloads, but 1 payload 

failed to reach operational orbit. Of these, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

orbited 7 in 7 launches, but an environmentmonitoring satellite for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) went into a highly 

elliptical orbit where it could not operate effectively. 

The Department of Defense (DoD) had 6 successes in 8 

launches- 1 with 3 payloads on one vehicle and 1 with 

2-orbiting 9 payloads, including 2 Navstar Global 

Positioning Satellites. NASA’s launches also included 

2 communications satellites for DoD, 2 commercial 

communications satellites, 1 successful weather 

satellite for NOAA, and 1 satellite for NASA’s own 

science program, to study solar flare mechanisms and 

effects on the earth during the Solar Maximum Year. 

Satellite communications services continued to expand, with 6 International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization satellites and 8 U.S. domestic 

commercial satellites in service. And 20 more domestic 

launches were approved - in addition to growing 

maritime and military networks. For earth resource inventories and monitoring, 14 ground stations in 11 

countries were receiving data from Landsat satellites 

and other countries were adding stations. Weather 

satellites observed the entire earth four times a day, 

and new sensors and methods were being tested to improve forecasts. 

Space research and technology programs advanced 

the performance, reliability, and efficiency of space 

vehicles and operations. Energy programs made progress in the use of solar-cell and nuclear energy in space 

and of solar, wind-turbine, and other kinds of energy 

on the earth. 

This section summarizes 1980 highlights of the U.S. 

aeronautics and space program by function. Subsequent sections then take up in more detail the work of 

the agencies participating in the program. 

Communications 

Communications satellites have led to a growing 

and profitable industry and also have become indispensable for command and control of U.S. military 

forces. 

Operational Space Systems 

INTELSA T. The first of the new high-capacity Intelsat V communications satellites - with double the 

capacity of the Intelsat IVA series-was launched in 

December 1980 to replace one of the six spacecraft in 

the global system of the 105-nation INTELSAT 

organization. Intelsat V F-2 will operate in the 6- to 

4-and 11- to 14-gigahertz bands. Of nine satellites 

planned in the series, to meet traffic demands now increasing by more than 25 percent annually, five will be 

able to provide maritime services and can be launched 

on either expendable vehicles or the Space Shuttle. 

Direct communication links with more than 280 

ground-station antennas served some 140 countries at 

the year’s end, as INTELSAT prepared specifications 

for the follow-on VI series. 

1 
Domestic Communications Satellites. The Federal 

Communications Commission in December authorized 

8 companies to launch 20 commercial domestic communications satellites, to join or replace the 8 satellites 

in service in 1980. In addition, 1 just launched was to 

go into service in 1981 and 2 more were scheduled for 

1981 launch. The first Satellite Business Systems 

satellite was launched in November 1980 to provide 

voice, data, and image service in the 12- to 14-GHz 

bands for large industrial and government users beginning in March 1981. Two RCA American Communications Satcoms, three Western Union Westars, 

and three American Telephone & Telegraph Comstars 

were providing message toll service, television distribution, and single and multiple channels for voice, data, 

TV, and digital data to more than 3500 ground stations. 

Military Communications Satellites. The Department of Defense operates its own satellite communications system and also leases commercial service for 

command and control of U.S. military forces. The 

third and fourth of five planned Fleet Satellite Communications System satellites were launched in 

January and October 1980 to provide moderatecapacity, mobile-user service to the U.S. Navy and Air 

Force. Fleet broadcast receivers had been installed in 

some 420 ships and 109 submarines, and 236 ships 

were equipped for secure, long-range voice operations. 

The FCC has authorized Hughes Communications 

Services to construct the near-global LEASAT system 

to begin replacing the FLTSATCOM system. Since 

LEASAT can be launched only on the Shuttle, the 

first launch is not expected until mid-1984, paced by 

Shuttle availability. 

Development continued on a qualification model 

and two flight models of the DSCS 111, a newgeneration satellite. Four active DSCS I1 satellites and 

two on-orbit spares were providing nearly global, 

secure, voice and high-data-rate support to critical 

command, control, and crisis management users. 

DSCS ZZZ A-1, scheduled for 1981 launch, was to include an additional jam-resistant, single-channel 

transponder as a secondary payload for emergencyaction message dissemination. Similar transponders 

were also planned for launch in the Strategic Satellite 

System in the mid-1980s. 

The Air Force Satellite Communications 

(AFSATCOM) System, which uses FLTSATCOM and 

other satellites for command and control of nuclearcapable forces and other high-priority users, in 1980 

was procuring terminals for 1981 installation in ICBM 

launch control centers. Thirty-one low-rate, initialproduction, multichannel, SHF, tactical terminals in 

the Tactical Ground Mobile Forces’ Satellite Communications System had been deployed by the U.S. 

Army in Europe for use with the DSCS system. Production began on 210 UHF vehicle terminals for use 

with FLTSATCOMS in support of tactical nuclear 

forces, and first terminal delivery in Europe was expected in late 1981. 

Marisat. Commercial maritime service was being 

provided to more than 500 ships through the Marisat 

system in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian ocean 

areas; ultimately up to 8000 ships are expected to be 

equipped for satellite communications. The 29-nation 

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT), established in 1979 with Comsat Corp. as 

the largest shareholder, approved an operational plan 

in November 1980 for its first-generation space segment. Two Marecs spacecraft manufactured by the 

European Space Agency, one Marisat spacecraft, and 

payloads on three Intelsat V spacecraft were to make 

up the segment, expected to begin operations in 1982 

in a transition from Marisat. Also in November, the 

Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) approved requirements for a future 

global distress and safety system. 

Military Navigation Satellites. The fifth and sixth 

Navstar Global Positioning System satellites were 

launched in February and April in the joint-service 

program to improve weapon delivery and worldwide 

rapid force deployment with continuous, threedimensional positioning and navigation. The 

developmental system was providing up to six hours of 

accurate positioning data with five of the six satellites 

operating. By late 1987, the operational 18-satellite 

system is to provide positioning data accurate to 16 

meters, velocity accurate to 0.1 meter per second, and 

time synchronized to within 0.1 microsecond. The 

satellite design is being modified for Shuttle compatibility, and the Navy, Army, and Air Force are using the present system to test military concepts, 

missiles, and equipment. 

Space Communications Experiments 

Experimental Satellites ATS 1 and ATS 3, Applications Technology Satellites launched in 1966 and 

1967, continued important public service communications experiments in 1980. In addition to supporting 

emergency medical assistance to isolated areas, ATS 3 

aided search and rescue operations and disaster assessment after the eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 

Washington. In the Pacific basin, ATS 1 supplied 

disaster relief, medical, and educational services. The 

first satellite carrying the demonstration Search and 

Rescue Satellite (SARSAT) equipment, built by the 

United States and including subsystems from France 

and Canada, was expected to be launched by 

mid-1982. Two spacecraft interoperable with the 

SARSAT system were to be provided by the Soviet 

Union under a 13 August 1980 understanding. 

To fulfill its international mission in public service 

satellites, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the Department 

of Commerce was planning a three-year educational 

2 
exchange program to begin in June 1981 for persons 

from less developed countries. The program, part of a 

joint effort with the Agency for International Development (AID), would emphasize the application of 

satellite communications to the delivery of social services. Also, NTIA and NASA were cooperatively funding an examination of the technical, regulatory, and 

program requirements for enhancing communications 

in the islands of the Pacific basin. 

Communications Research. NASA began studies 

and awarded 12 technology development contracts 

toward high-capacity satellite equipment able to use a 

new frequency band, to meet the congestion of both 

the geostationary orbit and the present bands, which 

will probably be saturated by the 1990s. An experimental satellite was under consideration for 

necessary conceptual tests and to resolve technical 

uncertainties facing future commercial systems. 

DoD developed new components for operation in 

the EHF band and also completed testing an air-toground laser communication link with very high data 

rates and high jamming protection. Development continued on an orbital laser communications package for 

launch on the P80-1 spacecraft in 1983. 

Communications Negotiation. The Federal Communications Commission began preparations for the 

1983 regional and 1984 world administrative radio 

conferences, which will establish principles and 

criteria for the geostationary satellite orbit and frequency bands allocated to space services. U.S. radio 

regulations carrying out international decisions made 

at the 1979 world conference were being prepared. 

NTIA began discussions with the People’s Republic 

of China about that nation’s future use of satellite 

communications. A delegation visited China in April 

1980 to explore mutual interests, focusing on U.S. 

technology that might profitably be applied to needs 

of the Chinese people. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites. The FCC studied 

technical and policy issues concerning proposed com - 

munications satellites for broadcasting-probably 

television -directly to small, inexpensive antennas in 

individual homes or communities. A notice of inquiry 

invited public comment by 1981 on reports on these , 

issues. Consideration of draft principles governing 

direct broadcast continued in the U.N. Committee on 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Organizations of the 

National Academy of Sciences held a symposium on 

technical, financial, legal, and regulatory influences 

on putting direct broadcast into practical use. 

Earth’s Resources and Environment 

Use of information from sensors on aircraft and 

spacecraft continued to increase, nationally and inter - nationally, for inventorying and monitoring resources 

and changes of the earth’s land surface, waters, and 

atmosphere. 

Inventorying and Monitoring 

Earth Resources. The Departments of Agriculture, 

Commerce, and the Interior, with NASA, completed 

the first year of the Agriculture and Resources Inventory Survey through Aerospace Remote Sensing 

(AgRISTARS) program. The broad-based research 

and development program uses data from environmental, communications, and Landsat satellites 

and airborne sensors to determine applications of 

aerospace technology to agriculture and renewable 

resources. USDA focused on research in crop-yield 

models and on assessment and early warning of crop 

conditions, as well as land cover and resources. NASA 

during 1980 developed several improved techniques 

for estimates and spectral measurements of crops, as 

well as completing two exploratory experiments for 

forecasting foreign crop production. AID will evaluate 

applications of aerospace technology in developing 

countries. 

In addition to research, USDA used Landsat data 

operationally in 1980 to assess important crops in 

major producing regions of the world, to classify and 

map forests, and to develop a forest-fire fuels data 

base. The Department of the Interior also studied fuel 

mapping for fire control. 

On 16 November 1979, the president assigned 

NOAA management responsibility for all civil operational remote-sensing activities from space. In consonance with the presidential directive, NOAA with 

NASA and other federal user agencies developed a 

recommended plan for transition from the existing, 

experimental NASA Landsat program to an operational NOAA program for land remote-sensing. 

A public document, Planning for a Civil Operational Land Remote Sensing Satellite System: A 

Discussion of Issues and Options issued 20 June 1980, 

identified policy and technical issues to be resolved: 

continuity of data during the 1980s; user requirements 

and performance options for the fully operational 

system; revenues, pricing policies, and financial 

assistance; institutional approaches to private sector 

ownership; market expansion; international implications; and required legislative and regulatory 

authorities. 

Under the plan, NASA’s Landsat-D satellite, 

already in development, and the associated ground 

system would be transferred to NOAA. Under NOAA, 

emphasis would shift from research and development 

to operational requirements, with appropriate launch 

schedule changes. Service by the operational system 

would be tailored to users’ needs and ultimate participation by the private sector. 

Requests for data from Landsat 2 and 3, orbiting 

the earth since 1975 and 1978, again showed in3 
creasing worldwide interest in environmental and 

resources applications. Ground stations in India and 

Australia became operational in 1980, and 10 other 

stations in 9 countries continued active. Argentina’s 

station began receiving test data. Thailand, the 

People’s Republic of China, and South Africa took 

steps toward acquiring their own stations, and 5 more 

countries have expressed interest. The Geological 

Survey and AID held remote-sensing workshops for 40 

scientists from 17 countries, in addition to other international training and cooperative applications projects. The Survey is lead agency in a U.N.-sponsored 

project developing techniques for mineral and energy 

exploration. 

The major environmental event of 1980, the eruption of Mount Saint Helens, was monitored and 

tracked by both polar-orbiting and geostationary 

satellites. Information on the movement, density, and 

spread of the resulting smoke and ash plume was used 

in evacuation and cleanup activities, as well as for 

routing aircraft. Estimates of the location and movement of the plume were provided to numerous U.S. 

and foreign government agencies and television stations. 

The Census Bureau continued to use Landsat data 

to update its statistics on land and water areas of the 

United States. An interactive computer system was 

being developed using digital county boundary files 

and Landsat images to distinguish water from land. 

Investigations were completed in use of computerprocessed Landsat data for showing land-cover 

changes and delineating urban zones around two 

sample metropolitan areas under a NASA applications 

pilot test agreement. Digital registration of Landsat 

scenes over several different years and related processing show significant land-cover change. Statistical and 

pictorial results were being compared with changes interpreted from aircraft photography. 

The Department of the Interior used earth observations from satellites and aircraft to map water use and 

availability, wildland vegetation, and wetlands; give 

early warning of floods; improve park management; 

and assess habitats of endangered species. 

NASA expanded its research in remote sensing for 

identifying mineral and energy resources, moving 

from emphasis on visible and near-infrared portions of 

the electromagnetic spectrum to use of more of the 

spectrum. Results from the NASA-Geosat Test Case 

substantially encouraged the use of satellite remote 

sensing for geologic resource assessment and exploration. 

The Magsat satellite, completing its mission in 

1980, obtained the first global measurements of the 

earth’s vector magnetic field. Magsat data are expected to give insights into the subsurface structure of 

mineral frontier regions in the Arctic, Africa, and 

South America. 

In geodynamics, space technology was used to study 

polar motion and earth rotation, movement and 

deformation of the earth’s tectonic plates, deformation of the earth’s crust, and other processes related to 

earthquakes. Analysis of data taken regularly since 

1972 has established motion along the San Andreas 

fault in California - between Pacific and North 

American plates-of 7 to 11 centimeters a year. 

Measurements were begun to detect separation of 

Eurasian and North American plates. The International Astronomical Union’s Measurement of Earth 

Rotation and Intercomparison of Techniques 

(MERIT) program began, working toward a new, 

more accurate, global monitoring system. The 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory acted as coordinator for MERIT and provided laser tracking 

coverage for geophysical research, focusing on the 

high-orbiting Lageos satellite and others in near-earth 

orbit. 

Monitoring the Sea State. Observations from Seasat, 

Nimbus 7, and GEOS satellites continued to provide 

information on the oceans for scientists and commercial marine industries. The Seasat scatterometer 

proved it could measure speed of surface winds, an improvement over inferring winds from cloud 

movements. The radar altimeter proved accurate for 

mapping such features as Gulf Stream circulation, 

coastal tides. and sea ice. 

Environmental Analysis and Protection 

Operational and experimental programs continued 

to collect data for analysis and prediction of climate 

changes and natural and man-made changes in the atmosphere. 

Weather Satellite Operations. During 1980, TirosN and Noaa 6 continued as the two polar-orbiting 

satellites operated by the National Earth Satellite Service (NESS). Nom-B, launched in May as NOAA’s 

second operational satellite of this series, 

failed to achieve operational orbit. Tiros-N and Noaa 

6, operating in sun-synchronous orbits of 870 and 830 

kilometers to observe the environment of the entire 

earth four times each day, have already significantly 

improved global weather predictions. Redundancy is 

achieved by the two similar satellites rather than by 

identical instruments on a single satellite. 

NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES) system is the successor to NASA’s prototype Synchronous Meteorological Satellites (SMS). 

Since 1974, two SMS and four GOES satellites have 

been launched. SMS 2 and Goes 3 now cover the 

Western Hemisphere, with SMS 2 at 75’ west 

longitude and Goes 3 at 135O. SMS 1, Goes 1, and 

Goes 2 are on standby and provide limited operational 

support in weather facsimile and data collection. The 

primary instrument on these satellites is the visible infrared spin-scan radiometer (VISSR). 

4 
Goes 4 was successfully launched 9 September 1980, 

to orbit 35 000 km above the equator at 98O west 

longitude. Equipped with a new radiometer, the 

VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS), Goes 4 will record 

atmospheric temperature and water vapor content at 

various altitudes in addition to the traditional images 

of the earth’s surface and cloud cover. It is the first environmental satellite launched with a combined 

research and operational capability. When NOAA is 

not using it operationally, NASA will use it to test the 

VAS, which offers multispectral imaging with 12 

operational channels instead of the VISSR’s 1, ability 

to use these channels to derive temperature and 

moisture data, and ability to select areas, data, and 

frequency of coverage. A new feature has been added 

to the space environment monitor (SEM) on Goes 4; a 

high-energy-proton and alpha detector expands the 

dynamic range of the instrument. The SEM detects 

unusual solar flares with high levels of radiation, 

measures the intensity of solar winds, and measures 

the strength and direction of the earth’s magnetic 

field. 

DoD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

supports strategic and tactical needs for weather information, depending on two satellites obtaining data 

from all points on the earth at least four times a day. 

During 1980 the system adequately supported needs 

for seven months. In July a satellite launched to 

replace a degrading DMSP failed to achieve orbit, and 

service has since been supplemented by civilian systems 

as the Air Force accelerates replacement satellite production. 

Weather Research. NASA and NOAA continued 

work to improve weather forecasts by advances in 

technology. The Global Weather Experiment, a year 

of international observation ending November 1979, 

collected the largest set of atmospheric data yet attempted. Inclusion of satellite data in prediction 

models showed dramatic improvement in selected twoto five-day forecasts. The experiment also showed the 

importance of monitoring the Southern Hemisphere, 

where intermittent outbursts of air cross the equator to 

alter mid-latitude weather in the Northern 

Hemisphere within several days. 

NASA and NOAA proceeded with the pilot Centralized Storm Information System at the National 

Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas City. Reception time for satellite images decreased from 45 

minutes to 6, as the project worked toward overlaying 

all observations, maps, images, and forecasts on computerized video terminals for quick reaction to severe 

storms. 

In the National Climate Program, NASA was 

assigned lead responsibility for studying solar and 

earth radiation effects on climate change. An experiment team from NASA, NOAA, the academic community, and several foreign countries worked on software development, data validation, ground-truth 

observations, and scientific analyses in the earth radiation budget experiment (ERBE). Three sets of instruments were planned for launch in the mid-l980s, 

two on NOAA sun-synchronous satellites and one on a 

NASA satellite. NASA has selected the contractor for 

its ERBS spacecraft. 

Atmospheric Research. Progress was made during 

the year in monitoring the chemistry, radiation exchange, and dynamics of the upper atmosphere for 

predicting effects of human activities on these upper 

regions. NASA’s estimate that man-made chemicals 

will reduce ozone in the ozone layer by 14 to 18 percent 

by the year 2050 supports the National Academy of 

Sciences’ prediction of 16 percent. New laboratory and 

field measurement techniques, including remote 

sensing, have increased understanding of ozone 

chemistry. Seven years’ global ozone data from the 

Nimbus 4 satellite and additional data from Nimbus 7 

will help establish the effects of the oxides of nitrogen 

on ozone, and Nimbus 6 and 7 temperature data indicate the variations in winds that transport atmospheric constituents. Sounding rocket measurements by several countries confirmed the precision 

of satellite measurements. 

Observations by aircraft and the Sage satellite, 

launched in 1979, of the dispersion of material from 

the Mount Saint Helens eruption indicated the importance of wind transport in the stratosphere. And Sage 

observations of this and other eruptions led to the 

belief that, in the short run, large volcanic eruptions 

have a more significant effect on surface temperatures 

than do increases in carbon dioxide. The National 

Science Foundation supported aircraft and balloon 

flights through the Mount Saint Helens plume to sample particles and gases for constituents that could affect the ozone layer and climate. 

NASA and the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) continued joint work to understand pollution in 

the lower atmosphere, developing and using satellite 

and aircraft systems to gather data for studying air 

masses and the transport and transformation of oxidants and other pollutants in the northeastern United 

States. Some 36 research groups from federal agencies-including EPA, NASA, and the Department of 

Energy -continued work in the Interagency 

Energy/Environment Program (IEEP) toward ensuring that national energy development goals are met 

with minimal harm to human health and the environment. 

Space Science 

Space science seeks to understand the dynamic processes that shape the earth’s environment, including the 

interaction of the sun’s emissions with the environment, and to understand the origin and evolution of 

the universe and of life in that universe. 

5 
Sun-Earth Studies terplanetary space above the poles of the sun for the 

The Solar Maximum Mission, launched into orbit in 

February to study solar flares and other solar activity 

during the peak of the ll-year sunspot cycle, was the 

most important achievement in NASA’s 1980 solar 

and heliospherics program. Among SMM discoveries 

affecting the theory of solar flares was that the very 

high energy x-rays emitted at the beginning of flares 

appear to originate in pairs of spots within the flares, 

at the bottom of loops of the magnetic field that 

creates the flares. The spacecraft also measured heat 

and light from the sun for investigation into relations 

between the sun’s luminosity and our climate. 

The National Science Foundation was responsible 

for ground-based research in the Solar Maximum 

Year, with observations at more than 100 observatories; and the NSFs National Center for Atmospheric Research, under NASA contract, provided 

the coronagraph-polarimeter flown on the SMM. 

Telescope observations at the South Pole confirmed 

the existence of pulsations of the sun’s surface with a 

period of five minutes-and also possibly longer 

periods that could revise concepts of the sun’s structure. 

The three-satellite International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) system begun in 1977 by NASA and the 

European Space Agency completed its primary objectives of determining the thickness and motion of the 

earth’s bow shock and the changes induced by solar 

wind fluctuations. The third satellite, ISEE 3 orbiting 

a point between the earth and the sun, has improved 

understanding of the solar wind and has also measured 

the temperature of solar coronal holes as high as 3.5 

million kelvins. The earth’s magnetic field diverts most 

of the solar wind, but some interacts to produce 

plasma waves, some transfers energy inside the 

magnetosphere, and some is thrown back toward the 

sun. 

Development neared completion on two Explorer 

satellites to be launched in 1981: the Dynamics Explorer to study interaction of the earth’s 

magnetosphere and ionosphere and the Solar 

Mesospherics Explorer to determine how solar 

ultraviolet radiation interacts with the atmosphere. 

Development also continued on instrumentation for a 

fourth cooperative project of NASA and the Italian 

Space Commission to study atmospheric phenomena. 

Detailed study continued on future Explorers: the twoelement Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer (AMPTE) program, with one German qnd one 

U.S. spacecraft to be launched in the mid-1980s; and 

the Solar Corona Explorer (SCE), to study rotation 

and evolution of coronal holes and the origin of the 

solar wind. 

For the cooperative NASA-ESA International Solar 

Polar Mission (ISPM), launch of an ESA spacecraft in 

the mid- 1980s was under consideration to explore in- 

.- 

firit time. 

The National Academy of Sciences’ Space Science 

Board, a principal adviser for NASA since 1958, 

began a study at NASA’s request to recommend future 

research in solar physics. 

Study of the Planets 

Unmanned spacecraft sent back quantities of new 

planetary data during 1980, including scientific surprises and spectacular images from Saturn and its 

moons and continued observations of Mars and Venus. 

Saturn. After flying past Jupiter in-1979: Voyager 1 

came close to the giant, ringed Saturn in November 

1980, returning thousands of high-resolution images 

and extensive, exciting data. Saturn’s rings are far 

more numerous than thought, and far more complex; 

Voyager 1 found hundreds, perhaps thousands, of 

elliptical rings and one that appears to be several 

twisted or “braided” ringlets. Even the Cassini division 

was found to hold nearly two dozen rings. The 

spacecraft photographed six new moons, some that 

had not been seen before and some that had been 

reported but not confirmed. Titan, the largest of 

Saturn’s moons and the only moon in the solar system 

to have an atmosphere, was found to be slightly 

smaller than Jupiter’s Ganymede, rather than the 

largest in the solar system. Its atmosphere was found to 

be largely nitrogen rather than methane, resembling a 

prehistoric Earthlike atmosphere in deep freeze. 

At the end of 1980, Voyager 1 was headed out of the 

solar system. Its sister craft, Voyager 2, journeyed 

toward its August 1981 encounter with Saturn and 

then on toward a 1986 flyby of Uranus. 

Jupiter. Scientists faced challenges and questions 

presented by the discoveries and torrents of data sent 

from Jupiter by Voyager 1 and 2 flybys in 1979. An 

underlying order to the turbulent atmosphere, the 

diverse worlds of the Galilean moons, Jupiter’s 

magnetospheric boundaries and tail similar to Earth’s, 

three new moons, and a planetary ring system 

unknown before invited further investigation. The 

Galileo mission, planned for the late 198Os, is designed 

to study the Jovian system in detail with more 

sophisticated instruments. One spacecraft is to orbit 

the planet for 20 months, flying close to some of the 

moons, and a probe is to descend into Jupiter’s atmosphere. 

Mars. At the end of 1980, the Viking 1 lander was 

still transmitting images and scientific data from the 

surface of Mars, five years after arrival. Periodic interrogations of the lander were planned into 1994. The 

second Viking lander and orbiter ended their missions 

during the year, as the analysis team studied the highresolution pictures and atmospheric and 

meteorological data transmitted through the second 

Martian year. 

6 
Venw. The Pioneer- Venw orbiter, launched in 

1978, continued to provide valuable information on 

the atmosphere of Venus and was expected to operate 

until 1986, returning important data on atmospheric 

variations with time and on regions near the planet 

that were not accessible from the spacecraft’s first orbits. 

Ground-Based Research and Analysis. In addition 

to other teams of scientists from universities and 

federal agencies analyzing results from the planetary 

explorations, the Space Science Board continued to 

define scientific strategies for the space program. Its 

1980 publications included 0n;ein and Evolution of 

Lqe: Implications for the Planets, and the Board 

began a study of the role of theory in the design of 

space missions and interpretations of results. 

Study of the Universe 

A combination of astronomy and physics, 

astrophysics seeks to understand the basic laws of the 

observable universe, investigating radiation reaching 

Earth from all sources in the cosmos. 

Research with Spacecraft. The High Energy 

Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) series of spacecraft 

study x-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays-the 

highest detectable energy rays. Heao 2 and 3, 

launched in 1978 and 1979, continued to make new 

observations in 1980. Heao 2, carrying the first true 

imaging x-ray telescope, increased the number of 

quasars detected as x-ray emitters to more than 100, 

from the 3 that could be detected by Heao 1. And its 

unexpected data on the constituents of remnants of 

supernova explosions raised questions about nuclear 

physics theory. 

Heao 3, measuring quantities of very high energy 

atomic nuclei in the galaxy, also sent data that raised 

questions about supernovae, as well as about the origin 

of these nuclei. Heao 3 pioneered observation of true 

nuclear gamma-ray line radiation, observing radiation 

from the formation of heavy hydrogen (deuterium) in 

a solar flare and annihilation radiation from the 

center of the Milky Way. Radiation from destruction 

of antimatter positrons in collision with electrons in 

the Milky Way may shed light on how antimatter can 

be produced and confined in the nucleus of the 

galaxy. 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatory OAO 3 ended 

its science operations in December after eight years of 

transmitting data, including first satellite 

measurements of the ultraviolet spectra of the 

chromospheres and coronas of stars other than the 

sun. Observations in 1980 by the International 

Ultraviolet Explorer ZUE, launched in 1978, confirmed the discovery of a hot halo of gas around the 

Milky Way and verified that the space between 

isolated galaxies is transparent and contributes little to 

the mass of the universe. IUE also continued to contribute to knowledge of the stars, comets, and their 

composition. 

Major analysis programs of the principal investigators, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and hundreds of scientists in NASA’s guest investigator program interpreted data from these 

satellites, often in combination from suborbital 

vehicles and ground-based observations. 

The Gamma Ray Observatory GRO, planned for 

late 1980s launch, is designed to extend observation of 

the universe into the highest energy reaches of the electromagnetic spectrum -to see nuclear processes near 

neutron stars and black holes and to investigate supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and gamma-ray sources. 

Space Telescope subsystems and instruments made 

progress in fabrication and assembly, but development 

was rephased to remain within fiscal 1980 and 1981 

funding. The European Space Agency is providing the 

telescope’s solar arrays and faint-object camera. 

Most of the hardware was completed for the first-ofits-kind cryogenically cooled telescope the United 

States is providing for the Infrared Astronomical 

Satellite IRAS, a joint project with The Netherlands 

and the United Kingdom to study the cold infrared 

universe in 1982. Planning continued for the future 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility AXAF, to improve x-ray observations of the universe by 50 times 

the sensitivity of previous missions. 

The Space Science Board completed recommendations for solar system space physics; explorations of 

asteroids, comets, and meteoroids; and gravitational 

physics. The National Academy of Sciences’ 

Astronomy Survey Committee continued assessment of 

opportunities and requirements for the 1980% nearing 

completion of an integrated space-and-ground program. 

Research from Suborbital Vehicles. Aircraft, 

balloon, and sounding rocket investigations provided 

scientific data unobtainable in other ways, complementing the research on spacecraft missions. A 

wide-field ultraviolet imaging telescope designed to fly 

on Spacelab was flown on a sounding rocket, making 

the first wide-field images of our nearest spiral galaxy. 

A balloon-borne instrument made the first detection 

of an intrinsic, large-scale anistropy of the universe, 

suggesting that the universe became clumpy far earlier 

than previously thought. And a balloon-borne 

telescope provided evidence of large-scale star -forming 

areas in our galaxy. 

Research from the Ground. Further observations 

appeared to confirm that twin quasars discovered in 

1979 were actually produced by a single light source 

and thus do indeed represent a gravitational lens in action. Other research in 1980, supported by NSF, also 

advanced the gravitational lens theory; observations 

with the multiple-mirror telescope operated by the 

Smithsonian and the University of Arizona indicated 

7 
that spectra of three close images were identical, 

evidence of a single light source for the triple image. 

Study of Lqe Sciences 

Better methods were being developed to monitor 

movements of the human heart, and simulated 

spaceflight furthered understanding of cardiovascular 

difficulties of the astronaut in the space environment. 

Physiologists also studied how the body senses the 

speed and motion that cause space motion sickness. In 

still another project, studies of animal vestibular apparatus revealed ionic shifts in fluid in the inner ear 

that may explain astronaut disturbances in 

spaceflight. Results from USSR studies continued to 

supplement U.S. work. 

In 1980, a fully integrated prototype was completed 

of a system to recycle air in a spacecraft cabin, 

regenerating oxygen from carbon dioxide. Selection of 

proposals began for research into recycling wastes to 

regenerate food, air, and water for fully autonomous 

life support away from Earth. 

Life science experiments for Spacelab 1, 2, and 

3-to fly on the Space Shuttle-are in the hardware 

phase, and proposals were studied for Spacelab 4. 

Transportation 

Extensive research, development, and testing continued in 1980 toward new transportation systems and 

improved operations and flexibility of existing systems 

in the United States aeronautics and space programs. 

Space Transportation System 

An integrated approach to travel and exploration in 

space, the Space Transportation System -with its 

reusable earth-to-orbit Space Shuttle -is designed to 

provide efficient, economical, flexible access to space 

for NASA, DoD, and other domestic and international 

users of space. The STS includes the Shuttle’s 

airplanelike orbiter that will carry crew and payload 

into orbit and return for reuse, two solid-fueled rocket 

boosters that fire during ascent and fall away for 

recovery and reuse, and the external tank carrying 

liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen to fuel the orbiter’s 

main engines. The first flight-configuration Space 

Shuttle was on the launch pad for early 1981 launch. 

Its first test flight would be the first U.S. manned 

spaceflight since 1975. 

The European Space Agency is developing 

Spacelab, a variable combination of laboratory and 

instrument platform to fly into orbit in the Shuttle’s 

cargo bay. DoD is developing the inertial upper stage 

to boost payloads beyond the reach of the Shuttle 

alone. And U.S. aerospace industries are developing 

“spinning solid upper stages” to boost smaller payloads 

into geosynchronous orbit. 

Space Shuttle. The first flight orbiter, CoZumbiamated to its rocket boosters and external tank in 

November 1980-was rolled out to the launch pad in 

December, where final testing proceeded toward a 

spring 1981 launch. The orbiter can carry crews of 

four to seven and up to 29 500-kilogram 

payloads -such as the laboratory or satellites to be put 

into orbit. It will return to land on conventional runways much as airplanes do. Follow-on production of 

orbiters Challenger, Discovey, and Atlantis was in 

progress. 

More than 90 000 seconds of testing had 

demonstrated flight readiness of the main engine, actually a cluster of three engines. A major advance in 

propulsion technology, each engine has a rated thrust 

of 2 000 000 newtons (470 000 pounds) and a long 

operating life - the first liquid-fueled rocket engines 

designed for reuse for up to 55 missions. 

The 46.8-meter-long external tank, containing 

more than 700 000 kg of propellants for the main 

engine, is the structural backbone of the Shuttle during launch. Just before entering orbit, the orbiter’s 

main engines cut off and the tank separates from the 

orbiter and falls to break up over a designated remote 

ocean area. The first flight tank was mated to the orbiter and was on the launch pad at the end of 1980; 

the second was in final checkout; and five others were 

being manufactured. Work had begun on a lightweight tank, an improved design to save 2700 kg. 

Four development and three qualification static - firings were completed on the solid-fueled rocket 

boosters, the largest to be flown and the first designed 

for reuse. The first flight boosters were mated with the 

external tank and the orbiter Columbia, to provide 

added thrust during ascent before descending by 

parachute for reuse. 

Ground Facilities. Shuttle flights will be launched 

from Kennedy Space Center in Florida or Vandenberg 

Air Force Base in California, to meet NASA and DoD 

needs. At the end of 1980, all KSC facilities were ready 

for the first launch, and the computerized launch 

processing system had been used extensively for Shuttle testing. Vandenberg was scheduled to be ready for 

operations by June 1984. The mission control center 

and Shuttle mission simulator at Johnson Space Center 

were ready to support the first flight. Seven fullduration integrated simulations had been completed, 

besides shorter runs. 

Planning for Operations. The first few years of 

Shuttle operations had been fully booked by U.S. civil 

and military agencies, domestic and foreign governments, and commercial users for a wide range of space 

activities. Nine additional commercial and foreign 

users in 1980 made payments or deposits on reservations. More than 300 small, self-contained, individual 

payloads had also been confirmed in NASA’s program 

permitting individuals, educational institutions, and 
industries to use the Shuttle on a space-available basis 

at reasonable prices. 

Spacelab. The orbital laboratory being developed 

by the European Space Agency to fit into the Shuttle 

cargo bay will provide access to space for scientists, 

engineers, and commercial users from many nations. 

It will offer a choice of a pressurized shirtsleeve environment for experimenters or a platform (pallet) to 

expose instruments to space. Design life is for 50, 

7-day flights-although Spacelab can remain in orbit 

30 days. The engineering model of Spacelab was 

delivered to KSC in December 1980. Processing and 

testing of the first flight unit and of the instrument 

pointing system for the pallet continued in Germany. 

A second pointing system was authorized for 1983 

delivery. The JSC simulator was ready to train crews in 

1983. 

The first two payloads for Spacelab were integrated 

during 1980. OSTA 1, an applications payload for 

earth resource observations, will be the first to fly on 

the Shuttle. OSS 1, a space science payload, will study 

solar physics, the space environment near the orbiter, 

and thermal control. Development began on three additional missions for solar-array testing, materials experiments, and study of nonrenewable earth resources. 

Spacelab hardware will be verified on its first and second missions, and Spacelab 3 will be the first operational mission. Development of hardware for the first 

two flights neared completion in Europe and the 

United States, and integration was under way. 

Inertial Upper Stage. The DoD-developed, solidpropellant, two-stage IUS - to be deployed from the 

Shuttle orbiter in low earth orbit -will boost DoD and 

NASA payloads primarily into geosynchronous orbits. 

DoD’s development of the IUS is proceeding on a 

schedule for an early 1982 launch from the Titan 

launch vehicle and a late 1982 launch of the Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite from the Space Shuttle, 

Centaur. The Centaur upper stage is being studied 

for potential use with the Space Transportation 

System for planetary and heavier geosynchronous missions beginning in early 1985. Preliminary designs 

show an increase in size of the propellant tanks to add 

50 percent more capacity (Wide-Body Centaur) and to 

make the stage compatible with the Shuttle. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stage. U.S. aerospace industries continued work on two sizes of the SSUS, 

which they are developing at their own expense to 

launch smaller spacecraft from the Shuttle into 

geosynchronous-transfer orbit. SSUS-D is designed for 

satellites now using the Delta expendable launch vehicle, and the SSUS-A for those using the Atlas-Centaur. 

Designs have been completed and qualification begun. 

NASA has ordered the SSUS-A for Intelsat V missions, 

and commercial users are buying the SSUS-D from the 

developer. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles. The United States 

space program totaled 12 successes in 15 launches in 

1980. Two launches orbited multiple payloads, bringing total payloads in orbit to 16, 1 of which -launched 

by NASA for NOAA-failed to reach operational orbit because of a malfunction in the Atlas F launch 

vehicle. In addition, 2 DoD launches failed because of 

malfunction of a Thor and an Atlas E/F. Space 

launches this year used Atlas-Centaur, Atlas E/F, 

Delta, Thor, and Titan IIIB and IIID launch vehicles. 

Research for Spacecraft Improvement 

Research projects in a number of fields advanced 

the usefulness, performance reliability, and cost - 

effectiveness of space vehicles and operations. 

Materials and Structures. During 1980, three new 

materials were adopted for the Shuttle orbiter’s thermal protection system. One material is a gap filler 

with improved high-temperature stability. Another is 

a fibrous, refractory composite insulation with hightemperature resistance, high strength, and low weight. 

The third is a silicon-felt “blanket” for the upper surfaces of the Space Shuttle. 

Experiments confirmed the predicted dynamic 

characteristics of a half-scale model of a deployable, 

36-element, truss structure. Large-space-structure 

concepts for a hoop-column antenna and an electrostatic-membrane antenna were developed during the 

year. 

The National Bureau of Standards was investigating 

two aluminum alloys used in the Space Shuttle to 

determine how variations in processing affect their 

microstructure and physical properties. Study of 

nondestructive evaluation procedures and other 

material parameters has already yielded information 

on physical properties - and thus the safety -of 

specific batches of alloy used in portions of the Shuttle. 

Electronics. A NASA project completed first 

demonstration of autonomous “hand-eye” machine 

coordination required for robotic techniques in space 

assembly, inspection, and repair. The system picked 

up a single-crystal solar cell, inspected it, and placed it 

on a solar array. DoD fabrication of an autonomous 

navigation system for satellites neared completion. 

Space Power. Development of a deep-discharge 

reconditioning technique in 1980 doubled the operational life of nickel-cadmium batteries, and NASA 

achieved the first solar pumping of a laser, which may 

lead to substantial progress in high-power transmission. Data from the Air Force test program’s Scatha 

satellite launched in 1979 are updating preliminary 

models in the joint USAF-Navy-NASA spacecraft - 

charging technology program. DoD also demonstrated 

high-efficiency , radiation-hardened silicon solar cells 

and evaluated long-life, monopropellant thrusters. 

Information Systems. A computer modeling and 

simulation capability that allows end-to-end simulation of NASA data systems became operational in 

1980. Some 20 spacecraft were simulated and their 

critical performance computed. 

9 
Aeronautical Transbortation a submarine torpedo tube but also launchable from 

Military and civilian aeronautical development programs continually seek to improve the nation's operational airborne and airway systems. 

Operational Airborne Systems. In the United States 

national system of aeronautical transportation, DoD 

has responsibility for operational airborne systems. 

BOMBER AIRCR~. Modifications under way to improve U.S. B-52 squadrons include incorporating 

nuclear-hardened digital subsystems into a modemized bombing-navigation system and adding the airlaunched cruise missile (ALCM) with updated 

avionics. The first B-52 flight with the modified 

navigation system was made in September 1980, one 

month ahead of schedule. Tests were to end in 

September 1981, with the first full squadron scheduled 

for alert in December 1982. Congress has directed 

DoD also to develop a new multirole bomber, to be 

operational by 1987. It is to be able to launch cruise 

missiles, carry conventional munitions, and deliver 

nuclear weapons in both tactical and strategic roles. 

TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT. A request for proposals was 

issued to industry in October for the C-X, an aircraft 

that can transport the oversize firepower and support 

equipment of a modem army over intercontinental 

ranges. Full-scale development was programmed for 

the summer of 1981. 

HELICOPTERS. The advanced attack helicopter 

(AAH) was in the final stage of full-scale engineering 

development. All prototype helicopters were modified 

for new target-acquisition designation sights, pilotnight-vision sensors, stabilators, and other changes, 

and operational tests were to begin. The Army was 

assessing effects of the loss of one prototype in a fatal 

collision in flight in November. Full-scale production 

of the CH-47D beginning in 1981 was authorized; the 

entire CH-47 fleet will be modernized to give the Army 

a medium-lift helicopter to serve into the year 2000. 

The first complete unit of 24 helicopters was planned 

for early 1984. 

REMOTELY PILOTED VEHICLE (RPV). The small, 

unmanned, Army air vehicle RPV will perform targetacquisition, aerial-reconnaissance, and artilleryadjustment missions. Full-scale engineering development, begun in 1979, continued into 1980, with first 

flight scheduled for August 1981. 

CRUISE MISSILES. Boeing Aerospace Company's 

AGM-86B air-launched cruise missile was selected for 

production after a 1979 competitive flyoff. Boeing was 

given a fiscal 1980 contract for 225 missiles with an option for 480 more in fiscal 1981, and the Air Force 

planned to buy some 3000 for use on B-52G aircraft 

during the 1980s. First alert capability of one B-52G 

with 12 ALCMs was scheduled for September 1981, 

and the first full squadron by December 1982. 

Development continued on the Tomahawk, a highsubsonic, turbofan, long-range missile to be fired from 

surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground platforms. 

It is being developed in a conventionally armed antiship version and in nuclear and conventionally 

armed land-attack versions. The ground-launched 

cruise missile (GLCM) will integrate the Tomahawk 

into an air-transportable ground-mobile system. The 

first launch of a Tomahawk from an engineering test 

unit was in May 1980, and operational capability was 

planned for 1983. 

Operational Airway Systems. The Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) of the Department of 

Transportation is responsible for the safety of air 

operations on the nation's airways, operation of a common system of air navigation and traffic control for 

civil and military aviation, promotion of aviation 

security, development of an effective national airport 

system, and ensuring to the fullest extent possible compatibility of air operations with the environment. 

Many FAA research, development, and engineering 

programs are conducted with other agencies, including the Department of Commerce, NASA, and 

DoD. 

AIR SAFETY. FAA undertook a number of joint 

aviation safety initiatives during 1980. One was a study 

with the U.S. Army of helicopter icing: another, a 

survey with the Canadian government of helicopter 

certification requirements in IFR operations. In still 

another, FAA, NASA, and DoD worked together on 

the choice of future flight systems. 

The final report of the Special Aviation Fire and Explosion Reduction (SAFER) Advisory Committee examining the factors affecting the ability of aircraft 

cabin occupants to survive after a crash was received 

late in the year. It held that FAA's efforts to develop 

an effective antimisting kerosene (AMK) technology 

could well prove to be the single most significant safety 

action it could take to reduce post-crash tires. It made 

other recommendations on the design of fire-resistant 

fuel tanks and procurement of fire-resistant cabin interior materials. 

FAA's predeparture screening program to deter acts 

of terrorism and sabotage aboard transport aircraft 

was soon to be supplemented by automatic devices to 

detect explosives hidden in lockers, checked baggage, 

cargo holds, and cargo compartments. Development 

and testing of advanced technology x-ray, thermalneutron-activitation, nuclear-magnetic-resonance, 

and electronic-vapor-explosive detection devices was 

pursued during the period. Several of the new 

automatic devices were expected to be operating in 

1981. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. Among new air navigation 

and traffic control systems, the microwave landing 

system (MLS) was accepted by the International Civil 

Aviation Organization in 1978 as the international 

standard. Testing and demonstration of three versions 

continued during 1980, as well as collection of opera10 
tional data for handbooks and flight instruction. The 

discrete-address beacon system (DABS), to become 

FAA’s primary automated tracking system, was nearing the procurement stage at the end of the year. A 

unique-identity code for each transponder-equipped 

aircraft ends overlapping and garbling of replies from 

aircraft flying near each other. The direct-access 

radar channel (DARC), expected to be in commission 

by mid-1981, was developed to take over when computers fail; it will provide controllers automatic information on aircraft identity and altitude. 

Research for Aeronautics Improvement 

NASA and DoD completed some projects, continued others, and began new ones to improve performance, energy efficiency, environmental compatibility, and safety of future civil, military, and generalaviation aircraft. 

Engines. NASA continued to demonstrate fuelconserving and derivative commercial turbofan 

engines while investigating causes of engine performance deterioration. Industry has committed seven 

improved engine components to production. NASA 

also explored the technology base for next-generation, 

high-bypass-ratio, turbofan engines with low fuel consumption, higher performance retention, and reduced 

operating costs. 

Aerodynamics. The joint NASA-USAF flight -test 

program evaluating winglets on a KC-135 tanker aircraft was completed in 1980. Test results substantiated 

a predicted 7.1-percent reduction in cruise drag over 

that of an unmodified KC-135. 

Low-Speed Aircraft. The XV-15 tilt-rotor program 

completed flight-envelope-expansion tests, reaching a 

maximum speed of 555 kilometers per hour, with 

government acceptance of the second aircraft scheduled for 1981. Pilot evaluation of the versatile, 

vertical- or short-takeoff and landing aircraft in the 

joint NASA-Army-Navy program has been favorable 

in all flight modes. 

Structures. NASA made progress toward validating 

structural characteristics and fabrication technology 

of low-weight composite structures for commercial 

transports. FAA certification requirements were completed for composite elevators for the B-727 transport, 

the first composite horizontal stabilizer for the B-737 

was flown in late 1980, and the first full-scale composite aileron for the L-1011 was fabricated. Air Force 

wind-tunnel tests demonstrated that aeroelastic tailoring with advanced composite material can control the 

behavior of a wing under a broad range of flight conditions. And contracts are to be awarded in 1981 to 

develop, fabricate, and test airframe sections and then 

a complete helicopter incorporating advanced structural concepts and composite materials. 

Improvement of Long- and Short-Haul Aircraft. 

NASA research for future long-haul supersonic aircraft focused on aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, 

and propulsion-airframe integration required for a 

cost-effective, environmentally acceptable aircraft. In 

propulsion, engine tests demonstrated near -prediction 

noise benefits for the variable-cycle engine concept. 

Wind-tunnel tests of an axisymmetric, translating, 

centerbody engine inlet provided major improvements 

in advanced analytical processes and computational 

procedures for off-design performance. NASA continued to investigate the oblique-wing concept for lowsupersonic-speed aircraft, using the AD- 1 research 

vehicle. NASA also demonstrated the very low noise of 

its quiet short-haul research aircraft (QSRA). In a 

joint program with the Navy, the QSRA demonstrated 

catapult-free takeoffs and precision, unarrested landings on the Navy carrier Kitty Hawk. 

General Aviation. NASA’s major efforts included 

flight research into the causes of light-aircraft stalls 

and spins, crash survivability by means of aircraft 

energy-absorbing structures and impact load-limiting 

seats, improved fuel efficiency of engines, and increased flight efficiency of aircraft designs. It also 

demonstrated a low-cost, low-maintenance automated 

pilot advisory system (APAS), which improves traffic 

flow and safety at airports that do not require tower 

control. 

Environmental Research. FAA’s High-Altitude 

Pollution Program (HAPP) reported findings that 

large-scale aircraft operations in the stratosphere did 

not reduce atmospheric ozone. An earlier DOT study 

had found that they did. HAPP will continue the study 

to resolve the conflict. 

Space Energy 

Radioactive-isotope-decay energy for satellites and 

interplanetary probes, solar-cell technology, and ways 

to use solar energy in space and on the earth are continuing subjects of research and development. 

Energy for Use in Space 

Radioisotope Generators. The Department of 

Energy’s improved heat-source materials and corn - ponents entered production for a new radioisotope 

thermoelectric generator for NASA’s planned Galileo 

mission to Jupiter. And DOE completed the 

preliminary design for a general-purpose heat -source 

RTG to be used for Galileo and also for the planned 

NASA-ESA International Solar Polar Mission. 

Technology verification continued for the dynamic 

isotope power system for possible use in DoD space 

missions. 

Space Reactor Technology. Development of component technologies and test facilities continued in 

1980 to establish a technology base for a hightemperature, compact, nuclear-electric reactor system 

11 
producing power of 10 to 100 kilowatts. The future 

system is expected to be capable of supplying power 

for a space-based radar spacecraft, electric mail 

systems, advanced television, holographic 

teleconferencing, and other civilian and military uses. 

Energy for Use on Earth 

Satellite Power System. NASA completed an investigation of technology demands and opportunities 

in beaming solar energy from a position in space to 

antennas on the earth, as part of a NASA-DOE study. 

Reports and recommendations were being prepared. 

A research program focusing on critical areas, as well 

as studies of improved concepts, was being considered. 

Solar Thermal Electric Conversion. One of the 

reimbursable programs managed by NASA for DOE 

investigates parabolic reflector systems that concentrate solar energy to produce heat or electricity. 

Several concentrator systems capable of producing up 

to 1 million watts of electric power have been defined 

by studies and technology demonstrations. Testing of 

two experimental parobolic concentrators began during 1980. 

Solar Heating and Cooling. NASA supports DOE in 

demonstrating selected active solar-heating-andcooling systems. During 1980, 55 of 120 installations in 

commercial buildings were completed. The remaining 

sites were scheduled to become operational in 1981. 

Terrestrial Solar-Cell Development. NASA is also 

supporting DOE in the development of low-cost, longlife photovoltaic modules for large-scale terrestrial 

production. In 1980, major advances were made in 

developing production processes for advanced silicon 

material, to reduce the costs of solar-cell power 

systems. 

12 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is responsible for planning, directing, 

and conducting civil research and development in 

space and aeronautics. A number of other federal, 

state, local, and foreign governments share in these activities. The Department of Defense (DoD) conducts 

space activities that are solely military; in aeronautics, 

NASA supports DoD with research and test data. 

NASA's long-standing goals in space have been to 

develop technology to make space operations more ef - fective; to enlarge the range of practical applications 

of space technology and data; and to make scientific 

investigations of the earth and its immediate surroundings, the natural bodies in our solar system, and 

the origins, entities, and physical processes of the 

universe. In aeronautics, the goal has been improving 

aerodynamics, structures, engines, and overall performance of aircraft, to make them more efficient, more 

compatible with the environment, and safer. 

Applications to the Earth 

NASA programs made substantial progress in 1980 

in applying space research and technology to specific 

needs of the nation and the world. Emphasis continued on improving technology for space communications, observing the earth to assess its environment and 

resources, and experimenting in space to acquire new 

knowledge about materials. 

Communications 

The NASA communications program, which was 

largely restructured in 1979, continues to focus on 

relief of orbit and frequency congestion and on maintaining the competitive position of U.S. industry in the 

communications markets of the world. Principal components of the program include advanced research 

and development, public service communications 

development, development and support of U.S. positions in international and national regulatory 

organizations, and data system development. 

Advanced Research and Development. NASAsponsored studies in 1979 predicted that, with present 

technology, satellite communications capacity at the C 

and K, frequency bands will be saturated in the early 

1990s. A preview of the congestion of the geostationary 

arc in the next decade was provided during 1980 when 

competing applications were filed for six different 

locations along the Western Hemisphere segment of 

this arc. Several studies have shown that future growth 

is most readily accommodated by starting operation in 

a new frequency band (Ka, 30 to 20 gigahertz) with 

high -capacity satellites employing new technology. 

During 1980 NASA began studies to develop and 

refine concepts for such future systems and awarded 

12 technology development contracts for major subsystems. The data and hardware from these contracts 

will provide a foundation for designing future advanced communications satellite systems. 

Public Service Communications Development (including Search and Rescue). NASA continues to conduct important public service communications experiments with ATS 1 and ATS 3 satellites. Launched 

in 1966 and 1967, these satellites continue to provide 

highly useful services. 

In the US., A TS 3 is supporting emergency medical 

experiments in conjunction with the Southern 

Regional Medical Consortium (SRMC) in Alabama, 

Louisiana, and Mississippi. Some 25 000 medical 

emergencies occur each day in the United States, nearly 40 percent of them in rural or isolated areas. Major 

experiments include fast response to trauma and cardiac cases among the 60 000 oil-rig workers stationed 

up to 160 kilometers off shore in the Gulf of Mexico, 

and movement of the critically ill who may be up to 

240 kilometers from specialized medical treatment. 

The most recent and dramatic use of ATS 3 was in 

May 1980 in connection with the eruption of Mount 

Saint Helens in Washington. After the eruption, communications for search and rescue operations and 

13 
disaster assessment were critical needs. Local power 

and telephone lines were destroyed or out of service 

and conventional mobile radio equipment in the 

remote and mountainous region was severely limited 

in range. Emergency personnel were unable to communicate with each other. 

The day after the eruption, an Air Force communications jeep equipped to operate with ATS 3 was 

flown to the disaster site. General Electric Company 

provided personnel and an ATS 3 base station in New 

York. This system permitted emergency personnel 

throughout the disaster area to communicate with 

each other and coordinate all emergency activities. 

In the Pacific basin, ATS 1 supplies communications services (disaster relief, medical, and educational 

services) in Fiji, Western Samoa, and many other 

South Pacific islands. When sea waves swept over the 

island Majuro in November and December 1979, leaving 4000 persons homeless, the 13-year-old ATS 1 

satellite was the principal communications channel for 

coordinating relief operations. 

The satellite-aided search and rescue program to 

locate crashed aircraft and ships in distress is projecting start of a first full field test in mid-1982. The host 

NOAA spacecraft will be completed by the United 

States, and the search and rescue subsystems have 

been delivered by the French and Canadian partners 

in the program. Ground stations to process the search 

and rescue signals will be delivered in late 1981. 

International and National Regulatory Organixations. NASA’s technical consultation and support 

(TCS) program played an important role in developing U.S. positions at the 1979 World Administrative 

Radio Conference (WARC). These U.S. initiatives 

resulted in WARC approval of more than 50 frequency allocations for remote sensing and in provisions permitting satellite land-mobile communications in the 

806- to 890-megahertz band. The international decisions led in turn to beginning the U.S. national 

regulatory process implementing them, including 

ratification of the final acts of the WARC and the 

domestic rule-making procedure. The TCS program is 

participating in preparation of the national radio 

regulations and has provided major position papers as 

part of this process. 

During 1980, NASA began technical and regulatory 

support for a possible program to provide a capability 

for multiservice, thin-route, narrow-band services by 

satellite. The postulated system, augmenting terrestrial land-mobile communications in the 806- to 

890-MHz band, could meet many public and privatesector, thin-route, communications needs. 

Data Systems. In 1980 NASA established in-house 

pilot projects at three field centers to support requirements for atmosphere, ocean, and earth 

resources data systems. The pilot projects are serving 

as test beds to develop and evaluate potential data and 

data-system standards; to evolve common system approaches to inventorying, cataloging, and managing 

space applications and related data; and to develop 

transportable data-handling software systems for 

multidisciplinary research. 

When interconnected through commercially 

available network services in 1982, these pilot data 

systems will form the nucleus of an evolutionary Applications Data Service by providing remote electronic 

access to distributed space applications data catalogs 

and data bases. 

Enuzronmental 0 bsewations 

Upper Atmosphere. Progress was made during 1980 

in monitoring and assessing the upper atmosphere. 

One purpose is to understand the chemistry, radiation 

exchange, and dynamics of the atmosphere well 

enough to predict the effect of human activities on this 

region. 

NASA’s present estimate that man-made chlorofloromethanes will reduce total ozone in the ozone 

layer 14 to 18 percent by about the year 2050, is consistent with the 16-percent reduction estimated by the 

National Academy of Sciences. The roles of water, 

nitrogen oxides, and chlorine in ozone formation and 

reduction are now better understood and the importance of other species is being assessed. 

New laboratory and field measurement techniques 

have enhanced understanding of ozone chemistry. 

Two remote-sensing techniques, far-infrared-emission 

spectrometry and laser heterodyne radiometry, have 

been used to measure chlorine oxide and hydrogen 

peroxide, which play vital roles in catalytic ozone 

cycles. 

Global ozone data from a seven-year span are now 

available from the Nimbw 4 backscatter ultraviolet 

(BUV) instrument. Data from Nimbw 7’s scanning 

BUV and total ozone monitoring spectrometer and its 

limb-infrared monitor of the stratosphere are being 

processed. These measurements of temperature, 

ozone, water-vapor, nitric acid, and nitrogen dioxide 

will help determine global and diurnal variability and 

will aid in establishing the effects of the oxides of 

nitrogen on ozone. 

The precision of satellite ozone measurements was 

evaluated during the past year, the United States and 

four other countries making rocketsonde comparisons 

of several sensors used for “ground truth” testing of 

satellite data. The profiles and vertical distribution 

showed good agreement. 

Transport of atmospheric constituents may be 

studied using stratospheric wind fields from 

temperature maps obtained from the Nimbw 6 limbradiance inversion radiometer and Nimbus 7 sensors. 

The maps compare well with those derived from 

rockets and cover much greater space. The analyses 

indicated the variability in winds as determined by 

altitude and latitude. 

14 
The dispersion of the material from the eruption of 

Mount Saint Helens demonstrated the importance of 

wind transport in the stratosphere, as observed by both 

aircraft and the stratospheric aerosol and gas measurement experiment (the Sage satellite launched in 

February 1979). Information on the movement of 

volcanic ash permitted predictions of ash fallout, 

cloud formation, and the effect on atmospheric ozone. 

A Shuttle mission in 1984 will cany the atmospheric 

trace molecules observed by spectroscopy experiment 

(ATMOS), to establish a data base from which to 

measure long-term changes in the stratosphere. During the past year the ATMOS interferometer system 

was successfully tested. 

Studies using dedicated space platforms with supporting ground, aircraft, and balloon investigations 

form the next step in examining the ozone layer. Planning continued on the Upper Atmospheric Research 

Satellites (UARS) program. The program will make 

integrated, comprehensive, long-term measurements 

of the key parameters and will improve ability to 

predict stratospheric perturbations. Tentative 

payloads for the UARS system have been selected, and 

experimental and theoretical investigators have been 

chosen. 

Tropospheric Air Quality. NASA worked with the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to improve 

understanding of pollution events in the lower atmosphere. The two agencies jointly studied persistent 

events of elevated pollution over the Ohio River Valley 

and polluted air movement in the Northeast. 

Three instruments -the high-spectral-resolution 

lidar, the ultraviolet-differential-absorption lidar 

(UV-DIAL) system, and a laser absorption spectrometer-were flown on aircraft to determine mixinglayer height, ozone, and aerosol concentration profiles; aerosol optical properties; and total ozone below 

the aircraft. The UV-DIAL measures the differences 

in light absorbed at different levels in a column of air, 

producing an ozone profile in one measurement. The 

sensor, flown on aircraft, has produced the first 

regional measurements of tropospheric mixing-layer 

heights, essential components of air-pollution 

transport models. 

Global Weather. NASA continued to work with the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) to improve weather forecasts by advances in 

modeling, simulations, and technology for observations. NASA participates in the Global Weather Experiment (GWE), whose goals are to identify 

parameters for an international observing system and 

to define a basis for improving present forecast 

capabilities. 

The year of international observation ended in 

November 1979, with the largest set of atmospheric 

observations yet attempted. Inclusion of satellite data 

to begin numerical weather-prediction models has 

shown dramatic improvement in selected two- to fiveday forecasts. By collecting data over other datasparse areas such as the oceans, satellites can contribute information essential for an accurate weather 

forecast. 

The importance of the tropics’ and Southern 

Hemisphere’s influence on global circulation and 

weather was demonstrated by GWE observations. 

GWE data have shown that intermittent energetic outbursts of air originating in the Southern Hemisphere 

cross the equator and alter the mid-latitude weather in 

the Northern Hemisphere within several days. Observation of the tropical areas appears to be a prerequisite for improvement in the short-term forecast. 

Full weather coverage is now provided by the combination of Tiros-N and Noaa 6. The operational 

meteorological satellites of the Tiros-N series have 

already significantly improved global weather prediction. With its Tiros operational vertical sounder 

system -which consists of an infrared tropospheric 

sounder, an infrared stratospheric sounder, and a 

microwave sounder - the series is providing quantitative observations of the structure of the atmosphere 

with accuracy and reliability superior to any previous 

remote-sensing system. The inclusion of these data in 

numerical forecast models has improved accuracy 

where the conventional radiosonde network does not 

obtain data: over the oceans of the Northern 

Hemisphere and over both oceans and continents of 

the Southern Hemisphere. 

Severe Storms. NASA, working with NOAA, proceeded with a pilot project, the Centralized Storm Information System (CSIS) at the National Severe 

Storms Forecast Center (NSSFC) in Kansas City. 

Reception time for satellite images has been decreased 

from 45 minutes to 6. In about one year, NOAA will 

be able to receive and overlay all available weather 

observations, maps, images, forecasts, and analyses on 

computerized video terminals for quick reaction to 

developments in severe storms. 

Another development is the visible infrared spinscan radiometer (VISSR) atmospheric sounder (VAS) 

launched in September on Goes 4. The instrument 

provides temperature and moisture profiles more frequently than the earlier VISSR, thus improving 

regional and local weather forecasts. 

Oceanic Processes. Satellite observations and their 

derived products continued to provide valuable infor - 

mation for both the scientific oceanographic community and commercial marine industries. Efforts last 

year were directed toward proving the capability to 

measure winds, waves, and surface temperatures from 

remotely sensed oceanic data. 

Instruments on GEOS, Seasat, and Nimbus 7 

satellites have all yielded useful products. The Seasat 

scatterometer has proved its utility by providing quantitative surface-wind-speed measurements, an improvement over inferring surface winds from the motions of cloud patterns. 

15 
The radar altimeter has proved accurate and versatile. New uses for its data are continuously being 

discovered, including the mapping of circulation 

features such as the Gulf Stream and cold core rings 

and the mapping of coastal tides. Ice charting from 

space, which has many commercial applications, has 

been demonstrated with the radar altimeter, 

microwave radiometer, and the synthetic-aperture 

radar. 

Climate. NASA’s role in the National Climate Program is to apply space technology to understand largescale seasonal and interannual climate fluctuations 

with specific focus on the role of the earth’s radiation 

budget. During the past year, NASA was assigned lead 

responsibility for coordinating the program’s principle 

thrust on solar and earth radiation. 

Development of the earth radiation budget experiment (ERBE) is well under way. An experiment 

team-with members from NASA, NOAA, the 

academic community, and several foreign countries -is responsible for software development, data 

validation, ground-truth observations, and initial 

scientific analyses of the ERBE data. Three instrument sets will be launched from 1983 to 1985, two on 

NOAA sun-synchronous satellites and one on a 

dedicated NASA free-flyer. Ground data-processing 

and software development have been under way for 

the past two years. The contractor for the NASA 

spacecraft, to be called ERBS, has been selected. 

The dedicated NASA satellite will also carry the 

halogen occultation experiment (HALOE) to measure 

the upper-atmospheric ratio of hydrogen fluoride, a 

man-made chemical, to hydrogen chloride, a 

chemical that occurs both naturally and as a result of 

human activities. The measurements will help determine the extent of the release into the atmosphere of 

man-made substances that can destroy ozone. 

In addition to monitoring the eruption of Mount 

Saint Helens, the stratospheric aerosol-gas experiment 

satellite Sage observed the Sierra Negra volcanic eruption in the Galapagos Islands in 1979. This explosion 

received little publicity, but Sage found that it had injected 10 times the amount of material into the atmosphere as had La SoufriGre, also observed by Sage. 

In the short run, large volcanic eruptions are believed 

to cause more significant changes in global surface 

temperatures than do increases in carbon dioxide. 

Resource 0 bservations 

Renewable Resources. Research and development 

pertaining to renewable resources has focused on acquiring, processing, analyzing, and using remotely 

sensed data to improve the management of the 

nation’s agriculture, forest, range, land, and water 

resources. 

The Agricultural and Resources Inventory Survey 

through Aerospace Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS) 

completed its first year in 1980 as an interagency effort 

of NASA, USDA, NOAA, DOI, and AID (see Department of Agriculture section). NASA is responsible for 

selected research and development, exploratory and 

pilot testing, and support in areas where it has 

specialized capabilities. It serves as lead agency for two 

of the eight major projects in the six-year program: the 

Supporting Research project and the Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting project. 

The Supporting Research project researches and 

develops improved remote-sensing techniques for crop 

identification and development stage assessment, crop 

area estimation, yield modeling, crop stress assessment, and soil delineation. A major accomplishment 

during 1980 was the development and successful 

testing of an improved technique for estimating the 

area planted in specific crops over a large geographic 

region. Additionally, a method to extend point 

meteorologic-station measurements of precipitation 

and temperature geographically for input to yield 

models was developed, and an inexpensive radiometer 

was developed to obtain improved spectral 

measurements of crops in the field. The technical advances will benefit all of AgRISTARS’ projects, but 

the research tasks are primarily intended to support 

the Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting 

(FCPF) project. 

The FCPF goal is to develop and test aerospace and 

related technology for more reliable crop production 

forecasts in foreign countries, specifically for wheat, 

barley, ,corn, soybean, and rice grown in Canada, 

USSR, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, and India. During 1980, two exploratory experiments were completed: developing, assessing, and integrating corn - 

ponents of a production forecasting system in U.S. 

regions where confirming ground-reference data are 

available. One experiment forecast wheat and barley 

production in the Great Plains; the other, corn and 

soybean production in three corn belt states. Croparea estimates obtained by old and new procedures are 

being compared over a variety of test sites. Accuracy 

assessment techniques are also being developed for 

foreign areas where ground-reference data are not 

available. These preliminary efforts will lead to pilot 

experiments in 1981 to demonstrate techniques emerging from the exploratory experiments in U.S. regions 

similar to the foreign areas of interest. Demonstrated 

technology and results will be evaluated by USDA for 

large-scale-application tests in foreign countries. 

Application pilot tests (APTs) are cooperative projects to develop, test, and transfer remote-sensing 

technology that has validity for research but requires 

further development for operational use. Three APT 

projects completed in 1980 put Landsat digital imageprocessing and information systems into operation in 

the St. Regis Paper Company’s Southern Timberlands 

Division, the Bureau of Land Management Denver 
Service Center, and the Navajo Nation Department of 

Natural Resources. 

Two APTs are continuing into fiscal 1981. The 

first, in cooperation with the California Department of 

Water Resources, tests the use of Landsat data to inventory irrigated lands for water management. The 

second, in cooperation with Cotton, Inc., tests the use 

of Landsat data to measure areas planted in cotton. 

Three APTs were begun during 1980. A project 

with the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental 

Resources will develop and test the use of Landsat data 

for monitoring defoliation of hardwood forests by insects. NASA has begun cooperation with the U.S. 

Geological Survey to develop and test Landsat 

technology for mapping irrigated cropland on western 

acquifers. The third new project is to develop and test 

a geographic information system based on Landsat 

data for the Missouri Farmers’ Association, to provide 

timely information for commodity storage, distribution, and marketing decisions. 

Nonrenewable Resources. Working with representatives from mineral and energy industries, government agencies, and the academic research community, NASA has reoriented the nonrenewable resources 

program. In the past this research program primarily 

emphasized remote-sensing techniques in the visible 

and near-infrared portions of the electromagnetic 

spectrum for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. 

Future emphasis will be on a broader range of techniques and phenomena. 

The Magsat mission, completed in 1980, obtained 

the first global measurements of the earth’s vector 

magnetic field, exceeding mission objectives in volume 

and quality of data collected. A group of domestic 

U.S. and foreign investigators are analyzing the data 

to relate observed variations in the strength and direction of the earth’s magnetic field to internal earth 

processes (such as circulation in the core and convection in the mantle) and to the structure and composition of the earth’s crust. Improved crustal models 

based on analysis of Magsat data are expected to contribute new geological insight into the subsurface 

structure of mineral frontier regions in the arctic, 

Africa, and South America. 

Landsat-D. The Landsat-D program took on new 

tasks and new significance from the decision in 1979 to 

create an operational land-observing system, for which 

NOAA is to have management responsibility. After 

the checkout period, the satellite and ground system 

assets of the Landsat-D program are planned to be 

transferred to NOAA as the core of the initial 

operating capability. 

A new schedule has been developed around the need 

to launch the satellite at the earliest time the instruments and the ground system can be ready. The 

standard multispectral scanner and the new and much 

more capable thematic mapper have made good progress during the year and will be ready for launch in the 

third quarter of 1982, when the new ground facilities 

will be ready to receive and process data. 

The thematic mapper instrument will provide data 

in several additional spectral bands and will have better than twice the resolution of the multispectral scanner, which is the main element of the present experimental capability. Much of the research program 

in both renewable and nonrenewable resources requires data of the quality to be provided by this mapper. After an experimental period, data from the new 

instrument will be available through NOAA to satisfy 

a large number of urgent user requirements. 

Landsat Operations. A major portion of the past 

year’s effort has been devoted to ensuring continuity 

of remotely sensed data for researchers and operational users. Requests for Landsat data during 1980 

again reflected increasing worldwide interest in applying the technology to environmental and resourcemanagement problems. Landsat ground stations in 

India and Australia-began receiving test data in 1979 

and became operational in 1980. Argentina’s station 

was completed early in 1980 and is now receiving test 

data. Thailand has requested construction bids for a 

station. A memorandum of understanding was signed 

with the People’s Republic of China, which is to purchase a Landsat-D ground station from U.S. industry 

under the United States-China understanding of 31 

January 1979. 

A memorandum of understanding with South 

Africa was also signed in 1980, and the station near 

Johannesburg is now receiving test data. Ten Landsat 

receiving stations in nine other countries are active. 

Chile, Kenya, New Zealand, Romania, and Upper 

Volta have expressed interest in receiving capability. 

Requests for coverage from other countries continue at 

a high level. Among users in the United States, the 

largest demand is for agricultural studies, especially 

during the growing season when repetitive coverage in 

nine-day cycles and rapid data delivery offer successful 

crop monitoring and yield prediction. 

Geodynamics 

The goal of the geodynamics program is to advance 

understanding of the solid earth by the application of 

space methods and space technology. The major objectives are to support the national and international 

program of research in geodynamics and to study 

dynamic processes related to the occurrence of earthquakes, thereby supporting the national program in 

earthquake hazard reduction. 

In support of this program, laser ranging to the 

moon and to artificial satellites equipped with cube 

corner retroreflectors, as well as very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) using signals from radio stars, 

measures position and change in position with time to 

accuracies not possible with conventional geodetic 

methods. Information derived from these 

17 
measurements is being analyzed to study tectonic plate 

motion, internal plate deformation, regional crustal 

deformation in tectonically active regions, and polar 

motion and earth rotation. 

During the past year, NASA, NOAA, Geological 

Survey, National Science Foundation, and the Defense 

Mapping Agency concluded geodynamic studies, and 

a Crustal Dynamics Project Office was established at 

Goddard Space Flight Center. VLBI measurements in 

Southern California in late 1979 and early 1980 

detected for the first time an unusually large and rapid 

aseismic crustal movement. Analysis of laser ranging 

data taken regularly since 1972 has established the 

relative contemporary motion between the Pacific and 

North American plates at their boundary along the 

San Andreas Fault in California as between 7 and 11 

centimeters a year. In 1980, initial measurements were 

made of several baselines from the eastern United 

States to VLBI stations in Germany and Sweden. 

Measurements are planned at regular intervals to 

detect the separation of the Eurasion and North 

American plates. In addition, VLBI measurements 

between the East and West Coasts of the U.S. were 

continued. Analysis of four years of observations for 

those baselines has established an upper limit on internal deformation of the North American plate at one 

centimeter a year. The transportable laser ranging station (TLRS), built by the University of Texas at 

Austin, was deployed in California to extend the 

earlier measurements and to begin an intensive program of measuring crustal deformation. 

The International Astronomical Union’s Measurement of Earth Rotation and Intercomparison of 

Techniques (MERIT) program began. Laser and 

VLBI observations obtained by NASA and institutions 

in other countries will be compared with satellite doppler methods and conventional optical star techniques. This effort will eventually lead to a new and 

more accurate global operational system for monitoring polar motion and earth rotation. 

An engineering unit of the satellite-emission, radiointerferometric, earth-surveying (SERIES) receiver 

was completed and tests begun. SERIES uses radio 

signals from the Global Positioning System (GPS) 

satellites and is being developed to demonstrate a new 

technique for accurate geodetic measurements using a 

VLBI mode. In a related effort, studies of an airborne 

laser ranging system were begun. Both systems are 

unique in that they could be deployed rapidly to capture co-seismic and post -seismic motions associated 

with a major earthquake. 

Materials Processing in Space 

Materials processing in space has advanced on all 

projected fronts: science, technology, hardware, 

operations, and plans. NASA has pursued a broad 

research base for the science and technology of 

materials processes, with emphasis on crystal growth, 

solidification, fluids, and containerless studies. The 

fluid-experiments-system, vapor-crystal-growth experimental facility-for use with Spacelab and the 

Space Transportation System for orbital materials 

research and processing applications -progressed 

through critical design review. The space-processing 

applications rocket SPAR made three sounding flights 

carrying a total of 11 experiment payloads. Other 

ground-based experiment facilities, such as drop tubes 

and parabolic-trajectory aircraft, tested solidification 

phenomena and containerless positioning. In program 

planning, NASA added new disciplines and began advanced concept studies in both payload systems and 

future applications. 

To improve plans and develop further approaches 

consistent with the emphasis on advanced groundbased research, NASA has continued to work with its 

advisory committee of distinguished materials scientists. Theoretical work during the past year has identified a new, unstable, fluid dynamics mechanism of 

importance to crystal growth and to solidification 

processes. This mechanism normally prevents the formation of uniform compositions in earth-surface proc - 

esses, especially highly concentrated solid-solution 

crystal growth, when density gradients due to 

temperature and composition are present 

simultaneously. Calculations during the year indicate 

that this unstable behavior can be eliminated in reduced gravity. In other work, the preparation of new 

composite metal structures, from a class of alloy 

systems known as monotectics, is being pursued. In 

particular, new droplet migration phenomena have 

been revealed as significant at low gravity. The 

phenomena occur when there is disturbance of the 

uniform distribution of the second-phase materials 

that are responsible for the desired properties. Also of 

importance to crystal growth is work in floating-zone 

methods, which has developed new approaches to 

characterizing melt surfaces and their motions. These 

results should serve as a basis for developing techniques to inhibit surface-induced convection effects in 

floating-zone processes. 

In containerless processing, extensive research has 

been carried out on a variety of positioning force fields 

and on novel methods to use them to manipulate, 

study, and process materials. Electromagnetic positioning fields have been studied for application to 

nucleation (solidification) behavior of metals, to thermophysical properties of high-melting-temperature 

materials, and to high-coercivity magnetic alloy 

systems. Extensive research has been performed on 

acoustic fields that will permit optimum access to the 

material being processed and yet retain positioning 

stability over a wide range of sample temperatures. 

Possible applications include glass formation (for 

lightwave communications) and glass shell production 

(for power systems using laser fusion). Electrostatic 
positioning and deflection fields permit studies of the 

fundamental oscillation and vibration modes in 

(charged) drops of fluid. 

Of special note is the formation of the Materials 

Processing Center at the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology. The center is devoted to establishing a 

multidisciplinary research base for materials processes 

and will deal with issues such as process dynamics, 

automation, control, and adaptation to constraints on 

energy, economics, and environment, as well as system 

engineering approaches to the management of national materials problems. 

Advanced technology development is necessary in 

every facet of the program. Specific results to date include measurements on transparent models that permit quantitative interpretation of convection in fluids 

during crystal growth. Another example is a quantitative study of wave-guiding phenomena and 

nonlinear streaming effects in acoustic-positioningsystem configurations. Electrophoretic separators, 

used in the purification of biological materials, are 

also being designed for possible use in a zero-g environment, where the absence of convective stirring 

should increase efficiency. 

Technology Transfer 

To assist in making NASA technology available to a 

wide range of users, the technology transfer program 

maintains two-way links with a variety of communities. The users articulate information needs, and 

NASA identifies and transfers applications technology 

to meet these needs. Cooperative projects with the National Conference of State Legislatures and the National Governor’s Association emphasize remote sensing (from the Landsat satellites) for meeting the needs 

of state government. Programs are carried out 

through the applications systems verification and 

transfer program, the regional remote-sensing applications program, and the university applications 

program. 

The primary mechanism for transferring Landsat 

technology to state government users has been the 

regional remote-sensing applications program. NASA 

regional centers at Ames Research Center, National 

Space Technology Laboratories, and Goddard Space 

Flight Center have worked with states to apply Landsat technology to resource management activities. In 

1980,408 agency members had “hands-on” experience 

in Landsat processing and analysis. Joint Landsat applications projects were completed in 13 states, and 

new projects were begun in Arkansas, Illinois, Maine, 

Montana, and Washington. Computer systems and 

software to process Landsat data were installed in state 

agencies or supporting universities in Montana, Iowa, 

Minnesota, Kentucky, Maryland. Through 1980, 

more than 1500 state agency employees have been 

trained in 43 states, joint application projects have 

been conducted in 40 states, and 16 states now have 

the capability for computer processing and analysis of 

Landsat data. 

Similar transfer mechanisms were begun with local 

government organizations in 1980. Through the user 

requirements and awareness program, cooperative 

projects are now under way with the National Association of County Officials and the Southeastern 

Michigan Technical Assistance Program. County officials will provide information to NASA, the administration, and Congress on county interests and 

needs in the same manner that has proved successful in 

projects with state governments. Environmental 

Research Institute of Michigan and local community 

colleges transferred Landsat applications technology 

to users through a network of community colleges. In 

1980, low-cost, interactive computer terminals were 

placed in three community colleges in southeast 

Michigan for short courses on Landsat processing and 

analysis offered to local business and government. The 

project will be completed in 1981. If the concept 

proves successful, the project could be expanded to a 

national network of community colleges. 

Science 

The NASA space science program seeks to understand the origin and evolution of the universe, origin 

and distribution of life in the universe, and dynamic 

processes that shape the earth’s environment. The program also uses space technology and research to advance knowledge in medicine and biology. 

Study of the Sun and Its Effects on Earth 

International Sun-Earth Explorers. Results from the 

ZSEE 3 spacecraft, in a “halo” orbit between the earth 

and sun outside the earth’s magnetosphere since late 

1978, have improved understanding of the solar wind. 

The temperature of solar coronal holes has been 

measured at 3.5 million kelvins using the ratio of 

charge states of atomic oxygen, 0 VI and 0 VII. 

Short-term fluctuations of the ratio of helium-4 to 

helium-3 have been found highly variable. Values as 

high as the 1000-5000 range have been found during 

quiet conditions, in contrast to 2250-2450 measured 

by foil on Apollo missions, but they can fall as low as 

20 when the sun is active. ZSEE 3-with ZSEE 1 and 2, 

which followed a common trajectory traversing the 

bow shock region - has completed the primary mission 

objectives of determining the thickness of the bow 

shock and the changes induced by solar wind fluctuations. 

In addition, ISEE 3 has observed electrons that 

carry energy from the earth’s bow shock toward the 

sun. Although the earth’s magnetic field diverts most 

of the solar wind, some interacts, producing plasma 

19 
waves; some transfers energy inside the magnetosphere; and some is hurled back toward the sun. 

Solar Maximum Mission. The SSM was the most important achievement of 1980 in NASA’s solar and 

heliospheric physics program. The 2300-kilogram 

spacecraft, launched from Kennedy Space Center on a 

Delta rocket 14 February 1980, was placed in the 

desired 570-kilometer-high orbit and has been 

operating well ever since. Its prime objective is to study 

solar flares and other solar activity during the current 

peak of the 11-year sunspot cycle. 

Seven instruments on this spacecraft observe flares 

in wavelengths, or “color,” ranging from visible light 

to the very highest energy gamma rays, which are produced in nuclear reactions that take place in the most 

powerful flares. A flare 7 April 1980 caused a major 

disruption of the corona surrounding the sun. For the 

first time we can now study the flare itself, which occurs below the corona on the surface of the sun, and 

resulting coronal disruption that travels outward into 

interplanetary space toward the earth. Among important Solar Maximum Mission discoveries is that the 

very high energy x-rays emitted in rapid (10-second) 

bursts at the beginning of flares appear to originate in 

pairs of spots within the flare. These spots are the footpoints of loops of the magnetic field that somehow 

creates the energy of flares. The discovery has important implications for the theory of solar flares. 

International Solar Polar Mission. The ISPM, a 

cooperative flight program with the European Space 

Agency to explore for the first time the interplanetary 

space above the poles of the sun, was revised from two 

spacecraft to a one-spacecraft mission, with the launch 

delayed to 1986. Even with the single, European 

spacecraft, the exploratory mission will be of significant scientific value. 

Solar Terrestrial Explorers. Development neared 

completion on two Explorer projects, the Dynamics 

Explorer (DE) and the Solar Mesospheric Explorer 

(SME), scheduled to be launched in 1981. The DE will 

investigate the interaction of the earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere, while the SME will determine 

the effect of solar ultraviolet radiation and certain 

nitrogen and hydrogen compounds on upper atmospheric ozone. Development continued also on the 

San Marco-D missions in a cooperative project with 

Italy, leading to launches in 1981 and 1983. 

Detailed study continued on two future Explorers. 

The two-element Active Magnetospheric Particle 

Tracer Explorer (AMPTE) program, to be started in 

fiscal 1981 with a launch in 1984, is a cooperative program with the Federal Republic of Germany. The 

Germans will provide a spacecraft to release the particles (to become ions); the United States will provide a 

spacecraft carrying diagnostic instruments and the 

launch of both spacecraft. Objectives are to study the 

solar wind at the subsolar point and indentify particleexiting windows, entry mechanisms, energization, and 

transport mechanisms into the magnetosphere. 

The Solar Corona Explorer (SCE) will study the 

rotation and evolution of coronal holes as tracers of 

subsurface magnetic fields. It will also study the origin 

of the solar wind in the inner corona and, if flown in 

the correct time frame, can provide correlative observations of the solar corona for the International Solar 

Polar Mission. Development of the SCE mission was 

expected to begin in fiscal 1984 or 1985. 

Study of the Planets 

The U.S. planetary exploration program obtained 

large quantities of new data during 1980 as an unmanned spacecraft took a closeup look at Saturn and a 

first look at its moons, while other spacecraft continued operations at Mars and Venus. These and other 

planetary data were acquired in a broad range of 

disciplines and will make significant contributions to 

comparative planetology. 

Voyager 1 and 2. These very sophisticated 

spacecraft, launched in 1977, encountered the planet 

Jupiter and its moons in 1979. Extensive information 

was returned, including thousands of pictures of this 

complex planet. Some significant discoveries were a 

belt-zone pattern of east-west winds near Jupiter’s 

poles, anticyclonic motion of material around the 

Great Red Spot, massive lightning bolts and auroral 

emissions in the cloud tops of polar regions, the existence of a planetary ring around Jupiter, the existence of a 5-million-ampere magnetic-flux tube between the planet and its satellite Io, three additional 

Jovian satellites, a well-defined bow shock wave, 

magnetospheric boundaries and tail that are similar to 

Earth’s, and active volcanoes erupting on Io, making it 

only the second body in the solar system known to 

possess such activity. 

At Jupiter, the two Voyagers used the planet’s immense gravity to bend and accelerate their trajectories 

toward the giant ringed planet Saturn. Voyager 1 encountered Saturn on 12 November 1980, one day after 

flying past the unique satellite Titan and discovering 

that its atmosphere is cold, dense, and mainly 

nitrogen, with numerous hydrocarbon compounds. 

Thousands of high-resolution images of the oncemysterious planet and several of its moons were obtained-moons which until then had been observed as 

specks of light. The number of rings was revealed to be 

hundreds -perhaps thousands - and not the halfdozen or so previously observed. Particles were 

measured from dust size to boulder size material. Two 

ringlets were elliptical, and one ring was observed to 

be apparently three braided or intertwined ringlets. 

Three previously unknown satellites were discovered 

and the existence of several others, including two sharing the same orbit, was confirmed. 
Voyager 1 at the end of 1980 was on a course that Research and Analysis 

will take it out of the solar system, while Voyager 2 was 

to reach Saturn in August 1981, after which it will 

begin its journey toward a January 1986 flyby of the 

planet Uranus. 

Viking. A United States spacecraft on Mars continued active almost five years after arrival at that 

planet. At the end of 1980, one Viking lander was still 

returning imaging, meteorology, and radio science 

data. This craft, near the equator, has been programmed to allow periodic interrogations into the year 

1994. Operation of the other lander and the second orbiter ended this year after returning some of the best 

high-resolution pictures to be obtained during the mission and collecting atmospheric and meteorological 

data through the second Martian year of observation. 

A substantial analysis team continues to study the Viking data. 

Pioneer- Venus. Operation of the orbiter passed into 

a third Venusian year and the spacecraft continued to 

provide valuable information about the time-varying 

nature of that planet’s atmosphere. Data were being 

gathered to extend temporal coverage and to provide 

coverage in previously inaccessible areas. PioneerVenus was expected to operate at least until 1986. 

Pioneer 10 and 11. During the year, both spacecraft 

continued on their journeys out of the solar system. 

Pioneer 10 was more than 23 astronomical units (3.4 

billion kilometers) from the sun at the end of 1980 

while Pioneer 11-moving in the opposite direction-was 10 AU (1.5 billion km) from the sun. Both 

continued to return basic information about the 

charged particles and electromagnetic fields of interplanetary space where the sun’s influence is 

diminishing. Pioneer 10 and 11 will be tracked and interrogated for several more years. Thereafter they will 

continue their silent journey, reaching the midway 

point to the nearest star about 40 000 A.D. 

Galileo. Designed to study the Jovian system in great 

detail, Galileo was in the development stage. An orbiter and a probe are to be launched in the mid-1980s 

and to arrive at Jupiter in the late 1980s. The orbiter 

will send back imaging, remote-sensing, and magnetospheric information about the planet and its 

satellites for 20 months, with flybys of the satellites as 

close as 200 km. On arrival at Jupiter, the probe will 

descend into the atmosphere carrying instruments to 

make detailed measurements of its chemical and 

physical properties to a pressure equivalent to 10 Earth 

atmospheres. 

Recent Galileo activity was directed at completing 

the preliminary design. All subsystem preliminary 

design reviews including that of the retropropulsion 

module contributed by the Federal Republic of Germany, were completed for the orbiter spacecraft. Major contracts were renegotiated according to the new 

launch schedule. 

The research and analysis program continued to 

provide the scientific framework for planetary exploration and additional analysis of spacecraft data. It 

also provided direct support for the spacecraft programs, such as the telescopic observations of Saturn in 

the spring of 1980 in preparation for Voyager 1’s flyby 

in November. In the spring, the rings of Saturn appeared edge-on to astronomers on Earth, providing a 

favorable opportunity to find new satellites. Three 

possible new satellites were identified, and Voyager 1 

was subsequently programmed to search for these 

satellites during its passage by the planet. 

An important new element in solar-terrestrial 

physics in 1980 was the initiation of an independent 

theory program that will help integrate theoretical 

understanding of the way the sun affects Earth’s environment. Fourteen groups of solar and plasma 

physicists throughout the country are coordinating 

theoretical modeling of solar-terrestrial relationships, 

using the most recently acquired observational results. 

Discoveries in 1980 included the energization of 

electrons when a low-power argon-plasma gun was 

operated at a height of 220 krn on a rocket launched 

from the Poker Flat Research Range in Alaska. 

Similarly, precipitation of more energetic electrons at 

the edge of an aurora was observed when an energetic 

electron beam was injected from a rocket into the 

ionosphere in the auroral zone. These experiments 

throw further light on natural instabilities, acceleration processes, and production of auroras. 

Studies of the Universe 

The astrophysics program is directed toward a better understanding of the basic laws of governing all 

aspects of the observable universe. A combination of 

the sister sciences of astronomy and physics, the program uses the radiation incident upon Earth from the 

whole range of matter and temperature environments 

in the cosmos to provide a much more comprehensive 

physics laboratory than could be designed on Earth. A 

large part of this radiation cannot effectively penetrate 

the atmosphere; most astrophysical research must be 

conducted in space. 

High Energy Astronomy Obsemtories. The HEAO 

series of spacecraft study the highest detectable energy 

radiation: x-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. Heao 

1, launched in 1977 and reentering Earth’s atmosphere in 1979, surveyed the sky over the whole 

x-ray energy range. It cataloged more than 1000 x-ray 

emitting objects, ranging from nearby stars to distant 

quasars. The initial data analysis discovered several 

new kinds of sources, including stellar systems that are 

some 1000 times more flare-active than the sun, and 

“cataclysmic variables” exhibiting intense short-term 

increases that are probably triggered by nuclear reac21 
tions on the surfaces of “white-dwarf“ stars. The 

continuing detailed data analysis has been highly productive as well. For example, the new detection in the 

data in 1980 of a “superbubble” in the constellation 

Cygnus with a radius of thousands of light-years, is 

testament to the occurrence of hundreds of supernovae 

in that portion of our galaxy during the past few 

million years. 

The second HEAO spacecraft, launched in 

November 1978, continued to provide excellent data 

with the first true imaging stellar x-ray telescope. The 

sensitivity increase is so great that virtually all types of 

stars in our galaxy can now be observed in the x-ray 

band, and the number of quasars detected as x-ray 

emitters has increased from the 3 that could be 

detected with Heao 1 to well over 100. The guest investigator program has included the participation of 

hundreds of scientists from all over the world and has 

elevated x-ray astronomy to an experimental science 

equal in stature to optical and radio astronomy. 

During the past year, the study of exploding stars 

called supernovae continued to be particularly interesting. Long considered the source of a variety of 

otherwise inexplicable puzzles nature has presented to 

us, supernovae refused to conform to expectations. 

Neutron stars were not detected as expected in remnants of many supernova explosions, for example. 

And new Heao 2 data indicated that the characteristic 

spectral radiation does not exhibit iron in overabundance, relative to lower atomic-number elements, as 

was expected from the best current theory. Nobody is 

ready to give up the idea that supernovae are the 

origin of both neutron stars and heavy elements via 

nucleosynthesis, but nuclear physics theory must 

ultimately conform to the new and unexpected Heao 2 

data. This is another example of the impact of 

astrophysical observations on fundamental physical 

theory. 

The attack on understanding supernovae has been 

continued by Heao 3, launched in September 1979. 

Devoted to cosmic-ray and low-energy gamma-ray 

astrophysics, the two cosmic-ray instruments are 

measuring much more precisely the quantities of the 

very-high-energy atomic nuclei that thread our 

galaxy. In several respects, the results appear inconsistent with the theoretical models, which had the atomic 

nuclei synthesized and accelerated in supernovae explosions. For example, rapid nucleosynthesis should 

produce uranium, but there is none. Nor does the differential composition of intermediate atomic-number 

species, zinc through zirconium, fit any of the popular 

nucleosynthesis models. Further, the relative paucity 

of cobalt in comparison with iron and nickel suggests 

that at least three years must have elapsed between the 

creation of these isotopes and their acceleration to 

cosmic-ray energies. Most investigators tend to agree 

that rejection of the supernova origin hypothesis would 

be overreaction to these new data. What probably will 

emerge is a modification of the nucleosynthesis and acceleration models to conform to what supernovae do in 

nature, rather than to what was predicted in computer 

simulations on the basis of lower quality data. 

The gamma-ray astronomy experiment on board 

Heao 3 has pioneered the observation of true nuclear 

gamma-ray line radiation, which we expect to be a 

prime objective of the Gamma Ray Observatory program. The observation of 2.2-megavolt line radiation 

from the formation of heavy hydrogen (deuterium) in 

a solar flare is one example of this new capability, as is 

the measurement of annihilation radiation from the 

center of the Milky Way. The latter radiation, 

representing the destruction of antimatter positrons in 

collision with electrons, has interesting implications as 

to how such antimatter can be produced and confined 

in the nucleus of our galaxy. These measurements indicate the great potential for discovery which the increased sensitivity of the Gamma Ray Observatory will 

provide. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. GRO, planned for 

launch by the Space Shuttle in the late 1980s, will extend the view of the universe into the highest energy 

reaches of the electromagnetic spectrum. It will permit a penetrating look at the nuclear process in the 

vicinity of neutron stars and black holes and will 

facilitate investigation into the formation of elements 

in supernovae, origin of gamma-ray bursts, and detailed physical nature of the recently discovered 

gamma-ray sources. GRO has been defined in detail, 

and definition studies on five scientific instruments 

continued during 1980. Experiment confirmation was 

planned for March 1981 following a comprehensive 

review of experiment cost and status. 

Space Telescope. Critical design reviews of all subsystems of the optical telescope assembly for the Space 

Telescope were completed during 1980. The metering 

truss, a graphite epoxy structure that supports the 

secondary mirror, was assembled, and fabrication of 

the other major elements was begun. The backup 

primary mirror, the second of two 2.4-meter primary 

mirror blanks, was polished to the desired figure. The 

first primary mirror blank was expected to be polished 

and ready for coating early in 1981. 

Design of four of the five scientific instruments was 

completed in 1980, and they were in fabrication and 

assembly. The fifth instrument, the wide-field 

planetary camera, required major redesign to reduce 

its weight and will be ready for critical design review in 

July 1981. However, Space Telescope development was 

rephased to remain within budgeted fiscal 1980 and 

1981 funds. 

Design and critical design reviews of the support 

systems module were to be completed in March 1982. 

Contracts with the major subcontractors were 

negotiated, and most of this effort was in fabrication 

and assembly. Pointing-and-control engineeringmodel verification testing was completed in October 

22 
1980. Detailed design of the solar arrays was also completed. The European Space Agency, which is providing the solar arrays, was to complete the critical 

design reviews of the arrays early in 1981. 

The contract for development of the hardware and 

software for the Space Telescope payload operations 

control center was awarded to Ford Aerospace and 

Communications Corporation. The request for proposals for the science operations ground system was 

released in December 1980. The Association of 

Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) was 

selected for negotiation of a contract to operate the ST 

Science Institute, which will be at Johns Hopkins 

University and will conduct the integrated science program, including selection and support of telescope 

observers, science planning and scheduling, and data 

analysis. 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (OA 0). OA 0 

3, also named Copenticus, operated successfully for 

more than eight years after its launch in 1972. 

Although designed for only one year in orbit, the 

satellite and experiment have operated flawlessly and 

returned important scientific data over a longer period 

than any other astrophysics satellite ever launched. 

Because of recent degradation in the experiment’s 

detection system (due to high levels of solar activity) 

science operations were ended 31 December 1980. 

OA 0 3’s pioneering work includes the discoveries of 

clumpy structures and shocked million-degree gas in 

the interstellar medium, as well as the first satellite 

measurements of the ultraviolet spectra of the 

chromospheres and coronas of stars other than the 

sun. 

International Ultraviolet Explorer (ZUE). In 1980, 

ZUE observations confirmed the discovery of a hot halo 

of gas surrounding the Milky Way. Such haloes have 

also been discovered around our two nearest neighbor - 

ing galaxies, the Magellanic Clouds. These results 

seem to indicate that such galactic haloes may be 

ubiquitous. New data from ZUE also verified expectations that space between isolated galaxies is highly 

transparent and contributes very little to the total mass 

of the universe. ZUE continued to make important 

contributions to knowledge of stars and solar system 

objects. Extensive observation of active binary stars 

demonstrated that stellar magnetic fields and rotation 

probably combine to cause the tremendous levels of 

solarlike activity we detect in many classes of such 

stellar systems. Closer to home, ZUE provided the first 

detailed studies of comets throughout their active cycle 

in the inner solar system, providing important new 

clues to their internal composition. 

Other Astrophysics Explorers. Development was 

nearing completion for the cosmic-ray isotope experiment (CRIE) that will be launched on a Department 

of Defense satellite. The CRIE mission will measure 

the isotopes of energetic solar and cosmic ray particles. 

Development was also continuing on the Infrared 

Astronomical Satellite ZRAS, the first spacecraft 

designed to study the cold infrared universe. This 

cooperative project with The Netherlands and United 

Kingdom was scheduled to place a “first-of-its-kind” 

cryogenically cooled telescope system in orbit in 1982. 

The primary mission is to produce an unbiased all-sky 

survey of discrete sources to identify the location and 

variety of objects radiating in the infrared. The 

telescope system, being furnished by the United States, 

is managed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Ames 

Research Center. Most of the telescope hardware had 

been completed, and assembly of the telescope was in 

process. After a final system test, the telescope system 

will be shipped to The Netherlands for integration 

with the Dutch spacecraft. 

Detailed study continued on four future Explorers. 

Work on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 

which will measure the residual three-kelvin 

background radiation believed to be a remnant of the 

“Big Bang” origin of the universe, was planned to start 

early in fiscal 1982, with a probable flight in 1986. 

The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) was also 

planned for a fiscal 1982 start. This mission will open 

up an unexplored portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, observing very hot objects such as white dwarfs. 

The X-ray Timing Explorer (XTE), which will make 

high-time-resolution studies of transient x-ray sources, 

is a possible cooperative program with The 

Netherlands. It would be the third in a series of 

cooperative U.S. -Netherlands projects, preceded by 

the ANS flown in 1974 and ZRAS, still under development. The Gravity Probe-B (GP-B) is an experiment 

to test Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity by 

measuring the precession of ultraprecise gyroscopes in 

orbit caused by the presence of a rotating Earth. In July 1980, a technology review committee concluded 

that the required technology was available and recommended that definition studies be started. 

Suborbital Programs. The NASA suborbital program flies instruments on aircraft, balloons, and sounding rockets to make investigations ranging from terrestrial research to astrophysical observations of 

cosmological significance. These investigations not only provide scientific data unobtainable any other way, 

but significantly contribute to the development of instruments, techniques, and technology to be used in 

future activities, such as Spacelab investigations. 

In 1980, a wide-field ultraviolet-imaging telescope 

that will also fly on Spacelab was launched on a sounding rocket and obtained the first wide-field images in 

the UV of M31, the nearest spiral galaxy. This instrument will eventually add significantly to Space 

Telescope observations. NASA also launched the first 

operational flight of the highest performance sounding rocket to date. The 895-kg payload was lofted to 

almost 370 km. The scientific instrument, a grazing23 
incidence Wolter x-ray telescope, will be upgraded for 

following flights and will eventually fly on the Shuttle 

or on a space platform. 

A balloon-borne instrument made the first detection of an intrinsic, large-scale anistropy of the 

universe, which suggests that the universe was more 

clumpy at a far earlier time after the “Big Bang” than 

previously thought. In addition, a balloon-borne 

telescope provided evidence for large-scale starforming areas in the inner region of our galaxy and 

along its plane. 

Lqe Sciences 

NASA’s life sciences program conducts research, 

development, and operations to maintain the health 

and performance of astronauts, to use space as a 

laboratory to advance knowledge of biology, to support life in spaceflight, and to understand the origin 

and evolution of life in the universe. 

Medical Flight Operations. Maintaining the health 

and safety of Space Shuttle crew members continued 

to be of prime concern in preparing for Space 

Transportation System operations. Anti-g suits have 

been developed to counter any adverse effects of 

returning crew members to the earth’s gravity, when 

the flow of blood to the head is diminished. A comprehensive drug-screening program selected motion 

sickness medications with the fewest side effects for 

men and women; a procedure that permits the drug to 

be absorbed through the skin appeared promising. 

Physiological and biomedical changes resulting from 

repeated and frequent STS missions will be 

systematically documented. 

Biomedical Research. Biomedical research focused 

on medical problems expected to be of concern to STS 

users. Investigators, aware that the body loses part of 

its blood volume in response to the space environment, 

are using simulated spaceflight to find out more about 

how the human body controls this volume. Understanding the process is expected to lead to more effective ways of preventing cardiovascular difficulties in 

astronauts, either in space or on return to the earth. 

Better methods are being developed to monitor the 

movements of the heart and to predict the effects of injury to such structures as the coronary blood vessels. 

Motion sickness has been tackled not only by a 

search for effective drugs but also by trying to understand how the body senses the speed and direction of 

its movements and how it accommodates to 

weightlessness. Physiologists studying the complicated 

neural networks that process this information are 

learning how the system malfunctions and how 

malfunctions can be corrected. 

Under exchange agreements, the findings of U.S. 

investigators concerning these and other problems are 

being supplemented by results from extensive work in 

the USSR space program. 

Space Biology. Gravity has a major influence on the 

growth and physiology of higher plants. Recent 

research indicates that the same gravity-sensing 

mechanism is present in many responses in several 

species of plants. Other forms of mechanical 

stress - including vibration, movement, and tactile 

stimulation -alter plants’ response to gravity through 

this common mechanism. Light and gravity control 

plant growth through a common calcium-dependent, 

biochemical reaction. This research should lead to 

methods of cultivating plants in a gravity-free environment. 

Studies of the structure and function of the animal 

vestibular apparatus have revealed that the otoconial 

crystals within the inner ear are not inert, but rather a 

dynamic composite of calcite and organic material. 

The calcium content is dependent on the ionic composition of the inner -ear fluid. Ionic shifts in the fluid, 

with resultant widespread effects including changes in 

the calcium content of the otoconial crystals, could be 

a reasonable explanation for the vestibular disturbances experienced by astronauts during the first few 

days of spaceflight. 

Biological Systems Research. In 1980, research into 

systems to maintain life in space included completion 

of a fully integrated prototype of a system to recycle air 

in a spacecraft cabin, regenerating oxygen from carbon dioxide, removing contaminants, and adjusting 

the oxygen-nitrogen balance. In addition, selection 

was begun of proposals for longer range research into 

recycling wastes to regenerate food as well as air and 

water, to achieve fully autonomous life support for 

missions that may have to be independent of supplies 

from the earth. 

Preliminary studies were begun for research on the 

global biosphere as an integrated biological system. 

Modem instrumentation and observing technology 

have begun to make it possible to construct working 

descriptive theories of large-scale biophysical processes 

in the normal and perturbed biosphere. Workshops 

and studies are developing approaches to analysis of 

large-scale natural phenomena, to formulate predictive models of the fundamental controlling processes. 

While these studies will be pursued as a program in 

basic science, results are expected to be of value to 

problem-oriented environmental research. 

Exobiology. Understanding how the origin and 

evolution of life were affected by the origin and evolution of the solar system itself is a prime objective of the 

exobiology program, which seeks to delineate the 

nature and distribution of life throughout the 

universe. Exciting recent discoveries propose a 

mechanism for the origin of the genetic code, the fundamental process by which every life form transmits 

information to succeeding generations. The new 

system is simple, requires few components, and these 

are readily synthesized in systems that mimic the 

chemical and environmental conditions of the 

24 
primitive earth. Other experiments demonstrated for 

the first time that simple polymers approaching 

biological size are synthesized nonbiologically in the 

presence of simple catalysts that are expected to be 

present on primitive, evolving planets. These and 

related studies support the concept that essential life 

processes might originate as a result of planetary 

evolution rather than as a chance or rare occurrence. 

This concept, in turn, strengthens the argument that 

similar processes may have occurred on other planets 

around other stars, and provides a conceptual 

framework for the development of a program to search 

for life beyond our solar system. 

Flight Program. Life sciences experiments for 

Spacelab 1, 2, and 3 were in the hardware phase. In 

1980, 90 proposals for experiments selected in October 

1979 underwent definition studies; in the spring of 

1981, some 30 were to be selected as candidates for the 

first dedicated life sciences Spacelab mission, planned 

for Spacelab 4. 

Spacela b Payloads 

The NASA Spacelab program plans missions to be 

flown on the Shuttle in support of most space science 

and application disciplines. During 1980, the first two 

payloads using Spacelab hardware were integrated. 

OSTA 1, the first payload for the Shuttle, is an applications payload emphasizing earth resourses observations. OSS 1, a space science payload, is to study 

solar physics, space environment, and thermal control 

techniques. Development work has begun on OAST 1, 

a technology payload to test the solar array of the solar 

electric propulsion system (SEPS) and solar cell 

calibration; OSTA 2, for materials processing experiments; and OSTA 3, for nonrenewable earth 

resources study. 

Two basic Spacelab configurations, module and 

pallet, are to be verified on Spacelab missions 1 and 2. 

Development of hardware for mission 1 neared completion, and the European Space Agency began integration of its half of the payload. Integration of the 

NASA half was to begin and development of software 

to be completed in 1981. Several European and Asian 

nations are planning instruments for Spacelab missions. 

Space Transportation 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle will be the first reusable earth-toorbit vehicle, meeting the needs of NASA, DoD, and 

other domestic and international users of space. It will 

provide efficient, economical access to space and will 

enhance the flexibility and production of space missions, producing savings in the cost of space operations 

that cannot be achieved with today's expendable 

launch vehicle systems. 

All major system elements in the Shuttle development program were proceeding in test and manufacture at the end of 1980 and major ground-test programs neared completion. The first flight -configuration Space Shuttle stood on the launch pad. Additional testing of the vehicle was under way; qualification testing of flight -configured elements continued 

toward a spring 1981 launch. 

Orbiter. The orbiter vehicle will carry a crew of two 

(with provisions to carry up to seven) and payloads to 

orbit. It will remain in orbit, usually for seven days, 

and will return to the earth with its personnel and 

payloads. It will carry up to 29 500 kilograms in its 

4.6- by 18.3-meter payload bay. Landings will be 

made on a conventional runway in a manner similar to 

airplane landings. 

Structual elements of the orbiter, primarily of 

aluminum, consist of the forward fuselage containing 

the crew module, the mid-fuselage, the aft fuselage including the engine thrust structure, the wing, and the 

vertical tail. The exterior is covered with materials 

that protect the spacecraft from solar radiation and 

the extreme heat of atmospheric reentry. 

Orbiter crew and passengers will occupy a two-level 

cabin within the crew module at the forward end of 

the vehicle. The upper section, or the flight deck, contains the controls and displays used to control and 

monitor orbital maneuvering, atmospheric entry, and 

landing phases of the mission and to control the mission payloads. Crew seating for up to four is on this 

level. Seating for three passengers or scientists and the 

habitability provisions are on the lower level. 

The first flight orbiter, Columbia was in final processing at Kennedy Space Center in December, with the 

first Space Shuttle launch scheduled for the spring of 

1981. The orbiter was mated with the solid-fueled 

rocket boosters (SRBs) and external tank (ET) in 

November 1980 and rolled out to the launch pad 29 

December. The final flight hardware had been 

delivered and was being used for vehicle checkout. 

Hardware and thermal protection system certifications 

were nearly complete. 

Main Engine. Three high-pressure hydrogenoxygen engines, each with a rated thrust of 2 000 000 

newtons (470 000 pounds) are in the orbiter's aft 

fuselage. This engine cluster is a major advance in 

propulsion technology. The very-high-performance 

engine has a long operating life and ability to throttle 

the thrust over a wide range. 

Among the key components of each engine are its 

four turbopumps (two low- and two high-pressure), 

two preburners, the main injector, the main combustion chamber, the nozzle, and the hot-gas manifold. 

The manifold is the structural backbone of the engine. 

It supports the two preburners, the high-pressure 

25 
pumps, the main injector, the pneumatic control 

assembly, and the main combustion chamber with the 

nozzle. 

The Space Shuttle main engine is the first rocket 

engine to use a built-in electronic digital controller. 

The controller will accept commands from the orbiter 

for engine start, shutdown, and change in throttle setting and also will monitor engine operation. In the 

event of a failure the controller will automatically correct the problem or shut down the engine safely. 

The original goal of achieving 80 000 seconds of 

engine test time before the first orbital flight, STS-1, 

was surpassed. More than 90 000 seconds of testing 

had demonstrated readiness of the highly advanced 

engine for the first Space Shuttle launch. 

External Tank. The external tank has a dual role in 

the Shuttle program: to contain and deliver propellants -liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen - to the 

engines and to serve as the structural backbone of the 

Shuttle during launch operations. The tank actually 

consists of two tanks, a large hydrogen tank and a 

smaller oxygen tank, joined to form one large 

propellant-storage container, 46.8 meters long and 8.4 

meters in diameter. 

Outer surfaces are protected by superlight ablator 

(SLA-561) and foam insulation sprayed on the forward part of the oxygen tank, the intertank, and the 

sides of the hydrogen tank. The insulation will reduce 

ice or frost formation during launch preparation, protecting the orbiter from free-falling ice during flight; 

minimize heat leaks into the tank and avoid excessive 

boiling of the liquid propellants; and prevent liquification and solidification of the air next to the 

tank. 

The external tank contains more than 700 000 

kilograms of propellant for the main engines. Just 

before orbital insertion, the main engines will cut off 

and the tank will separate from the orbiter, descend 

through a ballistic trajectory, and break up over a 

predesignated remote ocean area. At the end of 1980, 

the first flight tank had been mated to the solid rocket 

boosters and the orbiter vehicle for the first Space 

Shuttle launch. The second flight tank was in final 

checkout before delivery to KSC. Five other tanks were 

in various stages of manufacture. Work had begun on 

the first lightweight tank for operational flights, an 

improved design that will save some 2700 kilograms. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The solid-fueled rocket 

booster is made up of six subsystems: the rocket motor, 

structures, thrust vector control, separation, recovery, 

and electrical and instrumentation subsystems. The 

overall length of the booster is 45.5 meters and the 

diameter 3.7 meters. The heart of each booster is the 

motor, the largest solid-fueled rocket motor ever flown 

and the first designed for reuse. It is made up of 11 

segments joined to make 4 loading segments, which 

are filled with propellant at the manufacturer’s site. 

The segmented design facilitates fabrication, 

handling, and transportation. The exhaust nozzle in 

the aft segment of each motor, in conjunction with the 

orbiter engines, will steer the Space Shuttle during the 

powered phase of launch. 

Two solid rocket boosters, attached to the external 

tank, will burn in parallel with the main engines to 

provide thrust during ascent. At completion of burn, 

the boosters will separate, descend by parachutes, and 

land in the ocean 280 kilometers downrange, to be 

recovered for refurbishment and reuse. 

By the end of December, four development and 

three qualification static-firings had been completed. 

The rocket segments, structural components, and 

other components for the first flight boosters had been 

delivered, assembled, and mated with the external 

tank and orbiter at KSC. 

Launch and Landing. Space Shuttle flights will be 

launched from two sites, Kennedy Space Center in 

Florida and Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. 

The sites were selected to meet NASA, DoD, and commercial needs for projected payloads. 

In December, all facilities at KSC were complete 

and in place for the first launch. The computerized 

launch processing system had been used extensively for 

Shuttle testing and facility activation. The highenergy fuel systems had been checked out. All Shuttle 

elements (orbiter, external tank, and solid rocket 

boosters) were assembled in the Vehicle Assembly 

Building, and the integrated test was completed. 

Flight Test Support. The mission control center and 

Shuttle mission simulator facilities at Johnson Space 

Center were ready to support the first Space Shuttle 

flight. The flight crew and ground flight controllers 

had used these facilities extensively for training and 

procedure development and verification. Seven fullduration (54-hour) integrated simulations had been 

successfully conducted, with numerous individual 

phase (ascent, orbit, entry, and landing) runs completed. The mission flight rules and launch-commit 

criteria had been completed. Increasing effort was 

being devoted to mission design and flight-test planning of the second, third, and fourth flights. 

Follow- On Production. Follow-on orbiter production activities were in progress, leading to the currently 

approved four-orbiter fleet for national Space 

Transportation System needs in the future. The structural test article, which had completed its development test use, was being modified to a flightconfigured orbiter, the Challenger. Secondary and 

primary structural installations were under way, and 

thermal protection installations had begun, for vehicle 

delivery in June 1982. Detailed parts manufacturing 

and long-lead procurement for orbiter 103, Discovery, 

were under way. This vehicle is scheduled for delivery 

in September 1983. Orbiter 104, Atlantis, is to be 

delivered in December 1984; long-lead procurement 

of material was under way for that vehicle. 
In the main engine program, production of fullpower-level (FPL) engines for development and certification testing for flight use will continue. The first 

FPL engine (engine 2008) was delivered to NASA’s 

National Space Technology Laboratories in August 

1980, to be used for development and certification 

testing. 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). The Department of 

Defense is designing and developing the two-stage IUS 

system to extend the reach of the Space Shuttle into 

orbits beyond the capability of the Shuttle alone. The 

solid-propellant IUS and its payload will be deployed 

from the orbiter in low earth orbit; the IUS will then 

be ignited to boost its payload to a higher energy orbit. 

NASA and DoD will use the IUS primarily to achieve 

geosynchronous orbit. Full-scale development continued, with NASA coordinating non-DoD requirements into the DoD IUS program to ensure its 

utility for NASA and commercial applications. The 

IUS hardware development was proceeding on a 

schedule for an early 1982 launch on the Titan launch 

vehicle and a late 1982 launch of the Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite from the Space Shuttle. 

Centaur. The Centaur upper stage is being studied 

for use with the STS for planetary and heavier geosynchronous mission applications scheduled to begin in 

early 1985. The proposed modifications will be 

primarily to increase the size of the propellant tanks to 

add about 50 percent more propellant capacity (Wide 

Body Centaur) and to make the stage compatible with 

the Shuttle. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stage (SSUS). Two sizes of 

SSUSs are being developed by U.S. aerospace industries, at their own expense, for launch of smaller 

spacecraft into geosynchronous-transfer orbit. SSUS-D 

is configured for satellites that have been using the 

Delta expendable launch vehicle, and SSUS-A for 

those using the Atlas-Centaur. SSUS designs have been 

completed and the qualification program begun. Production was proceeding, with most flight hardware 

manufactured and ready for assembly. NASA has 

ordered the SSUS-A for Comsat Corporation’s 

Intelsat V communications satellite missions. Commercial users are buying the SSUS-D directly from the 

developer. The first flight of the SSUS-D on the Delta 

launched the SBS spacecraft in November 1980. 

Advanced Programs 

Investigations continued during 1980 into concepts 

to improve the utility, flexibility, and effectiveness of 

the Space Transportation System, with special emphasis on the Space Shuttle orbiter. Studies and 

premission development of critical subsystems were 

conducted for the power extension package, which is 

to provide additional electrical power through a solar 

array deployed by the orbiter’s remote manipulator. 

Definition studies for a Space Platform, formerly 

called Power Utilization Platform, to support science, 

applications, and commercial experiments began in 

June 1980, to be concluded in December 1981. The 

platform is a Shuttle-tended, free-flying platform 

designed for indefinite life with servicing from the 

Shuttle. A multipurpose facility, it will provide support (electrical power, stabilization, communications, 

etc.) to a series of payloads that will be transported to 

and from the platform by the Shuttle and operated for 

varying lengths of time. 

Preliminary in-house studies of manned space plat - 

forms were completed, and industry studies of a 

manned Space Operations Center (SOC) awarded. 

Alternative definition studies of a solar electric propulsion system (SEPS) were also contracted with industry and completed. 

Studies of orbital transfer vehicle (OTV) concepts 

by two vehicle contractors and three engine contractors were continued. The OTV, to be defined by these 

efforts, is to be a reusable vehicle to transport Space 

Shuttle payloads to and from high earth orbits, and on 

solar system exploration missions. 

Operation of the Space Transportation System 

An operational Space Transportation System in 

1982 will make possible a greatly expanded range of 

space activities. Many users -civilian and military 

components of the U.S. government, as well as 

domestic and foreign customers, both governmental 

and private - have already made firm commitments to 

the system. They will be able to place a wide variety of 

payloads and experiments in earth orbit. Payloads can 

be refurbished in orbit or returned to the earth for 

repair and relaunch; space laboratories can be 

launched, operated, and returned to the earth for examination; scientists can fly along to operate their experiments; geosynchronous or planetary missions will 

be possible with the aid of supplemental upper stages. 

Policies and Procedures. Policies on user charges 

during the early years of operations have been published in the Federal Register, describing the price 

structure and stipulating other conditions under which 

NASA will furnish launch services and flight hardware 

to government and commercial users. A reimbursement guide describing kinds and costs of standard and 

optional services was published in 1980. 

Following extensive negotiations during the past 

year, nine commercial and foreign users -including 

Comsat, Western Union, RCA, Telesat Canada, and 

the governments of India, Indonesia, and the Federal 

Republic of Germany-made payments or deposits on 

STS flight reservations. With NASA’s own payloads 

and firm commitments for DoD and other U.S. 

government agencies, the first few years of STS operations are fully scheduled. 

NASA began a program to provide for small, selfcontained payloads in 1977. Individuals, educational 

institutions, and industries can fly small payloads, requiring minimal support from the Shuttle, on a space27 
available basis at very reasonable prices. Both in the 

United States and abroad, this program has been successful in attracting new users; by the end of 1980, advance payments had been received for more than 300 

individual payloads, with a wide variety of ideas and 

experiments. The response from educational institutions indicated renewed interest from young people in 

space research and exploration. Several universities 

were offering science scholarships or grants for 

students to develop payloads. 

The Department of Defense continued to develop its 

launch and recovery facilities at Vandenberg AFB for 

high-inclination missions. Maximum commonality of 

ground equipment at Kennedy Space Center and 

Vandenberg was reducing both acquisition and 

operating costs. 

Spacela b 

Spacelab is an orbital laboratory being designed 

and developed by the European Space Agency to be 

carried in the cargo bay of the Shuttle. It will provide 

access to space for a variety of experimenters from 

many nations and in fields such as materials science, 

space processing, biology and medicine, meteorology, 

communication and navigation, and space 

technology. 

Spacelab offers experimenters two options, a 

pressurized shirtsleeve laboratory (the module) and an 

unpressurized platform exposed to the space environment (the pallet). It also offers standardized support 

services. A normal mission will last 7 days, although it 

can remain in orbit for up to 30 days. Design life expectancy is 50 flights of 7-day duration over a 10-year 

period. As many as four payload specialists can 

operate the experiments aboard the laboratory. 

Payload weights will range from 4800 to 8800 

kilograms. 

In 1973, the European Space Agency and NASA 

agreed that ESA would design, develop, and manufacture the first Spacelab flight unit and an engineering 

model, two sets of ground support equipment, and 

initial spares to support the first two missions. ESA's 

cost-to-completion estimate is $800 million (1980 

dollars). NASA's responsibility is for operation of 

Spacelab; development of ancillary equipment, such 

as the tunnel between the Spacelab and the cabin of 

the Shuttle; development of the mission verification 

equipment: and procurement of one additional 

Spacelab unit from ESA. 

In 1980, Spacelab activity in Europe brought considerable progress in test and checkout of the engineering model and first flight unit. The engineering model 

was delivered to KSC in December, the largest delivery 

to date under the memorandum of understanding. 

The model will be used to verify the facilities and 

ground systems at KSC in preparation for the flightunit processing beginning in 1981. 

In Bremen, Germany, Entwicklungs Ring Nord 

(ERNO) -prime contractor for Spacelab development -continued to process the flight unit hardware. 

Subsystem testing was completed in August. The 

flight-unit integrated-system test was continuing, with 

deliveries scheduled for June 1981 and September 

1981. Development of operational software was completed. The Spacelab ground-computer operatingsystem software was being used with the automatic test 

equipment to test and operate the Spacelab at ERNO 

and eventually at KSC. The remaining tests were 

scheduled for completion next year. 

NASA continued to prepare for general operations 

support of the early Spacelab missions. The critical 

design reviews for the verification flight instrumentation, which will be used to verify satisfactory performance of Spacelab during its first and second missions, were completed. A critical design review of the 

crew tunnel, which provides access to the Spacelab 

from the orbiter, was also successfully completed. The 

final version of the experiment computer operating 

system had been delivered to NASA and Spacelab 

Payload Integration Center, Europe (SPICE). The 

configuration was decided for Spacelab mission 2, 

which will be the second and final verification mission 

and the first flight for the ESA-developed instrument 

pointing system. NASA continued with integration 

and development of software. The simulator at JSC 

was scheduled to be ready for training Spacelab flight 

crews in January 1983. ESA production of a second instrument pointing system was authorized 23 May 1980, 

with delivery scheduled for October 1983. This IPS 

was part of the follow-on procurement contract for a 

second Spacelab, signed in January 1980. NASA also 

negotiated a supplemental agreement with ESA to 

provide an initial increment of Spacelab spare parts. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

Seven launches made up NASA's expendable 

launch vehicles schedule for 1980, three on the Delta, 

three on the Atlas-Centaur , and one on the Atlas F. Of 

the seven, only one was for NASA; the other six were 

reimbursable launches for other U.S. government, international, and domestic commercial missions. (See 

appendix A-3.) 

Space Research and Technology 

The goal of the NASA space research and 

technology activity is to provide a technology base that 

covers a wide range of disciplines, minimizes project 

risks, and creates opportunities for future capabilities 

at an affordable cost. The 1980 accomplishments are 

organized into three areas: development support of 

present agency activities, enhancing technologies required for planned near-term programs, and enabling 

technologies for new mission opportunities. 
Development SUP POT^ 

Technology activities that provide development support to ongoing programs produce products to be applied in one to six years. They have also provided consultation services and facility-dependent tests for the 

Space Shuttle. Wind-tunnel tests completed in 1980 

increased the total support of the Shuttle development 

to more than 60 000 hours since 1972. While windtunnel development testing is near completion, support during the flight-test phase will be provided as 

needed. Three new thermal protection materials were 

adopted for Shuttle Orbiter heatshields. One material 

is fibrous, refractory, composite insulation, which has 

greater temperature resistance, is stronger, and weighs 

less than the materials it is replacing. The second 

material is an improved gap filler with better hightemperature stability. The last is a silicon-felt 

“blanket” that will eventually replace most of the tiles 

on the upper Shuttle surfaces. 

Significant progress also was made on Shuttle 

payloads and orbiter experiments. The induced environmental contamination monitor (IECM) will make 

baseline measurements of the orbiter environment and 

assess the effect of the environment on Shuttle experiments. During the past year the IECM was integrated into the payload bay of orbiter 102. Other experiments have been integrated on Spacelab pallets: 

the thermal canister experiment, to assess the feasibility and capability for controlling the temperature 

environment .of the sensitive electronic equipment; 

and the feature identification and location experiment, to provide versatile, automatic landmark tracking, feature recognition capability, and real-time 

classification. Features that are identified include 

water, bare land, vegetation, clouds, snow, and ice. 

During 1980, a laboratory system simulation was 

performed on the infrared imagery of Shuttle (IRIS) 

experiment. Hardware and computer software for the 

data analysis is operational. On STS-1, IRIS will obtain infrared images of the lower surface of the orbiter 

to define its actual thermal environment. 

The space research and technology program also 

provided development support for the planetary program and earth-orbiting spacecraft programs. Computational chemistry techniques were used to analyze 

the ablation that will occur when the planned Galileo 

probe enters Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere. 

The analysis confirmed that ablation will block much 

of the radiation emanating from the shock layerpermitting the heatshield mass to be halved, and 

hence the scientific payload increased. 

In chemical propulsion systems, high-temperature 

thermal-barrier coatings have been developed to extend rocket-engine combustor cycle life. Such coatings 

normally do not adhere well under severe thermal 

stress. However, an extremely strong bond has been 

demonstrated in a new “inside-out’’ combustor-wall 

fabrication process. 

Ena blzng Technology 

Enabling technologies create or respond to opportunities that might lead to breakthroughs in science 

and technology and thereby greatly extend capabilities 

to exploit and explore space. Significant achievements 

occurred across the whole range of space technology 

disciplines. 

One of the barriers to planetary-return missions has 

been the cost and complexity of return propulsion. 

Planetary-return or stop-over missions would be less 

costly if propellant could be produced at or on the 

planet. During the past year, methods for producing 

liquid oxygen from a simulated Martian atmosphere 

by using electrolytic techniques were successfully 

demonstrated. 

Progress was also made on the nuclear electric propulsion (NEP) concept, which will be needed if NASA 

is to complete the exploration of the outer planets. 

The principal components of a NEP system are a reactor, thermal-to-electric conversion systems, and electric thrusters. During the past year, a thrust stand was 

completed at Princeton University, and the first direct 

measurements of a magnetoplasmadynamic thruster 

were made. The measured values agreed very closely 

with theory. In the thermal-electric conversion 

technology, the thermoionic emission of textured 

chemical-vapor-deposited emitters was increased 25 

percent over that obtained from smooth surfaces. 

Another technology with high potential for future 

power transmission and propulsion is the solar - 

pumped, high-power laser. During the last year, a 

solar-pumped laser research facility was completed, 

and the application of theoretical techniques has produced a more realistic treatment of collision dynamics 

in the laser process. Such basic understanding of the 

physics of such systems, coupled with measurements of 

critical operating parameters, may permit a 

breakthrough in high-power transmission. 

Battery performance is a major limitation on 

satellite orbital life. During the past year, significant 

insights into the operational lifetime of nickelcadmium batteries have been achieved. Batteries have 

been developed that tolerate deep-discharge reconditioning, potentially doubling operational life. 

Enhancing Technology 

Several recent achievements have potential for improving agency missions 6 to 15 years in the future. 

A submillimeter radiometer is one of the primary 

instruments planned for upper -atmospheric research 

satellites. During 1980, the capability was extended 

from a wavelength of 183 GHz to 635 GHz. It can now 

measure the relative abundance of more atmospheric 

trace gases with accuracies exceeding those of other 

techniques, to increase understanding of the 

stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. 

During 1980, a computer modeling and simulation 

capability became operationa1 that permits end-to29 
end simulation of NASA data systems. Over several 

months, 20 spacecraft were simulated and critical performance parameters calculated. 

In the 1980s, expanded sensor capability will increase the volume of data from earth-observation 

spacecraft. The high data output will strain the 

transmission capability of onboard spacecraft systems 

as well as of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellites. In 

1980, a K,-band modulator-exciter capable of a data 

rate of 2.5 billion bits per second was designed, tested, 

and fabricated. Using microwave integrated-circuit 

technology, it is smaller, weighs less, and requires less 

power than conventional systems. 

In space power technology, a number of activities 

are being pursued to make multihundred-kilowatt 

space power systems an affordable reality. Efforts to 

demonstrate the feasibility of a fuel-cell electrolysis 

system began in 1980. Preliminary analysis and tests of 

cell components such as electrolytes, electrodes, and 

catalysts have provided a data base for designing a 

five- to seven-kilowatt breadboard demonstration. A 

comprehensive study of alternative design approaches 

for low-cost solar-cell arrays was completed, to identify 

designs that have a potential for reducing cost per watt 

10 times-to a goal of $30-while increasing the 

specific power. A low-concentration-ratio approach 

was chosen as the most promising approach. Fundamental understanding of radiation damage in 

silicon solar cells continued to be extended. Recent insights and the evolving capability for inflight repair 

and annealing should greatly extend the powergenerating capability of silicon arrays. 

The first demonstration of autonomous “hand-eye’’ 

machine coordination necessary for robot techniques 

in space assembly, inspection, and repair was completed in 1980. A unique manipulator was developed 

using force-feedback logic to handle fragile objects 

such as single-crystal solar cells. Software was also 

developed to extract from a video image information 

on the size, orientation, and object to be manipulated 

and to direct manipulator motion. 

Among large-space-structure concepts developed in 

1980 were the hoop-column antenna and the electrostatic membrane antenna. For the hoop-column 

antenna, joints for a hundred-meter aperture were 

fabricated, and acceptable kinematic behavior was 

demonstrated. In addition, environmental and RF 

testing of graphite-fiber cables showed satisfactory 

performance characteristics. For the membrane 

antenna, a five-meter-diameter membrane was shaped 

electrostatically at a 60 000-volt bias for the first largescale verification of this capability. The concept holds 

high potential for use in configuration control of 

large, very-high-precision, actively shaped antennas. 

During 1980, significant progress was made in thermal protection systems. Titanium multiwall panels, 

with a density comparable to that of the Shuttle insulation system, were fabricated and successfully 

tested at temperatures up to 5OO0C, giving thermal 

performance equivalent to the Shuttle thermal protection system. In a different concept, a brazed, 

lightweight, honeycomb sandwich for hot structures 

was constructed. The development of a new noncorrosive brazing alloy made it possible to fabricate Rene 

41 superalloy panels, a first step toward establishing 

the feasibility of fuel tanks integral to the primary 

vehicle structure, offering substantial weight reductions in advanced transportation systems. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA seeks to ensure effective use of its experience 

and technology in support of national energy needs. 

Aeronautics and space technologies as well as related 

facilities are used to satisfy the specific energy 

research, development, and demonstration needs of 

the Department of Energy (DOE) and other government organizations. 

Automotive Research and Development. NASA is 

supporting DOE in the areas of gas turbine and 

Stirling engine development, electric and hybrid 

vehicle development, alternative fuel evaluations, 

diesel emissions research, and on-the-road evaluations 

of industry-developed automotive technologies. 

In 1980, two industry teams, Detroit Diesel Allison 

(DDA) and Pontiac Divisions of General Motors Corporation and AiResearch/Ford, began development of 

experimental gas turbine engines. The objectives are 

to demonstrate by 1985 the potential for improved fuel 

economy, lower exhaust emissions, and multifuel use. 

Component design and the design and fabrication of 

all test rigs for the turbomachinery components -regenerator, combustor, and electronic control systems - were begun on schedule. Coldregenerator-rig tests were conducted at AiResearch 

and cold-turbine-rig tests at DDA. A supporting 

ceramic technology program is developing hightemperature ceramic components. In 1980, tests were 

successfully conducted at 1038OC on ceramic parts 

that eventually will be tested in an existing larger turbine engine at 1132OC. 

In the automotive Stirling engine project, buildup 

of the first test engine is well under way. This engine 

offers the same potential as a comparable turbine 

engine for significant fuel economy and emission 

reduction. Full-scale tests of the engine will begin early 

next year. In the past year, laboratory engines accumulated 4000 hours of testing experience at 820°C, 

the projected operating temperature. 

In 1980, testing of the first “ground-up” electric 

automobile, designed and built by GE and Chrysler, 

continued to produce important data. The goal is a 

car with a 160-km range by 1986. Testing of a second 

car, designed and built by AiResearch/Garrett, was 

also begun. In this car, a flywheel stores energy for use 

during acceleration. In addition, substantial design 

30 
and development work was completed on an experimental hybrid vehicle that will be powered by a 

combination electric-internal-combustion engine. 

Wind Energy. Since NASA was assigned responsibility for technical management of large-windturbine development in 1973, seven machines have 

been developed and are operational. These turbines, 

funded by DOE, range in electric power production 

capability from 100 000 watts to 2 500 000 watts. Six 

of them are operated by utility companies and produce power for local consumption. 

Two wind turbines became operational in 1980. On 

3 July, the fourth and final experimental wind turbine 

in the 200 000-watt class was dedicated at Kahuku, 

Hawaii. In November, the largest wind turbine yet 

constructed began operation in the Goodnoe Hills 

near the Columbia River Gorge in Washington. This 

turbine, equipped with blades 92 meters from tip to 

tip, is the first of a cluster of three scheduled to be 

operating at that site by mid-1981. If manufactured at 

a rate of 100 per year, this turbine could produce electric power for less than five cents per kilowatt-hour (in 

1980 dollars), a price competitive with conventional 

power in many parts of the nation. 

During 1980, contracts were signed to design, 

develop, and test four advanced-technology wind turbines: three for multiple-machine wind farms servicing utilities and one for remote-power applications. 

The new turbines are expected to be the basic ones for 

meeting the goal of the Wind Energy Systems Act of 

1980, which requires that large wind turbines producing 700 million watts of electrical power be operational in 1988. 

Solar Thermal Electric Conversion. NASA is providing technical management for DOE in a program 

to investigate parabolic reflector systems concentrating solar energy to produce heat or electricity. 

Studies and technology demonstrations have defined 

several systems capable of producing up to 1 million 

watts of electric power for remote communities and 

heat for industry. 

During 1980, two experimental parabolic concentrators were erected. The 10-meter-diameter concentrators focus the sun’s rays to a 20-centimeter-diameter 

circle, producing an intensity level of “3000 suns.” 

Equipment that will convert such energy to electricity 

is now being tested on the concentrators. Four field experiments using these concepts could be operational in 

1982 to 1984. 

Solar Heating and Cooling. Marshall Space Flight 

Center supports DOE in management of selected active systems for solar heating and cooling, including 

system development, commercial building demonstrations, and assisting in the Solar Federal Buildings Program. 

During 1980, all system development hardware was 

delivered. Test and evaluation should be completed in 

1981. The commercial building demonstration program is nearing completion. Of the original 120 sites 

assigned to NASA, 55 were completed in 1980 and the 

remainder were scheduled to become operational in 

1981. 

In the Federal Buildings Program, begun in 1979, 

17 agencies work to demonstrate solar heating, 

heating and cooling, and hot water technology in 

government facilities. About 900 proposals were 

developed and evaluated during 1980. More than 800 

sites were selected and designs initiated. Construction 

was scheduled to start during 1981. 

Terrestrial Solar- Cell Deuelopment . Advances made 

in 1980 toward developing automated production of 

silicon material may substantially reduce the cost of 

solar -cell power systems for terrestrial applications. 

Also, the Lewis Research Center’s role in supporting 

DOE has expanded to help increase international use 

of solar-cell power systems. Negotiations began with 

the government of Gabon to provide power to four 

villages by 1982. 

Progress continues in photovoltaic development and 

support for the Agency for International Development. Solar-cell-powered health-delivery systems will 

be installed in pilot projects in Guyana and Kenya. 

Sites were evaluated in Ecuador, Peru, and Zaire to 

determine the feasibility of installing similar systems. 

A renewable-energy project was initiated in Tunisia, 

to combine several solar technologies for services to the 

village of Hamman Biadha and the surrounding 

agricultural community. Upper Volta requested a 

doubling of capacity for the highly successful unit in 

the village of Tangaye. 

Space Data Services 

NASA communicates with, commands, tracks, and 

processes data from deep space probes and earthorbital spacecraft through two worldwide tracking 

networks. A global communications system links 

tracking sites, control centers, and data processing 

facilities, providing real-time data processing for mission control and orbit and trajectory determination, as 

well as routine processing for engineering and scientific telemetry. 

Preparation for Shuttle Support 

Network readiness activities have been under way 

for the past several years in preparation for Space 

Shuttle missions. Necessary hardware changes were 

completed in 1980, and software programs were 

developed and checked out at ground stations. 

Verification and compatibility testing of the systems 

was completed in October. Requirements for upgraded communications circuits were met. Some airto-ground communications equipment used in the 

Apollo program was modified to provide additional 

communications with astronauts on Shuttle missions. 

31 
Network Operations 

The tracking system continued to support NASA 

earth-orbital missions, including Landsat 2 and 3, 

Solar Maximum Mission, High Energy Astronomy 

Observatories Heao 1 and 2, and the International 

Ultraviolet Explorer satellite IUE. Launch and inorbit support was also provided other government 

agencies, commercial firms, and foreign governments. 

The Deep Space Network (DSN), supporting interplanetary spacecraft, was significantly upgraded for 

Voyager 1’s November encounter with the planet 

Saturn. Conversion of a 26-meter-diameter S-band 

antenna to a larger, more efficient 34-meter S- and 

X-band antenna at each DSN station was completed. 

Low-noise X-band maser amplifiers, among the most 

sensitive radio receivers built, were installed on 

existing 64-meter-diameter antennas. These 

enhancements were integrated by “arraying” the two 

antennas through a real-time combiner assembly at 

each station complex. Electronically combining the 

spacecraft signals received by the two antennas provided about 35 percent more images from Saturn than 

could be obtained with a 64-meter antenna alone. 

Data Systems 

Six control centers supported some 25 spacecraft in 

orbit in 1980, and work was under way on a seventh 

center to support the planned Space Telescope mission. Control centers issue commands to monitor onboard conditions such as power and thermal status to 

ensure health and safety of the spacecraft. Computers 

calculate the spacecraft orbit, compute the attitude of 

the craft to assist in maneuvers, and manage command memory. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 

A major capability to become operational in 1984 is 

the TDRSS, a system of two data-relay satellites that 

will take over tracking and acquiring data from all 

low -earth-orbiting spacecraft. TDRSS will significant - ly upgrade support capability and effect economies by 

station closings, network consolidation, and automation of some operations. NASA has entered a service 

contract with the Space Communications Company to 

procure TDRSS services for 10 years. 

Progress Made. Considerable progress was made in 

manufacture of the spacecraft. In the TDRSS ground 

segment, comprehensive system tests were begun, with 

integration and environmental testing of the first 

spacecraft to be completed in the winter of 1980-1981. 

Most of the delivered equipment was installed and initial testing on major components completed at the 

White Sands, New Mexico, ground station. The Network Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Greenbelt, Maryland, was making good progress. 

Network Consolidation. When TDRSS becomes 

operational in 1984, low-earth-orbital spacecraft will 

be supported only by TDRSS. High elliptical and 

synchronous missions will be supported by the three remaining Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

(STDN) ground stations at Goldstone, California; 

Madrid; and Australia. Since the STDN stations are in 

the same geographical areas as the Deep Space Network (DSN) stations, they will be consolidated with the 

DSN stations under the management of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory by the mid-l980s, for significant 

operating cost savings. 

Aeronautical Research and Technology 

NASA’s aeronautical research seeks advancements 

in the performance, efficiency, and safety of existing 

aircraft and a base of high technology that designers 

can use to improve aircraft of the next generation. 

These objectives include establishing and maintaining 

a strong technological base, reducing energy consumption of aircraft, improving terminal-area operations, advancing long-haul and short-haul aircraft, 

and providing technical support for the military. 

Maintaining a Strong Technology Base 

NASA’s aeronautical research and technology pro - 

grams cover the basic disciplines of aerodynamics, 

materials and structures, propulsion, avionics and 

flight control, and human factors. Significant progress 

was made during 1980 in measurement and control of 

turbulent flows, advanced materials for airframe and 

propulsion systems, fuels research and aircraft controls, and navigation and guidance. 

Aerodynamics. An important aspect of the research 

on turbulent flows has been the development of 

geometrical surface deformations to reduce turbulent 

skin friction. One concept introduces V-grooves, or 

“riblets,” into an aerodynamic surface. The grooves, 

about the size of grooves in a phonograph record, may 

reduce drag by as much as seven percent. While 

reduced drag can be seen empirically, work is continuing to understand this phenomenon. 

In a related area, a laser-doppler anemometer has 

been developed to measure high-resolution turbulence 

in large-scale wind tunnels. Previous measurements of 

turbulence in wakes, jets, and boundary layers using 

laser optical techniques have been confined to relatively small facilities. The new instrument has the 

long-range sensing capability (2 meters) and the 

spatial resolution (0.2 millimeters) to permit investigation of the details of turbulent boundary layers and 

thin wakes. It has been combined with a computerized 

data-acquisition system to reduce overall test and 

wind-tunnel operating costs. 

32 
Materials and Structures. Significant advances continue to be made on composite materials for airframe 

applications. Recent work in understanding the interactive behavior of composite constituents, resin synthesis and processing, and composite construction and 

design promise a second generation of material with 

reduced costs, increased reliability (i.e., improved 

toughness, damage tolerance, and environmental 

resistance), and reduced weight. Existing composite 

materials offer a 25-percent weight reduction over 

comparable aluminum structures; the new composites 

have shown a potential for an additional weight saving 

of 20 percent. 

One important aspect of research on materials for 

propulsion systems focuses on gaining a better 

understanding of the structural dynamic characteristics of the blades of rotating components in a 

gas turbine engine. During 1980, an experimental 

facility was made operational at Lewis Research 

Center in which an instrumented test rotor of up to 50 

centimeters in diameter can be spun to speeds of 

18 000 rpm in either a normal atmospheric environment or one near total vacuum. Two electrodynamic 

shakers reproduce the complex vibration patterns 

characteristic of fan, compressor, and turbine blades 

under conditions of load. Data obtained will guide 

and verify the development of analytical predictive 

methods. 

Propulsion. As reported in past years, NASA continues to make advancements in analytical computer 

codes and numerical techniques for modeling complex 

flow fields in aerodynamics, both the internal flow in 

turbomachinery components and the external flow 

associated with integration of propulsion system and 

airframe. The principal focus of the latter area is to 

understand and minimize the drag effects of engine installations. A significant accomplishment in 1980 was 

the development of numerical techniques that approximate the complex flow field exiting the nozzles of a 

two-engine aircraft. These codes have been compared 

with similar experimental data and show excellent correlation except for a small region where flow separation is most pronounced. 

Major uncertainties about supply, quality, and cost 

of aviation turbine fuels has prompted NASA to expand its investigation of the effects that fuels with 

broader properties (such as higher freezing point, 

boiling point, and aromatic content) can have on 

aircraft-engine and fuel-system performance. Advanced combustor concepts that will accommodate 

such fuels are being evaluated. 

Research in multizone lean-burning combustors indicates that flame radiation levels can be minimized 

by burning at fuel-lean conditions during high-power 

operation. During 1980, these concepts were verified 

in tests in which an advanced, double-annular 

(multizone) combustor was compared with a conventional, single-annular design. 

Noise research in 1980 focused on concepts to suppress noise generated by coaxial jet flows typically 

associated with turbofan engines. Scale-model tests 

have proved that changing the relative eccentricity of 

the nozzles (moving the core-stream nozzle off center 

relative to the fan-stream nozzle) can lead to circumferential variations in the sound field and thus can 

reduce jet noise in selected directions. These tests 

clearly demonstrated that it is possible to shape jet 

nozzles geometrically to tailor the sound field. 

Avionics and Flight Controls. Research into controls 

in 1980 was directed toward suppressing pilot-induced 

oscillations (PIO) inherent in some aircraft when performing precision-control tasks. Refueling in air, airto-air tracking, close-formation flying, and precision 

landing are high-work-load tasks that sometimes lead 

to PIO. The problem usually results from a particular 

combination of control system characteristics, aircraft 

dynamics, and high-work-load tasks that require intense pilot concentration. A special filter (computer 

code), designed and tested on the F-8 digital fly-bywire experimental aircraft at Dryden Research Center, 

showed effectiveness in suppressing PIO. 

Avionics and Human Factors. Work continues on 

the joint NASA-FAA cockpit-display-of-trafficinformation (CDTI) program to assess advantages and 

limitations in presenting traffic information to the 

pilot. CDTI symbols and format were evaluated and 

refined during 1980 by dynamic simulation experiments and flight tests in the terminal control 

vehicle at Langley Research Center. Tests showed that 

while a 7.5- by IO-cm display was satisfactory in maintaining required aircraft spacing, superior performance was achieved using a 15.5- by 15.5-cm display. 

Two projects in research methodology were completed 

in fiscal 1980. A standardization of work-load 

measures was developed for assessing the effects of 

CDTI on pilots. 

Reducing Energy Consumption 

NASA made progress in 1980 in developing 

technology to reduce fuel consumption in derivative 

and future subsonic, commercial, transport aircraft by 

as much as 50 percent. 

Engine Systems. The agency continued to provide 

fuel-saving improvements for new and derivative 

JT8D, JTSD, and CF6 turbofan engines. Technical 

activities have been completed on 9 of the 16 engine 

components selected for development. Demonstrated 

fuel savings have been very close to predictions. Seven 

improved engine components have been committed to 

production and four are in commercial service. The 

new technology is especially timely since new 

derivative engines are under development. Each application of the technology leads to repayment of the 

NASA investment by industry; an initial return of 

$200 000 was received in 1980. 

33 
Industry has adopted more of the NASA information generated to isolate and quantify causes of 

performance deterioration in JT9D and CF6 turbofan 

engines. NASA investigations indicate that about 

1 -percent improvement in specific fuel consumption 

during cruise and as much as 50-percent reduction in 

expensive, unscheduled, engine changes are 

achievable. Additional tests are studying the effect of 

flight loads on engine-component running clearances 

and the related deterioration in engine performance. 

New engine designs will benefit from these tests. 

For the next generation of fuel-efficient, 

performance-deterioration-resistant, and economical 

turbofan engines, NASA has begun testing major 

engine components. New turbofan engines are expected to consume 14 to 22 percent less fuel and to 

have 5 to 10 percent lower direct operating costs, 50 

percent less performance deterioration, and lower 

noise and emission levels than large turbofan engines 

now in service. 

NASA is demonstrating high-speed propeller 

technology for commercial transports and short -haul 

commuter aircraft. A series of subscale models, 62 

centimeters in diameter, has been fabricated. These 

models have 10 blades and are expected to be about 20 

decibels quieter and one percent more efficient than 

any other models tested. A wind-tunnel test of an advanced 8-bladed, high-speed propeller model 

mounted on a nacelle on a swept, supercritical wing 

identified the basic installation drag and propellerwing interactions. 

Aerodynamics Systems. In research to improve the 

efficiency of commercial transport aircraft, the three 

major contractors demonstrating advanced 

aerodynamics and active-control concepts prepared 

for major flight tests. Bench tests of reduced-static 

stability components, leading to projected fuel savings 

of three to four percent, were under way. Fabrication 

of winglets for the DC-10-30 neared completion. The 

initial configuration of an advanced, integrated, 

active-controls system was evaluated. The joint NASAUSAF flight-test program of winglets on a KC-135 

tanker was completed in 1980, confirming a predicted 

7.1 -percent reduction in cruise drag below that of the 

unmodified KC-135. Efforts continue to obtain detailed structural load data for possible retrofit 

modification of KC-135 aircraft. 

Research in the control of laminar (smooth) air flow 

close to wing surfaces aims at demonstrating a practical, reliable system that will reduce drag by 20 to 40 

percent, depending on the extent of application and 

aircraft range. In 1980, preparations began for flighttesting two state-of-the-art concepts for laminarizing 

the flow over a wing leading edge. 

Structural Systems. Structures research focuses on 

advanced graphite-fiber-reinforced composite structures for transport aircraft. Developing the technology 

for three secondary and three medium-primary aircraft structural components is expected to save up to 

25 percent in structural weight and 10 to 15 percent in 

fuel. 

Two of the three secondary-component technology 

programs were nearly completed in 1980. The first 

full-scale Lockheed L-1011 composite aileron has been 

fabricated. Development testing is scheduled to start 

in 1981. The Boeing program has completed test requirements for Federal Aviation Administration certification of the B-727 composite elevators. The 

Douglas DC-IO composite rudder was certified by the 

FAA. The 10 rudder units manufactured indicated 

that production cost of composite rudders will be 

lower than the comparable metal part after 50 to 100 

units are produced. 

Design and fabrication of two of the three mediumsized primary structures components have been completed. The full-scale composite spars and skins of the 

L-1011 vertical fin have been fabricated, and 

development-testing of the fin spars has begun. DC-10 

vertical-stabilizer fabrication is near completion. 

B - 737 horizont a1 -stabilizer subcomponents have successfully completed static, fatigue, and fail-safe 

testing. The first B-737 stabilizer was flown in late 

1980. 

Improving Terminal Area Operations 

In cooperation with FAA, NASA is developing 

technology for advanced airborne guidance, flight 

control, navigation and display systems, and flight 

procedures that can improve terminal operations. 

NASA used its highly modified B-737 aircraft to 

develop symbols for cathode-ray-tube displays and 

flight procedures for using them. Improved autoland 

flare laws reduced touchdown dispersion to one-third 

that of conventional flare laws during recent flight 

tests. Control laws have also been developed for 

automatic high-speed turnoff using a magnetic leader 

cable for guidance. These activities led to industry’s 

designing similar control laws for possible retrofit of 

present and new production aircraft. 

Safety. In 1980, substantial progress was made in 

defining atmospheric hazards and demonstrating advanced fire-safety technology. Flights near electrical 

storms were continued in a specially instrumented 

NASA F-106B aircraft. Lightning strikes on and near 

the aircraft provided new data about electric fields 

and magnetic fields. Flight data also made some 

inroads in mapping severe weather and correlating 

aircraft and ground-measured data. 

NASA research in cooperation with FAA pursues 

technology to improve chances for surviving the condi - tions that follow aircraft crashes. In 1980 an antimisting kerosene (AMK) concept, demonstrated in 

small-scale experiments, showed that it may be possible to avoid ignition of fuel mist following impact. 

The effects of AMK on turbojet engine components 

34 
have been defined after a one-year experimental 

research effort using aJT8D engine. Changes that may 

be required of engine components are being identified. 

Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft 

NASA is progressing well in the development of 

technology sufficient to make rational decisions concerning future military and civil supersonic-cruise air - craft. Research efforts also are addressed to quiet 

short-haul aircraft that operate at very low approach 

speeds, rotorcraft, and general-aviation aircraft. 

Supersonic Research. Supersonic -cruise research 

programs in 1980 continued to focus on aerodynamics, 

structures, propulsion-airframe integration, and propulsion. Related requirements for reduced noise and 

reduced fuel consumption were also studied. 

The propulsion research includes two concepts: the 

variable-stream-control engine and the double-bypass 

engine. In 1980 the variable-cycle-engine components 

program completed major experimental demonstrations of the noise-reduction capabilities of the coannular ejector nozzle of the variable-stream-control 

engine and the aerodynamic performance of the coredriven fan stage of the double-bypass engine. 

During 1980, wind-tunnel tests validated predicted 

lift-to-drag ratios over the full speed-range and determined the flow-field effects of podded nacelles installed on highly swept supersonic wings. Adhesive 

bonding techniques, cold forming of the beta alloy, 

and several approaches to the superplastic-forming 

diffusion-bonding process have been demonstrated for 

advanced titanium structures. Selected composite 

material systems have accumulated more than 20 000 

hours of life-testing. Significant supersonic-windtunnel tests were completed this year using an axisymmetric translating centerbody inlet. 

Rotorcraft. Tests of a full-scale, advanced, 

bearingless main rotor in the NASA 40- X 80-foot 

wind tunnel provided an extensive aeroelastic-stability 

and performance data base to substantiate design 

methodology for improved operational rotor systems. 

Also in 1980, a full-scale model of the XH-59 

advancing-blade-concept aircraft was tested in the 

tunnel to investigate drag reduction and interaction of 

rotor, airframe, and propulsion system. 

Helicopter flight research evaluated promising 

guidance and control systems for safe, automatic 

helical-path landings near the boundaries of airports 

with heavy fixed-wing traffic. 

Substantial progress was made in computational 

methods for optimizing rotor-blade performance and 

dynamics and for predicting the structural dynamics 

of complex helicopter -airframe and rotor system 

design. 

General Aviation. NASA's general-aviation research 

in 1980 continued to improve aircraft safety, energy 

efficiency, utility, and environmental impact. 

Research continued on light -aircraft stalls and 

spins, including additional spin-tunnel model tests 

and flight tests of several manned aircraft. Windtunnel tests were conducted at Langley Research 

Center on a full-scale, low-wing aircraft to understand 

better the aerodynamic principles of a wing with 

drooped-outboard leading edge that proved effective 

in delaying stall, reducing stall severity, and preventing flat spins in the test aircraft. The 

characteristics of a representative high-wing aircraft 

were also determined in full-scale flight tests. The data 

base is being used to extract the governing parameters 

for a comprehensive analysis of single-engine aircraft 

characteristics. 

Research with FAA on energy-absorbing structures 

for greater ability to survive crashes continued investigations of fuselage subfloors and seats. Dynamic 

tests showed that the notched comer and corrugated 

beam are two of the best subfloor structural concepts. 

Two more full-scale aircraft were crash-tested at the 

Langley crash test facility, to total 25 since this 

research began in 1974. The tests provided new data 

on large-deflection inelastic behavior of different 

structural configurations. Besides contributing to a 

basic understanding of this behavior, the data will be 

used to check the validity of recently developed 

analytical prediction methods, to improve design 

techniques. 

Extending previous research, wind-tunnel tests were 

conducted at Langley on a specially configured 

flapped airfoil, designed to maintain natural laminar 

flow over the first 40 percent of the upper surface and 

60 percent of the lower surface under climb and cruise 

conditions for typical light aircraft. Test data indicate 

the airfoil's drag under these conditions is substantially 

lower than that of the GA(W)-1 airfoil developed for 

general aviation several years ago, and also lower than 

that of early laminar-flow airfoils developed by NACA 

during World War I1 for higher speed aircraft. If this 

extent of laminar flow can be realized in full-scale aircraft, reduced drag could improve energy efficiency at 

least 10 percent for representative general-aviation 

light aircraft. 

The NASA demonstration advanced-avionics 

system (DAAS) program evaluates an integratedavionics system concept specifically addressed to 

single-pilot requirements typical of general aviation. 

DAAS displays and controls are designed so that the 

pilot can use the system after minimum training. In 

1980, a DAAS simulator was fabricated; 12 pilots from 

the private sector and government operated it and 

recommended only minor changes, which were incorporated. The DAAS design includes provision for incorporating the discrete-address beacon system 

35 
(DABS) now being developed by FAA. The DAAS 

flight-demonstration hardware has been fabricated 

and software elements completed, and DAAS will be 

checked out in a light two-seat aircraft in 1981. 

In environmental impact studies, primary emphasis 

has been on noise reduction. Low-noise-propeller 

designs were begun in 1980 for two-, three-, and fourblade propellers. A two-blade propeller design was 

fabricated and flight-tested on a Cessna 172 aircraft. 

Preliminary results indicate that, as predicted, it produces five decibels less noise than the conventional 

two-blade propeller. This propeller is being evaluated 

by Cessna Aircraft’s McCauley Division as a possible 

replacement for the standard Cessna 172 propeller. 

Technical Support for the Military 

NASA aeronautical programs include broad-based 

research to improve future military aircraft. 

Highly Maneuuerable Aircraft Technology 

(HiMAT). A joint NASA-USAF program is investigating advanced high-risk technology with potential applicability to high-performance aircraft. Since 

the first flight of the subscale 44-percent-scale model 

of a remotely piloted research vehicle in July 1979, six 

additional flights have concentrated on expanding the 

flight envelope into high transonic and supersonic 

speeds. 

Quiet Short-Haul Aircraft. Following documentation of the flight characteristics of NASA’s quiet shorthaul research aircraft (QSRA), the vehicle was used in 

a joint program with the U.S. Navy to judge the 

feasibility of adapting propulsive-lift , short -takeoffand-landing (STOL) technology to shipboard operation. In the first phase, NASA and Navy pilots determined techniques for landing on or taking off from a 

carrier through more than 500 land-based simulated 

carrier operations with the 22 700-kilogram QSRA. 

The second phase, operating the QSRA on the carrier 

Kitty Hawk at sea, substantiated the shore-based 

results. Aircraft using this propulsive-lift technology 

will have sufficient performance and controllability to 

make precision approaches to the deck of an aircraft 

carrier at sea, at speeds permitting unarrested 

landings, and to take off without use of a catapult. 

The effects of the carrier’s aerodynamic wake, ship 

motions, and ground effects were determined and 

STOL and carrier operational criteria were obtained 

for future use by the Navy. 

Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft. The contractor’s 

development flight tests of the XV-15 aircraft were 

successfully completed at the Bell Helicopter Textron 

plant. The aircraft achieved a speed of 555 kilometers 

per hour and demonstrated good flight characteristics 

in all flight regimes. In this joint NASA-Army-Navy 

program, the first XV-15 aircraft was accepted by the 

government in 1980 and completed conceptevaluation flight research. A second was to be accepted in 1981. One of the two will be exhibited at the 

1981 Paris Air Show and will be returned to NASA for 

a NASA-Army concept -evaluation program during 

1981. 

Rotor System Research Aircraft (RSRA). In a joint 

NASA-Army-Navy program, the RSRA research 

vehicle in helicopter configuration was checked out by 

the pilot and baseline flight-tested at Ames Research 

Center during 1980; it has begun a flight research program to evaluate vertical drag in hover and at low forward speeds. Design studies have been completed on a 

modern four-blade system for flight research on the 

RSRA. The other research vehicle in the compound 

configuration (wing and auxiliary-thrust engines 

added) has been extensively calibrated in a new facility, analyzed, and had some empennage structural 

components strengthened during 1980. 

V/STOL Aircraft Technology. In a cooperative 

program with the Navy, good low-speed performance, 

stability, and control characteristics were measured 

for a high-subsonic, twin-turbofan V/STOL concept 

in tests of a large-scale model in the NASA 40- X 

80-foot tunnel. The model had TF-34 engines. Vanes 

in the engine exhausts provided control at very low 

speeds and hover. 

Exploratory tests were also made to determine the 

general performance and control characteristics of a 

four-tenths-scale model of a twin-engine fighter-attack 

V/STOL in the 40- X 80-foot tunnel. The model was 

designed for taking off and landing vertically, and the 

tunnel tests were conducted over the very large angleof-attack range that such a concept encounters. The 

cruise and maneuver flight characteristics of several 

twin-engine V/STOL fighter concepts were investigated by tests of small-scale models in transonic 

and high-subsonic tunnels at Ames. 

36 
Department of Defense 

The Department of Defense has a vital interest in 

space and aeronautics for the purpose of national 

security. Evidence of the growing importance of space 

and aeronautics activities is the significant increase in 

annual funding for these defense efforts over the past 

five years, with further increases projected for the 

future. The primary areas of emphasis are communications, navigation, weather prediction, 

surveillance, and space science. While these programs 

are military, DoD maintains a close liaison with NASA 

and other agencies of the government through which 

DoD programs can provide shared benefits. In 1980, 

several important events covered a wide range of space 

activities, including the launch of two more Global 

Positioning System satellites and the launch of two 

Fleet Satellite Communications System satellites. 

Aeronautical activities continued, with new design 

concepts evaluated in several joint flight programs 

with NASA. Activities also included application of 

new aircraft structural designs and development of advanced flight control and navigation systems. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

Satellite communications systems have become an 

important asset for both commercial and military 

applications because they offer a number of distinct 

capabilities: worldwide coverage, service to isolated 

areas, wide transmission bandwidths, and contingency 

operations. DoD operates its own satellite communications system and also leases commercial satellite service 

to support needs for worldwide command and control 

of U.S. military forces. Defense requirements call for 

three categories of capability: (1) high-capacity, highdata -rate, long -haul, point -to -point communications 

for fixed users; (2) moderate-capacity, low-data-rate 

communications for mobile users; and (3) lowcapacity, low-data-rate communications for command 

and control of strategic nuclear forces. Military 

satellite communications systems that satisfy these mission capabilities must be hardened against nuclear 

effects and have jamming and cryptographic protection. These additional system requirements and highcapacity communication links are unique to DoD, 

enhancing communications and command and control continuity in a hostile or crisis environment. These 

three categories of capabilities are now satisfied by: (1) 

the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase I1 

(DSCS 11); (2) Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM), plus leased services on the Marisat 

Satellite System (Marisat); and (3) the Air Force 

Satellite Communications System (AFSATCOM), consisting of transponders on the Satellite Data System 

(SDS), FLTSATCOM, and other host satellites. 

During the coming decade, these systems will be 

replaced in an evolutionary manner by DSCS I11 and 

the Leased Satellite (LEASAT) System. 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS). 

The mission of the DSCS is to provide high-data-rate 

communications in support of unique and vital 

national security requirements for worldwide military 

command and control and crisis management. The 

DSCS supports critical globally distributed communication requirements of the National Command 

Authorities, the Worldwide Military Command and 

Control System, the Ground Mobile Forces, the 

Defense Communications System, the Diplomatic 

Telecommunications Service, the White House Communications Agency, NATO, and other U.S. allies. 

The DSCS system consists of four active DSCS I1 

satellites and two on-orbit spares, providing nearly 

global (excepting polar) coverage. To ensure continuity of essential communications and enhance survivability during crisis situations and in hostile communications environments, evolving DSCS satellites 

will include an improved anti-jam capability in addition to nuclear-effects hardening. 

The next generation of DSCS satellites will be DSCS 

I11 models, with improved performance capabilities 

and protective devices to enhance survivability. During 1980, development of a qualification-model 

satellite, two flight satellites (DSCS ZZZ A-1 and A-2), 

and ground command-and-control equipment con37 
tinued. The first satellite (DSCS IIZ A-I) was scheduled for launch in 1981 for about six months of test 

and evaluation, after which it would be placed in 

operational use. DSCS ZII A-2 was scheduled for 

launch in mid-1982 and a comparable test period 

before operational use. 

The DSCS 111 satellites will have six independent 

transponders to handle efficiently a mix of users (with 

small and large terminals), with improved anti-jam 

protection through multibeam antennas capable of 

nulling or minimizing uplink jamming signals. In addition to the normal S-band tracking, telemetry, and 

command functions performed by the U.S. Air Force, 

the DSCS I11 satellite will have an SHF command 

capability, controlled operationally by the Defense 

Communications Agency. This capability will improve 

response time for reconfiguration of its antenna 

systems. The satellite will conform to nuclear survivability guidelines and will have a design life of 10 

years. Since the Space Shuttle will become operationally available during the life of the DSCS I11 program, the DSCS 111 satellite is being designed to be 

Shuttle-compatible. The SHF communications 

satellite requirements of the 1980s and beyond will be 

satisfied by the increased capability and flexibility of 

the DSCS I11 satellite. 

Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSA TCOM) 

System. The AFSATCOM system provides communications for command and control of the nuclearcapable forces and other selected high-priority users. 

The space segment includes UHF transponders on the 

Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) 

system, the Satellite Data System (SDS) and other 

spacecraft. In 1980, the AFSATCOM terminal segment was being installed in ground command posts, 

airborne command posts, and strategic bomber forces. 

Terminals were being procured for the ICBM launch 

control centers, and installations were planned to 

begin in 1981. An initial operational capability was 

achieved in May 1979. Full operational capability was 

planned for 1983. 

The Satellite Data System (SDS) is a major part of 

AFSATCOM. It provides critical two-way transpolar 

command and control communications for our 

nuclear-capable forces. In 1982-1986, the 

AFSATCOM payload on SDS will become the 

backbone of the AFSATCOM system as the U.S. Navy 

FLTSATCOM satellites begin to reach the end of their 

useful lives. During this time, SDS will be developing a 

spacecraft optimized for the Space Shuttle and an 

AFSATCOM payload with increased jam resistance. 

SDS also supports a data communications network 

among tracking stations and the Satellite Test Center. 

Fleet Sat ellit e Communications System 

(FL TSA TCOM). Moderate-capacity , mobile -user 

service will be provided by FLTSATCOM. Its objective is to develop, procure, and put into operation a 

satellite communications system to satisfy the most 

urgent, worldwide, tactical-peacetime and crisismanagement communications requirements of the 

Navy and strategic communications requirements of 

the Air Force. Production contracts for five FLTSATCOM spacecraft had been awarded, and the first four 

were launched in February 1978, May 1979, January 

1980, and October 1980. Installation of fleet broadcast receivers was virtually complete, with systems installed in some 420 ships and 109 submarines. Additionally, 236 ships were equipped for reliable, longrange, secure voice operation. Shipboard terminal 

equipment was operating through both the Marisat 

and FLTSATCOM systems. 

Army Satellite Communications Actiuities. The 

Army Satellite Communications Ground Environment 

program includes developing, procuring, and supporting strategic and tactical satellite communications 

ground terminals for use by the military departments. 

Two major projects are the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) Phase I1 and the Ground 

Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications 

(GMF-TACSATCOM) program. A third project is 

devoted to the exploratory development required to 

support the two major Army projects and other space 

programs being developed by the Department of 

Defense. 

Army Exploitation of Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS). Recently, 14 new, medium, 

satellite-communication terminals (AN/GSC-39 units) 

were approved for Army procurement for the DSCS. 

Added to the 21 terminals previously approved and 

being fabricated, the 14 new terminals will permit 

replacement of all the old and obsolete AN/TSC-54 

and AN/MSC-46 terminals. Three additional gateway 

stations were approved for the program, which will 

further enhance tactical-strategic communications 

interoperability and survivability, and provide the 

military departments added flexibility to execute 

national policy decisions worldwide. 

The Army began to develop and put into operation 

the real-time adaptive control subsystem, which, when 

completed in 1984, will provide computerized and 

fully automated control of the DSCS 111 satellites in orbit and the communications passing through them. 

The 23 digital communications subsystems originally 

shipped to the field were being phased into operation 

at the end of 1980. An additional 16 subsystems had 

been shipped to the field and were being installed and 

tested. No problems had been met in the contract for 

the new anti-jam, spread-spectrum, multiple-access 

equipment being procured for the DSCS. The initial 

delivery of the new AN/USC-28 units was scheduled 

for September 1981, and all 55 AN/USC-28s were 

scheduled to be incorporated into the system by 

mid-1982. The first of the new AN/TSC-86 transportable and Joint Chiefs of Staff contingency satellite terminals were to be deployed in late December 1981. 

38 
Tactica 1 Sat ellit e Communications 

(TACSATCOM). Thirty-one low-rate, initialproduction, multichannel, SHF, tactical terminals 

had been deployed by the U.S. Army in Europe by the 

end of 1980, for use with the DSCS I1 space segment. 

A full-production contract for 226 additional terminals was awarded in September 1979 with first 

deliveries scheduled for 1982. Production began on 

210 UHF vehicular terminals scheduled for use with 

FLTSATCOM satellites, with an operational date of 

late 1981. UHF manpack contract negotiations were 

under way for production of 170 terminals, with 

delivery to begin in 1982. Studies had begun on future 

system architecture. Research and development decisions were near on developing a single-channel terminal fully protected from jamming. Terminal 

fielding would be in the early 1990s. 

Advanced Space Communications Technology. 

New space components were developed for operation 

in the EHF bands. The primary component 

technologies under investigation are solid-state 

amplifiers, adaptive antennas, spaceborne processors, 

and airborne terminals. Additional development was 

under way to provide high jamming protection 

coupled with very high data rates, via laser communications. The Air Force completed flight tests of a 

gigabit-per-second, aircraft-to-ground link; and 

development of an orbital laser communications 

package for launch in 1983 continued on schedule. 

Navigation Satellite Activily 

The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a 

joint program of the Air Force, Army, Navy, and 

Defense Mapping Agency, with the Air Force as the 

executive agency. It will improve weapon delivery 

effectiveness and worldwide rapid force deployment 

with continuous, precise, three-dimensional positioning and navigation. The developmental system in 1980 

provided up to six hours a day of accurate positioning 

worldwide with five satellites of the six in space (one 

satellite is not operating). The fifth and sixth satellites 

were launched in February and April 1980. By late 

1987, the operational 18-satellite constellation is to 

provide positioning accurate to 16 meters, velocity accurate to 0.1 meter per second, and precise time 

synchronized to within 0.1 microsecond. 

Department of Defense users will derive mission 

benefits from operating within the common positioning grid automatically provided by Navstar, as 

well as from the superior accuracy and global 

coverage. Additionally, the reliability of a system 

unaffected by weather and concealed by passive operation (users receive signals and do not radiate any 

energy) provides an improved capability to weapon 

delivery, intelligence, and reconnaissance missions. 

The system concept was validated in 1978-1979 

with the launching of four developmental satellites 

and extensive field testing of advanced-development 

equipment on a wide variety of aircraft, ships, and 

ground platforms. At the end of 1980, the operational 

system was in full-scale engineering development. The 

satellite design was being modified for Space Shuttle 

launch compatibility and to add the ability to deny 

system accuracy to adversary military forces. The control segment was being designed to command and control the full constellation of satellites and to maintain 

full system accuracy and reliability. The user equipment was being developed to meet the needs of a wide 

range of Army, Navy, and Air Force weapon platforms and to achieve economies of production and 

maintenance through common parts and modules. All 

developmental contracts were under way, leading 

toward a decision to deploy the system by late 1983 

after initial operational test and evaluation. 

The concept-validation system and hardware were 

supporting additional testing of military concepts of 

operation, such as passive terrain-following and precision air drop of cargo pallets. The Navy was using 

Navstar to check the accuracy of submarine-launched 

ballistic missiles. The Air Force was planning to use 

Navstar for similar testing of the MX missile system. 

Midcourse guidance of air -to -ground missiles also was 

being examined. Army participation in the program is 

for the purpose of developing and testing a family of 

aircraft, vehicle, and manpacked user equipment to 

meet a broad variety of requirements for en route 

navigation, artillery, engineer surveying, and target 

acquisition. The Landsat-D satellite, to be launched 

in late 1981, will use Navstar to determine satellite 

positions in space for correlation with earth 

photography. 

The Defense Mapping Agency in 1980 was developing two significant subsystems that will use the GPSNavstar systems in mapping, charting, and geodesy. 

The first development was a continuation of work on a 

space-qualified GPS receiver. The engineering model 

of this unit functioned satisfactorily under laboratory 

conditions; it simultaneously tracked four GPS 

satellites and provided a navigational solution. The 

first prototype system was to be completed in February 

1981. The system was planned for inclusion in the next 

Landsat mission and will permit precise location of the 

satellite in real time. This unit and similar units could 

be included on future geophysical satellites. 

The second development, begun in 1980, was an effort to design and build a geodetic receiver that will 

derive its positional information from the Navstar con. 

stellation. The receiver, using a novel approach to 

processing GPS transmissions, offers a potential for 

improved accuracy with greatly reduced time-on-site 

required by the user. 

Meteorological Activities 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). 

DMSP supports DoD strategic and tactical needs for 
weather information. Its operational requirements 

dictate the use of two satellites continuously in orbit, 

obtaining weather information from all points on the 

earth at least four times each day. Global weather data 

is stored on the satellites and later transmitted to the 

Air Force Global Weather Center or to the Navy Fleet 

Numerical Weather Center. Satellite weather data is 

also transmitted in real time to transportable read-out 

stations at key locations worldwide to support Army, 

Navy, and Air Force tactical operations. 

During 1980, the Air Force-managed joint-service 

DMSP system adequately supported DoD strategic and 

tactical needs for weather information for the first 

seven months. A satellite for the early morning orbit 

was launched in July to replace a degrading asset, but 

failed to achieve orbit because of third-stage malfunction. DMSP support was being supplemented by 

NOAA weather systems, although the data was far 

from satisfactory for DoD requirements. The Air 

Force accelerated the follow-on satellite production 

schedule, and “work-around’’ activities were able to 

sustain peacetime operations. 

Surveillance Activities 

Early Warning Satellites. Defense support is given 

by satellites that provide data to the National Command Authorities, the Strategic Air Command, and 

the North American Air Defense Command. During 

1980, work was begun to replace computers in the 

ground stations to provide increased computational 

power for new, more capable satellites. Development 

of modifications also was continued to ensure compatibility of the satellite payloads with the Titan III(34)D 

inertial upper stages (IUS) and Shuttle-IUS, as well as 

development of improvements in the satellite communications elements. Newly developed improvements were being incorporated into satellite procurement and retrofitted into existing spare satellites, 

promising to increase system accuracy and operational 

life. Plans were made for satellites with increased survivability for the middle to late 1980s. 

Surveillance and Warning. The Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1980 continued developing advanced concepts and technology 

for strategic and tactical surveillance from space. Programs included development of space experiments to 

demonstrate the application of technology base components to mission performance. Radiation source 

monitoring from space was being demonstrated with 

the DARPA 301 gamma-ray spectrometer, orbited by 

the USAF Space Test Program in early 1979. The 

experiment continued to operate successfully, including demonstration of the long-life cryogenic 

refrigerators developed for this flight. The experiment 

achieved a gamma-ray spectral resolution of 3000 electron volts, the highest yet measured in space, and provided new information on the character of radiation 

backgrounds and sources. 

Development of surveillance technology for infrared 

mosaic detector arrays, onboard signal processing, 

cryogenic refrigerators, large optics, and structures 

continued in 1980. A new generation of detector arrays, physically integrated with preprocessing electronics in a planar configuration, was tested. The 

breadboard model of a lightweight, large-datacapacity, onboard processor was successfully 

demonstrated against real target and background data 

from the Hi-Camp airborne imaging spectroradiometer. The Teal Ruby space experiment to 

demonstrate detection and to space-qualify firstgeneration infrared mosaic detectors was being 

prepared for Space Shuttle launch in 1983. Quantity 

production of Teal Ruby mosaic chips using the fully 

automated cryogenic test set was performancequalified. DARPA completed the system requirements 

review of the advanced sensor demonstration program 

to demonstrate advanced surveillance missions and the 

technology base developed to support them; an 

integrated-sensor spacecraft was being designed for 

launch into geosynchronous orbit in 1987. Technology 

development continued for key components and concepts for space-based radar, including transmitter, 

large lightweight phased arrays, and onboard signal 

processing components. Miniature low-cost radar 

transceiver modules were designed using integratedcircuit technology, and test circuits were fabricated. 

DARPA continued design and analysis for the Talon 

Gold experiment to develop space technologies for 

precision acquisition, tracking, and pointing at long 

range. 

In missile surveillance technology, a successful 

rocket probe experiment in May 1980 at White Sands 

Missile Range obtained rocket plume data for design 

of a follow-on surveillance system. A successful test 

flight of a new high-altitude balloon platform design 

in May 1980 paved the way for future missions to provide required earth background data. Future rocket 

probes will gather data over a larger variety of conditions. Measurements from laboratory experiments and 

from other platforms will round out this comprehensive measurements program. 

The Distant Early Warning (DEW) L’ me constructed in the 1950s is our only atmospheric tactical warning system. Replacement and upgrading of this 

capability was being considered by the Air Force 

because the installation provides a marginal capability. During 1980, an effort was started to identify 

space-based and ground-based alternatives to improve 

this capability. Near-term and far-term multimission 

space-based alternatives making use of two different 

phenomenologies were designed. Additional effort was 

planned to advance selected alternatives from a con40 
ceptual design into full-scale engineering development 

during the 1980s. 

Space Shuttle Activities 

tions. Future emphasis will continue on increasing 

satellite autonomy by augmenting onboard processing 

and fault recovery. Lightweight metal-gas batteries 

have been tested in space, and future efforts will optimize performance. High-efficency, radiationThe National Aeronautics and Space Administration has overall responsibility for development of the 

Space Transportation System (STS); DoD is fully committed to using it. By the mid-l980s, DoD will be nearly totally dependent on the Shuttle for supporting national security space missions. 

The Air Force, acting as the agent for DoD, has 

responsibility for developing the inertial upper stage 

(IUS), which will deliver DoD spacecraft to higher orbital altitudes and inclinations than can the Shuttle 

alone. In 1980, IUS development continued, with 

some problems; technical difficulties and cost overruns 

were being resolved, and the IUS was expected to be 

ready for planned missions. The Air Force also plans 

to use the IUS on the Titan III(34)D launch vehicle 

during the transition from Titan I11 to Shuttle. 

DoD also will provide a Shuttle launch and landing 

capability at Vandenberg Air Force Base to support 

high-inclination, sun-synchronous polar or near-polar 

orbital launches. Performance loss in launches to these 

orbits from the East Coast Kennedy Space Center 

would be unacceptable. The Air Force continued work 

in 1980 to complete construction of the Vandenberg 

facility. Initial operational capability is scheduled for 

1984. 

Space Research and Technology 

Environmental Studies. The Air Force Geophysics 

Laboratory (AFGL) has begun, with NASA, a program to specify environmental conditions in space that 

affect space systems. Critical focus on this area is recent and is a result of identifying spacecraftenvironment interactions as the cause of certain 

satellite failures. AFGL is studying environmental effects on large space structures and system applications, 

with programs studying the radiation belts, cosmic ray 

effects, and charged-particle beam interactions in 

space. The cryogenic infrared radiance instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) project will closely examine 

atmospheric background for an increasing number of 

system applications in infrared technology. It was 

sheduled for an early Shuttle flight and will also examine the Space Shuttle contamination issues. 

Space Subsystems. In a continuing effort to improve 

space subsytems, fabrication of an autonomous 

navigation system for satellites was nearing completion, and a semioperational model of a fault-tolerant 

computer was demonstrated. Both of these subsystems 

will reduce the dependence of satellites on ground stahardened silicon solar cellshave been demonstrated; 

future efforts will exploit greater gains from new 

materials. Long-life, monopropellant, secondary propulsion thrusters have been successully evaluated. 

Future emphasis will be placed on high-performance, 

precision, electronic thrusters for attitude control and 

station -keeping. 

Spacecraft Charging Technology. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory is still active in the joint USAFNavy-NASA spacecraft-charging technology program. 

Preliminary models of the natural environment 

leading to spacecraft electrical charging have been 

developed. Data from the Air Force test program’s 

Spacecraft Charging at High Altitudes Scatha 

satellite, launched in January 1979, are being used to 

update these models. Scatha satellite instrumentation, 

supplied by the Air Force, included electrostatic 

analyzers, charged-particle flux spectrometers, and 

electron and ion beam systems that have demonstrated 

the feasibility of controlling satellite charging and 

discharging. Close coordination between the interdependent activities of the Air Force, Navy, and 

NASA continues through the joint program. 

Space Applications for High-Energy Lasers. The 

Air Force and DARPA are assessing the feasibility of 

space deployment of high-energy laser systems for a 

variety of potential mission applications. System 

definition for weapon-grade lasers on space platforms 

will be a major effort, as will determining the effectiveness of laser systems as compared to other 

technologies proposed for the same applications. 

Preliminary results of this effort, begun in late fiscal 

1980, were to be completed in the middle of fiscal 

1981, with refined system analyses to follow. 

Cryogenic Cooler for Space Infrared Sensors. The 

Air Force has successfully integrated a high-capacity 

cryogenic refrigerator with a large infrared sensor 

needed for advanced space surveillance satellites. An 

important part of the overall Space Defense Systems 

program is the development of advanced infrared sensors for use on Air Force satellites in essential 

surveillance and detection missions. Critical components in these sensors must be cooled to very low 

(cryogenic) temperatures. The cryo-coolers must have 

very little vibration to be compatible with the sensors 

and must be rugged and efficient for use on a 

spacecraft for long periods of time. 

A high-capacity Vuilleumier-cycle cryogenic 

refrigerator was used to test the space infrared sensor 

(SIRE), which marked a major milestone in the 

development of cry0 -coolers for space applications. 

41 
The cryo-coolers easily provided the very low 

temperatures needed for sensor operation. 

Space Ground Support 

DoD space and missile activities are principally supported by the Air Force’s Eastern and Western Space 

and Missile Centers, Satellite Control Facility, Arnold 

Engineering Development Center, and the Army’s 

White Sands and Kwajalein Missile Ranges. These 

facilities are available for use by federal agencies and 

industry, and support a wide variety of tests. 

Eastern Space and Mtisile Center (ESMC). ESMC 

supports a variety of DoD space and ballistic missile 

operations, NASA space programs, and commercial 

or international satellite launches under the sponsorship of NASA. During 1980, FSMC supported Navy 

testing of Poseidon and Trident fleet ballistic missiles. 

Launch and data-acquisition support was provided to 

NASA’s programs, the European Space Agency’s 

Ariane launch vehicle program, satellites for commercial organizations, and operational space payloads for 

the Air Force. ESMC supported the Air Force’s shortrange attack missile and the Army’s Pershing programs. The center also tested the DoD tracking network in support of the Space Shuttle, to be launched 

for orbital test flights from the Kennedy Space Center 

in 1981. 

Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC). WSMC 

is a major test facility, providing range tracking, data 

acquisition, and flight safety support for DoD ballistic 

missile and NASA and DoD space launches, as well as 

aeronautical tests at Vandenberg AFB. Some 75 

ballistic missile launches, space launches, and 

aeronautical flights were conducted in 1980. The major aeronautical program was the air-launched cruise 

missile. WSMC is planning and constructing launch, 

logistic, and maintenance facilities to support Space 

Shuttle and MX launches from Vandenberg. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF). The Department of 

the Air Force controls orbiting spacecraft through the 

SCF, a worldwide network of seven remote tracking 

sites and the Satellite Test Center (STC) at Sunnyvale, 

California. 

During 1980 the SCF supported 13 launches, including 8 DoD orbital missions, 1 NASA orbital mission, and 4 ballistic flight tests. Although major refurbishment of two tracking stations slightly reduced the 

network support available, 84 800 contacts totaling 

69 000 hours of support were provided to DoD satellite 

programs. Station projects included construction at 

Thule, Greenland, and antenna drive and radome 

overhaul at the Indian Ocean Station. The data 

system-modernization project continued through the 

stage I development phase. It consolidates data processing functions into a centralized system at the 

Satellite Test Center and provides much needed 

capacity and reduced operating costs. The stage I1 

production contract will be awarded in January 1981, 

with initial operations starting early in 1985. 

Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC). 

The CSOC will be a USAF ground control center housing the command and control functions required to 

conduct DoD Space Shuttle and satellite missions. The 

Satellite Test Center, a single critical control element, 

is vulnerable to possible natural catastrophe or hostile 

acts. In addition, the Satellite Control Facility work 

load has increased 125 percent in the last two years. By 

1985 the STC will have to support some 65 satellites; a 

second facility is needed to share the increasing work 

load and to eliminate dependence on the single control 

element at Sunnyvale. In February 1979 the Office of 

Management and Budget requested DoD and NASA 

to evaluate whether a joint mission control center or 

separate DoD and NASA facilities should be used to 

meet post-1985 Space Shuttle mission requirements. 

The agencies recommended a separate DoD facility to 

provide greater security for military missions. 

The two mission elements of satellite control and 

Space Shuttle operations are to be combined for 

management, operational, and economic efficiencies 

into CSOC. The satellite control element of CSOC will 

perform communications and command and control 

service functions for orbiting spacecraft. The Shuttle 

control element will conduct DoD flight planning, 

readiness, and control functions. It will provide direct 

mission authority over DoD Shuttle missions, respond 

to national priorities, and protect national security 

data. 

The preferred location for the CSOC is the Peterson 

Air Force Base and Colorado Springs area, with alternate locations at either Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, or 

Malmstrom AFB, Montana. Construction was 

scheduled to begin in fiscal 1983, with an initial 

operating capability in fiscal 1986. 

White Sands Missile Range. WSMR continued to 

support DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs, including NASA’s Space Shuttle, upper atmospheric sounding rockets and balloons, and a variety of astronomical test programs. The range was 

continuing preparation for a Shuttle landing. Past and 

ongoing efforts include constructing a second landing 

strip; constructing facilities for landing, deservicing, 

and departure; preparing a public affairs plan for 

visitors to the range during and after a landing; providing overall security support; and conducting 

astronaut recovery exercises. WSMR was training 

chase aircraft pilots for rendezvous and also is testing 

tracking acquisition and data transmission. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). KMR is operated 

by the U.S. Army as the major test range for our 

strategic missile forces, both offensive and defensive. 

The United States possesses no other comparable 

capability to collect signature data on objects outside 

the earth’s atmosphere, record missile reentry 

42 
phenomena, provide terminal trajectory and impact 

data, recover reentry vehicles when required, and 

transmit near-real-time data to mission sponsors. 

Missiles fired into KMR achieve mutual offensive and 

defensive test objectives and a continuous interchange 

of data among all developmental programs. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC). 

AEDC provides essential aerodynamics, space environment, and propulsion tests to accelerate development 

of aeronautical and space systems. It has supported 

virtually every major U.S. aerospace program. 

Operating 24 of 29 test units for more than 50 000 test 

hours in 1980, it supported such projects as MX, airlaunched cruise missile, Space Shuttle, intercontinental ballistic missile, and launch rocket motor tests. The 

Aeropropulsion System Test Facility will be ready for 

use in 1985 to test the large, high-performance turbojet and turbofan engines in a more realistic environment than can be attained today. Another test unit in 

planning is the turbine-engine load simulator (TELS), 

a centrifuge that will stress engines to simulate an inflight environment and at the same time x-ray the 

engine to determine abnormalities caused by g forces. 

TELS will reduce development and life-cycle maintenance costs. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircraft and Airborne Systems 

B-52 Squadrons Development Projects. Development programs for B-52 squadrons are dedicated to 

increasing their survivability and effectiveness. The offensive avionics system (OAS) will replace high-cost, 

low-reliability elements of the bombing-navigation 

system with nuclear-hardened digital subsystems on 

B-52G and H aircraft. The introduction of the airlaunched cruise missile (ALCM) weapon system has 

also been included in the B-52G modification program. Updated avionics will integrate this new weapon 

and ensure its effectiveness. The first flight of an OASmodified B-52 was in early September 1980 (one 

month ahead of schedule) at Boeing Military Airplane 

Company in Wichita. The test program was scheduled 

to end with launches of the short-range attack missile 

(SRAM) and ALCM in September 1981. The first full 

squadron was scheduled for alert in December 1982. 

Although the first priority has been improving B-52G 

and H effectiveness, through the 1980s other development projects will examine modification requirements 

for directed missions, evaluate aircraft nuclear hardness, and update the radar system. These latter programs seek aircraft survivability in the roles which the 

B-52 must face in its remaining life. 

Multirole Bomber. Although the B-52 aircraft 

should remain effective and economical as a standoff 

cruise-missile carrier into the 199Os, its ability to carry 

out the important penetration mission will be seriously 

degraded in the late 1980s by steadily escalating defensive threats. For this reason, the Congress directed the 

Department of Defense to pursue vigorously the 

development of a new mulitrole bomber, to be operational no later than 1987. The specific aircraft had not 

been selected in 1980; however, the leading candidates 

were variants of the B-1, a stretched and re-engined 

version of the FB-111 (termed the FB-lllB/C), and 

advanced technology aircraft. Congress directed that 

the aircraft be able to launch cruise missiles, carry 

conventional munitions, and deliver nuclear weapons 

in both the tactical and strategic role. DoD was required to provide a progress report to the Congress no 

later than 15 March 1981. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). The advanced 

attack helicopter was in the final stage of full-scale 

engineering development. In April 1980, Martin 

Marietta Aerospace was selected as the contractor for 

the target-acquisition designation sight (TADS) and 

pilot night-vision sensor (PNVS). By the end of 1980, 

all prototype helicopters had been modified for the 

TADWPNVS, a new stabilator, and other phase I1 

changes, and were committed to qualification of the 

total weapon system, to include TADS/PNVS, the 

Hellfire missiles, 30 mm cannon, and 70 mm rockets. 

In late 1980, Army test pilots conducted tests to 

establish flight envelopes for operational AAH tests. 

On 22 November 1980, one of the prototypes and a 

T-28 aircraft collided in flight, causing three fatalities 

and loss of both aircraft. The Army was assessing the 

effect of this loss on the program. 

CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization 

program will give the Army a medium-lift-helicopter 

capability beyond the year 2000. Engineering development begun in June 1976 has produced three prototype CH-47D models. The deputy secretary of 

defense on 20 October 1980 authorized full-scale production of the CH-47D beginning in fiscal 1981. The 

approved program will modernize the entire fleet of 

436 CH-47A, B, and C helicopters. Fielding of the first 

complete unit of 24 CH-47D helicopters was planned 

for early 1984. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV). The U.S. Army 

RPV system will perform target-acquisition, designation, aerial-reconnaissance, and artillery-adjustment 

missions. The system consists of a small unmanned air 

vehicle, its mission payload, launch and recovering 

equipment, and a ground control station. Collected 

video imagery and target-location information are 

returned to the station via a jam-resistant data link. A 

contract was awarded to Lockheed Missiles and Space 

Company on 31 August 1979 for full-scale engineering 

development of the RPV system, and work has continued during 1980. Finally delivered hardware will 

consist of 22 air vehicles, 18 mission payload subsystems, 4 ground control stations, and 3 launcher and 

3 recovery subsystems. First flight of the system was 

scheduled for August 1981. 

43 
C-X Transport. In November 1979 the C-X program was initiated to provide airlift capability to reinforce NATO or Korea rapidly and to make possible 

rapid response to contingencies worldwide. The program began with a comprehensive analysis of the 

overall airlift requirement and then concentrated on 

establishing the exact nature of the requirement for 

the C-X. A request for proposals was issued to industry 

on 15 October 1980, with responses due January 1981. 

The C-X requirement is for an aircraft that can 

transport the outsize and oversize firepower and support equipment of a modem army over intercontinental ranges. Full-scale development of the C-X was programmed in the summer of 1981. 

Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). A competitive flyoff between the Boeing Aerospace Company’s AGM-86B and General Dynamics’ AGM-109 

ALCM was conducted during 1979. The Boeing 

AGM-86B was selected as the winner. The secretary of 

defense on 30 April 1980 approved full production of 

the ALCM. Boeing was awarded a fiscal 1980 contract 

for 225 missiles with an option for 480 more in fiscal 

1981. The Air Force planned to buy more than 3000 

missiles for use on the B-52G aircraft during the 1980s. 

First alert capability of one B-52G loaded with 12 external ALCMs at Griffiss .AFB, New York, was 

scheduled for September 1981. The initial operational 

capability of the first B-52G squadron, each with 12 

externally loaded missiles, was planned for December 

1982. All B-52Gs will be equipped with 20 ALCMs 

each (12 external, 8 internal) by 1990. 

Tomahawk Cruise Missile. Tomahawk is a highsubsonic, turbofan, long-range missile sized to be fired 

from a submarine torpedo tube, but also launchable 

from surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground platforms. This missile is being developed in a conventionally armed antiship version and in nuclear and 

conventionally armed land-attack versions. The antiship Tomahawk will be an important complement to 

carrier -based aircraft in extending the Navy’s antiship 

capability over a broad ocean area. The stand-off 

capability afforded by Tomahawk will pose a credible 

threat to enemy surface forces at minimum risk to our 

launch platforms. Development of the land-attack 

missile will diversify the Navy’s theater nuclear and 

conventional strike power and complement carrier aircraft in strikes against heavily defended targets. 

Ground-Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). The 

GLCM will be part of the long-range theater-nuclearforce modernization to enhance deterrence, protect 

against failure of conventional forces, and increase 

theater nuclear firepower. The Air Force plans to procure 560 missiles. The GLCM system will integrate the 

Tomahawk cruise missile into an air-transportable 

ground-mobile system, which consists of a transportererector-launcher and a launch control center. The 

first launch of a Tomahawk from an engineering test 

unit was on 16 May 1980 at Dugway Proving Ground 

in Utah. Test objectives were achieved. At the end of 

1980, the system was in full-scale engineering development with operational capability planned for 1983. 

Advanced Cruise-Missile Technology. The advanced cruise-missile technology program develops 

technologies to increase cruise missile and carrier survivability against evolving enemy air defense systems. 

The program develops new cruise missile engines, advanced technology airframes, and more capable 

guidance and avionics systems. Propulsion work is 

directed at increasing thrust and reducing fuel consumption to improve range and performance of the 

missile as well as survivability of the carrier. The airframe development work is focused on reducing radar 

and infrared signatures to improve en route and target 

area survivability of the missile. Guidance and avionics 

work is aligned toward improving obstacle clearance 

capabilities at low altitude and improving terrainfollowing for survivability. 

Aeronautical Research and Development 

Joint Tactical Information Distribution System 

QTIDS). The JTIDS will be a crypto-secure, highcapacity, digital information-distribution system. Using spread-spectrum and time -division multiple-access 

technology, it will be capable of interconnecting all 

participants in tactical military operations to provide 

jam-resistant communications, position references in a 

common set of grid coordinates, and secure identification of friendly force elements. The initial application 

of the system will be in the Air Force E-3A airborne 

warning and control system (AWACS). Flight-testing 

of the E-3A terminal had been completed, and 

performance requirements successfully demonstrated. 

Full-scale development of a fighter aircraft terminal 

was to begin in early 1981. 

Power-by-Wire Control. The Air Force has designed, fabricated, and bench-tested an electromechanical actuation unit to demonstrate the 

feasibility of moving aircraft flight -control surfaces 

without hydraulic power. The electromechanical actuation unit converts the fly-by-wire electrical flight ~ 

control signal directly to rotary surface motion by using electrical power only (the power-by-wire concept). 

It features innovative use of samarium-cobalt, 

permanent-magnet, brushless motors with electronic 

communication. The unit is 10 centimeters in 

diameter and integrated with the control surface 

hingeline. Testing in the laboratory demonstrated that 

the unit provided the performance and redundancy 

characteristics required for the B-52 dual-tandem, 

hydraulic-elevator actuator. 

Conventional airplane secondary power systems provide both electrical and hydraulic power, the latter exclusively for actuation. Once electromechanical actuation can be shown to be competitive with hydraulic actuation -i.e., giving equivalent performance for the 

44 
same weight and space-the way is paved to remove 

hydraulics, and its unique problems and combat 

hazards, from future airplanes. 

Aeroelastic Tailoring of Composite Materials. 

Wind-tunnel tests by the Flight Dynamics Laboratory 

of the Air Force demonstrated that, through the use of 

aeroelastic tailoring with advanced composite 

material, the behavior of a wing under loading can be 

controlled. Aeroelastic tailoring orients the directional 

properties of fibrous composite materials in wing skins 

in optimum directions to obtain desired wing flexure. 

By aeroelastic tailoring the aerodynamic performance 

of a wing can be optimized over a broad range of flight 

conditions, thus making more options available to the 

aircraft designer. 

Aircraft Propulsion Subsystem Integration (A PSI). 

The APSI program is a joint Air Force and Navy program. A unique effort integrates the advanced highpressure core engine components from the advanced 

turbine-engine gas-generator (ATEGG) program with 

new low-pressure components (fans, fan turbines and 

controls) from the APSI program to form a full-scale 

technology demonstrator engine. This effort combined with independent demonstration and assessment 

of inlets, exhaust nozzles, and afterburners permits the 

characterization of advanced engine technologies as 

complete propulsion systems. Accomplishments include initial performance-testing of the jointtechnology demonstrator engine (JTDE) for longer 

durability, initial application of life-cycle cost models 

to the evaluation of advanced component designs, 

verification of structural life-prediction and correlation models, and assessment of the operational 

benefits of variable-cycle engines. Follow-on JTDE 

testing will emphasize comprehensive mechanical integration and performance-testing and durability 

characterization. 

Advanced Digital- Optical Control System. This 

program is to provide Army helicopters with an advanced flight-control system that substantially increases mission effectiveness while reducing cost and 

weight. Redundant digital-optical hardware will be 

developed to protect against lightning, electromagnetic pulse, and nuclear radiation. Optics are 

completely immune to electrical interferences and will 

therefore provide protection even with the newer composite structures that offer no inherent electrical 

shielding. 

Reducing pilot work load has been a long-standing 

requirement. Previous studies have shown that the improved handling qualities and control laws attainable 

with modern flight-control technology will significantly improve mission effectiveness and reduce pilot work 

load. In fiscal 1980, 10 component development and 

conceptual design contracts were awarded to start industry working on optical-control system elements. In 

late fiscal 1981, a contract will be awarded to design, 

fabricate, and flight-test a redundant optical system, 

in a government-furnished helicopter. After optimization and Army preliminary evaluation, the helicopter 

will be used to demonstrate the control-system improvement to the user community. 

Circulation Control Rotor. The circulation control 

rotor being developed by the Navy has a potential for 

increased hover -lift capability that could significantly 

increase cargo or troop lift capacity for vertical 

replenishment and marine assault missions. It is 

basically a shaft-driven rotor system with boundary 

layer control employing a unique air-blowing technique. By tangential blowing through a hollow blade 

over a rounded trailing edge, the rotor can generate 

high lift. Cyclic control and higher harmonic control 

are provided by blowing modulation. 

Conventional helicopter components such as flapping hinges, lead-lag hinges, and associated swash 

plates are therefore eliminated. Whirl-tower tests have 

demonstrated a lift capability of more than 7700 

kilograms on the 13.5-meter-diameter rotor. NASA 

Ames wind-tunnel tests showed the rotor capable of 

trimmed flight of 260 kilometers per hour. The first 

hover flight was made in September 1979. During the 

last flight in November 1979, control problems in the 

pitch mode were met during transition to forward 

flight. After redesign and engineering to correct this 

problem, final testing began in November 1980. 

Synthetic Flight- Training System (SFTS). Following 

Army testing, the flight simulator for the AH-1 attack 

helicopter was classified as standard in May 1980. A 

closed-circuit television system and a threedimensional terrain model board provide a realistic 

visual display for the first Army flight simulator that 

can support flight and aerial weapon qualifications 

and proficiency training. A multiyear production contract for five AH-1 simulators was to be awarded in 

calendar 1981, with deliveries through fiscal 1985. 

The prototype simulator was being used in an aviator 

training program at Fort Rucker, Alabama. 

The Army accepted the UH-GOA Black Hawk prototype flight simulator from the contractor in 

February 1980 at Fort Rucker. Developmental and 

operational testing was to continue during fiscal 1981, 

leading to type classification. The prototype simulator 

was developed with two cockpit training stations, one 

incorporating a closed-circuit-television visualpresentation system and the other a computer imagegeneration system. The latter will be fully evaluated 

during operational testing to determine the most 

effective approach to visionics for the final production 

unit. 

Advanced Composite Airframe Program (ACAP). 

Previous design studies and test results have shown 

that the weight and cost of the major structural components of a helicopter can be reduced by application 

of advanced structural concepts and composite 

materials. ACAP is a concerted effort to demonstrate 

improvements in system performance and capability 

45 
(reduced weight and cost; increased producibility ; and 

potential for improvements in reliability, maintainability, vulnerability, safety, and survivability) by 

developing and flight-testing a helicopter incorporating these materials and concepts for both 

primary and secondary structures. It is a three-phased 

program for design, fabrication, structural test, and 

flight demonstration. The primary components to be 

developed, the airframe and landing gear, will be 

designed for a utility helicopter with a design gross 

weight of 4500 kilograms or less. 

In phase I, multiple contracts were awarded 31 

August 1979 to Bell Helicopter, Boeing-Vertol, 

Hughes Helicopters, Kaman Aerospace, and Sikorsky 

Aircraft for preliminary design and analysis. Phase I 

includes establishment of a baseline aircraft design; 

development of advanced structural, ballistic-weapontolerant, and low radar-cross-section airframe design 

concepts; evaluation of compatible manufacturing 

techniques; and identification of technical risk areas. 

Two contracts were to be awarded for phase 11 and 

111, with a planned award date of March 1981. Phase 

I1 will consist of detailed development, fabrication, 

and test of critical airframe sections (e.g., joints, 

cutouts, and attachments) to ensure efficient structures and compatible manufacturing techniques and 

to minimize technical risks for the remainder of the 

ACAP effort. 

Phase 111 will consist of final detailed design of the 

ACAP vehicle, fabrication of full-scale hardware, 

laboratory structural tests, flight-vehicle ground tests, 

and about 25 hours of flight test. 

Relations with NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) is the principal formal coordination 

mechanism between DoD and NASA, taking up major 

policy issues of mutual interest in aeronautics and 

space activities. During 1980 significant adjustments 

were made in the NASA Space Transportation System 

(STS) and IUS development schedules. These changes 

required continuing review by the AACB to ensure 

that DoD and NASA activities remain carefully keyed 

to each other. 

In March 1980, the NASA-DoD memorandum of 

understanding on management and operation of the 

STS was revised to reflect current understandings on 

policies, principles, organizational roles and responsibilities. 

The board also reviewed the STS survivability plan, 

which proposed additional measures for protection 

and maintenance of the system. Elements of the plan 

were being coordinated with NASA. The major element was increased physical protection at the launch 

bases. Also reviewed were requirements for protection 

of classified information at other STS operating locations (Kennedy Space Center and Goddard Space 

Flight Center) and additional protection for the command links on the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System. Programs to correct deficiencies in these areas 

were in coordination with NASA. 

Cooperatiue Programs 

DoD continued to participate in joint activities with 

NASA and other agencies during 1980. One of the 

most important projects, the Space Shuttle, has been 

previously described. Other programs of interest are: 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). A joint 

Army-NASA contract for design and fabrication of 

two rotor-system research aircraft led to completion 

and acceptance of two aircraft to serve as “flying wind 

tunnels” for helicopter research. The design permits 

inflight testing of full-scale main rotor systems having 

from two to six blades. The design also permits addition of fixed wings and thrusting engines for rotor 

testing at flight speeds up to 555 kilometers per hour. 

These two aircraft will provide data to help solve 

aerodynamic problems that are now mathematically 

intractable and cannot be solved without precise flight 

research results. The aircraft with the first set of rotor 

blades completed its developmental flight testing as a 

pure helicopter, as a compound with thrusting 

engines, and as an all-up compound with thrusting 

engines and augmenting wings and was at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center. The RSRA vehicles will be 

used to test and optimize the performance of various 

candidate rotor designs and to obtain data for prediction methodology. 

X V-15 Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft. The tilt-rotor 

research aircraft program achieved several major 

milestones in 1980. The XV-15 aircraft development 

phase was completed in September 1979, after which 

the flight envelope was expanded to a speed of 555 

kilometers per hour and to altitudes of about 4570 

meters. Proof-of-concept tests were completed at the 

contractor’s facility in July 1980. Aircraft no. 2 (NASA 

703) was then transported to the Dryden Flight 

Research Center for ground and tiedown tests, which 

were completed, and the aircraft was made ready for 

continuation of envelope expansion and beginning of 

flight tests leading to government acceptance, 

scheduled for 1981. 

At Ames, aircraft no. 1 (NASA 702) was refurbished 

and restored from its wind-tunnel configuration to 

flight status in September 1980. Testing at Ames was 

to begin in 1981. 

Pilot evaluation of the tilt -rotor research aircraft 

has been favorable in all flight modes. In the 

helicopter mode, the aircraft is a stable platform that 

permits precision hover and agility with low pilot work 

load. Conversions and reconversions between the 
helicopter and the airplane mode are uncomplicated, ther investigation. Overall, the structural, aeroelastic, 

easy to perform, and provide accelerations or and flying characteristics of the XV-15 demonstrate 

decelerations that are impressive. Although handling that the tilt rotor is a viable, versatile, and unique 

qualities are excellent within the envelope investigated V/STOL concept with potential for both civil and 

to date, some unusual gust responses will require fur- military application. 

47 
Department of Commerce 

Department of Commerce agencies taking part in 

the nation’s aeronautics and space programs are the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 

the National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA), the Maritime Administration 

(MARAD), and the Bureau of the Census (BOC). 

NOAA’s mission is to ensure the safety and welfare 

of the general public and improve the quality of life 

through efficient use of its resources. To accomplish 

this mission, NOAA operates, manages, and improves 

the nation’s operational environmental satellite 

systems; observes and reports weather conditions, 

issues forecasts and warnings of severe weather and 

floods, and assists community preparedness programs 

for weather-related national disasters; uses satellite 

data and aerial photography for charting, coastal 

mapping, and geodetic research; employs satellite 

data to improve the assessment and conservation of 

marine life; archives and disseminates satellite data to 

meet the needs of users in the public, private, and 

scientific communities; and uses satellite data in 

research programs aimed at improving the nation’s environmental services. 

NBS maintains and develops the national standards 

of measurement and provides government, industry, 

and academia the measurement services and fundamental physical, chemical, and engineering data to 

achieve national goals. In the nation’s aeronautics and 

space program, NBS provides measurement support 

services for space and satellite systems, atmospheric 

and space research, and aeronautical programs. 

NTIA, principal communications adviser to the 

president, develops and coordinates executive branch 

policy in telecommunications and information. NTIA 

also is responsible for managing the radio spectrum 

assigned for federal use, explores applications for 

telecommunications technology, makes applied scientific and engineering analyses to improve technology, 

and provides technical assistance to other federal 

agencies. 

MARAD works to improve ship safety, operations, 

and management. Use of satellites increases the efficiency of commercial ship communication, navigation, and operation. 

BOC improves information on population trends, 

urban growth, and the internal structure of national 

land areas by using satellite data for demographic 

studies and population estimates. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. During 1980, Tiros-N and 

Noaa 6 continued as the two polar-orbiting satellites 

operated by the National Earth Satellite Service 

(NESS). On SO May 1980, Noaa-B was launched but 

failed to achieve an operational orbit because of a 

launch vehicle malfunction. 

Tiros-N and Nom 6, operating in sun-synchronous 

orbits of 870 and 830 kilometers, provide environmental observations of the entire earth four times each 

day. Tiros-N crosses the equator in a northward direction at 3:30 p.m. local time, and Noaa 6 crosses the 

equator in a southward direction at 7:30 a.m. local 

time. 

Redundancy is achieved by two similar satellites 

rather than by identical instruments on a single 

satellite. The NOAA system satellites carry four 

primary instruments: an advanced very-highresolution radiometer; a Tiros operational vertical 

sounder, consisting of three complementary sounding 

instruments, one provided by the United Kingdom; an 

Argos data-collection and platform-location system 

furnished by France; and a space environment 

monitor. 

Geostationay Satellites. NOAA’s Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system is 

the successor to NASA’s prototype Synchronous 

Meteorological Satellites (SMS). Since 1974, two SMS 

and four GOES satellites have been launched. At the 

end of 1980, SMS 2 and Goes 3 were covering the 

Western Hemisphere-SMS 2 over the equator at 75’ 

west longitude and Goes 3 at 135O. SMS 1, Goes 1, and 

Goes 2 were on standby, providing limited operational 
support for weather facsimile service and data collection. The primary instrument on these satellites is the 

visible-infrared spin-scan radiometer (VISSR). They 

each also carry a space environment monitor, a datacollection system, and weather facsimile broadcast service. 

On 9 September 1980, Goes 4 was successfully 

launched. In orbit 35 800 kilometers over the equator 

at 98OW., Goes 4 is equipped with a new radiometer, 

the VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS). In addition to 

traditional images of the earth’s surface and cloud 

cover, the VAS will record atmospheric temperatures 

and water vapor content at various altitudes. Goes 4 is 

the first environmental satellite in the nation’s space 

program launched with a combined research and 

operational capacity - a dual use designed to save 

funds. Except when NOAA is using the satellite operationally, NASA will use it to test the VAS. The new 

sounder has several potential advantages over the 

VISSR instrument carried by Goes 1, 2, and 3: 

multispectral imaging with 12 infrared channels instead of the VISSR’s 1; ability to use these channels to 

derive temperature and moisture data; and ability to 

select area of interest, data of interest, and frequency 

of coverage. 

A new feature was added to the space environment 

monitor on Goes 4. The system-which detects 

unusual solar flares with high levels of radiation, 

measures intensity of solar winds, and measures 

strength and direction of the earth’s magnetic field -is 

the same as on previous GOES satellites except for the 

addition of a high-energy-proton and alpha detector 

to expand its dynamic range. 

The reception of imagery from the Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite, Himawari (launched 

by NASA in 1977), became fully operational by 

mid-1980. This imagery, received every six hours, provides excellent weather information for aviation, 

shipping, and other purposes from Hawaii to eastern 

Asia, India, and Australia. Images, received at 

Honolulu, also are sent directly to Washington for use 

by NOAA’s National Meteorological Center, and from 

there relayed to Anchorage to support NOAA’s 

weather forecasting activities in Alaska. 

Land Satellites. On 16 November 1979, the president assigned NOAA management responsibility for 

all civil operational remote-sensing activities from 

space. The Department of Commerce was directed to 

develop a transition plan for moving to an operational, land remote-sensing satellite system. Accordingly, NOAA, with NASA and other interested federal 

agencies, has developed the plan for transition from 

the present, experimental, NASA Landsat program to 

an operational NOAA program. 

A public document, Planning for a Civil Operational Land Remote Sensing Satellite System: A 

Discussion of Issues and Options issued by NOAA’s 

Satellite Task Force on 20 June 1980, identified policy 

and technical issues to be resolved for a fully operational system: continuity of data during the 1980s; 

user requirements and performance options; revenues, 

pricing policies, and financial assistance; institutional 

approaches to private sector ownership; market expansion; international implications; and required 

legislative and regulatory authorities. The document 

also discussed the creation of an interagency Program 

Board for continuing federal coordination and regulation and a Land Remote Sensing Advisory Committee 

of 15 representatives from the interested, domestic 

nonfederal users. 

More than 1500 copies of the plan were distributed 

to members of Congress, foreign governments, state 

and local organizations, and private industry. NOAA 

was assessing comments and developing its budget and 

legislative proposals for submission to Congress. 

Satellite Data Dzitribution. During 1980, NESS 

eliminated the photo laboratory at its San Francisco 

Satellite Field Services Station (SFSS) and now uses a 

dry-paper, image-processing device for satellite image 

display. The second phase of the SFSS upgrade will 

begin with the initial delivery of the electronic animation system that provides image display using video 

storage. Significant dollar savings have already been 

made, and further savings are anticipated. The new 

system offers low capital investment, low cost for expendables, reliability, and unattended operation. 

The GOES weather facsimile (WEFAX) service is 

broadcast from three geostationary satellites located at 

75OW, 105OW, and 135OW. WEFAX users in 1980 

numbered some 88 national and international fixed 

land stations, more than 60 mobile stations on ships, 

and military strike teams. More than 230 sectors are 

broadcast over this system every day, in addition to 

standard meteorological products. 

“AM Weather”- the TV weather program produced by the Maryland Center for Public Broadcasting in cooperation with NOAA, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the Aircraft Owners 

and Pilots Association -improved its program during 

1980. Agriculture and marine weather information 

was added to the aviation-oriented program. Also, 

new electronic equipment made possible the 

automatic animation of geostationary satellite images. 

For example, “AM Weather” devoted special attention 

to Hurricane Allen. For Puerto Rico and the Virgin 

Islands, this was the only satellite animation the public 

had available to watch the daily progress of this record 

storm. 

The GOES Data Collection System (DCS) at the end 

of 1980 had more than 1200 data-collection platforms 

operated by 54 national and international users. Two 

new direct-readout stations went into use in 1980, with 

three more expected to become active during the next 

year. Revised platform certification standards were 

developed to cover emergency, interrogation, random 

reporting, and self-timed platforms. These new stand49 
ards extend the oscillator stabilities to -4OoC, improving performance in cold environments. 

After the GOES DCS automated monitoring system 

becomes operational in 1981, a random reporting 

feature will be added. Random reporting permits a 

data-collection platform to transmit a short emergency message, based on preset thresholds, on the 

same channel that it routinely uses to report. The present emergency system requires an alternate channel to 

be used for nonscheduled broadcasts. 

The GOES-Tap system, which became operational 

in 1975 to disseminate over standard telephone circuits 

satellite weather images by geographic sectors, continues to expand. In 1980, installation of GOES-Taps 

for all FAA Air Route Traffic Control Centers 

(ARTCC) was completed, allowing FAA controllers to 

monitor changing weather systems every half hour and 

improving the NWS short-range forecast service to 

them. The FAA program includes a Washington Central Facility, 22 ARTCCs, and many of the Enroute 

Flight Advisory Service stations. The original GOESTap program, which included lines at 50 National 

Weather Service Forecast offices, has expanded to a 

total 170 GOES-Taps and more than 200 Weather 

Service Office Taps. 

Satellite Data Sem’ce Support. NOAA’s Environmental Data and Information Service (EDIS) 

continued special climatological support to NASA 

during 1980. EDIS archived and published 

meteorological rocket observations of wind, 

temperature, and density for altitudes of 20 to 80 

kilometers, obtained from a 30-station worldwide network. The data are used to determine the wind and 

thermodynamic stresses experienced by spacecraft, including the Space Shuttle, during launch and reentry. 

In addition, EDIS extracted and digitized hourly peak 

wind data for Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and 

digitized and quality-controlled hourly surface 

weather observations for that station and for 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, to support space vehicle 

launches. EDIS also provided serially complete observations of wind speed and direction at 1-kilometer intervals from the surface to 30 kilometers for 

Vandenberg, for modeling environmental conditions 

expected during Shuttle recovery. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Determining Winds and Temperatures. Vertical 

temperature and humidity measurements of the atmosphere and global-scale sea surface temperatures 

are obtained from the polar-orbiting satellites, and 

winds are derived from cloud motions observed in the 

geostationary satellite pictures. The data are given to 

the National Weather Service and the Department of 

Defense for global numerical analysis and forecasting 

models, providing important information on the state 

of the atmosphere, particularly in areas such as the 

oceans and the Southern Hemisphere where conventional meteorological observations are lacking. During 

1980, research focused on improving techniques to 

derive atmospheric temperature and humidity 

soundings and winds from satellite data. In addition, 

research is obtaining soundings and wind data in areas 

associated with developing storms. Advances have 

been made in applying satellite soundings to mesoscale 

(local area) analyses. Research has demonstrated that 

significant information can be derived on small-scale 

disturbances that produce severe weather such as 

thunderstorms and tornadoes. 

Twice-daily measurements of sea surface 

temperature (SST) are obtained from satellite infrared 

data in cloud-free regions of the world’s oceans. These 

measurements are transmitted to the National 

Weather Service, the US. Navy, and worldwide users 

for applications in meteorology, national defense, 

fisheries, and oceanographic research. In addition, 

computer-produced contour charts of satellite-derived 

SSTs are prepared defining the large-scale, worldwide 

temperatures as well as small-scale detail for the 

waters adjacent the United States. SST charts, summarizing periods ranging from one day to one month, 

are sent to users by mail. During 1980, the accuracy of 

individual SST measurements was improved by more 

precise determination of intervening atmospheric 

effects on the infrared signal from the sea surface. A 

multichannel approach to calculating corrections for 

these atmospheric effects has been tested successfully 

and will be put into use in 1981. SST charts also were 

made more accurate, more easily interpreted, and 

more useful for monitoring the quality of the satellite 

data. 

The NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory contracted for a hardware feasibility study of the Windsat, a satellite to be capable of measuring the global 

winds by an onboard, pulsed, doppler lidar (laser light 

detection and ranging). The study concluded that 

there are no hardware or technological barriers to 

achieving the Windsat goal. A ground-based model of 

a pulsed infrared doppler lidar demonstrated windmeasuring capabilities to ranges greater than 25 

kilometers. By scaling the laser energy and optics size 

to sizes anticipated for the satellite, the analytical 

results of the hardware feasibility study were experimentally confirmed. 

Monitoring Global Radiation. A part of the 

national climate program is the radiation budget of 

the earth and related cloud climatology. Data from 

NASA’s Nimbus 7 earth radiation budget experiment 

are improving the accuracy of determining radiative 

heat gains or losses of the earth. This accuracy results 

from improved instrument design and from advanced 

models of bidirectional reflection and emission of 

radiation from earth and cloud surfaces. The models, 

critical in the interpretation of satellite measurements, 

will be employed in future operational radiation 
budget programs using NOAA satellite data. Methods 

have been developed to determine cloud type and 

amount with data from another Nimbus 7instrument. 

Research is in progress to determine the suitability of 

the results for a global cloud climatology, a requirement of the national and international climate programs. 

Environmental Warning Services. The eruption of 

Mount Saint Helens was monitored and tracked by 

both polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites. Information on movement, density, and spread of the 

resulting smoke and ash plume was used in routing aircraft, evacuation activities, and clean-up efforts. 

Estimates of the location and movement of the plume 

were provided to numerous U.S. and foreign government agencies and television stations. 

In 1980, NESS continued to study satellite picture 

data to improve detection of hurricanes, tornadoes, 

flash floods, severe thunderstorms, blizzards, and 

dense fogs. Methods are being developed to obtain 

quantitative information that can be applied to shortrange warnings to the general public and to 

agricultural, aviation, and marine interests. Recent 

accomplishments include developing techniques for 

making quantitative rainfall estimates from satellite 

infrared imagery with interactive computers. The 

estimates are used for flash-flood warnings. Methods 

for processing data and preparing products also are 

being improved, so that they can be easily understood 

and used. Temperature measurements for fruit-frost 

warnings and cloud-top heights for aviation are examples of this work, as is NESS participation in the 

Prototype Regional Observing and Forecasting Service 

(PROFS). 

To improve satellite support to the National 

Weather Service’s National Flash-Flood Program, 

NESS is developing methods to provide operational 

estimates of intense convective rainfall. Estimates will 

be made by new interactive computer technology. 

Meteorologists will begin to use a video graphics terminal to analyze rainfall amounts from GOES images. 

The half -hourly estimates will be summed over the 

observing period and displayed with county or state 

grids. First tests were completed using imagery of Hurricane Allen. When the new technology is operational, 

dissemination of satellite-derived flash-flood products 

will be faster and additional customers will have access 

to the information. Interactive computer programs 

will reduce data handling, increase use of computer 

resources, and make information more rapidly 

available. The system also is a step toward eliminating 

photographic requirements and converting to an allelectronic imagery displaying system. 

During 1980, the Scofield-Oliver technique for 

estimating rainfall from cold-topped convective 

thunderstorms was refined and became operational. 

This technique is used in real-time to help 

meteorologists and hydrologists evaluate or predict 

flood potential and issue flash-flood warnings. A 

modification of the technique for estimating rainfall 

from warm-topped convective storms has been 

developed and is now being tested. NESS is developing 

additional techniques for estimating precipitation 

from large-scale storms. 

NOAA’s National Hurricane Research Laboratory 

(NHRL) has continued to use satellite data for its 

research into hurricanes and convective cloud systems. 

In cooperation with NESS and NASA, NHRL continued to analyze rapid-scan visible and infrared 

satellite data to develop and improve techniques for 

estimating rainfall in hurricanes. Data collected concurrently from the east and west GOES satellite 

systems for Hurricane Frederic in 1979 were used. The 

data were collected nearly simultaneously with 

measurements made by NOAA’s research aircraft 

before and during Frederick landfall. Stereographic 

analysis of cloudtop heights was compared with vertically scanning airborne radar estimates of rain-echo 

heights. Good agreement was found in the eyewall and 

in convectively active rainbands. Additionally, upper 

cloud motions determined from satellite data have led 

to detailed analysis of upper flow features in the vicinity of Hurricane Frederic as it redeveloped over Cuba. 

Detection of these mesoscale upper flow features, 

which would have gone undetected by conventional 

means, is contributing to our understanding of storm 

development. 

NHRL continued to evaluate microwave technology 

for use in remotely detecting meteorological 

parameters in hurricanes. Active and passive 

microwave data in hurricanes from the 1978 Seasat 

satellite experiment have shown that surface-wind 

fields in all but the inner core of a storm can be determined within 10 percent accuracy after correcting for 

rainfall attenuation. However, poor spatial resolution 

near the hurricane’s core prevents accurate measurement of the strongest winds. Airborne microwave 

measurements suggest that if satellite spatial resolution could be improved, hurricane-force winds could 

be measured. 

Seasat passive microwave measurements have shown 

that area average rainfall rates can be accurately 

determined from satellites, although spatial resolution 

is somewhat crude. Sea surface temperature estimates 

made by Seasat are being evaluated in the vicinity of 

hurricanes, well ahead of and behind the storm. 

Recent improvements in computer programs are 

leading to accuracies of f 1OC. 

NOAA’s Office of Weather Research and Modification uses digital satellite imagery in convective cloud 

research, focusing primarily on a satellite rainestimation technique that uses thermal infrared data 

from geostationary satellites and a one-dimensional 

cumulus cloud model. The method permits application of the technique, derived for a semitropical area, 

to extratropical regions. Success has been obtained for 

51 
two test locations: the U.S. High Plains and the Sahel 

region in northwestern Africa. The satellite rainestimation technique also was used to determine possible outside area effects of cloud seeding in the 

Florida area cumulus experiment and to estimate attenuation in the Seasat scatterometer signals due to 

precipitation. 

NOAA has established the Prototype Regional 

Observing and Forecasting Service (PROFS) to improve short -range, locally specific weather services. 

PROFS will coordinate available and emerging observational data, data handling, and information 

dissemination technologies. It has established communications links with satellite receiving stations at 

Colorado State University and the University of 

Wisconsin. In close cooperation with NESS’S regional 

and mesoscale meteorology project at Colorado State, 

PROFS is developing and testing techniques to combine satellite, radar, surface meteorological network, 

and ground-based sounding data to produce improved 

short-term (up to 12-hour), local-scale (metropolitanarea) forecasts. Initial applications will emphasize 

severe-storm and flash-flood warning services. 

Special use of satellite data aided fire fighters and 

agricultural interests in the western United States. 

Both fire-weather and agricultural forecasts depend 

on small-scale weather systems that cannot be identified by analysis of standard reports but are studied by 

detailed analysis of still and animated satellite 

photographs. The exact position, dimension, and 

movement of the moisture fields in the middle or lower 

layers of the atmosphere, as well as small-scale disturbances within these fields, can be valuable in 

forecasting fire conditions. Minimum temperature, a 

critical element for fruit growers, often depends on the 

length of time a cloud area will cover an orchard at 

night. NWS forecasters monitor the thickness and 

height of clouds, which control the rate of heat loss 

from the ground. 

The Anchorage Satellite Field Services Station used 

real-time GOES animated imagery during the latter 

half of 1980 to improve its satellite products 

significantly. Now, wind circulation centers can be 

identified over the mountainous terrain as far north as 

the Arctic slope; thunderstorm squall-line development and movement can be monitored and attendant 

wind shifts and gusts predicted one to two hours in advance. This information is particularly important to 

aviation and fire-weather programs. Development of 

specialized satellite image-enhancement methods for 

assessment of thunderstorm growth and dissipation, 

Arctic stratus conditions, and the colder, high-latitude 

conditions of fall and winter have significantly improved the use of the operational data. 

Satellite imagery has been used to locate Alaskan 

waters of 5OC or colder to aid in determining severity 

of icing. Superstructure icing, a major problem to 

vessels of all sizes, cost 12 lives in Alaskan waters 

during 1980. Special ice imagery, provided to NWS 

forecast offices and to the joint Navy-NOAA Ice 

Center in Washington, D.C., is used by various agencies in analysis and forecasts and for special operations 

and rescue efforts. Atlantic Richfield Company used 

this imagery in 1980 to monitor ice conditions when it 

was using a drilling ship designed for the Gulf of Mexico for exploratory work in lower Cook Inlet. With 

these data the company minimized ice damage to the 

ship, saving $45 000 in insurance premiums. 

Time-lapse movies of high-resolution satellite imagery give better understanding of the behavior of sea 

fog hazardous to offshore drilling operations and to 

recreational and commercial boating. Increased ac - 

curacy in short-range forecasts of sea fog formation 

and dissipation is expected from relating changes in 

fog to changes in the surface wind flow and to sea surface temperature patterns observed from geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites. 

NASA and NOAA joined in a program in 1980 to 

demonstrate a centralized storm information system in 

the operational environment of the National Severe 

Storms Forecast Center in Kansas City. Ability to 

analyze, display, and compare data and to apply 

diagnostic techniques rapidly are fundamental to a 

more detailed and reliable assessment of the threat 

from severe weather. Experiments have shown that 

real-time interactive processing systems incorporating 

satellite, radar, and conventional data can significantly improve this assessment. A major portion of the interactive computer system developed by the University 

of Wisconsin is being transferred to the center for extended evaluation. Thereafter, performance specifications and the functional design for an operational interactive system will be developed. 

Determining Ocean Conditions. Measurements of 

ocean color are used to determine the concentration of 

phytoplankton in coastal regions. This microscopic 

free-floating plant life forms the basis of the food 

chain in the ocean. The coastal zone color scanner carried on NASA’s Nimbus 7 satellite measures concentrations of chlorophyll and hence phytoplankton in the 

oceans. This information, along with such parameters 

as wind speed and direction and water temperature, 

indicates the ability of an ocean area to support 

growth of new fish stocks. 

Color scanner data have been used by NOAA’s Office of Coastal Zone Management to determine impact 

zones along our coastlines, caused by the outflow from 

rivers and estuaries. The data show the path of 

suspended material in the water as it leaves rivers and 

estuaries and enters the Ocean and indicate the area 

that would be affected by effluents from factories or 

populated areas or inadvertent spills. Maps, prepared 

as guides in planning coastal development, have been 

completed for the U.S. Atlantic Coast, with the Gulf 

of Mexico to follow 

52 
Scientists from NOAAs Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory continued to use color scanner data to develop and refine computer programs for 

measuring particulate matter distributions. In particular, surface-truth data from the Mississippi River 

plume area and the Grand Banks off Newfoundland 

are being compared to concurrently collected satellite 

imagery. When satisfactory atmospheric correction 

programs are available, other geographic areas will be 

studied. 

During the Seasat repeat-orbit period, the short 

period variability of two western boundary currents-the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and the 

Kuroshio in the North Pacific-was studied by the 

laboratory’s scientists, using multiple orbital passes. 

Seasat altimeter observations showed a significant 

change in surface topography across these currents, as 

well as marked displacement of the current axis. In the 

Gulf Stream region, comparison with coincident infrared images taken by NOAA environmental 

spacecraft showed the position of stream edge and 

altimeter readings to be in close agreement. 

The Seasat synthetic-aperture radar imagery collected during the 1978 Gulf of Alaska Seaat experiment has been reexamined by the laboratory’s scientists to extract relative surface wind magnitudes and 

directions. The relative imaging-radar backscatter was 

compared with surface wind estimates from coincident 

Seasat scatterometer measurements. The analysis indicates that the imaging-radar backscatter is approximately proportional to the square root of the wind 

speed and may have a rather weak dependence on the 

wind direction. The importance of this result lies in 

the excellent spatial resolution of the syntheticaperture radar; thus, the technique may yield oceansurface-wind estimates from space on a relatively fine 

scale grid of one to five kilometers. 

Ocean wave research with imaging radar continues. 

Seven Seasat synthetic-aperture radar passes that collected data in the region near the mouth of the Columbia River were identified. These data have been processed to imagery and will now be used in a study of 

wave transformations as they approach the river entrance and interact with the local bathymetry and 

strong tidal currents. 

A study of bulk microwave properties of first-year 

sea ice in the Bering Sea was undertaken by Pacific 

Marine Environmental Laboratory scientists in 

cooperation with researchers from the University of 

Washington and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center. Two years of surface-truth measurements were 

compared with microwave images of the region taken 

by the Nimbus electronically scanning microwave 

radiometer. Results will be used by sea ice forecasters 

to improve interpretation of real-time microwave images for coastal regions where winter fishing and offshore drilling are intensifying. 

In the past, research on the circulation and 

temperature of the Alaskan coastal waters has been 

limited. The Anchorage Satellite Field Services Station 

serves as a resource for water temperature and ice information. Satellite products have been used by the 

Bureau of Land Management’s Outer Continental 

Shelf office to assess the environment for its leasing 

areas. NESS and NWS researchers have developed a 

computer program to forecast freeze-up of the lower 

Cook Inlet. A study of nearly a year of satellite imagery showed distinct seasonal circulation patterns in 

the Shelikof Strait-Lower Cook Inlet. This information is important to fishing, energy exploration, oil 

spill trajectories, and transportation. 

Determining Lake Conditions. The Great Lakes Ice 

Analysis was expanded by NESS in 1980 to include 

satellite-derived surface water temperatures during 

the ice-free periods. A combination of the ice and surface temperature analyses provides continuous area 

coverage of the Great Lakes throughout the year. 

These analyses are transmitted twice weekly via facsimile and are helpful in making both marine weather 

and ice forecasts. 

Determining Hydrologic Conditions. Use of satellite 

data for operational snowcover mapping continued into the sixth year. Snowcover during the 1979-1980 

winter season was found to be variable throughout 

Wyoming; above average in the mountains of Arizona, 

California, Nevada, and Colorado: but below average 

in Oregon, Idaho, and Montana. The snowcover maps 

were included for the first time in Water Supply 

Outlooks, issued by the Department of Agriculture’s 

Soil Conservation Service offices in Montana and 

Nevada. 

In February 1980, the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers (Los Angeles District) began receiving NESS 

satellite snow maps of the central Arizona watersheds; 

they have requested additional coverage over Utah’s 

Virgin River. The Salt River Project, which generates 

electricity for the Phoenix area, reported that the 1980 

snow maps were successfully incorporated into a new 

runoff forecasting technique. 

The Canadian Atmospheric Environment Service 

and NESS cooperated to map snowcover in the Saint 

John basin, a flood-prone watershed in Maine and 

New Brunswick. The Flood Forecast Centre in 

Fredericton, New Brunswick, reported that the 1980 

spring snow melt estimated from satellite-derived snow 

maps compared well with computer flow models. 

Operational river-ice breakup support was started 

in 1980 in Alaska. Enhanced infrared imagery 

delineated frozen, melting, and open water areas. 

Traditionally, river ice breakup is monitored by aircraft. The NWS River Forecast Office estimates three 

to five days of aircraft, personnel, and per diem costs 

were saved by using the satellite data. 

Monitoring Agricultural Conditions. Agriculture 

and Resources Inventory Surveys through Aerospace 

53 
Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS), an interagency 

research program, began in 1979 and will continue for 

four years. The Departments of Commerce, 

Agriculture, and Interior, the Agency for International Development, and NASA use advanced remotesensing data from NOAA and NASA satellites and 

selected remote-sensing data from aircraft to develop 

an early warning system. The system detects conditions affecting crop production and quality and provides techniques for more accurate forecasts of 

domestic and foreign commodity production in the 

major grain-producing countries of the world. In 

1980, NESS began research to develop new satellite 

products that will provide information on precipitation, daily temperature extremes, solar radiation, and 

snow cover. Research is under way at several universities and government laboratories to develop and test 

computer models for deriving these quantities. Starting in July 1980, daily estimates of solar insolation 

from GOES data were made for the eastern two-thirds 

of the United States. Also during 1980, the Environmental Data and Information Service reviewed 

27 crop yield models and acquired, tested, and 

evaluated candidate yield models for wheat, sorghum, 

corn, soybeans, rice, cotton and sunflowers. 

Fisheries Monitoring. A highly successful joint effort 

by the National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service demonstrated that sea turtles 

can be tracked by satellite over relatively long 

distances and periods. An adult female loggerhead 

turtle was tracked for almost nine months over 1700 

kilometers in the northern Gulf of Mexico with a 

transmitter attached to its shell. The turtle was 

tracked by the remote-access measurement system on 

Nimbus 6. A similar satellite tracking experiment with 

a Kemp Ridley turtle off Mexico ended prematurely 

when the turtle was caught by a Mexican fisherman. 

The experiments were to determine the feasibility of 

programs to establish migration routes and behavior 

patterns of the threatened and endangered sea turtle 

populations. 

In a partially successful satellite tracking investigation, a wild pelagic dolphin in the Pacific was outfitted 

with a prototype transmitter that relayed signals 

through the Nimbus 6 satellite. The surfacing 

behavior of the animal interfered with transmissions, 

however; modified transmitters are being developed. 

Two major cooperative remote-sensing experiments 

(Superflux I and 11) were conducted in the Chesapeake 

Bay area by the Fisheries Service, National Ocean 

Survey, the Coast Guard, NASA, and a number of 

local universities. The experiments were to evaluate 

remote-sensing techniques for assessing marine environmental quality, enhance understanding of 

marine ecosystem processes, and provide a synoptic 

data base for application to problems of ocean 

resources and environmental management. They used 

aircraft-mounted salinity, temperature, chlorophyll, 

and turbidity sensors, the Landsat multispectral scanner, the Nimbus 7 coastal zone color scanner, and extensive surface-truth sampling. Indications are that 

both experiments were successful, although comprehensive analyses of the data are not yet complete. 

The Fisheries Service cooperated with NASA and 

NESS in collecting surface-truth data for the color 

scanner. Chlorophyll, particulate, and irradiance 

measurements were taken along the Atlantic and 

Pacific coasts and in the Gulf of Mexico to assist in 

developing computer programs for the scanner data 

and for scanner data bases for ecosystem modeling and 

assessment. 

The Fisheries Service used satellite-acquired thermal and color data of the Pacific Ocean to direct 

research vessels to likely areas for albacore tuna and 

provided synoptic charts of sea surface temperature 

and chlorophyll distribution for studies of anchovy 

spawning. 

Research continued on the use of Seasat scatterometer data for estimates of surface-layer transport 

in the Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp and menhaden appear 

to depend extensively on surface currents for transport 

of their eggs and larvae from offshore spawning 

grounds to the estuarine nursery areas. Satelliteacquired surface-wind-stress data could help develop 

yield forecasts for these species well in advance of normal fishing seasons. The 1980 effort concentrated on 

developing a water-current model to be tested in 1981. 

Historical wind stress data (not from Seasat) will be 

used to determine the accuracy of yield forecasts from 

satellite data. 

A cooperative cost-benefit, technical-option study 

was completed on use of a satellite-aided communication and data-relay system for observers on board 

foreign fishing vessels operating in the U.S. Fishery 

Conservation Zone. The National Marine Fisheries 

Service, National Weather Service, Coast Guard, and 

NASA examined law enforcement, fishery management, and research data requirements. A conceptual, 

optimized communication system was described, in 

which satellite locationing systems installed on fishing 

vessels would accept coded data from small, hand-held 

data loggers operated by the observers. 

A research project was begun in the Gulf of Mexico 

and Atlantic conservation zone using fishery and environmental data collected by observers on Japanese 

tuna long-line vessels. GOES and NOAA thermal and 

Nimbus 7 color data are being examined for correlation with data from the fishing vessels to determine the 

feasibility of a satellite-aided tactical fishing system for 

domestic long-liners fishing for tuna and swordfish. 

The Northeast Fisheries Center is assisting in 

developing the New England area remote-sensing 

system. The system is designed to provide remotesensing data to two centralized points, one for ocean 

data, the other for land data. After processing, the 
data will be made available to a broad range of 

federal, state, academic, and private users. 

The year 1980 marked the first production of 

Alaskan sea surface temperature charts, used extensively by fisheries. The charts have been excellent for 

determining the arrival of herring in Bristol Bay. One 

processor reported savings of nearly $8000 a day in 

personnel and equipment costs. Commerical fishing 

for silver salmon around Southeast Alaska was improved by location of the 11 OC isotherm. The catch increased from 50 to 200 salmon a day, and trolling costs 

(fuel, equipment, and time) were significantly reduced. With the onset of winter, the ice edge is also included on the charts and is used extensively by the 

crab fishery and the Fish and Wildlife Service to inventory marine mammals. 

During the summer of 1980 the NESS Satellite Field 

Services Station at Honolulu coordinated a joint U.S. 

Navy-Air Force-NOAA program for providing satellite information on sea surface temperatures to the 

fleet of albacore boats fishing in the North Pacific between Hawaii and Alaska. Sea temperature information acquired by the Air Force from the Noaa 6 

satellite, and pictures from NOAA’s Goes 3 western 

satellite, were used at the Naval Western 

Oceanography Center for charts broadcast by radio 

facsimile three days each week. Ship captains used the 

charts to help find favorable fishing waters. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys. The 

NOAA Data Buoy Office has six buoys in the Northeast Pacific and Gulf of Alaska, three in the Gulf of 

Mexico, nine in the Atlantic, and five in a new Great 

Lakes data buoy network. The Great Lakes network 

will be expanded to eight buoys during the next year. 

Plans also are under way to incorporate the 12 Coast 

Guard large navigational buoys at the sites of former 

lightships into the GOES data collection system. A 

prototype system now is in operation on the Columbia 

River Bar Navigational Buoy. Both the data buoys 

and the navigational buoys provide meteorological 

data and surface water temperatures. Subsurface 

water temperatures and wave data are obtained from 

selected buoys. These data are used by the National 

Weather Service for forecasting and storm warning, by 

the Bureau of Land Management for continental shelf 

assessment, and by scientific programs with specialized 

marine data requirements. All moored buoys are 

equipped with position-fixing systems that permit the 

Nimbus or Tiros-N satellites to locate them when they 

go adrift. Most buoys have been modified to use the 

Tiros-N Argos data-collection system for position fixing. 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

International Cooperation 

Sharing Data. More than 120 countries receive images and digital data directly from satellites operated 

by NOAA. Local governments, academic and scientific institutions, commercial companies, and radio 

amateurs have bought or built stations to copy these 

direct readout transmissions. Medium-resolution images from NOAA spacecraft are received in more than 

800 locations globally; high-resolution data are obtained in 20 countries. Geostationary satellites provide 

weather facsimile broadcasts to nearly SO countries in 

the Western Hemisphere and to Australia and New 

Zealand; 3 nations outside the United States also 

receive high -resolution images. 

Applications of these data overseas are primarily for 

storm detection and aviation forecasting. Specialinterest groups also receive and use the data for 

hydrology (river and flood forecasting, snow accumulation and melt), oceanography (sea ice monitoring, ship routing, pelagic fish migration and 

harvesting), and other activities. Academic and scientific institutions obtain direct-readout transmissions 

for research, training, and educational purposes. 

Environmental Satellite Assessments. Precipitation 

estimates from NOAA and GOES satellite images are 

used by the Environmental Data and Information 

Service to support the Department of State’s Agency 

for International Development disaster assistance ef - fort. These assessments evaluate the effects of weather 

on crops in developing nations. During 1980, EDIS expanded its assessments to 50 countries in Africa, to 

Central and South America, and to Asia. 

Domestic Activities 

Demographic Studies. The Census Bureau continues to use Landsat data to update its statistics on 

land and water areas of the United States. An interactive computer system is being developed using digital 

county-boundary files and Landsat images to 

distinguish water from land. Area measurements can 

then be determined for both land and water surfaces. 

Investigations were completed on the use of 

computer-processed Landsat data for showing landcover changes and urban zones around two sample 

metropolitan areas under a NASA applications pilot 

test agreement. Digital registration of Landsat scenes 

over several different years and related processing 

show significant land-cover change. The statistical 

and pictorial results are now being compared with 

changes interpreted from aircraft photography for the 

same period. A summary report will document conclusions. 

Application of Space Technology to Geodesy and 

Geodynamics 

The National Geodetic Survey, the component of 

the National Ocean Survey responsible for maintaining a national network of accurately positioned 

ground stations for geodetic surveying and mapping, 
continued to work closely with NASA to apply advances in space technology to geodesy and 

geodynamics. A data-reduction and analysis center 

and the first of three radio observatories in a newgeneration polar motion and universal timemonitoring network became operational during the 

year. The newly established station, near Fort Davis, 

Texas, is equipped with the most advanced very-longbaseline-interferometry (VLBI) data-acquisition instrumentation, which was used successfully in several 

U.S. and international observing programs. Most 

significant was the Monitoring Earth Rotation and Intercomparison of Techniques (MERIT) project, sponsored by the International Astronomical Union and 

the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. 

The purpose of MERIT was to evaluate and compare 

techniques for determining polar motion and earth 

rotation, including VLBI, satellite doppler, satellite 

laser, lunar laser, and classical techniques. The VLBI 

polar motion and universal-time measurements made 

in MERIT are believed to have the highest resolution, 

both spatially and temporally, and greatest accuracy 

ever achieved. 

The National Ocean Survey, NASA, the U.S. 

Geological Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency 

have formally agreed to a coordinated approach to 

developing Global Positioning System geodetic 

receivers. By late 1982 hardware should be available 

for testing and evaluation. 

The National Geodetic Survey also has worked with 

NASA on detailed plans for the National Crustal Motion Network, which will be developed over this 

decade using space geodesy techniques. The network 

will be used by the geodynamics community for a wide 

variety of purposes, including studies of intraplate tectonic motion, with possible applications in earthquake 

predictions, and observing changes in the primary 

geodetic control network. 

Since the radial position of a satellite must be known 

accurately before satellite altimeter data can be used 

to measure physical oceanographic conditions, the 

National Geodetic Survey has developed a method of 

determining a satellite’s radial position more accurately. When the method was tested on Seasat, the radial 

position error was halved. An analysis of altimeter 

data from the Geodynamics Experimental Ocean 

Satellite Geos 3 has also yielded valuable information 

on time-varying features of the surface of the North 

Atlantic. Analysis of Geos 3 and Seasat altimeter data 

over land areas of California and Texas have indicated 

that accuracies within 20 centimeters are achievable. 

The National Bureau of Standards continued to 

evaluate use of signals from the NAVSTAR Global 

Positioning System (GPS) satellites for determining 

geodetic baselines. It was shown theoretically that an 

accuracy of one to two centimeters can be expected for 

determining baselines up to 100 kilometers long. The 

dominant source of error is expected to be uncertainties in the propagation correction for water vapor in 

the atmosphere, even when water vapor radiometers 

are used to measure the water vapor content along the 

line of sight to the satellites. Measurements with GPS 

signals are expected to play an important role in 

understanding crustal movements in seismic zones. 

Satellite Communications 

Public Service Satellites. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) 

was instructed by the president’s National Civil Space 

Policy to aggregate potential public service users of 

communications satellite services, stimulate research 

and development of inexpensive satellite technologies 

and services, and translate domestic experience in 

market aggregation and research and development into programs for less developed countries and remote 

territories. 

In pursuing the first mission, NTIA awarded four 

grants in July 1980 to support management organizations in developing national satellite communications 

networks through aggregation of the public service 

market. The four Public Telecommunications Services 

grantees, while becoming self-supporting businesses 

over the next four years, will offer distributed video 

services for educational and other public service uses. 

An NTIA teleconference in early 1981 was to introduce the grantees to state and local public officials 

with significant training requirements that may be addressed cost -effectively through telecommunications. 

To fulfill its international mission in public service 

satellites, NTIA planned a three-year educational exchange program to begin in June 1981 for persons 

from less developed countries. The program - a part 

of a joint effort with AID begun in 1979-will emphasize the application of satellite communications to 

the delivery of social services. Also, NTIA and NASA 

cooperatively fund an examination of the technical, 

regulatory, and programmatic requirements necessary 

to enhance communications among the island nations 

of the Pacific. And NTIA held discussions with the 

People’s Republic of China about that nation’s future 

use of satellite communications. An NTIA delegation 

visited China in April 1980 to establish closer ties and 

to explore areas of mutual interest. In particular, talks 

focused on developments in U.S. technology that 

might profitably be applied to China’s needs. 

Technical Support Activity. NTIAs Institute for 

Telecommunications Sciences supported investigations on existing transponder and ground station 

availability, satellite service for the Pacific, and requirements for an American Indian Public Radio Network. A frequency-orbit resource study examined the 

activities of the International Radio Consultative 

Committee, World Administrative Radio Conferences, and the Federal Communications Commission 

that affect the rules for using the radio spectrum and 

56 
for small-antenna ground stations. Technical issues 

dealt with an assessment of the frequency-orbit capacity available for direct-to-home broadcasting satellite 

services. In support of AID'S Rural Satellite Systems 

program to test the cost-effectiveness of satellite communications in rural development, the institution was 

studying demand-assigned multiple-access technology, 

frequency converter technology, solar power sources, 

and slow-scan television. 

Commercial Satellite Servi'ces. A 1980 meeting of 

the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Committee made significant advances in defining a future 

global distress and safety system. Expected to be in 

operation by 1990, the system will depend heavily on 

satellites. The INMARSAT space segment was expected to be a part of the system. The U.S. Maritime 

Administration and the United Kingdom Department 

of Trade (Marine Division) were participating with 

Norway and the Federal Republic of Germany in international trials. This program will develop data to 

evaluate low-power distress transmitters, which will 

send signals via commercial satellites to search and 

rescue centers. 

Satellite Time Service. The National Bureau of 

Standards continued to operate its time-code distribution system via the GOES satellites during 1980. The 

newly upgraded time-code generation system at the 

NESS Command and Data Acquisition station, 

Wallops Island, Virginia, functioned reliably during 

the entire year. Negotiations were begun with NESS 

that may lead to significant improvement in NBS 

satellite position predictions as part of the time-code 

format. The GOES time code is used by operators of 

electrial power networks, scientific-data-monitoring 

systems, and aircraft-borne instrumentation. 

NBS has developed a new passive maser (microwave 

amplification and stimulation with electromagnetic 

radiation) to be evaluated by Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory (JPL) for possible use in keeping the deep 

space navigation network synchronized with a 

minimum of calibrations. The first prototype of this 

new hydrogen maser - about five times smaller in size, 

weight, and cost than comparable active maser 

designs -was delivered in December 1980. 

Space Support Activities 

Measurement and Calibration Senn'ces 

Antenna Calibrations. NBS continued to assist the 

US. Air Force Satellite Control Facility in conducting 

a measurement assurance program for antenna 

calibrations. This facility makes acceptance and performance tests on satellites for the Global Positioning 

System, Defense Satellite Communications System, 

NATO Communications System, and the Navy and 

Air Force Tactical Systems. In addition, NBS 

measured phase and amplitude on the Shuttle imaging 

radar (SIR) antenna for NASA and determined its farfield patterns, which are critical to evaluation of the 

antenna's performance for earth-imaging applications. 

Space Shuttle Measurements. NBS is investigating 

two aluminum alloys used in the Space Shuttle to 

determine how variations in processing influence 

microstructure and physical properties. Emphasis has 

been on nondestructive evaluation methods such as 

eddy-current conductivity, hardness, ultrasonic velocity and attenuation, and positron annihilation. The 

program has yielded appreciable information about 

the metallurgy of these alloys. 

NBS has completed the new large spectrometercalibration chamber at the Synchrotron Ultraviolet 

Radiation Facility for NASA flight instruments. The 

first calibration customer for this system will be the 

Space Shuttle instrumentation designed to study solar 

irradiance. NBS also is making measurements important to designing and interpreting experiments on 

materials and thermophysical properties in the 

microgravity environment of space. Two focal points 

are the role of convection effects and the role of container effects. This work includes measurement of convection effects of simultaneous temperature and composition gradients during alloy solidification, measurement of surface tensions and their temperature 

dependencies in candidate materials for convection 

studies in space, development of a free-cooling technique to permit measurement of the specific heat and 

other thermophysical properties of reactive materials 

during levitation in space, and measurement of 

multilayer absorption and phase transitions at interfaces that influence interactions with containers in 

space. 

Atmospheric Measurements. NBS provides spectroscopic data and standards for modeling the earth's 

atmosphere, other planetary atmospheres, and interstellar matter. These data and standards are the 

basis of a number of developing NASA techniques to 

measure concentrations of atmospheric constituents. 

NBS also provided NASA with spectral frequencies of 

important stratospheric constituents, line shapes, and 

line intensity data for these species. The information 

allows NASA to interpret spectral data from its 

satellites and to monitor species concentrations. 

NBS has developed a unique facility to calibrate 

secondary standards of spectral irradiance in the 

vacuum ultraviolet. The facility was used to evaluate 

and calibrate portable deuterium lamps to be flown on 

Spacelab 2. Precise knowledge of the lamp characteristics is the key to making highly precise absolute 

measurements of solar irradiance in the region of the 

spectrum most sensitive to solar variability. If determination of changes in the ultraviolet radiation from 

the sun, by periodic inflight calibrations, are precise 

enough, the measurements will be a sensitive indicator 

57 
of trends in the solar radiation output. A similar 

evaluation and calibration were made for Goddard 

Space Flight Center, for the planned portable krypton 

lamp for vacuum-ultraviolet radiometric applications 

on the Space Telescope. 

Fuel Roperty Measurements. NBS completed an 

extensive experimental measurement program that 

will improve ability to model the transport properties 

of the oxygen used as the oxidizer in present and 

future propulsion systems. The measurements, which 

span the dense liquid region to above room 

temperature and extend to very high pressures, were 

made by an automated transient hot-wire technique 

and laser-light-scattering methods. Results significantly improved the best predictive model for these 

materials. 

Instrument Measurements. NASA’s Marshall Space 

Flight Center and NBS are investigating the science 

and technology of thin-film Josephson junctions as 

radiation detectors. Point-contact Josephson junctions 

have been shown to be extremely sensitive detectors of 

electromagnetic radiation but will not survive a launch 

into space. 

NBS also completed development and field-tested a 

high-accuracy spectroradiometer to improve 

measurements of terrestrial irradiance from direct 

sunlight over the region of 290 to 320 nanometers. The 

spectroradiometer has an uncertainty not exceeding 

five percent and gives three to five times more accurate 

measurements than previously attainable. The new 

system will improve the reliability of atmospheric 

ozone measurements. 

To support the Solar Maximum Mission, NBS 

developed methods to calibrate absolute radiometric 

and diffraction optics for high-resolution x-ray spectrometers used for plasma diagnostics of solar flares. 

The techniques developed are being applied to 

analysis of data on high-temperature solar plasmas. 

An NBS-developed krypton-dimer radio-frequency 

discharge lamp was chosen as a component of the 

high-resolution spectrograph being developed at Goddard to fly on the Space Telescope. 

Solar Activity 

Solar Convection. NBS is investigating solar convection properties and the associated transport of 

mechanical energy, using coordinated satellite and 

ground-based observations. Measurements of steady 

flows in the chromosphere, made with the OS0 8 

satellite, were extended to the transition region using 

the ultraviolet spectrometer and polarimeter experiment on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite. Observations were complemented by simultaneous groundbased studies with the diode-array instrument at 

Sacramento Peak Observatory. 

Data Services. Two international scientific programs collecting extensive satellite data are the Solar 

Maximum Year (1979-1981) and the Middle Atmosphere Program (1982-1985). Both require the archive and data-dissemination services of the Environmental Data and Information Service’s World 

Data Center-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics and central information exchange services. In addition, future 

spacecraft missions will require international exchange of information and data. Space and satellite 

intensive programs require the auroral indices and 

other synoptic ground-based data. EDIS developed a 

computer program to identify the equatorward 

boundary of the auroral oval from Tiros-N and Nom 

6 energetic particle measurements. The results are to 

be used in testing a new Air Force “over the horizon” 

radar system known to be affected by ionospheric activity along the radar’s viewpath, which cuts through 

the auroral oval region. 

Warnings and Forecasts. The Space Environment 

Services Center (SESC), operated jointly by NOAA 

and the U.S. Air Force, is the National and World 

Warning Agency for disturbances on the sun, in space, 

in the upper atmosphere, and in the earth’s magnetic 

field. A major portion of the real-time data comes 

from space environment monitors on NOAA’s polarorbiting and geostationary environmental satellites. A 

memorandum of agreement has been signed between 

the Air Force and SESC, defining the support required 

for Air Force Shuttle operations. SESC will provide 

warnings and predictions of radiation dangers to personnel and instruments flown by DoD on the Shuttle. 

Support for a team of scientists with experiments on 

the Solar Maximum Mission, launched early in 1980, 

was being provided by a unit of SESC established at 

Goddard Space Flight Center. This highly successful 

operation has been supported with real-time data and 

forecasts from the Boulder facility. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Space and Atmospheric Physics 

Magnetospheric Physics. Scientists of the NOAA 

Space Environment Laboratory continued to analyze 

and interpret data from the particle detectors carried 

by the International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) 

satellites. The remote-sensing data have shown the 

dayside magnetospheric boundary to be extremely well 

defined and in almost constant motion, and 

theoretical studies are being made on particletransmission properties of this boundary. The ring 

current comprises the geomagnetically trapped 

charged particles of the Van Allen Radiation Belts, 

and its enhancement produces magnetic disturbances 

at the earth’s surface. Laboratory scientists have 

shown that a significant portion of the ring current 

enhancement is caused by a redistribution of resident 

particles rather than an injection of new particles. 

58 
Planetary Atmospheres. NBS made laboratory investigations of the rate constants and mechanisms of 

the self-reactions of sulfur monoxide. These reactions 

are important in modeling the chemistry of the atmosphere of Venus. Rate constants have been obtained for three important sulfur monoxide reactions, 

and the groundwork laid for extending chemical 

kinetic measurements to more complex systems. In addition, NBS is investigating chemical systems in the 

planetary atmosphere of Jupiter. The studies include 

mechanistic and gas kinetic investigations. Recently 

major efforts have been directed toward the acetylene 

cycle that, in part, controls concentration of several 

major atmospheric constituents. 

NBS is using high-sensitivity stylus techniques to 

measure the surface microtopography of mirrors for 

the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF). 

AXAF is to be a free-flying, national x-ray observatory, launched on the Shuttle. The NBS stylus 

measurements are being made in collaboration with 

the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and 

will be correlated with other measurements from Marshall Space Flight Center, Naval Weapons Center in 

China Lake, and Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. 

Eight surface-geometry characterizations will be 

calculated from NBS measurements using a minicomputer stylus instrument. Characterizations will include 

the root-mean-square roughness, autocorrelation and 

amplitude-density functions, and power spectrum. 

Stellar Atmospheres. NBS has been developing the 

absolute radiometric calibration techniques and the 

spectroscopic analysis methods for reliable measurement of physical properties (temperature, densities, 

velocities, and magnetic fields) in solar and stellar 

plasmas. These methods are being applied to analysis 

of ultraviolet data from the quiescent and flaring 

chromospheres of single and close binary stars cooler 

than the sun, obtained with the spectrometers on 

Skylab and the International Ultraviolet Explorer 

satellite, and will be applied to data from the Space 

Telescope and the solar optical telescope on Space 

Shuttle. X-ray observations with the High Energy 

Astrophysical Observatories Heao 1 and Heao 2 are 

being used to model the hot coronas in stars cooler 

than the sun and to study stellar flares. 

Stratospheric Physics. Concern about human impact on the earth’s ozone layer has led to more intensive atmospheric monitoring at NBS. Ultraviolet absorption photometry is used from ground-based and 

flight instruments to determine the ozone content. 

These measurements depend on accurate knowledge 

of the absorption cross-sections of ozone at the 

measurement wavelengths and at the ambient 

temperatures of the atmosphere. Since previously 

published values for these cross-sections are discordant 

and of limited detail, NBS is making new and more 

accurate measurements over a wide range of temperatures and wavelengths. 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

The National Bureau of Standards, in programs 

with NASA and other agencies, is making mechanistic 

and gas kinetics investigations of atmospheric reactions selected for their importance in modeling 

catalytic cycles that control stratospheric ozone. In addition, NBS provides evaluated photochemical and 

kinetic rate data. It also provides an evaluated 

reaction-rate data base for atmospheric chemistry 

models. And it is making experimental and theoretical 

studies as part of the NASA Lewis Research Center’s 

Space Shuttle combustion-research program to determine effects of gravity on flame inhibition and extinguishment by halogens. This work will aid definition of the application of halocarbons as flame inhibitors both in the Space Shuttle and in terrestrial environments. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aircraft Support 

Instrument Calibration and Materials Research. 

NBS developed a standard-phase angle meter that can 

be used for the calibration of very-high-frequency omnirange (VOR) navigation systems. After documentation of the instrumentation and procedures, NBS will 

offer a calibration service to VOR instrumentation 

manufacturers, DoD, and major airlines. 

In support of NASA’s planned National Transonic 

Facility (NTF), NBS is developing a measurement procedure for characterizing the surface microtopography 

of models to be used in the NTF. The NTF’s wind tunnel will permit high-speed testing of models at mach 

numbers of 0.1 to 1.2. Surface texture will play a 

significant role in the testing, since boundary-layer 

thickness at high speeds will be as small as 0.25 

micrometers. The objective of the project is to develop 

a light -scattering technique to measure surface texture 

of NTF models during production and final inspection. Reliability will be established by comparing the 

technique’s characterizations with those from 

scanning-electron-microscope stereoscopy and 3-D 

stylus profilometry. 

Radar Techniques. A new Radar Techniques 

Development Branch, a unit of the Next Generation 

Radar Joint System Program Office, was established in 

Norman, Oklahoma, by NOAA’s National Weather 

Service. This unit, in cooperation with NOAA’s National Severe Storms Laboratory, will be developing 

and testing techniques for acquiring, processing, and 

displaying weather radar data for use by the operating 

agencies. 

Weather Hazards. NASA and NOAA’s National 

Severe Storms Laboratory are investigating lightning 

and turbulence hazards to aircraft using instrumented 

jet fighter aircraft, surface lightning locator systems, 

59 
and dual-doppler radars. Of concern are lightning 

hazards to aircraft composite structure and to newgeneration airborne electronic equipment and controls. 

Aeronautical Charting 

The National Ocean Survey developed methods to 

provide the aviation public with more timely and accurate air navigational information. NOS publishes 

three series of visual charts used by pilots when they 

depend on visible landmarks to determine location 

and direction. NOS regularly conducts flights 

throughout the contiguous United States to check 

these charts and has begun a new program in which 

photogrammetric techniques will certify and verify 

obstacles to flight. On airport obstruction charts, NOS 

shows the position and evaluation of possible obstructions at and near commercial airports. Automated 

data can now provide FAA with accurate, up-to-date 

information. 

During 1980, NOS began including low-level, highspeed military training routes and terminal radar service areas on sectional aeronautical charts, which are 

designed for visual navigation by slow and mediumspeed aircraft; and VFR terminal area charts, which 

are large-scale charts for visual navigation in highly 

congested metropolitan areas. These routes also are 

depicted on low-altitude en route charts and on VFRIFR wall planning charts. During the year NOS also 

certified terrain and obstacle data for 20 air-route 

traffic control centers for the FAA's en route 

minimum-safe-altitude warning system. 
Department of Energy 

The Department of Energy (DOE) and its 

predecessor agencies have supported the United States 

space program with their specialized skills since the 

early 1960s. Present activities that were initiated during the early period include the application of 

radioactive-isotope-decay energy to supply operating 

power for satellite systems and participation in the 

US. program of surveillance of the atmosphere and 

space for clandestine and other nuclear explosions. 

More recently, DOE has studied the use of space for 

nuclear waste disposal, the solar power satellite concept, and remote sensing from space for energy 

resource exploration, energy facility siting, and environmental monitoring. DOE contributes to operational programs in some of these areas, and all are the 

subject of continuing research and development to improve performance, efficiency, safety, and general 

understanding to meet expanding and new requirements in energy and national security. 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

DOE substantially supports the space program 

through technology development and production of 

nuclear-powered electric generators for present and 

potential NASA and Department of Defense (DoD) 

missions. The photographs transmitted from NASA’s 

Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft, revealing hitherto 

unknown details of the topography of Jupiter in 1979 

and Saturn in November 1980, were made possible by 

space nuclear power systems. Continuing progress is 

being made toward compactness, lighter weight, and 

improved conversion efficiency and safety. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) 

Improved heat-source materials and components 

entered production for the NASA Galileo mission 

(Jupiter orbiter and probe) scheduled for mid-1980s 

launch. NASA planned to launch a Galileo spacecraft 

from the Space Shuttle to explore the planet Jupiter 

and its environment. The orbiter will provide longterm data on the planet Jupiter and its moons and will 

release a probe to penetrate the Jovian atmosphere to 

collect and transmit data on the planetary morphology. 

During 1980, in concert with mission requirements, 

the multihundred-watt , silicon-germanium-unicouple 

production line was reestablished for the generalpurpose heat-source radioisotope thermoelectric 

generator (GPHS-RTG). In addition, the preliminary 

design of the GPHS-RTG for the Galileo orbiter and 

the International Solar Polar Mission was completed. 

A solar polar spacecraft developed by the European 

Space Agency (ESA) was planned for launch on the 

Shuttle in the mid-1980s to observe the sun and the 

solar wind at high heliographic latitudes. 

The technology verification program was completed 

for the dynamic isotope power system, to improve efficiency of the conversion system and enhance the 

reliability and performance level of selected components. During fiscal 1980, the ground demonstration system was upgraded with improved components 

and performed at 17-percent efficiency. Endurance 

testing was to ensure technology readiness of the 

system components by the end of 1980, permitting a 

review of the nuclear option for power requirements in 

the 1- to 2-kilowatt range for candidate space missions. 

Space Reactor Technology 

A technology development program for an advanced space reactor was begun in fiscal 1979, after 

studies by the Advanced Space Power Working Group, 

a joint DoD-DOE committee to examine late 1980s’ 

mission requirements. The program was to establish 

the technology base for a high-temperature, compact, 

nuclear-electric reactor system for use in space, producing power in the 10- to 100-kilowatt range. 

Development of reactor component technology that 

will support a future system demonstration, to be 

scheduled and jointly supported by the user agency, 

was planned. 

61 
The new system was expected to be capable of supplying power for a space-based radar spacecraft, electronic mail systems, advanced television, holographic 

teleconferencing facilities, and other systems for 

potential civilian and military assignments. 

During 1980, examination of the possible component technologies and test facilities was continued, 

with particular analytic emphasis on core and radiator 

heat pipes, and thermoelectric materials and power 

module technology. 

Advances in Supporting Technology 

Advances continued to be pursued in fuel preparation, capsule production and welding, process control, 

quality control, and reliability. Production of ceramic 

fuel spheres for the multihundred-watt generators for 

the NASA Galileo spacecraft was completed in 1980 at 

the Savannah River Plutonium Fuel Fabrication 

Facility; to increase the specific power for the orbiter 

and subsequent spacecraft, the assay of the 

plutonium-238 oxide feed material was increased. 

Production of the 62.5-thermal-watt, hot-pressedPuO?, cylindrical fuel form was begun in fiscal 1980 at 

the Savannah River facility for the NASA Galileo and 

International Solar Polar Mission. The 62.5-watt fuel 

form, its fabrication process, design refinements, and 

encapsulation technology were originated by the Los 

Alamos Scientific Laboratory. 

Operational and reentry analyses by General Elec - 

tric and the Battelle Columbus Laboratories assisted 

in the development of the GPHS module. The Air 

Force Weapons Laboratory, Naval Nuclear Weapons 

Center, and Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns 

Hopkins University tested and evaluated the module. 

The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory tested the composite fibrous graphites and the Teledyne Energy 

Systems staff also assessed the improved graphites. 

Reliability engineering requirements were reviewed 

by the Sandia Laboratories and DOE and an updated 

program requirements document was issued. The intent of the increasingly rigorous reliability effort is to 

outline to contractors and bidders the basic practices 

which must be pursued to provide continued positive 

assurance that reliability requirements for space 

nuclear systems will be met. 

Satellite Power System 

The Solar Power Satellite (SPS) was early proposed 

for collecting solar energy in space and beaming it to 

ground receiving antennas for distribution to utility 

networks. A broad three-year assessment of the SPS 

concept was completed in 1980 by DOE and NASA. 

A number of system alternatives were evaluated that 

could affect SPS technical approach and viability, 

flexibility in selecting power level, land requirements, 

environmental effects, and cost. Alternative concepts 

studied included photovoltaic (solar-cell) and solarthermal (rotating-machinery) energy conversion 

systems, microwave and laser power-transmission 

systems, and onshore and offshore receiving antennas. 

Environmental effects were assessed in the key areas of 

microwave effects on health and ecosystems; spaceworker health and safety; rocket exhaust effluents, 

reentry products, and microwave energy effects on the 

atmosphere; electromagnetic compatibility considerations that influence the use of the satellite orbit; and 

effects on astronomy. The studies were based on existing scientific literature, analysis, and on a number 

of limited experiments in selected areas. Societal issues 

assessed were related to resources (materials, energy, 

and land); institutional concerns (finance and 

management, regulation, and utility integration); international implications (agreements, military implications, and vulnerability), and public concerns. 

The economic practicality of the SPS was also assessed 

and the results compared against other advanced 

energy technologies. The results of the assessments, as 

well as suggested areas of additional research, were included in an assessment report. 

Nuclear Waste Disposal 

In 1980, the status of terrestrial and space components was evaluated in support of the NASA-DOE 

study of the potential for nuclear waste disposal in 

space. 

Remote Sensing of the Earth 

Data from NASA-developed satellites carrying instruments to sense the earth’s surface and atmosphere 

benefit DOE programs: enhancement of exploration 

technology for uranium, natural gas, and oil; 

geological characterization of potential nuclear-wastedisposal sites; and survey of other potential energy 

facility sites for environmental and seismic suitability. 

Use of data from existing and future satellite platforms 

in these and other energy-related activities is expected 

to increase. 

During the past year, DOE completed a study of its 

present and potential use of land remote-sensing 

systems and participated in the activities of the interagency Interim Policy Group on Land Remote 

Sensing. The policy group, chaired by the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, produced 

a document on the issues and options in planning for a 

civil, operational, land remote-sensing satellite system. 

62 
Nuclear Test Detection 

The concept of satellite-borne surveillance of 

worldwide nuclear activity evolved during studies in 

1959-1962 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was being considered. Since that time, DOE and its 

predecessor organizations have participated in a 

continuing interagency program for development, 

operation, and improvement of U.S. satellite systems 

for surveillance of nuclear explosions in and above the 

atmosphere and in outer space-regions where the 

Limited Test Ban Treaty forbids nuclear testing. 

Because of its specialized knowledge of nuclear explosion characteristics and its capability to detect and 

measure radiation, the Atomic Energy Commission 

was assigned the task of designing and developing 

detector instrumentation for the satellites. DoD 

managed spacecraft procurement, deployment, 

operations, and overall schedules. Six pairs of Vela 

satellites were launched from 1963 to 1970 into approximately circular earth orbits at about 112 000 

kilometers. Although the Vela satellites are now quite 

old, the last four were still in use in 1980. 

The nuclear-explosion-surveillance mission of the 

Vela satellite program is now incorporated into other 

multimission DoD satellite programs. DOE retains 

responsibility for design, fabrication, test, calibration, 

launch, and operational support of the instrumentation subsystems for nuclear explosion detection. 

DOE conducts a vigorous research and development 

program to meet potential new detection requirements, such as might result under a comprehensive test ban treaty, as well as to understand the space 

environment in which the surveillance systems must 

function. Theoretical analysis, laboratory development, and flight testing of environmental and prototype instrumentation on NASA and DoD space 

systems continue to provide important and unique 

data. This information has led to concepts and continuing development of systems for substantially greater 

coverage and for better characterization of signals for 

credible discrimination between natural phenomena 

and nuclear explosions. 

63 
Department of the Interior 

The U.S. Department of the Interior serves as 

steward for more than 2 million square kilometers of 

nationally owned public lands and natural resources. 

Before critical management decisions can be made on 

conservation or use of specific public lands or 

resources, two things must be done. First, current information on areas of concern must be obtained. Second, informative interpretations of this data must be 

derived. 

To acquire raw data, many bureaus and agencies 

within Interior have traditionally relied heavily on aircraft for observation, photography, or other methods 

of remote sensing over federal lands. In attemping to 

improve the efficiency and timeliness of data collection over vast, often inaccessible land areas, the 

Department of the Interior has turned more and more 

in recent years toward the use of earth-observing 

satellites that can provide broad, repetitive, and 

uniform coverage of the earth’s surface. 

Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Program 

Remote-sensing research, training, and data acquisition for the Department of the Interior is coordinated by the Earth Resources Observation System 

(EROS) Office, within the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS). Most of the satellite and aircraft images of the 

earth used by Interior scientists and land managers 

each year are obtained from a central archive and production facility at the Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota. Staff scientists and technicians at EDC participate extensively in remote-sensing research, 

development, and training for Interior programs and 

personnel. In 1980, some 150 Interior earth scientists 

and land managers received remote-sensing training 

at EDC, and the following Interior bureaus or agencies 

participated in extensive cooperative research or training projects with EROS scientists: Bureau of Land 

Management, Water and Power Resources Service, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Surface Mining 

Reclamation and Enforcement, and several divisions 

within the U.S. Geological Survey. Other federal units 

with responsibilities parallel to those of Interior, including the U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers, also worked closely with EROS scientists 

this year. 

Applications and Research 

In 1980, substantial progress was made in the practical application of information acquired by remotesensing devices aboard aircraft and earth-orbiting 

satellites. This progress was highlighted by recent advances in the ability to combine satellite data with 

other forms of information for more useful tools for 

land and resource monitoring and management. Some 

noteworthy developments in aeronautics and space activities were: 

Sea Mapping. A Geological Survey image of the 

Berry Islands (east of Miami, Florida) containing 

Landsat data optimized to show underwater detail was 

prepared for the Defense Mapping Agency, where it 

was combined with bathymetric data, printed, and 

distributed for comments. It is considered a landmark 

product, pointing the way for a more cost-effective 

way of mapping the shallow seas throughout the 

world. 

Water Use. The Geological Survey is cooperating 

with NASA in an applications pilot test to use Landsat 

data for mapping irrigated cropland in a 458 OOO-sqkm area of the High Plains in support of the Regional 

Aquifer Study and the National Water-Use Program. 

Water from the High Plains aquifer irrigates some 

65 000 sq km of cropland, about 23 percent of the 

total irrigated cropland in the United States. The project is designed to provide regional maps of irrigated 

cropland for estimating ground-water withdrawals 

and availability of water. Related irrigation inventory 

studies also are being tested in Idaho, California, 

Louisiana, Nebraska, and Florida. 

64 
Monitoring the Environment 

The Geological Survey routinely transmits environmental data by radio from more than 250 watergauging-station platforms to the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (Goes 3) for relay to 

ground receiving stations linked to a Survey computer 

network. The data are then available within minutes 

to water management agencies throughout the United 

States for operational planning and early warning of 

extreme events, such as a flood. Most of the platforms 

relay only hydrologic data, although certain geologic 

information -such as seismic, strain, and magnetic 

data-is also available. For example, 20 platforms in 

the vicinity of Mount Saint Helens, Washington, 

transmit hydrologic and geologic data. 

Land Inventories 

The Bureau of Land Management recently concluded a successful demonstration project to evaluate 

the usefulness of Landsat computer-compatible tapes, 

aerial photographs, and ground data for mapping and 

inventorying 10 000 sq km of wildland vegetation in 

Mohave County, Arizona. With computer processing 

to combine ground data with Landsat tapes, the 

overall cost of the project came to about $15 per sq km 

(6 cents per acre). It appears that the remote sensing 

technology used in this project can contribute 

significantly to the bureau’s need to acquire vegetation 

information efficiently. 

Park Management. The National Park Service is 

improving its management ability by use of Landsat 

data. In 1980, it concluded two experiments proving 

the effectiveness of satellite data in monitoring and 

managing national park environments. An investigation of the use of Landsat data to observe water level 

and flow in the Shark River Slough of Everglades National Park, Florida, revealed that Landsat information can be used to monitor conditions accurately in a 

freshwater marsh ecosystem, especially in comparing 

wet and dry season slough margins. The information is 

invaluable where water control structures determine 

the entry flow of a marsh. Landsat data were merged 

with topographic data and related information to 

classify accurately and map 22 major kinds of vegetation on some 10 000 sq km in and around Olympic 

National Park, which has declining rainfall levels and 

therefore vegetation changes from west to east. 

Vegetation maps are used in day-to-day National Park 

decision-making, and Landsat technology could produce vegetation maps at a small fraction of the cost of 

traditional, labor-intensive methods. 

Fire Control. Of great concern to the U.S. Forest 

Service is the knowledge of what kinds of vegetation, 

or “fuels,” are vulnerable to forest fires anywhere they 

may start. The fire fuels, if mapped, could be included with topographic and weather information to 

predict the behavior of a fire, thus greatly increasing 

the potential for making successful fire-control decisions. In 1980, the Forest Service completed a feasibility study in a portion of the Lo10 National Forest in 

western Montana, which demonstrated that Landsat 

and topographic data can be merged on computers to 

produce “fuel maps” that, with the aid of wind and 

weather data, could prove to be useful tools for fire 

control. 

Endangered Species. The US. Fish and Wildlife 

Service used Landsat during 1980 to help assess 

habitats in Oklahoma for greater and lesser prairie 

chickens, both endangered species. Traditional field 

surveys have failed to explain the dramatic decline in 

prairie chicken populations in recent years. Landsat 

data analysis provided a cost-effective means of assessing the decline. The relationship between density of 

male prairie chickens (from field surveys) and landcover types (from Landsat) closely parallels the relationship determined from field-survey data alone. 

Because collection of extensive data in the field is expensive and time-consuming, Landsat analysis, combined with limited ground-data collection, may 

reduce overall costs of assessing habitats. 

Wetland Forests. Research is being carried on in the 

use of radar image data to discriminate between 

wetland and dryland forest at test sites in the Puget 

Sound area, in the Rockies of Montana and Idaho, 

and on the Delmarva Peninsula. Seasat syntheticaperture radar images are being evaluated for 

geological, hydrological, and land-resource information. These images show initial promise for outlining 

wetlands. 

Water Inventones 

Thermal infrared imagery from aircraft is helping 

to find areas of shallow ground water and springs in 

the flood plain of the Calamus and North Loup Rivers 

of Nebraska. Within the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, aerial color-infrared photography is 

measuring the impact of high water on the riverine environment in areas where accessibility is very limited. 

Seasat radar altimetry is being evaluated for measuring land subsidence resulting from the withdrawal of 

ground water in the Tucson-Phoenix area. 

Weat her Monitoring 

The Bureau of Reclamation and the GOES satellite 

are observing winter storm systems over parts of 

California and a five-state region of the Rocky Mountains. Analysis of the observations is expected to improve understanding of winter mountain storm 

systems and their resultant spring runoff effects. 

A network of 150 solar-powered, portable, 

meteorological monitoring stations will soon be in 

operation. Each station will measure and report wind 

speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity, 

65 
barometric pressure, and precipitation every five 

minutes and transmit measurements hourly by radio 

to a satellite. The data from each station will be collected via a downlink-computer system, which will 

receive and record data from as many as 240 stations 

per hour and disseminate the data to project sites. 

This system will give Department of Interior project 

scientists almost real-time information on weather 

developments. 

Sea Ice 

Interior personnel have continued to cooperate with 

NASA and other agencies in studying ice dynamics of 

the polar regions through interpretation of microwave 

data from satellites and aircraft. That information, 

supported by field observations, is being used to 

develop models to analyze the effects that various conditions may impose on the fragile balance of physical 

forces in the polar regions. 

Nighttime Imaging 

Studies of applications of nighttime images of the 

earth taken by the Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program determined that excellent potential exists in 

these images. If such a system were optimized for studying the earth, practical applications would be found 

in areas of geophysical phenomena, natural resources, 

energy conservation, and demography. 

Crustal Studies 

Conventional geophysical data have suggested that 

magnetic data acquired by spacecraft may be useful in 

studying areas where land-based magnetic data are 

unavailable. Thus Magsat, launched into orbit by 

NASA in 1979, was developed to provide a perspective 

on the terrestrial magnetic field. Several Geological 

Survey research projects under way combine ground 

and airborne geological, geophysical, and 

mineralogical data with Magsat data to improve 

understanding of the geologic features of specific 

regions. 

Cartography 

Continued studies in applications of satellite data to 

cartography have resulted in the basic specifications 

for a mapping satellite (Mafisat) that could provide 

three-dimensional and multispectral data. The system 

as conceived emphasizes simplicity and cost - effectiveness but features improved resolution and 

geometry. Onboard linear-array detectors would make 

possible a one-dimensional flow of data that could be 

processed by a simple computer program. A feasibility 

study was under way to test this concept. 

International Activities 

A number of developing countries are actively pursuing the application of remote-sensing technology to 

environmental and resource problems. Under the U.S. 

Foreign Assistance Act, the U.S. Geological Survey 

participates with the Agency for International 

Development (AID) in a program to aid developing 

countries in using remote-sensing technology. Most 

other international efforts supported by the Department of the Interior are at the request of and under 

the auspices of the United Nations. 

EROS scientists twice held a month-long remotesensing workshop in 1980 at the EROS Data Center, 

for a total of 40 scientists from 17 countries. Advanced 

training for international scientists in geologic interpretation, land-use planning, environmental applica - 

tions, and digital (computer) image processing was 

conducted at the Survey’s Center for Astrogeology in 

Flagstaff, Arizona. Onsite courses were also held in 

Greece, Argentina, Hungary, and Kenya. 

Cooperative remote-sensing applications projects 

were conducted in 1980 with China, Iceland, Tunisia, 

and Saudi Arabia. These projects use Landsat data interpretations for applications such as oil exploration, 

global mapping of glaciers, monitoring encroachment 

of deserts, and preparation of Landsat image mosaics. 

The Geological Survey is the lead agency for the International Geological Correlation Program’s Project 

143 on Remote Sensing and Mineralogical Exploration, jointly sponsored by the United Nation’s Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and the 

International Union of Geological Sciences. The project, designed to develop techniques of remote sensing 

for mineral and energy exploration and inventory, included more than 200 participants from some 80 nations. 

66 
Department of Agriculture 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) uses 

remotely sensed data from space as a source of information for a wide variety of research and operational 

programs. 

During 1980, most of the primary research and 

developmental activities of USDA were included in the 

Agriculture and Resource Surveys through Aerospace 

Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS) program, which is 

designed to determine applications of aerospace 

technology to agriculture and renewable resources. In 

addition to AgRISTARS, which is essentially a 

research program, USDA is using space data operationally in conjunction with its ground data 

forecasting in the Crop Condition Assessment System 

to provide commodity analysts timely information on 

foreign crop conditions. Work on applications of space 

data in forestry research and management is proceeding. Finally, representatives of USDA have participated in interagency programs to support transition of experimental space remote-sensing systems to 

fully operational status. 

Agriculture and Resource inventories 

The Department of Agriculture is participating 

with other agencies in the broad-based program of 

research and development AgRISTARS. A formal 

memorandum of understanding links the Departments 

of Agriculture, Commerce, the Interior, and NASA in 

the program. The Agency for International Development (AID) will evaluate possible applications in 

developing countries. 

USDA concentrates on research in crop-yield 

models and on early warning and crop condition 

assessment. In addition to acquiring ground data and 

developing agronomic data bases, USDA has lead 

responsibility for projects in soil moisture, land cover, 

renewable resources, crop area estimates in the United 

States, conservation, and pollution and will also 

evaluate resulting technology for its utility for 

agricultural applications. It also participates in areas 

of research for which other agencies have leadership 

responsibility. 

Specifically, AgRISTARS includes development, 

testing, and evaluation of procedures for adapting 

remote-sensing technolorn to u "I 

improve USDA's capability to provide early warning and timely and reliable assessments of 

changes in crop conditions; 

provide more objective and reliable crop production forecasts; 

assist in inventory and assessment of the condition 

of land, water, and renewable resources; 

develop a cost base for assessing the feasibility and 

desirability of integrating space remote-sensing 

technology with existing USDA data sources and 

systems. 

balanced program of remote sensing uses data 

from Landsat, ~ enGronmenta1 and communications 

satellites, and airborne sensors. Research and development will be combined with tests in an operational environment. The program began in fiscal 1980, when 

USDA invested $10.8 million in AgRISTARS. USDA 

agencies participating directly are the Economics and 

Statistics Service, Forest Service, Soil Conservation 

Service, and Science and Education Administration. 

The World Food and Agricultural Outlook and Situation Board monitors the program through its leadership of the User Evaluation Team. The Foreign 

Agricultural Service communicates its requirements 

for research and monitors the program for operational 

applicability of new technology. Eight specific projects 

support USDA's primary information needs, under a 

joint program management-coordination structure. 

USDA has leadership responsibility for five 

AgRISTARS projects, NASA for two, and NOAA for 

one : 

Early Warning/Crop Assessment will enable 

USDA to make timely assessments of changes in 

factors that affect the quality and production of 

economically important crops. USDA has lead 

responsibility. The activity is based in Houston. 

67 
Domestic Crops and Land Cover project will 

develop, test, and evaluate the use of satellite 

data for more precise, cost-effective, and timely 

domestic crop and land-cover acreage estimates 

at the state, crop reporting district, multicounty, 

and county levels in the United States. USDA has 

leadership responsibilty. The activity is coordinated from Washington. 

Soil Moisture project will develop, apply, and 

evaluate technology to estimate soil moisture profiles from integrated data sources including 

satellite, aircraft, and ground sensors for 

agricultural and water resource information 

needs. USDA has leadership responsibility. The 

activity is coordinated from Washington. 

Renewable Resources Inventory will provide 

research and development support to the 

multiresource inventory methods pilot test, an advanced demonstration of Landsat satellite 

technology to supplement present methods of 

making recurrent inventories or renewable 

resources over large land areas. USDA has leadership responsibility. 

Conservation/Pollution project will develop, test, 

and evaluate an integrated satellite-aircraftground data capability to supply accurate information on conservation practices and to assess the 

effectiveness of agricultural and forestry practices 

by applying models. USDA has leadership responsibility. 

Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting will 

develop and evaluate technology for improving 

production forecasts in foreign areas and determine suitablity for possible integration into 

USDA crop information systems. NASA has 

leadership responsibility. The activity is centered 

in Houston. 

Supporting Research will improve or develop new 

remote-sensing techniques for production 

forecasts in foreign areas as well as early warning 

of changes in crop condition and yield estimates. 

The techniques and procedures will be tested in 

other AgRISTARS projects. The project is 

located in Houston, with NASA in the lead role. 

Yield Model Development will develop 

mathematical models using environmental and 

plant measurement characteristics that represent 

the yield potential of important crops at state, 

regional, and national levels. USDA’s Economics 

and Statistics Service and the Science and Education Administration are linked to NOAA, the 

lead agency, to conduct the program. 

Crop Condition Assessment 

Remote-sensing research also benefits the Crop 

Condition Assessment System begun by the Foreign 

Agricultural Service (FAS) in 1979. The system supports commodity analysts with information on crop 

68 

conditions in major producing areas around the 

world. It uses advanced computer and communications technology to acquire, process, and analyze 

Landsat satellite, weather, and related data and aids 

effective transfer of research on application of 

aerospace technology to this operational program. 

For a number of years, USDA specialists in FAS and 

other agencies have developed and tested techniques 

for detecting crop stress through analysis of reflectance 

patterns in Landsat digital data. These patterns are 

the basis for vegetative indices, which plot the “greenness” of the vegetation in the Landsat scene and are 

produced by computer-aided analysis of digital Landsat data. This greenness can be correlated to the stage 

of growth and health of crops of interest. 

In 1979, FAS used vegetative indices and other advances in technology to provide its foreign commodity 

analysts more timely information on events that might 

affect the expected production of crops of economic 

importance to the United States. In 1980, FAS continued to assess important crops in major producing 

regions of the world. Assessments were used by commodity analysts in conjunction with the existing 

ground-data forecasting system in making global crop 

production forecasts for about 20 crops in some 25 

countries. 

Management of Renewable Resources 

Three Forest Service projects used advanced 

aerospace technology in 1980. The first, completed in 

1980, was a forest resource classification of a portion 

of the Shasta/Trinity National Forest in California. 

The cooperative program included the Forest Service, 

Humboldt State University, and NASA’s Ames 

Research Center. Landsat digital data were used to 

map general forest cover types, with acreage summaries for each Landsat-derived resource category. 

The experiment showed that Landsat can provide sufficient species stratification to assist in planning 

timber sales. 

The Forest Service is working with the University of 

California at Santa Barbara to demonstrate the integrated use of Landsat, terrain, and meteorological 

data in developing a forest-fire fuels data base. 

Vegetation in a test area in Southern California is being classified using data on physical factors that influence the intensity and spread of forest fires. 

The service completed a vegetative cover map for 

the entire San Juan National Forest in southwest Colorado. Cover types were derived from Landsat data, 

and the resulting classification “thematic maps” were 

converted to standard Forest Service map format. The 

next phase of work, now being planned, will test use of 

Landsat data in forest management. Although initial 

expectation for achieving high map accuracies from 

Landsat data were not achieved, the Forest Service 

believes it can improve operations with satellitederived vegetative cover maps. 
Federal Communications Commission 

Satellite communications services continued to expand in 1980. The global six-satellite system of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) added the first of its new Intelsat V 

series and is preparing specifications for the Intelsat 

VI series. Eight domestic commercial communications 

satellites were in service at the end of the year, 2 others 

were scheduled for 1981 launch, and the FCC in 

December approved the launch of 20 others by eight 

companies, as well as construction of 5 more. Commercial maritime service was developing and expanding. New concepts and international regulations were 

under study. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSA T 

The INTELSAT global communications satellite 

system consisted of three active Intelsat IVA satellites 

in the Atlantic Ocean region, two Intelsat IVA 

satellites in the Indian Ocean region, and an Intelsat 

IV in the Pacific Ocean region. A high-capacity Intelsat V satellite, first of the follow-on generation of 

spacecraft, was launched by NASA in December and 

will replace one of the Atlantic region satellites in 

1981. It carried communication packages that operate 

in both 6- to 4-gigahertz (GHz) and 11- to 14-GHz 

bands along with a “cross-strap’’ mode of operation 

(up on 6 GHz and down on 11 GHz; and up on 14 GHz 

and down on 4 GHz). 

Of the nine Intelsat V satellites under procurement, 

five (the Intelsat VA versions) will be able to provide 

maritime services, which were expected to be leased to 

the International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT). Each of the five satellites can be 

launched on any one of three launch vehicles: the 

Atlas-Centaur, NASA’s Space Shuttle, and the European Space Agency’s Ariane. The Intelsat Vs and VAS 

will provide communications capacity to handle increasing traffic demands, now growing at a rate in excess of 25 percent a year, and will also provide planned 

space-segment capacity to satisfy requirements of 

INTELSAT signatories for regional and domestic 

satellite services. INTELSAT planned to introduce 

time-division multiple access in the mid-l980s, which 

will markedly increase the channel capacity of its 

satellites. Specifications for Intelsat VI were in 

preparation and the request for proposals was to be 

issued early in 1981. 

Mun’time 

Commercial maritime mobile-satellite service continued to develop and expand. Service was being provided through the Marisat system in the Atlantic, 

Pacific, and Indian Ocean areas to more than 500 

ships. Ultimately, up to 8000 ships were expected to be 

fitted for satellite communications. The INMARSAT 

Council and Assembly had met, and the organization 

was to lease satellite capacity to provide satellite 

telecommunications to ships in all ocean areas. The 

first leased service was expected to begin operations in 

early 1982. On 3 November 1980, the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) 

approved the requirements for a future global 

maritime distress and safety system. The new system 

will become effective about 1990 and will rely heavily 

on the use of satellites, especially in the INMARSAT 

system. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

At the end of 1980, eight domestic communications 

satellites were operating in the 4- to 6-GHz bands. Of 

the eight, two were part of the RCA American Communications, Inc., Satcom system, three were in the 

Western Union Telegraph’s Westar system, and three 

were in American Telephone & Telegraph Company’s 

Comstar system. These satellites provided message toll 

service, television distribution, and both single and 

multiple channels per carrier for voice, data, television, and digital data. More than 3500 ground stations 

were licensed for these services by the end of 1980. 

Many stations used 4.5-meter antennas to receive and 

distribute video and audio signals. Since the loss of 

Satcorn 3 in late 1979, RCA Americom was leasing 
transponders on the Comstar system until it could 

launch a replacement satellite. 

The first Satellite Business Systems (SBS) satellite 

was launched in November 1980 to begin commercial 

satellite operations in March 1981. SBS will use the 

12-14 GHz bands to provide a wideband, switched, 

private communications network (using 5- and 

7-meter ground stations) to large industrial and 

government users on a common camer basis. Voice, 

data, and image traffic will use time-division multiple 

access to the satellite's transponder. On 7 March 1980, 

the commission's decision for construction of the SBS 

satellite system was affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. 

The commission had earlier authorized Hughes 

Communications Services, Inc., to construct a satellite 

system known at LEASAT, which will replace the existing Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) 

system and is intended to provide the Navy and other 

military services with nearly global communications 

for national defense. 

In December 1980, the commission took action to 

increase the competitive sources of supply of domestic 

communications satellite services, authorizing construction of 25 new domestic satellites and launch of 

20 of these or previously constructed satellites. The 

new satellites will replace those nearing the end of 

their operational lifetimes, will provide for new entrants into the domestic market, and will expand the 

facilities of existing carriers that have demonstrated 

the need for additional capacity. The commission 

authorized : 

Hughes Communications to construct three 

satellites to operate in the 4-6 GHz bands, to 

launch two of them as scheduled by NASA, and 

to place the satellites on station at 74O and 135O 

W. longitude. Launch of the third satellite was 

deferred until warranted by customer demand. 

Southern Pacific Communications Company to 

construct three satellites to operate in the 4-6 and 

12-14 GHz bands and to launch two of them for 

stations at 70" and 119O W. Launch of the third 

and construction of a fourth were deferred. 

Comsat General Corp. to launch its fourth Comstar satellite (0-4), for 127-127.5O W.; to reposition Comstar D-1 to 95O W.; and to operate Comstar D-1 and 0-2 as a composite satellite. 

@American Telephone & Telegraph Company 

to construct a Telstar satellite system of three 

24-transponder satellites in the 4-6 GHz bands, to 

launch two of them to 95O and 87" W., and to 

hold the third. The Telstar satellites will replace 

the Comstar satellites when they expire. 

RCA American Communications, Inc., to construct six additional Satcom satellites to operate 

in the 4-6 GHz bands and to launch four, for 

131°W., 83" W., 139" W. (toreplace Satcom I), 

and 143" W. (to replace Satcom 2). The fifth will 

be deferred until traffic requirements justify the 

additional orbital location. The sixth will be an 

on-ground spare. 

The Western Union Telegraph Company to construct and launch two additional Westar satellites 

(4 and 5), which will each carry 24 transponders 

in the 4-6 GHz band and will replace the nearly 

expired Westar 1 and 2. Orbital locations of 99' 

and 123"W. were assigned to them. 

American Satellite Company to acquire a 

20-percent undivided ownership interest in the 

Westar space segment. 

A partnership, Space Communications Company 

-formed of Western Union (50 percent), Fairchild Industries, Inc. (25 percent), and Continental Telephone Corp. (25 percent)-to take over 

Western Union Space Communications, Inc., 

business, the construction and operation of the 

TDRWAdvanced Westar system. 

Space Communications Company to construct 

the Advanced Westar system consisting of the 

commercial portions of five complete space stations, components for a sixth space station, and 

parts for a seventh space station in the domestic 

Fixed Satellite Service. The system is part of a 

four in-orbit satellite system that also would be 

used as a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System (TDRSS) by NASA. Two satellites would 

be used exclusively for TDRSS service in government frequency bands, one exclusively for commercial domestic satellite services in the 4-6 and 

12-14 GHz bands, and the fourth for both 

TDRSS and commercial services. Spacecom was 

authorized to place two Advanced Westar 

Satellites in geostationary orbit at 79" and 91 O W. 

for commercial domestic services and to construct 

and operate the associated tracking, telemetry, 

and command ground station at White Sands. 

Western Union will lease 50 percent of Advanced 

Westar and American Satellite the other 50 percent. Two additional satellites will be launched 

for exclusive TDRSS services. 

Satellite Business Systems to launch its second 

satellite to operate in the 12-14 GHz bands. 

Launch of a third will be deferred. Orbital locations are to be selected. 

Finally, the commission announced its intent to consider early alterations in domestic satellite licensing 

policy to reduce orbital spacing (from 4' to 3"), provide in-orbit restoral capacity, use more spectrumefficient transmission techniques, use higher frequency satellites (such as those at 18-30 GHz), and accommodate hybrid satellites. 

Experiments and Studies 

Small growth continued in the area of emergency 

communications provided by two Application 
Technology Satellites, ATS 1 and ATS 3. These 

satellites have narrow-band VHF transponders, and 

experimenters send narrow-band voice and data communications by them to and from fixed and portable 

stations. Messages deal with medical emergency, state 

government operation, search and rescue operations, 

and church administration. 

Use of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite to collect environmental data increased. 

The satellite is operated by the National Environmental Satellite Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Observations and measurements of physical, chemical, or biological properties of oceans, rivers, lakes, solid earth, and atmosphere are collected by data-collection platforms 

on the earth, relayed to the satellite, and then 

distributed to users for fire-weather forecasting, 

prediction of water runoff, and collection of environmental data near offshore oil drilling platforms. 

Communications Studies 

The commission continued in 1980 to work in the 

forum of the International Telecommunication Union 

(ITU) to achieve an international regulatory 

framework in which the benefits of satellite communications can best be provided to the public. The 

commission was preparing for the 1983 Region 2 

Regional Administrative Radio Conference (RARC), 

which will draw up a detailed plan for the Broadcasting-Satellite Service (BSS). Preparation for the 

World Administrative Radio Conference (Space 

Telecommunications), with the first of two sessions to 

be held in 1984, had also begun. The first session will 

decide which space services and frequency bands 

should be planned; establish the principles, technical 

parameters, and criteria for the planning; establish 

guidelines for regulatory procedures for services and 

frequency bands not to be planned: and consider other 

possible approaches to guarantee all countries 

equitable access to the geostationary-satellite orbit and 

the frequency bands allocated to space services. 

Direct-Broadcast Satellites (DBS) 

Direct -broadcast satellites are conceived as com - munications satellites in geostationary orbit, providing 

signals, probably television, that can be received by 

small, inexpensive antennas in individual homes in the 

United States. Community reception using larger 

antennas is also contemplated. The proposed downlink frequencies are in the 12-GHz band and uplink 

frequencies to the satellites are in the 17-GHz band. 

The range of frequencies is tentative and will be decided at the 1983 regional conference. 

The commission began studying direct -broadcast 

satellites at the end of 1979, motivated by a need to 

plan the assignment of frequencies in the BSS band. 

The commission was also preparing for the 1983 

regional conference. An application for a BSS system 

was expected. 

The commission study basically consists of two areas 

of investigation: policy concerning entry of directbroadcast satellites into the market place and 

technical issues. A report was written on the first by 

the Office of Plans and Policy and one on the latter by 

the Office of Science and Technology. A notice of inquiry invited public comment on the reports. Comments on regulation of interim systems were received 

in late 1980, and comments on policy issues and the 

technical report were scheduled for early 1981. 

Additionally, the commission issued a separate 

notice of inquiry into preparations for the 1983 Region 

2 conference. The date for filing comments has 

passed, but additional notices in that proceeding are 

expected to be released in 1981. 

71 
Department of Transportation 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the 

aviation component of the Department of Transportation, regulates aviation safety, develops and operates a 

common system of air navigation and air traffic control for both civil and military aviation, fosters the 

growth of civil aeronautics at home and abroad, contributes to the development of an effective national 

airport system, promotes aviation security, and ensures as far as possible that all civil aviation activities 

are conducted in a manner protective of the environment. To carry out these responsibilities, FAA conducts a variety of research, development, and 

engineering programs. The programs fall into three 

principal categories: aviation safety, environmental 

research, and air navigation and air traffic control. 

Aviation Safety 

Recent Initiatives 

The objective of FAA’s research, development, and 

engineering programs in aviation safety is to 

demonstrate the feasibility - technically, operationally, and economically - of designs, techniques, pro ~ 

cedures, and equipment to improve the crashworthiness of aircraft; enhance the performance and safety 

of propulsion systems; and provide backup for the 

development of aircraft, airman, and equipment certification requirements, compliance procedures, and 

regulatory standards for successful integration of man 

and machine in advanced aircraft systems. In new and 

ongoing efforts during 1980, FAA 

Investigated the adequacy of passenger seatrestraint systems in transport aircraft accidents. 

The investigation determined that the problem 

was not so much in the seat-restraint systems 

themselves as in the deformation on impact of the 

airframes and floors. The study was reoriented to 

determine the best methods of reducing floor and 

airframe deformation and to introduce energy 

absorption concepts into seat design. 

Participated with the Army in a helicopter-icing 

project. The agency contributed to the improvement of an Army inflight icing simulator and also 

held a nationwide syqposium on objectives and 

requirements for a national helicopter-icing 

research effort. The research would develop certification standards designed to inhibit icing conditions. 

Joined the Canadian government’s National 

Aeronautics Establishment in the first of a series 

of longitudinal stability evaluation tests in 

instrument-flight -rule (IFR) helicopter operations. The tests were expected to be of great value 

in establishing the operational requirements for 

certifying helicopters for IFR operations. 

Investigated, with the Department of Defense and 

NASA, advanced integrated flight systems for 

future use nationally. The object was to determine what these systems will look like and the 

safety regulations that will have to be promulgated for their use. 

Began a nationwide effort for organizing research 

in atmospheric effects on new, advanced aircraft 

systems. 

Fire Safety Research 

FAA devoted much effort toward improving an aircraft passenger’s chances of surviving a crash that he 

would be able to escape from were it not for the postcrash rupture of fuel tanks and the spontaneous ignition of released, mistlike fuel particles. Rupturing fuel 

tanks, igniting fuel, fires, explosions, and toxic gases 

from burning cabin materials make an occupant’s survival all but impossible unless he can get out in time. 

At least two remedies are obvious. One is to inhibit or 

slow the spread of postcrash fires and explosions; the 

other is to establish cabin safety standards that will 

gain time for evacuation of the plane by its occupants. 

Over the years, FAA’s fire safety research has 

searched for an antimisting fuel able to operate effi72 
ciently in existing aircraft systems and for a replacement for the highly volatile and flammable fuels in 

use. It has pioneered a variety of research initiatives in 

cabin safety research, including bum tests of cabin interior materials to establish their relative toxicity, the 

investigation of partition geometry to slow the spread 

of fires, the development of computerized models to 

simulate cabin fires, and the establishment of a permanent aircraft-fire test facility to make tests that 

closely simulate actual cabin fires. 

Research in these areas continued during 1980. As 

in 1979, the agency made fire tests using a C-133 

fuselage to simulate a full-scale wide-bodied jet. The 

tests sought to determine the smoke, heat, and toxic 

gases released by burning commonly used aircraft interior materials. Tests to determine the heat resistance 

of aircraft evacuation slides showed that adding an 

aluminized coating to the surface of the slides made 

passenger evacuation safer. The agency also expanded 

antimisting fire research and simulation tests of fuel 

spills from ruptured tanks to determine how to arrest 

and contain spilling. 

FAA established in June 1978 a Special Aviation 

Fire and Explosion Reduction (SAFER) Advisory 

Committee to review its fire safety program and to 

recommend what was most needed to reach its objectives. The 24-member committee -drawn from the 

airlines, aircraft manufacturers, universities, public 

and private research organizations, and flight and 

cabin crews-was asked to “examine the factors affecting the ability of the aircraft cabin occupant to survive in the postcrash environment and the range of 

solutions available.” 

Two technical working groups under the committee 

worked on interior compartment materials and 

postcrash fire reduction. Special subgroups studied 

short-term rulemaking possibilities in materials, 

material system toxicology, materials evaluation and 

testing, cabin fire safety, and evacuation slide integrity. The working groups also examined devices to make 

materials inert, explosion suppression devices, crashresistant fuel-tank technology, and antimisting 

kerosene fuels. More than 150 of the world’s top experts in fire research, accident investigation, materials 

development, system design, and aircraft fire and occupant safety assisted the committee and working 

groups. 

The final report of the committee was submitted to 

the FAA administrator in September 1980. Its most 

important recommendation, the committee emphasized, was for investigating and validating antimisting 

kerosene. Developing an antimisting technology could 

prove to be the single most significant safety action the 

agency could take to reduce postcrash fires. Another 

recommendation envisaged designing and procuring 

fuel tanks and fuel-tank systems that resist rupture 

regardless of the deformation or failure of the 

surrounding aircraft structure. Other recommendations dealt with fuel-tank vent protection, engine fuel 

shutoff, available reduced-flash-point kerosene fuels, 

fire-resistant cabin interior materials, fire-blocking 

seat-cushion materials, and the possible use in cabin 

interiors of aluminum panels, epoxy glass panels, or 

phenolic panels, all of them highly fire resistant. 

The FAA administrator set up in-house working 

groups to examine the recommendations and to 

translate them when feasible into rulemaking proposals. 

Aviation Security Research 

Progress was made in 1980 in developing x-ray, 

thermal -neutron-activation, nuclear -magnetic -resonance, and electronic-vapor-explosive detection 

devices. These advanced technology devices are meant 

to supplement the predeparture screening program 

that has been in place since the 1970s to deter terrorism and sabotage aboard aircraft. Intended to 

detect, effectively and automatically, bombs and other 

explosives hidden in lockers, checked baggage, cargo 

holds, and cargo compartments, they reached the 

following levels of development in 1980: 

Two units of a new x-ray baggage-inspection 

device were accepted from the contractor and 

sent for further testing to FAA’s Technical Center 

and Dulles International Airport. In addition, a 

modular, automated x-ray device reached the 

procurement stage, and an experimental x-ray 

test -target -calibration inspection device com - 

pleted its development and was undergoing 

limited field tests at the end of 1980. 

A thermal-neutron-activation device for detecting explosives was tested on baggage and cargo at 

several airports and was being improved at the 

end of 1980. 

The model of a nuclear-magnetic-resonance 

device for the automatic inspection of baggage 

and air cargo was tested at the Dallas-Fort Worth 

Airport and was being modified for improved 

performance. 

The development of an electronic-vapor-detector 

device for the detection of explosives was completed and its performance. evaluated. 

FAA also continued to experiment with small 

animals whose performance in detecting explosives 

compares favorably with electronic vapor detectors. 

Medical Safety Research 

FAA’s Civil Aeromedical Institute (CAMI), at 

Oklahoma City, has as part of its mission the preparation of research studies on the medical aspects of aviation safety. Among studies published by CAMI in 1980 

were : 

Boredom and Monotony as a Consequence of 

Automation: A Consideration of the Evidence 

73 
Relating Boredom and Monotony to Stress. The 

available data offered no support to the belief 

that boredom and monotony within the 

automated environment were per se productive of 

stress. Reports of boredom could serve most 

usefully as warnings that some elements in an 

automated job might be contributing to lowered 

attentiveness and work dissatisfaction. 

Cosmic Radiation during Air Travel. An advisory 

committee on the radiation biology of supersonic 

flight described the galactic and solar cosmicradiation environment, estimated accumulated 

radiation dosage during high-altitude flight, 

enumerated risks of genetic and somatic injury, 

discussed possible radiation protection measures, 

and gave the status of forecasting and monitoring 

solar, cosmic events. 

Postmortem Coronary Atherosclerosis Findings in 

General Aviation Accident Fatalities: 1975-1 977. 

The autopsies of 764 pilots who were in fatal 

general-aviation accidents during the two-year 

period were examined to determine the 

prevalence by age of coronary atherosclerosis in 

the group. The study determined that 51 percent 

of the autopsied pilots had had some degree of the 

disease and that, while only about 5 percent had 

had it in a severe form, the rate per thousand of 

severe cases increased from 14.5 for ages less than 

30 to 89.9 for ages 50 years and above and that 

the rate nearly tripled from ages 30-39 to 40-49 

(22.1 to 63.6 cases). 

The Current Role of Alcohol in Civil Aviation Accidents. Alcohol -associated general - aviation ac - cidents have remained at a constant 16-percent 

level since 1969. An FAA survey of pilot attitudes 

revealed a lack of appreciation of the adverse effects of alcohol on safe flight among one-third of 

general-aviation pilots. These pilots believed that 

it was safe to fly with a positive alcohol level in 

their blood of 0.015 percent or higher. An intensified pilot-education program warning of the 

adverse effect on safe flying of even small 

amounts of alcohol was recommended. 

Airport Pavement Development 

cluded: 

Research projects on airport pavement in 1980 inNon-destructive Airport Pavement Testing. The 

requirement that airport pavements be tested 

periodically to determine their load-carrying 

capabilities has made it necessary in the past to 

dig large pits in the pavements, make special 

bearing tests, and sample and test the 

materials-a method that was costly and timeconsuming and required the temporary shutdown 

of the pavements tested. An FAA-developed, 

nondestructive testing technique -which applies 

vibration to the pavement, measures deflection, 

and calculates strength and load-bearing 

capability by computer - is now being adopted by 

airport operators throughout the national airport 

system. 

Use of Waste and Recycled Materials in Airport 

Pavement Construction. Research funded by 

FAA-with similar research by the Federal 

Highway Administration, the U.S. Navy, and the 

Army Corps of Engineers-established that certain waste and recyclable materials can be used 

safely and effectively in pavement construction. 

Old pavements are being crushed and reused as 

aggregate for new pavements, and fly ash, lime, 

sulfur, and various tailings and other industrial 

wastes are being used in new airport pavement 

construction throughout the country. 

Environmental Research 

Two principal environmental research projects were 

pursued in 1980: investigation of an atmospheric 

health hazard in aircraft cabins at high altitudes and 

examination of whether aircraft operations in the 

stratosphere damage the environment. 

The first project studied high-altitude ozone contamination of cabins. During the winter of 1976-1977 

acute physical discomfort marked by coughing and 

shortness of breath was noted by passengers and crew 

members on some long-range, high-altitude flights 

over the North Pacific. A possible cause was thought 

to be atmospheric ozone seeping into the cabins 

through their pressurizing systems. FAA, working 

closely with NASA and other government agencies, 

monitored and analyzed the ozone concentration both 

inside and outside at cruise levels and concluded that 

grounds existed for this belief. The agency promulgated a rule in 1980 setting limits on the amount 

of ozone permitted in the cabins. 

The second project, FAA’s continuing High 

Altitude Pollution Program (HAPP), was an 

outgrowth of DOT’S earlier (1971-1975) Climatic Impact Assessment Program, the first comprehensive 

assessment of the effects of stratospheric pollution by 

aircraft, especially supersonic aircraft. The departmental study concluded that large-scale commercial 

aircraft operations, including SST operations, could 

significantly reduce atmospheric ozone. Studies since 

then by FAA under HAPP have led to a directly opposite conclusion: that foreseeable stratospheric aircraft operations would slightly increase total columnar 

ozone rather than decrease it. However, there is an element of uncertainty in this conclusion, since some 

calculations based on plausible parameters lead to an 

inference of a possible ozone decrease. The objective 

of HAPP is to resolve this uncertainty. 

74 
Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

Microwave Landing System (MLS) 

FAA first began developing a microwave landing 

system in the early 197Os, using an advanced, timereferenced scanning-beam technique. The MLS was 

accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in April 1978 as the international standard to replace the existing instrument landing system 

Three versions of the microwave system have been 

developed: a basic, wide-aperture system for large airports; a basic, narrow-aperture system for mediumsize airports; and a small-community system. Test and 

evaluation of the basic narrow system and the smallcommunity system were completed in 1979; testing of 

the basic, wide-aperture system, begun in 1979 at 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Center, continued in 1980. 

Action was taken during the year to secure ICAO 

approval of a checklist of standards and recommended 

practices, setting forth specifications, standards and 

operational practices of the various telecommunications systems used in international civil aviation. Work 

proceeded on both implementation and transition 

plans for the system and on production specifications 

for the basic narrow and small-community systems 

and associated technical documentation. 

Concurrently FAA had under way in 1980 a socalled Systems Test and Evaluation Program (STEP). 

Its name to the contrary, STEP was concerned not so 

much with development, test, and evaluation, which 

had already been done, as with demonstration of the 

MLS versions for potential users and the gathering of 

“live” operational data for use by the operating services in developing operational handbooks, siting 

standards, and flight inspection procedures. 

Discrete-Address Beacon System (DABS) 

A spinoff from the primitive World War I1 

identification-friend-or-foe (IFF) radar surveillance 

system, the present air traffic control radar-beacon 

system (ATCRBS) came into being in the mid- 1960s as 

a secondary radar system. An airborne transponder 

automatically transmits an aircraft’s identity and 

altitude when triggered by sensors mounted on 

ground-based radar interrogator antennas. Processed 

and digitized, this information and other positional information of the aircraft appears as an electronically 

written readout on controllers’ display screens and 

radar scopes. 

A serious ATCRBS shortcoming became apparent 

with the increasing traffic densities of the 1970s: the 

inability to ensure separation of transponder replies 

from aircraft flying close to one another. 

Transponders on all the aircraft in a given area reply 

indiscriminately to ground interrogation signals aimed 

(ILS). 

at perhaps one or two of them, overlapping and garbling the responses. Computers at the ground stations 

must unscramble them, impeding to that extent the 

processing and digitizing of information that controllers rely on in making decisions. 

FAA is completing development of a discreteaddress beacon system (DABS) to overcome this difficulty. The DABS sensors - advanced interrogators 

mounted on primary radar antennas-will be able to 

address DABS-transponder-equipped aircraft individually and receive a transponder response from a 

specific aircraft rather than from all the aircraft in the 

immediate vicinity. The DABS transponder will respond only to its own aircraft’s unique identity code in 

a ground sensor’s interrogation. 

DABS also will provide a digital data link between 

DABS-equipped aircraft and the ground-based air 

traffic control system, making possible the transmission of a large variety of data that would otherwise require direct controller-pilot communications. 

A contract was awarded in early 1976 for 3 

engineering-model DABS automatic traffic-advisoryand-resolution system (DABWATARS) sensors and 30 

DABS transponders. Two models were delivered in 

mid-1978, and the third in early 1979. The sensors 

and transponders are being tested and evaluated at 

three locations centered on the FAA Test Center at 

Atlantic City. 

New Automated Weather Observation Systems 

In the mid-l970s, FAA began the development of a 

completely automated, unmanned weather station 

capable of weather observation service comparable to 

that from an on-the-spot, full-time weather observer. 

It was to be developed for use, at great cost savings, 

where FAA was responsible for providing manual 

weather observations. Working with the National 

Weather Service, which had developed such a station 

for remote and isolated areas, FAA developed a prototype automated weather observation station of its 

own, the AV-AWOS. 

The AV-AWOS was fairly well developed when the 

agency in early 1978 began testing it at Patrick Henry 

International Airport at Newport News, Virginia. 

Data from standard, off-the-shelf, meteorological sensors were fed into a computer and the result-an onthe-spot, real-time weather service-was broadcast to 

pilots and others by a computer -generated voice 

broadcast. After four months of testing at Newport 

News, the concept was proved successful, but better 

sensors were needed. Under an interagency agreement 

the National Weather Service built a wind, altimeter, 

and voice-equipment (WAVE) system, which FAA 

tested and successfully demonstrated at Frederick 

Municipal Airport at Frederick, Maryland, in 1980. 

The WAVE system provides the basic means for 

measuring, processing, and reporting by computer75 
generated voice (and by other means) surface 

temperature; dewpoint; wind speed, direction, and 

gusts; altimeter setting; and density altitude. The 

primary purpose of the system is to provide current 

weather and local altimeter services at airports that do 

not have this capability. Two commercial systems have 

been certified to provide this service. A number of 

these systems will be procured during 1981. 

The FAA, anticipating the need for more complex 

systems, enhanced the WAVE system by adding more 

sensors and appropriate software for sensing and 

reporting visibility and ceiling, providing present 

weather information, and computing density altitude. 

This intermediate system, the automatic low-cost 

weather observation system (ALWOS), provides all the 

WAVE functions and will satisfy FAA regulatory requirements. The ALWOS system was successfully 

evaluated at Dulles International Airport during 1980. 

Plans are being made to test and demonstrate a more 

advanced version of ALWOS on an off-shore oil platform in early 1981. 

ALWOS tests will also provide the means for a 

continuing FAA effort to develop and evaluate both 

hardware and software for a full, automated, surface 

weather observation system - the automated weather 

observation system (AW0S)-that will meet all of the 

present -day requirements of aviation weather observation, including present weather information, 

thunderstorm detection, etc. Final technical development of the AWOS will be completed by late 1981. 

Direct-Access Radar Channel (DARC) 

In late 1976, FAA let a contract for 22 direct-accessradar-channel en route air traffic control subsystems. 

Of the number, 20 were to provide a backup for the 

radar data processing systems at each of the FAA’s 20 

semiautomated air-route traffic control centers. The 

remaining two systems were to serve as backup for the 

system itself, one at the FAA Technical Center at 

Atlantic City for systems support, the other at the FAA 

Academy for the instruction of student controllers. 

The DARC was to operate its narrow-band (digitized) radar data processing system when an individual 

traffic control center’s primary IBM 9020 computers 

either failed or were shut down for maintenance. 

Using specially designed minicomputers and 

associated software and hardware computer components, DARC, operating in a “hot standby” mode, 

would be ready at a moment’s notice to operate the 

processing system, which provides the controller an 

automatic alphanumeric readout on plan view 

displays of aircraft identity, position, and altitude, for 

his decisions for the safe separation of the aircraft 

under his control. 

The existing backup in the NAS en route stage A 

system-as the automated en route air traffic control 

system is known-is broadband radar, a manually 

operated systcm in effect before the automated system 

was introdufed. The controller prepares by hand a 

clear plastic marker for each controlled aircraft, with 

identity and altitude and other essential flight information. In changing from narrow-band to broadband 

radar operation, he repositions his radar scope from 

the vertical to the horizontal and pushes each marker 

manually across the scope to keep it as close as possible 

to the moving radar blip. DARC will make possible 

the eventual phaseout of the slow manual system. 

By late 1978, DARC was ready for testing. The first 

unit went to the FAA Academy in November; the second to the FAA Technical Center a month later. The 

first operational DARC was received at the Salt Lake 

City Center in July 1979. Minneapolis, Chicago, 

Washington, and Jacksonville centers received the 

next subsystems in 1979. The remaining 15 deliveries 

were completed during 1980. By mid-1981 all 20 

centers are expected to have completed the testing and 

commissioning of their DARC subsystems. 

En Route Automated Radar Tracking System 

(EAR TS) 

A simpler, less costly, en route, automated radar 

tracking system -considerably different from the 

equipment used in the 20 domestic traffic control 

centers-has been developed for the special needs of 

the dispersed Anchorage, Honolulu, and San Juan 

centers. EARTS is essentially an expanded ARTS I11 

modified for en route operations by adding a plan view 

display component from the en route stage A equipment list. 

Deliveries of the new EARTS equipment began in 

the spring of 1978. Initial operating capability was attained by all three centers by 1979, and Anchorage 

began operating the equipment in August 1980. 

Honolulu was scheduled to follow in February 1981; 

and the San Juan center-which had for some time 

been using the ARTS I11 component of its EARTS 

package for approach control functions of the airports 

at San Juan, St. Croix, and St. Thomas -was expected 

to go into full, automated en route operation in March 

1981. 

New Automated Flight-Data Dziplay Systems 

Two principal improvements made progress during 

1980, the electronic tabular display subsystem 

(ETABS) in the en route system and the terminal information display system (TIDS) in the terminal 

system: 

ETABS. The system is designed to eliminate the 

need for manually updating and posting paper flightprogress strips in controller consoles and manually 

entering new flight data into center computers. 

Automatic extraction and display of data will save the 

controllers time and enhance productivity. An 

76 
engineering model of the system, near completion in 

1980, will be tested and evaluated at FAA's Technical 

Center at Atlantic City preparatory to procurement. 

TIDS. The program is aimed at reducing the manpower required to distribute flight progress data and 

related information in airport control towers and 

radar control rooms. Using computer-stored and processed data, the system will provide significantly improved displays of flight data and airport operation 

data. Devices to display wind, weather, and the status 

of airport equipment will be consolidated, and existing electromechanical flight strip printers will be 

replaced by electronic displays. A contract was awarded in 1980 for development of a prototype system consolidating the environmental displays. In a subsequent 

phase, the flight data displays will be integrated with 

this system, tested, and evaluated. 

New Radars 

In addition to the newly developed, solid-state airport surveillance radar (ASR-8), 57 of which were in 

operation by the end of 1980, development was completed on the airport surface detection radar (ASDE-3) 

and procurement continued on the ARSR-3, an improved long-range radar. 

ASDE-3. The object of this program was to develop 

an improved surveillance system for airport surfacetraffic control, with improved aircraft detection during fog and rain. Testing and evaluation of a prototype ASDE-3, delivered to the FAA Technical 

Center in August 1979, was complete in May 1980, 

and implementation is expected to start in 1983. 

ARSR-3. This new-generation, long-range, en route 

air traffic control radar was designed for use in highdensity traffic and embodies such advanced features as 

improved antenna design, solid-state construction, 

and built-in test equipment. A total of 27 new 

ARSR-3s. including 4 mobile units, was procured by 

early 1980; 13 fxed units were in operation at the end 

of the year. 

Next-Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) 

Program 

The FAA has entered a joint program with the 

Department of Defense and Department of Commerce 

for a new common-use weather radar. The radar will 

use the doppler technique to detect hazardous weather 

phenomena and is designed to meet the nation's 

weather radar data needs in the 1990s and beyond. 

NEXRAD will replace the National Weather Service's 

obsolete weather radar network with a solid-state, 

joint-use, doppler radar network. 

A joint NEXRAD Special Program Office staffed by 

representatives of the participating agencies was 

established in 1980 and a joint development program 

plan approved. An operational timetable calls for 

development by 1981 of the functional specifications 

and provision of both a validated concept and a prototype of the system by 1984. Full-scale development 

and limited production will begin in 1985, and full 

production will be under way and nationwide deployment begun in 1986. 

77 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and 

NASA, working under two memoranda of understanding, have developed measurement systems and 

used satellite systems to gather data for field studies of 

hazy air masses and of the transport and transformation of oxidants and other pollutants in the northeast 

quadrant of the United States. 

EnergyRelated Environmental Research 

The Interagency Energy/Environment Program 

(IEEP), a program under EPA direction instituted in 

1974, draws on the expertise of some 36 research 

groups from federal departments and agencies, 

Department of Energy national laboratories, and 

EPA’s own laboratories. The goal of the IEEP is to 

provide regulatory decision-makers in the federal 

government and the states with environmental data 

and assessment methodologies to ensure that national 

goals of energy development and self-reliance are met 

with minimal impact on human health and the environment. NASA participates, under the first 

memorandum of the understanding, providing EPA 

useful products of space-age technology, including a 

multispectral scanner and a data-analysis system for 

remote sensing of pollution and pollution effects. In 

addition, NASA aircraft have flown numerous missions in support of field study and in gathering data 

for pollution surveys. 

Pollution Monitoring 

The second understanding commits EPA and 

NASA to a cooperative program of research on hazy 

air masses. These masses are frequently found, 

especially in the eastern half of the nation, during 

summer months when meteorological conditions cause 

thermal inversions (as well as the formation of oxidants through photochemical reactions) in the atmosphere over populous industrial areas. At these 

times the air is stagnant and any pollution that enters 

the atmosphere remains in the local area, sometimes 

for extended periods. The air becomes unhealthy to 

breathe, especially for persons already suffering from 

impaired-pulmonary-function diseases. Hospitals treat 

increased numbers of persons for pulmonary 

disorders. EPA seeks to understand the causes of these 

prolonged elevated-pollution episodes (PEPEs) so as to 

predict when they will occur and to understand their 

atmospheric chemistry well enough to propose abatement or avoidance measures. 

The joint EPA-NASA hazy-air-mass program has 

To determine if existing satellite systems can be 

used to help predict and track PEPEs. 

To identify ways in which the satellite systems can 

be modified to improve their ability to see hazy 

air masses and to distinguish natural haze from 

that caused by industrial pollution. Existing 

satellite sensor systems were designed primarily 

for planetary studies and thus designed to see 

through any intervening atmosphere. Accordingly, the wavelengths to which the sensors respond were chosen specifically to miss the haze. 

Possibly by the simple expedient of choosing other 

wavelengths, a satellite system far more useful for 

defining hazy air masses can be developed. 

To accelerate development of remote-sensing 

systems for atmospheric pollutants. These systems 

are already under development by NASA for 

possible use in future satellites and they are being 

implemented with partial funding from EPA 

through the IEEP. 

To investigate the feasibility of using satellitebased communication systems in large-scale field 

studies of air pollution transport and transformation phenomena. These studies require the participation of several research teams and several 

airborne and mobile ground-based vehicles. 

four goals: 

PEPE/NEROS Field Study 

In July and August 1980, EPA made a large-scale 

field study known as PEPE/NEROS (Persistent 

78 
Elevated Pollution Episode/North East Regional Oxidant Study). This was the first field study to have the 

benefit of a UV-DIAL (ultraviolet-differential absorption lidar) system for obtaining range-resolved ozone 

data from an airplane. Earlier in the year, the UVDIAL system, mounted in NASA's Electra aircraft, 

performed well, obtaining ozone data that agreed with 

in situ data taken simultaneously from another aircraft. The UV-DIAL data taken for the 

PEPE/NEROS experiment will be analyzed and compared with the rest of the experimental data in fiscal 

1981. The performance of the UV-DIAL, considered a 

minor breakthrough, stimulated the interest of researchers both in this country and in Europe. 

The multispectral scanner (MSS), obtained by 

EPAS Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory 

at Las Vegas from NASA with earlier IEEP funding, 

also flew missions in the PEPE/NEROS field study. 

Other measurements of air pollution phenomena were 

made subsequently over the San Francisco area with 

NASA's MSS system mounted in its U-2 aircraft, to obtain a data base for deriving recommendations for 

future satellite systems. Recommendations were expected to be made for specific spectral regions to be 

sensed and a computer algorithm for analyzing the 

data to detect boundaries of hazy air masses. 

At PEPE/NEROS headquarters in Columbus, 

Ohio, researchers received via satellite near real-time 

data on the formation of hazy air masses and their 

subsequent movement. These data were combined 

with near real-time meteorological data to predict and 

identify the air masses. Large numbers of aircraft and 

surface units stood by at various locations in the East, 

but the summer proved abnormally free of dangerous 

inversion conditions. Two PEP& were observed during the four-week study period, one over the 

southeastern states and the other over Kentucky and 

Tennessee. 

The satellite data were useful, not only for guiding 

researchers during the field measurement portion of 

the PEPE/NEROS study, but also in interpreting the 

immense volume of atmospheric pollutant data taken 

by the other units. The McIdas (man-computer interactive data-analysis system) of the University of 

Wisconsin, which can simultaneously display satellite 

and meteorological data, was being used to provide a 

framework for the interpretation of the in situ pollutant data. 

NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory also participated, deploying its laser absorption spectrometer 

(an airborne instrument that measures the amount of 

ozone between the airplane and the ground) and a 

van-mounted system for measuring the vertical 

temperature profile and relative humidity. This latter 

system makes microwave measurements of atmospheric molecular oxygen and water. 

UV-DIAL Development 

The next phase in the development of the UV-DIAL 

system will be to modify it to detect sulfur dioxide and 

to fit it with a more powerful laser, extending its range 

for daylight operation. Clearly, lidar systems can be 

used to take data that, because of expense and 

technology limitations, are not otherwise obtainable. 

The present UV-DIAL system was designed as a 

research system; it is massive and requires considerable 

electric power. The design goal was to determine the 

absolute limits of lidar capability. One path of 

research in the future would be to design a lidar system 

with reduced power requirements and perhaps 

miniaturized components, so that it can be used in 

smaller aircraft. Another research path may lead to 

the development of a ground-based atmospheric 

observatory that scans the skies over urban areas and 

maps pollution three-dimensionally and continuously. 

Such an observatory has already been built in Japan. 

The use of present satellite data to locate and track 

hazy air masses has been demonstrated. If the effort to 

improve the ability of satellite systems to see the haze 

succeeds, it may be possible to predict air pollution 

levels in the same way that changes in the weather are 

now predicted. 

79 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation, charged with advancing basic scientific knowledge, supports research 

in aeronautics and space sciences. Most of this 

research is in astronomy and atmospheric sciences, to 

which staff and visitors at NSF-supported National 

Research Centers contribute significantly. 

Multiple Quasars 

Since the discovery of the law of gravitation by Isaac 

Newton, the behavior of a mass under the influence of 

gravity has been well understood. Einstein’s later insight predicted that a particle of “pure energy” (i.e., 

light) should also be influenced by gravity-in this 

case, deflected by the gravitational field of a massive 

object. One of the key tests of general relativity, in 

fact, is to compare Einstein’s precise prediction of the 

amount of this deflection (as starlight passes near the 

sun, for example) with the measured amount, a test 

which is still occupying the attention of experimental 

physicists. 

A fascinating consequence of the deflection of light 

was appreciated and investigated by Einstein and 

many others. Under ordinary circumstances, light 

travels in a straight line. However, if an intervening 

massive object at a point along the light path deflects 

the beam, then the light can take several distinct alternate routes (each being deflected by differing 

amounts). From the observer’s point of view, the 

beams of light appear to be coming from slightly different directions and therefore give the illusion of 

several distinct light sources. A slight focusing effect of 

the deflector will also tend to make some of the images 

abnormally bright: this phenomenon has come to be 

known as a “gravitational lens.” 

Quasars are starlike objects of tremendous luminosity and distance, believed to be centers of violent activity in the nuclei of galaxies. Their starlike appearance 

and vast distance make them the most likely objects in 

which a gravitational lens effect might be seen. In the 

spring of 1979 two British astronomers, Dennis 

Walsh and Robert Carswell, and an American, Ray 

Weymann, discovered a close optical pair of quasars 

whose properties were so nearly identical that it 

appeared to them inescapable that the images were 

produced by the same light sources. Subsequent observations seemed to confirm that these twin quasars do 

indeed represent a gravitational lens in action. 

The theory was further advanced by NSF-supported 

research in the past year. In March 1980 Weymann, 

with David Turnshek and Richard Green, was studying the spectral properties of a set of quasars. While 

viewing the image of one of the quasars before recording its spectrum, Turnshek and Weymann noticed 

that the image actually consisted of a bright image 

and two very close but much fainter images. Since the 

likelihood of two ordinary stars appearing by chance 

so close to the bright image is small, they realized that 

the two fainter images were likely to be of considerable 

interest. Further observations were cam4 out with 

the multiple-mirror telescope, a joint project of the 

University of Arizona and the Smithsonian Institution. 

The critical and difficult observation was to obtain a 

spectrum of one of the faint companion images. If a 

gravitational lens was operating, a single source of 

light would produce both images, and their spectra 

would be identical. In fact, the spectra they recorded 

appeared identical to within the accuracy of the observation, thus lending strong support to the existence of 

another gravitational lens-in this case producing a 

triple image. 

Mount Saint Helens Volcano 

When the Mount Saint Helens volcano in southern 

Washington became active on 27 March 1980, after a 

long quiescent period, it caused a flurry of interest 

among scientists across the country. 

Volcanic eruptions can have significant effects on 

the chemical balance of the stratospheric ozone layer, 

which protects the earth from solar ultraviolet radiation. Sulfur dioxide from eruptions can combine with 

80 
hydroxyl radicals to form sulfuric acid in the 

stratosphere. Other chemicals, such as carbonyl 

sulfide, may also enter the lower atmosphere 

(troposphere) and work their way upward into the 

stratosphere, eventually reacting with light to form 

more sulfuric acid. Local toxic effects might be caused 

by such gases as mercury vapor. 

Evidence is considerable that volcanoes may also 

have long-term climatic effects. Backscattering of 

light by very fine ash particles and sulfuric acid can 

reduce the amount of light reaching the earth, with 

concomitant changes in precipitation and cooling pat - terns. 

Scientist Richard Cadle flew a specially instrumented aircraft operated by the NSF-supported 

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) 

through the Saint Helens plume in April, gathering 

particle and gas samples. The aircraft was outfitted 

with evacuated canisters to gather samples of the gases 

for chromatographic analysis, special filters for 

collecting particles, a water sampler developed by the 

U.S. Geological Survey to determine how much of the 

water in the volcano’s cloud originated from ground 

water and how much from the earth’s mantle, a quartz 

microbalance impactor (from NASA), for determining the size distribution and composition of particles, 

and filters (from Michigan Technological University) 

for collecting larger ash particles. Photos of the plume 

were also taken. 

Although a weak odor of sulfur dioxide and 

hydrogen sulfide could be detected in the aircraft 

cabin, only negligible amounts of sulfur compounds 

were measured. Cadle believes that the volcano’s 

sulfur output was low because its eruptions were 

phreatic, caused by ground water hitting hot magma, 

rather than magmatic, characterized by hot gases 

from molten lava. Magmatic eruptions are more likely 

to inject sulfur compounds into the atmosphere. At 

the time of the NCAR flights, the eruptions reached 

only six kilometers above sea level. Because of the lack 

of sulfur dioxide in the plume and because the ash 

particles were too large to rise into the stratosphere, 

the eruption was not likely to have much impact on 

weather and climate. 

An eruption on 18 May reached stratospheric levels, 

and preliminary results from samples taken by another 

NSF-supported research group at the University of 

Washington indicated the presence of hydrogen 

sulfide in the plume. Cadle strongly suspects that the 

presence of a sulfur compound indicates that the 18 

May eruption may have been magmatic; it was also a 

much hotter eruption than would be expected from a 

typical phreatic event, and particle sizes in the cloud 

were much smaller than previously. A “bulge” that 

developed in the mountain before that 18 May eruption was also indicative of a buildup of magma. 

The 18 May eruption provided other unique opportunities for research on the impact of volcanic emissions on the atmosphere. David J. Hofmann and J. M. 

Rosen of the University of Wyoming flew balloonborne instruments into the volcanic plume over 

Laramie, Wyoming, and detected condensation nuclei 

throughout the lower stratosphere up to an altitude of 

26 kilometers. This is believed to be the first direct 

observation of particles of this small size in volcanic injections into the stratosphere. Particles in this size 

range act as condensation centers and precursors of 

larger aerosol particles capable of scattering sunlight 

and affecting the heat balance of the earth. Finding 

volcanic injection of condensation nuclei directly into 

the stratosphere provides an important new step 

toward the understanding of natural versus man-made 

influences on the earth’s climate. 

Solar Maximum Year 

NSF and NASA jointly supported the Solar Maximum Year, which reached a peak in observational activity corresponding to the maximum in the solar cycle 

in 1980. NASA is responsible for the spacecraft observations of the sun, most of which are provided by a 

dedicated satellite - the Solar Maximum Mission 

(SMM). NSF is responsible for the ground-based 

research. As part of that research, the National Center 

for Atmospheric Research is also participating directly 

in SMM, which carries seven scientific instruments, including the NCAR coronagraph-polarimeter. It was 

launched into earth orbit on 14 February 1980, to 

study flares on the sun during the 1979-81 peak of its 

11-year sunspot cycle. The NCAR instrument will help 

to study the evolution of the sun’s corona and the transient activity associated with flares. 

Like the instrument used on the Apollo telescope 

mount of the Skylab orbiting solar observatory (which 

took measurements during the solar activity 

“minimum” in 1974), the NCAR telescope makes it 

possible to view the extremely thin corona by using an 

external occulting technique to create an artificial 

eclipse. Filters permit observations at various 

wavelengths of light useful for seeing different facets of 

solar activity, and polarizing filters permit determination of magnetic fields in the corona. The satellite is 

complemented by associated observing programs at 

more than 100 ground-based observatories, including 

a new telescope system at the NCAR High Altitude 

Observatory station on Mauna Loa in Hawaii. 

The ground-based observatories have already shown 

significant results. Solar telescope observations at the 

South Pole dramatically confirmed the existence of 

solar global oscillations, or pulsations of the surface of 

the sun, with a period of 5 minutes, and provided information about even longer periods. Preliminary 

analysis suggested that solar oscillations with a period 

of 160 minutes may have been observed from the 

South Pole. While the 5-minute oscillations can be at81 
tributed to events in the outer layers of the sun, the 

160-minute-period oscillations would have to originate 

deep within the sun, upsetting the basic notion that 

the sun’s structure is neatly layered. 

The South Pole was chosen by NSF as the observation site for several reasons. Most important, during 

the summer at the South Pole the sun is visible for 24 

hours a day at a constant elevation above the horizon, 

providing uninterrupted observing periods much 

longer than attainable anywhere else. The high elevation (3000 meters) and the cold, dry air are additional 

advantages of the South Pole for solar observations. 

Iridium and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary 

The recent discovery by NSF-supported scientists of 

unexpectedly high levels of iridium and other 

platinum-group elements in marine sediments 

deposited during the transition from the Cretaceous to 

the Tertiary Periods (65 million years ago) has thrown 

new light on the mystery of the extinction of the 

dinosaurs and other Mesozoic organisms. The iridium 

anomaly was first noted by scientists at the University 

of California, Berkeley, in sediments collected near 

Gubbio, in the Italian Apennines, during a collaborative study by U.S. and European scientists on 

relationships between biostratigraphic and magneticreversal correlations. 

Iridium concentrations near the CretaceousTertiary boundary at Gubbio are 30 to 160 times those 

found in ordinary deep-sea sediments. Subsequent 

work has shown that iridium and other noble metals 

are also anomalously abundant in a thin layer of clay 

that marks the boundary in Denmark and that they 

occur in the relative proportions found in chondritic 

meteorites. Because iridium and related elements in 

the earth’s crust are depleted below their meteoritic 

abundances, the high concentrations and chondritic 

ratios in the boundary sediments are consistent with an 

extraterrestrial source. The Berkeley group suggests 

that the source of the extraterrestrial matter might 

have been a meteorite, as large as 10 kilometers in 

diameter, which would have thrown up enough 

pulverized terrestrial debris to cut off solar radiation 

and suspend photosynthetic processes for several years. 

This dust, containing the meteoritic component, eventually settled in the oceans to form the thin clay layers 

found in Italy and Denmark. 

Although the impact hypothesis requires further 

testing, the concept of a brief suspension of photosynthetic processes fits well with the known pattern of 

Cretaceous extinctions. All dinosaurs, as well as old 

marine and flying reptiles and many groups of marine 

plants and invertebrates, perished. The surviving life 

forms included organisms such as land plants that 

might have been able to regenerate from root systems, 

seeds, and spores, as well as primitive mammals, small 

reptiles, and marine invertebrates that could possibly 

have survived the disruption of normal food chains by 

subsisting on insects and decaying vegetation during 

the period of diminished sunlight. 

But before this hypothesis can be accepted major 

questions must be considered. One of these is to what 

extent the extinctions occurred in different places at 

the same time. The marine section at Gubbio is important in this respect because it has been used as the basis 

for the best detailed correlations between 

biostratigraphy and the chronology of worldwide 

magnetic reversals and because it is believed to represent a continuous sedimentary record across the 

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Another question is 

the time span. If the impact hypothesis is correct, 

worldwide extinctions were instantaneous in a geologic 

sense. Although there are still differences of opinion 

on the validity of the impact hypothesis, it has given a 

sharp focus to several other groups working on similar 

problems under NSF sponsorship. 

82 
Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to the national space program through an integrated program 

of basic research and development in space science 

and astrophysics at its Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and 

through the public displays and exhibits of its National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington. The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies at 

NASM also conducts basic research in support of national goals. 

Space Sciences 

High Energy Astrophysics 

Acquisition and analysis continued in 1980 on the 

data obtained by the Neao 2 (Einstein) satellite, a 

spacecraft carrying the first x-ray telescopes capable of 

providing focused images of x-ray objects in space. For 

example, the deep x-ray survey studied the nature of 

the extragalactic x-ray background, distant quasars, 

x-ray sources in galaxy M31, and x-ray emission from 

radio galaxies Centaurus A and Cygnus A and from 

clusters of galaxies. 

The studies of clusters of galaxies at cosmological 

distances included the discovery of apparent evolution 

in the temperature of these clusters, as well as placing 

quantitative limits on their luminosity evolution. 

Nearby rich clusters of galaxies were also observed, 

and the x-ray observations were compared with optical 

studies to produce a new, albeit tentative, system for 

classifying clusters as those dominated by a single central galaxy and those lacking any central condensation. 

The study of galaxy clusters and galactic halos also 

included measuring the mass of M87’s halo from the 

distribution of the x-ray-emitting gas, leading to an 

estimate of mass equal to about 1OI3 solar masses. In a 

related study, an extended x-ray source centered in the 

elliptical galaxy M86 was found to be the result of 

ram-pressure stripping of the galactic gas by the gas 

pervading the Virgo cluster. The galaxy itself could retain its internally generated gas during the periods 

when it is far from the dense cluster core. 

Other x-ray astronomy studies made with the Einstein observatory satellite included the precise location, 

and thus further knowlege, of the gravitational masses 

of the sources within globular clusters; the first x-ray 

imaging and time-resolved spectral studies of an x-ray 

burst (from the globular cluster Terzan 2); timeresolution studies of a gama-ray burst; imaging and 

spectral studies of the unusual optical object known as 

SS433; a study of emission from flare stars; the analysis 

of the x-ray emission from supernova remnants and 

from radio pulsars; and a study of the Crab Nebula 

and associated pulsar that led to the first measurement 

of the “off”-state flux from the Crab. 

The Einstein satellite completed a first survey of 40 

square degrees containing the Small Magellanic 

Cloud. Twenty-four new x-ray sources were 

discovered, including one very bright supernova remnant in the SMC. In collaboration with the X-ray 

Astronomy Group at the University of Leicester, 

England, maps were made showing x-ray emission 

from supernova remnants 1006, IC443, W44, and 49. 

The study of quasars concentrated on finding correlations between x-ray luminosity and optical 

luminosity, and between x-ray luminosity and redshift. Observations have been interpreted as requiring 

two mechanisms for x-ray production in quasars. 

Refined calculations of the contribution of quasars to 

the diffuse x-ray background have led to the conclusion that quasars are a major source. Further, the limit 

set by the diffuse x-ray background constrains the 

number of optically faint quasars and provides support for models in which quasar evolution is 

predominantly luminosity evolution and not pure density evolution. 

Observations of extragalactic x-ray sources by the 

SAS 3 satellite continued. And on 22 March a sounding rocket launched from White Sands, New Mexico, 

carrying a solid-state spectrometer measured the line 

strengths of C V, VI and 0 VII, VIII, which are emitted from the hot component of the interstellar 
medium. Preliminary results confirmed the presence 

of the hot component at a temperature of about 

1 100 000 kelvins. 

Balloon Astronomy 

In October 1979, the flight of a 102-centimeter 

balloon-borne telescope carried a high-resolution, farinfrared Michelson interferometer to an altitude of 

29 000 meters. For 10 hours at this altitude, it 

measured the far-infrared spectra of the Orion 

nebula, the M17 molecular cloud, and the terrestrial 

stratosphere. Preliminary results included the first 

detection of a large number of spectral lines from 

shock-wave-excited carbon monoxide in Orion, as well 

as the first far-infrared measurement of stratospheric 

hydrogen chloride and the first detection of 

stratospheric peroxide, the latter two being important 

in the chemistry of the ozone layer. 

Reduction of data from earlier flights of the 

balloon-borne telescope continued. The first farinfrared map of a giant molecular cloud and the 

follow-on observations of radio continuum and 

molecular line observations have shown that star formation is occurring throughout the cloud, not just at 

the end of the cloud containing the bright H I1 region, 

as previously thought. It is now important to understand what mechanism could have triggered star formation simultaneously over such an extended region. 

Also, the first far-infrared map of the highly evolved H 

I1 region, M16, was produced. This study of M16 is 

important in understanding the later stages of evolution of star-forming regions. The first measurement of 

the far-infrared size of the extended dust cloud surrounding the carbon star, IRC + 10216, was acquired, 

and it was determined that the mass loss from the star 

had to be considerably larger only 2000 years ago. 

Earth 5 Resources 

The SA0 Satellite Tracking Network provided laser 

tracking coverage for geophysical research at SA0 and 

other organizations in the United States and abroad. 

This year tracking focused on the high earth-orbiting 

NASA Lugeos satellite as well as others in near-earth 

orbits. A total of 5000 passes of decimeter-accuracy 

data were acquired. 

The satellite data were used in investigations of 

polar motion, earth and ocean tides, and crustal motion and deformation and in determination of the 

gravity field and its temporal variations. SA0 continued as coordinator and U.S. interface for overseas 

laser tracking participants and acted as a coordinator 

and computations center for the MERIT Campaign, 

an International Astronomical Union-International 

Union of Geodesy and Geophysics program to monitor 

polar motion and earth rotation. 

An accumulation of six years of laser ranging data 

from three satellites was used to measure global ocean 

tides by satellite perturbation analysis. This study also 

measured body tides, and it determined the neardiurnal core-mantle resonance and the semiannual 

tide for the first time. 

Observational data from several satellite experiments - the mass-spectrometer measurements of 

ESRO 4, EjePlorer 51, and the Air Force’s S3 1 

satellite, in particular - have provided the base for 

developing an improved model of the earth’s thermosphere and exosphere. While the work encompasses 

all aspects of the neutral upper atmosphere, the main 

emphasis is on the geomagnetic variation and the diurnal variation, the two areas most in need of improvement in present models. 

Routine calculations of the earth’s polar motion 

with laser ranging measurements by Lageos were 

under way, and pole positions were being provided to 

the Bureau International de 1’Heure in Paris every five 

days. A successful combination of satellite-to-seasurface altimetry data, oceanic hydrographic data, 

and surface-gravity data led to the calculation of a circulation model for the North Atlantic. 

Solar and Stellar Physics 

Major analysis programs centered on data returned 

by Skylab from both the extreme ultraviolet spectrometer and the Apollo telescope mount (ATM), by 

the Heao 2 (Einstein) satellite, by the International 

Ultraviolet Explorer ZUE, and by the flight of a 

Lyman-alpha white light coronagraph. 

Skylab studies concentrated on magnetically confined plasma structure in the corona: bright points, 

active region loops, sunspot loops and prominences. 

For example, analysis of Skylab’s extreme ultraviolet 

data showed quantitatively for the first time that 

bright points evolve and change in brightness over 

time-scales as short as 5.5 minutes, the shortest timescale available from the data. This discovery suggests 

that coronal heating in bright points is due to an intermittent impulsive heating mechanism, most likely one 

that releases energy stored in the coronal magnetic 

field. 

A preliminary Einstein stellar survey was completed 

and revealed that stars of virtually all classes are x-ray 

emitters. Of particular importance, both very early 

(hot) and very late (cool) stars have x-ray emission 

substantially greater than predicted by “standard” 

theories of shock-heated stellar coronas. These new 

observations, combined with previous (Skylab) solar 

x-ray and extreme-ultraviolet observations, led to 

theoretical studies of coronas heated by dynamogenerated magnetic fields. 

Ultraviolet observations of Cygnus X-1 by the ZUE 

satellite were analyzed to produce tighter constraints 

on estimates of the inclination of the system and the 

mass of the compact object. Observations of 

cataclysmic variables led to the conclusion that 
nuclear burning is the most plausible explanation for 

the 10- to 40-electron-volt “blackbody” continuum 

emission components. Study of the Hyades giants 

showed a surprisingly large difference in transitionregion emission for stars of the same age. Hightemperature species (C IV and Si IV) have been found 

to occur mainly, but not necessarily, around hot early 

stars and, it is thought, may result from photoionization of an H I1 region close by the star. Surface activity 

on stars of the RS CVn type has been studied by using 

both IUE and ground-based high-dispersion observations from the Mount Hopkins Observatory. 

Gravily Research 

The use of maser clocks, which have been 

demonstrated to have fractional frequency stabilities 

at the level in spacecraft, has led to new concepts 

for testing relativistic gravitation and particularly for 

detecting gravitational radiation. Under study was the 

use of a time-correlated multiple-link doppler system 

for detecting very low frequency Hertz) pulses of 

gravitational radiation and for improving the precision of doppler tracking for a close-approach solarprobe mission to measure the mass distribution of the 

sun. 

A cryogenically cooled hydrogen maser was 

operated at temperatures as low as 26 kelvins. 

Development and testing were under way, using two 

separate, newly constructed cryogenic masers. 

Demonstration experiments of relative stability data 

below the 1 X level for intervals of 600 seconds 

were in progress. 

Final results of the 1976 rocket-probe redshift experiment indicated predictions of general relativity 

were valid at the 70 X level. 

Lunar Research 

A consortium to carry out a detailed study of the 

petrology, chemical composition, and age-dating of 

the Apollo 16 lunar rock Breccia 67015 was established under the leadership of a Smithsonian scientist. 

Earlier maps and descriptions of this breccia had been 

published and distributed by the Lunar Science Institute, Houston. 

Planetary Research 

A photograph obtained by Voyager 1 during its 

March 1979 encounter with Jupiter shows a bright 

fireball on the Jovian nightside. The phenomenon, 

believed produced by an infalling meteoroid of 

11 -kilogram mass, was calculated to be about 10 times 

more likely to occur on Jupiter than on Earth, from a 

comparison of elapsed time of the observation (20 

minutes) with the total time spent searching for 

fireballs. 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (National 

Air and Space Museum) 

The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies continued investigation of lunar photogeology, comparative planetology, and terrestrial and Martian 

desert features. Comparisons made between ridges in 

the Caloris basin on Mercury and lunar basins indicated the basins were affected by global-scale compression resulting from early cooling of the moon. 

Crater characteristics on Mars shown in Viking images were being examined to determine their distribution on different terrains. 

The study of deserts was further expanded during 

August 1979, when a delegation visited parts of the 

Gobi, Tengri, and Dzungarian Deserts in North 

China. 
Department of State 

International space cooperation efforts in support of 

U.S. foreign policy objectives and of goals of the National Aeronautics and Space Act were of high priority 

to the Department of State during 1980. Attention 

focused both on cooperation with individual countries 

and on endeavors with multilateral and international 

organizations. The Department of State coordinated 

closely with NASA, Department of Defense, Office of 

Science and Technology Policy, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, and National Security 

Council in formulating US. positions on civilian space 

issues. Issues ranged from the establishment of additional critical communications support for the Space 

Shuttle from foreign ground stations to the continuation of U.S. industry support to limited launch vehicle 

development in Japan. 

In 1980 the United Nations, through its Committee 

on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and various working groups, continued to be a prime forum for formalizing multinational viewpoints and programs to 

advance cooperation in the uses of outer space. The 

Department of State, NASA, and DoD regularly 

represent the United States at meetings of the Outer 

Space Committee and its Legal and Scientific and 

Technical Subcommittees. 

Activities within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space is a major factor in our international space relations. Through this committee the international community is building a foundation for 

cooperation on legal and political issues. The United 

States plays a leading role in the main committee and 

its two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical 

Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. Issues 

before the committee in 1980, as in the recent past, 

were the Draft Principles governing direct television 

broadcasting by satellites, the Draft Principles for 

remote sensing of the earth, the definition of outer 

space, the use of nuclear power sources in outer space, 

the use of the geostationary/geosynchronous orbit, 

and preparations for the U.N. Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(UNISPACE '82). 

Vienna is scheduled to host the UNISPACE '82 Conference from 9 to 21 August 1982. Planning for the 

conference began in 1980, but basic problems of U.N. 

and organizational questions remain unresolved. 

Moon Treaty 

Consideration was given to matters related to 

signature and ratification of the Treaty Governing the 

Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial 

Bodies (the Moon Treaty), which was opened for 

signature by consensus of the U.N. General Assembly 

on 5 December 1979. The treaty has been under 

discussion since late 1971, when the General Assembly 

adopted resolution 2779, in which it took note of a 

draft treaty submitted by the USSR and requested the 

Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its 

Legal Subcommittee to consider elaboration of a draft 

international treaty on the moon. 

The Moon Treaty is based to a considerable extent 

on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. It defines obligation 

of both immediate and long-term application to such 

matters as safeguarding human life on celestial bodies, 

promoting scientific investigation and exchanging information relative to and derived from activities on 

celestial bodies, and exploitation of the natural 

resources of celestial bodies. 

Communications Satellites 

The International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) originated as an international joint venture in August 1964 when 11 countries 

signed agreements to form a single, global, commercial communications satellite system. The definitive 

agreements establishing INTELSAT entered into 

force 12 February 1973, and by the end of 1980 it was 

86 
an international legal entity with owners' equity of 

more than $550 million, in which 105 countries held 

investment shares proportional to their use of the 

satellite system. Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat Corp.) is the designated U.S. participant 

in INTELSAT and, with an investment share of about 

24 percent, the largest shareholder. 

INTELSAT is responsible for designing, developing, constructing, establishing, operating, and maintaining the space segment of its global system. The 

system consists of high-capacity communications 

satellites stationed in synchronous orbits over the 

equator, at an altitude of 35 790 kilometers above the 

Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. From these positions, each of the satellites serves an area larger than 

one-third of the earth's surface, thus providing global 

coverage. Ground stations are owned and operated by 

entities in the countries where they are located. 

The satellites in the global system and 283 groundstation antennas operating with them in 1980 provided 

more than 760 pathways, or direct communication 

links, among more than 140 countries, territories, and 

possessions. A growing number of countries are also 

building stations within their boundaries and are using 

INTELSAT satellites to improve their domestic communications systems. 

In response to widespread recognition that the application of satellite technology to maritime communications offers a vastly improved capability for safety 

and distress messages, fleet management, and public 

correspondence, the United States participated in 

negotiations leading to the creation in 1979 of 

the International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) to establish a global maritime communications satellite system. U.S. participation in INMARSAT was authorized by a 1978 amendment to the 

Communications Satellite Act, which also designated 

Comsat Corp. as the entity to undertake the technical, 

operating, and financial responsibilities of U.S. 

membership. Patterned closely after INTELSAT in its 

ownership and management arrangement, INMARSAT in 1980 had 29 members; Comsat Corp. was the 

largest shareholder with 23 percent, followed by the 

Soviet Union with 14 percent. In November 1980, INMARSAT approved an operational plan for its firstgeneration space segment, which will include 

maritime payloads on board three Intelsat V 

spacecraft, two dedicated Marecs spacecraft manufactured by the European Space Agency, and one Marisat 

spacecraft. INMARSAT was expected to begin international maritime communications in 1982 in a transition from the present Marisat system, which was 

developed by Comsat General Corporation and is 

owned by a consortium of U.S. companies. The 

Marisat system has been providing maritime services to 

the U.S. Navy and to commercial shipping and offshore industries since 1976. 

87 
International Communication 

Agency 

The United States International Communication 

Agency (USICA) followed U.S. space exploits for a 

worldwide audience in 1980, reporting scientific 

results that continue to come from discoveries of past 

planetary explorations, as well as the ongoing journey 

of the Voyagers to the planet Saturn and the development of the Space Shuttle. Coverage included press articles, Voice of America reports, exhibits, informational materials, and films. 

Space Shuttle Coverage 

USICAS press service, the “Wireless File” to 193 

posts in 125 countries, carried a series of articles on the 

first orbital Space Shuttle flight, scheduled for 1981. 

The series highlighted the technological innovations 

necessary for the development of the new hybrid 

rocket -airplane, the flexibility and economy the 

system provides for routine space and earth research, 

and the men and women being trained to work in the 

Shuttle and its space laboratory. 

The Voice of America gave continuous coverage to 

preparations for the launch. It broadcast interviews of 

NASA Administrator Robert Frosch and others working to solve prelaunch technical problems. VOA interviews of mission specialists-a new kind of astronaut in 

the Shuttle crew -provided information on women 

and US. minority group astronauts. Listener requests 

for a NASA book on the Shuttle indicated a wide audience awaited the 1981 launch. Throughout the year, 

the international audience sent in questions about 

space for VOAs “ Question and Answer” programs. 

The Shuttle was again the lead topic. In late October, 

USICA prepared the groundwork for a NASA film on 

the Shuttle that embassies and overseas posts provided 

to TV stations and screened for audiences in our 

centers at the time of the 1981 launch. 

Unmanned Space Probe Coverage 

Most of the agency’s 1980 coverage of the space program concerned the scientific results that continued to 

come out of such flights as the Viking missions to Mars 

in 1976, the Pioneer probe to Venus in 1978, and the 

Voyagers’ passes by Jupiter in 1979. 

The year began with coverage of the maps resulting 

from the radar probes of the surface of Venus. Scientists interpreting the radar data were interviewed by 

the USICA press service and VOA. VOA also reported 

the Solar Maximum Mission-a satellite to examine 

the sun during the height of the sunspot cycle-and 

the implications of the data for Earth’s atmosphere, 

weather, and climate. VOAs worldwide English service carried information on Jupiter’s rings discovered 

by Voyager missions, as well as information on the Jovian satellites that Voyager spacecraft examined with 

high-resolution instruments as they flew past the 

planet. The January 1980 issue of a USICA magazine 

recapped the spectacular views provided by Voyager in 

1979. 

Voyager 1’s pass near Saturn in November 1980 was 

given special news service coverage. The accounts 

highlighted not only the discoveries at Saturn, including three additional satellites, but the significance 

of the journey in understanding the solar system’s second largest planet and its satellite Titan. 

General Space-Related Activities 

USICA continued a number of other activities supporting the U.S. space effort. VOA reported space 

community sessions at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in 

1980 that discussed the future of the U.S. space program. 

88 
USICA overseas posts were provided a packet of 

NASA publications to help them answer space-related 

questions from the press and the public. 

Film footage from the NASA film “Lacie,” on the 

large-area crop inventory experiment, was used in a 

production on computer technology illustrating the 

spinoff usefulness of space technology. 

Agency exhibits overseas in 1980 contained information related to space technology. For example, 

“Science and Technology: Paths to Progress,” a 

780-square-meter exhibit in Zambia in August, included satellite models and live demonstrations of 

online computer searches from a computer bank in 

California arranged through the National Technical 

Information Service and RCA Global Satellite Communications. Another display in the exhibit gave information on Landsat earth resources data and 

technology. The USICA exhibits section filled some 15 

field requests for display items on space during the 

year, including moon rock, spacesuits, models, 

posters, paper shows, and slides. 

89 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Earth Orbit’ Earth Escape’ Earth Orbit’ Earth Escape’ 

Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ............. 0 1 0 0 1 8 1 

1958 ............. 5 8 0 4 1 3 0 

1971 .................. 45 2 8 1 

2 8 0 

1959 9 9 1 

2 3 0 

2 1 0 

Year Year 

............... 2 

12 1 2 

12 0 2 

11 0 0 

8 4 0 

1965 ....... 7 4 1 

12 7 lb 

1967 .................. 78 4 10 0 

1968 . .. 61 15 s 0 

........ 1962 12 4 1 1975 .................. 30 4 4 0 

a The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” 

flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the earth. 

This earth-escape failure did attain earth orbit and therefore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

APPENDIX A4 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft .) 

People’s United European 

of China PCY 

United U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom :pace India States Year 

1957 ...................... 

................................................... 1960 .................... 16 3 ................ ..................... 

............ 

............ .............. 

1967 .................... 57 

1968 .................... 45 74 .................................... ...................... 

’ 1974 ....... 1975 .................... 27 

1977 .................... 24 

1978 .................... 32 

1979 ............ .......................... ............................ 

Total .............. ,756 

a Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. 

91 
APPENDIX A-5 

Successful U.S. Launches-1980 

Launch Date IGMT). Auo~ec and 

s acecraft Name, ' 

CO~PAR hi ation, 

Launch VeEcle 

Spacecraft Data Pehfee (lurl), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Remarks 

Equator (") 

18 Jan. 

Fltsatcom 3 

4A 

Atlas-Centaur 

7 Feb. 

Defense 

1OA 

Titan lIlD 

9 Feb. 

Nauctar 5 

11A 

Atlas F 

14 Feb. 

Sohr Maximum 

Mission (SMM) 

14A 

Delta 

3 Mar. 

DdCW 

19A 

Atlas F 

Defense 

19C 

Defense 

19D 

26 Apr. 

Nawtat 6 

32A 

Atlas F 

Objective: To place spacecraft in synchronous, near- equatorial orbit for USAF narrow-band and wide-band 

communications and USN fleet-relay and broadcast 

channels. 

Spacecraft: Hexagonal, com sed of payload module 

and spacecraft module; 6.rm high. Provides 1 SHF 

and 23 UHF communications channels. Weight after 

apogce motor firing: 1005 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

technology. Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To support Global Positioning System. 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with 4 extended solar 

panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 433 kg. 

Objective: To observe solar flares or other active-sun 

phenomena simultaneously. using 5 or 6 SMM ex- periments. Secondary objective to measure total 

radiative output of sun over 6-mo period. 

Spacecraft: Modular, 4 m long, fits into circular envelo 2.3 m in diameter. Instrument module contains sorr payload instruments as well as fine-pointing sun- sensor system for pointing control. &low instrument 

module and se arated by transition adaptor is 

mdtimission moBular spacecraft (MMs). a triangular 

framework supporting 3 modules. each 1 .2 X 2 X 0.5 

m. housing 3 spacecraft subsystems: attitude control, 

power, and communications and data handling. Two 

solar paddles affixed to transition adaptor supply up to 

5000 watts. Weight: 2315 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To support Global Positioning System. 

Spacecraft: Irregular cylinder with 4 extended solar 

panels and complex of antennas. Weight: 453 kg. 

35 662 

35 406 

1423.1 

2.4 

481 

299 

92.4 

97.0 

20 165 

20 095 

715.9 

63.7 

562 

558 

95.9 

28.5 

1151 

1 035 

107.1 

63.5 

1165 

1050 

107.4 

63.4 

1167 

1050 

107.5 

63.5 

20 231 

19 622 

707.6 

62.9 

Third of five planned satellites, successfully launched by NASA for Navy and 

Dept. of Defense. Apogee kick motor 

fired 20 Jan. Spacecraft placed in 

desired synchronous orbit. All 

spacecraft systems turned on and 

operating. Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Successfully launched by NASA. First 

solar flare observed 19 Feb. On 21 

May, 6 SMM instruments measured 

solar flare covering more than 5.2 

billion square km of sun's surface. 

Fluctuations of 0.1 % of sun's radiation output have been measured. Still 

in orbit. 

Triple launch. Still in orbit. 

Triple launch. Still in orbit. 

Triple launch. Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

92 
APPENDIX A-34ntinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1980 

Launch Date (GMT), 

S acecraft Name, 

COLAR Desi ation, 

Launch Veccle 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Eauator (") 

Remarks 

29 May 

43A 

Atlas F 

NoM-B 

De 18flune ense 52A 

Titan IIID 

Defense 

52C 

9 Sept. 

Goes 4 

74A 

Delta 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into sun-synchronous 

orbit for NOAA for earth scanning, remote observations, solar-particle-radiation measurements, atmospheric soundings. and data dissemination in realtime. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration including apogee kick 

motor, 371 cm high, 188 cm in diameter. Solar panels 

deploy in orbit. Structure composed of 4 major 

elements: reaction control equipment support structure (RSS); equipment support module (JSM); instrument monitoring platform (IMP); and solar array. 

With exception of IMP and transition ring, basic structure identical to DMSP block 5D2. Instruments include 

advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR), 

data-collection and location system (DCS), space en- vironment monitor (SEM), total energy detector 

(TED). medium-energy proton electron detector 

(MEPED), high-energy proton-alpha detector 

(HEPAD), and Tiros operational vertical sounder 

(TOVS) composed of 3 instruments: high-resolution 

infrared sounder (HIRS/2), stratospheric sounding 

unit (SSU), and microwave sounding unit (MSU). 

Weight in orbit after apogee-kick-motor firing: 723 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into earth-synchronous 

orbit for NOAA, to provide near-continual, highresolution visual and infrared imaging over North and 

South America and surrounding oceans, collect en- vironmental data from up to 10 000 remote-observing 

platforms, measure energetic solar field. and broadcast 

centrally prepared weather and satellite information. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 2.15 m in diameter and 4.43 m long from top of S-band omni antenna rod to bottom 

of apogee boost motor. Apo ee boost motor ejected 

after synchronous orbit reacted. Primary structural 

member is thrust tube in center of cylinder. Visible infrared spin-scan radiometric atmospheric sounder 

(VAS) extends length of spacecraft, located in and supported by the thrust tube. Scanning mirror looks out 

through opening in cylindrical solar arrays. Space en- vironment monitor (SEM) system measures magnitude 

and direction of magnetic field, intensity of solar x-ray 

radiation, and ener level and quantity of energetic 

particles. Spin-stabged. Weight at liftoff 835 kg. 

Weight in orbit, after ejection of apogee boost motor: 

495 kg. 

1 028 

250 

97.5 

92.2 

262 

164 

88.8 

96.4 

1 326 

1 326 

112.1 

96.6 

35 801 

35 774 

1436.2 

0.2 

Third in series of operational environmental monitoring satellites launched 

by NASA for National Oceanic and 

Atmos heric Administration 

(NOAAY. Launch vehicle malfunction 

placed s acecraft in hivhly elliptical 

rather ,[an planned circular orbit. 

Attempts to correct orbit unsuc- cessful; spacecraft unable to operate 

effectively. Replacement planned. 

Dual launch. Still in orbit. 

Dual launch. Still in orbit. 

First of three-satellite series to re lace 

initial three operational satektes. 

Successfully launched by NASA for 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. Goes 4 is fourth in 

series of operational spacecraft funded by NOAA. Apogee boost motor, 

fired 11 Sept., placed it in synchronous orbit at 90° west longitude. 

Turned over to NOAA for operational use on 15 Oct. Will be repositioned to 

replace an orbiting satellite according 

to operational needs. 

93 
APPENDIX A-34ntinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1980 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Desi ation, 

Launch Ve%?cle 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee W). Period (mink llemarlrs 

InclinaGon (0 

Eouator Io) 

31 Oct. 

Fltsatcom 4 

87A 

Atlas-Centaur channels. 

Objective: To place s acecraft in synchronous, near- equatorial orbit for &AF narrow-band and wide-band 

communications and USN fleet-relay and broadcast 

sed of payload module 

and spacecraft module; 6.rm high. Provides 1 SHF 

and -23 UHF communications channels. Weight after 

apogee motor firing: 1005 kg. 

Spacecraft: Hexagonal, com 

15 Nov. 

SBS I 

91A 

Delta 

Objective: To provide integrated, all-digital, interference-free transmission of telephone, computer, electronic mail, and video teleconferencing to SBS business 

and industrial clients. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 216 cm in diameter, with 

stowed height at launch of 282 cm; 666 cm high with 

solar panel and antenna deployed in orbit. Spinstabilized. Provides up to 480 million bits of data per 

second, equivalent of more than 10 million words. Two 

nickel-cadmium batteries provide power during 

eclipse. First use of payload assist module PAM-D 

(SSUS-D); flown in place of Delta upper stage. Weight 

after apogee motor firing: 555 kg. 

6 Dec. 

Intekat V F-2 

98A television channels simultaneously. 

Atlas-Centaur 

Ob'ective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit 

dr INTELSAT, provide 12 000 voice circuits plus 2 

Spacecraft: Modular main body, 1.66 X 2.01 X 1.77m, 

winglike solar arrays span 15.6 m. Height, 6.4 m; 

width, 6.8 m; 6 communications antennas--2 global 

coverage horns, -2 hemispherical/zone offset-fed reflectors, and 2 offset-fed spot beam reflectors. Double the 

capacity of Intelsat IVA series. Weight at launch: 1928 

Irg. 

13 Dec. 

Defense 

lOOA 

Titan IIIB 

Objective: Practical applications and uses of space 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology such as weather and communications. 

36 035 

35 534 

1436.0 

2.3 

35 800 

35 771 

1436.1 

0.1 

35 734 

35 639 

1431.0 

0.9 

356 

183 

89.8 

63.8 

Fourth of five planned satellites, success- fully launched by NASA for Navy and 

Dept. of Defense. Apogee kick motor 

fired 1 Nov. Spacecraft placed in 

desired synchronous orbit. Satellite 

systems turned on and operating. Still 

in orbit. 

First in series of three communications 

satellites built for Satellite Business 

Systems (SBS). successfully launched 

by NASA. Apogee kick motor fired 17 

Nov. After deployment in geosynchronous orbit at 106O west longitude, 

telescoping solar panel was extended 

and communications antenna raised 

to operating position. First U.S. 

domestic commercial communications satellite to use higher, less con- gested 12- to 14-gigahertz (K-band) 

frequencies. Operational control 

turned over to SBS 20 Nov. 

First in new series of nine satellites, suc- cessfully launched by NASA for 

105-member-nation International 

Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT). Placed in 

geostationary orbit 8 k., after 

apogee motor firing. Expected to be 

operational in May 1981 as system's 

primary Atlantic Ocean spacecraft. 

First 3 -axis-stabilized Intelsat satellite. 

Still in orbit. 
APPENDIX B-I 

USLaunched Applications Satellites 1975-1980 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

7 May 1975 

22 May 1975 

27 Aug. 1975 

26 Sept.1975 

13 Dec. 1975 

17Jan. 1976 

30 Jan. 1976 

19 Feb. 1976 

15 Mar. 1976 

26 Mar. 1976 

22 Apr. 1976 

13 May 1976 

10 June 1976 

8 lulv 1976 

2; Jlly 1976 

14 Oct. 1976 

28Jan. 1977 

10 Mar. 1977 

12 May 1977 

26 May 1977 

25 Aug. 1977 

15 Dec. 1977 

7 Jan. 1978 

9 Feb. 1978 

5 Mar. 1978 

31 Mar. 1978 

7 Apr. 1978 

11 May 1978 

29 June 1978 

19 Nov. 1978 

14 Dec. 1978 

16 Dec. 1978 

4 May 1979 

9 Aug. 1979 

21 Nov. 1979 

2 Dec. 1979 

18 Jan. 1980 

31 Oct. 1980 

15 Nov. 1980 

6 Dec. 1980 

6 Feb. 1975 

12 June 1975 

16 Oct. 1975 

29 July 1976 

16 June 1977 

14 July 1977 

23 Nov. 1977 

1 May 1978 

16 June 1978 

13 Oct. 1978 

24 Oct. 1978 

6 June 1979 

27 June 1979 

29 May 1980 

9 Sept. 1980 

Anik 3 (Telesat 3) 

Intelsat IV F-l 

Symphonie 2 

Intelsat IVA F-l 

RCA-Satcom 1 

CTS 1 

Intelsat IVA F-2 

Marisat 1 

LES 8, LES 9 

RCA-Satcom 2 

NATO IIIA 

Comstar 1 

Marisat 2 

Palapa 1 

Comstar 2 

Marisat 3 

NATO IIIB 

Palapa 2 

Intelsat IVA F-4 

Sirio 

Sakura 

Intelsat IVA F-3 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

Intelsat IVA F-6 

BSE 

OTS 2 

DSCS 11-7,8 

~~~ ~ 

Comstar 3 

NATO IIIC 

DSCS II-11,12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS II-13,14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

Fltsatcom 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

SMS 2 

Nimbus 6 

Goes 1 

Noaa 5 (ITOS-H) 

Goes 2 

Himawari 

Meteosat 

AMS 3 

Goes 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

AMs-4 

Noaa 6 

Noaa-B 

Goes 4 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Launched for Canada. 

Eighth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over Atlantic. 

First of new series double the capacity of its predecessors. Positioned 

Launched for RCA as first of its communications satellite series. 

Canadian-U.S., most powerful experimental satellite. 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over Atlantic. 

Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. Second of three. 

over Atlantic. 

Positioned over Pacific. 

First of new series. 

Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over Pacific. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Placed south of United States for AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

Second of new series. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

Italian experiment. 

Japanese experiment. 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; named 

European Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite. 

Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. 

Final one of this military series. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Second of new DoD series. 

Launched for Western Union Co. as part of its domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic communications links. 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

amateur radio communications. 

Yuri; domestic satellite. 

munications links. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION a 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second-generation operational satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese geosynchronous satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Burner 2 DoD meteorological satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F DoD meteorological satellite. 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research Program. 

First fully operational synchronous-orbit weather satellite. 

Second of this series. 

European Space Agency geosynchronous satellite. 

Third of this series for NOAA. 

First of third-generation for NOAA, also experimental satellite for 

Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

Like current DoD meteorological satellites. 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

NASA. 

a Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

95 
APPENDIX B-l-Contiuued 

U.S..Launched Applications Satellites 1975-1980 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

22 Jan. 1975 

5 Mar. 1978 

26 Apr. 1978 

27 June 1978 

9 Apr. 1975 

4 May 1976 

12 Oct. 1975 

1 Sept. 1976 

23 June 1977 

28 Oct. 1977 

22 Feb: 1978 

13 Mav 1978 

70ct71978- 

11 Dec. 1978 

9 Feb. 1980 

26 Apr. 1980 

Landsat 2 

Landsat 3 

HCMM (AEM 1) 

Seasat 1 

GeoS 3 

Lageos 

TIP 2 

TIP 3 

NTS 2 

Transit 

Navstar 1 

Navstar 2 

Navstar 3 

Navstar 4 

Nawtar 5 

Navstar 6 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second experimental earth resources technology satellite. Acquired 

synoptic multispectral repetitive images useful in such disciplines as agriculture and fomtry resources, mineral and land resources, land 

use, water resources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and 

environment. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

Third experimental earth resources satellite. 

Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping misProof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. 

sion for earth resources. 

GEODESY 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. 

NAVIGATION 

To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

scout 

scout 

Atlas 

Scout 

Atlas 

Atlas 

Atlas 

Atlas 

Atlas 

Atlas 

Transit Improvement Program. 

Transit Improvement Program. 

Forerunner of Nawtar Global Positioning System. 

Developmental model. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.=Launched Scientific Payloads 1975-1980 

~~ ~~~ 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

7 May 1975 SAS-C (Explorer 

53) 

21 June 1975 

9 Aug. 1975 

6 Oct. 1975 

20 Nov. 1975 

15 Mar. 1976 

22 May 1976 

8 July 1976 

20 Apr. 1977 

12 Aug. 1977 

22 Oct. 1977 

26 Jan. 1978 

14 July 1978 

12 Aug. 1978 

24 Oct. 1978 

13 Nov. 1978 

30 Jan. 1979 

18 Feb. 1979 

24 Feb. 1979 

6 June 1979 

20 Sept. 1979 

30 Oct. 1979 

14 Feb. 1980 

OS0 8 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 54) 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 55) 

Solrad HiA, HiB 

P-76-5 

SUP 74-2 

GeoS 

Heao 1 

ISEE 1.2 

IUE 

Geos 2 

ISEE 3 

Cameo 

Heao 2 

Scatha 

Sage 

Solwind 

Ariel 6 

Heao 3 

Magsat 

SMM 

COS-B 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor -Delt a 

Titan IIIC 

Scout 

Titan IIID 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Measure x-ray emission of discrete extragalactic sources (ItalianTo study minimum phase of solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies (SA European satellite). 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure spatial 

Measure radiation and particles at close to 120 000-km circular orbit. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measurements up to 8000 lun. 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields from geosynchronous orbit (not attained). 

X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and European 

Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geoEuropean studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun libraBarium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of NimHigh-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. 

Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, 

Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed. current description of earths magnetic field and of sources of 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

launched). 

distribution of ozone. 

Space Agency respectively). 

synchronous orbit. 

tion point. 

bus 7 launcher. 

and ozone. 

variations. 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.=Launched Space Probes 1975-1980 

9 Sept. 1975 Viking 2 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

20 Aug. 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIECentaur Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of 

life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Titan IIIECentaur Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of 

life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

15 Jan. 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIECentaur Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of sun, 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload 

had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus 

cosmic-ray burst detector. 

20 Aug. 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIE5 Sep. 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979 to 

arrive at Saturn in 1981, possibly going on to Uranus by 1986. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed 

for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit 4 Dec., returning imagery and 

data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

through Venus atmosphere 9 Dec., returned data. 

Centaur 

20 May 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

8 Aug. 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

97 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1980 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

1 h 48 rnin 

15 rnin 

16 rnin 

25 h 18 rnin 

4 h 55 rnin 

4 h 56 rnin 

94 h 25 min 

70 h 59 rnin 

9 h 13 min 

34 h 20 min 

119 h 6 rnin 

70 h 50 rnin 

24 h 17 min 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; astronaut 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of Vostok 5. 

First 3-man crew. 

safe. 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

12 Apr. 1961 

5 May 1961 

21 July 1961 

6 Aug. 1961 

20 Feb. 1962 

24 May 1962 

11 Aug. 1962 

12 Aug. 1962 

3 Oct. 1962 

15 May 1963 

14 June 1963 

16 June 1963 

12 Oct. 1964 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

DOM F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Ceorgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Yevgniiy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

26 h 2 rnin 

4 h 53 rnin 

97 h 56 rnin 

190 h 55 rnin 

330 h 35 rnin 

25 h 51 rnin 

10 h 41 rnin 

72 h 21 min 

70 h 47 rnin 

71 h 17 rnin 

94 h 35 min 

26 h 37 rnin 

260 h 9 rnin 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 rnin). 

First U.S. %man flight; first manual maneuvers in 

21 -min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

orbit. 

with Agena target rocket). 

then Agena 8). 

highest earth-orbit altitude (1372 km). 

h 37 min). 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

18 Mar. 1965 

23 Mar. 1965 

3 June 1965 

21 Aug. 1965 

4 Dec. 1965 

15 Dec. 1965 

16 Mar. 1966 

3 June 1966 

18 July 1966 

12 Sept. 1966 

11 Nov. 1966 

23 Apr. 1967 

11 Oct. 1968 

Soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

26 Oct. 1968 

21 Dec. 1968 

94 h 51 rnin 

147 h 1 rnin 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soy 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from earths sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts from Soy 5 to Soy 4. 

soyuz 4 

Soyuz 5 

14 Jan. 1969 

15 Jan. 1969 

71 h 23 rnin 

72 h 56 rnin 

Apollo 9 3 Mar. 1969 241 h 1 rnin Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14 300 m from the 

lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight without actually docking. Each conducted certain 

experiments, including welding and earth and 

celestial observation. 

Apollo 10 18 May 1969 192 h 3 min 

Apollo 11 16 July 1969 195 h 9 rnin 

11 Oct. 1969 

12 Oct. 1969 

118 h 42 rnin 

118 h 41 rnin 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 13 Oct. 1969 118 h 50 rnin 

98 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1980 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

Sop2 9 

Apollo 14 

Soyuz 10 

Sop2 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

Sop2 12 

Skylab 4 

Sop2 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Sop2 19 

Apollo 

Soyuz 21 

Soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Sop2 25 

14 Nov. 1969 

11 Apr. 1970 

1 June 1970 

31 Jan. 1971 

22 Apr. 1971 

6 June 1971 

26 July 1971 

16 Apr. 1972 

7 Dec. 1972 

25 May 1973 

28 July 1973 

27 sept. 1973 

16 Nov. 1973 

18 Dec. 1973 

3 July 1974 

26 Aug. 1974 

2 Dec. 1974 

10Jan. 1975 

5 Apr. 1975 

24 May 1975 

15 July 1975 

15 July 1975 

6 July 1976 

15 Sept. 1976 

14 Oct. 1976 

7 Feb.1977 

9 Oct. 1977 

Charles Conrad. Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Rwsa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Ceorgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Gamott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alekaey A. hnov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Akaenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Boris v. Volynov 

244 h 36 min 

142 h 55 rnin 

424 h 59 min 

216 h 2 rnin 

47 h 46 rnin 

570 h 22 min 

295 h 12 min 

265 h 51 rnin 

301 h 52 min 

672 h 50 rnin 

1427 h 9 rnin 

47 h 16 rnin 

2017 h 16 rnin 

188 h 55 min 

377 h SO min 

48 h 12 min 

142 h 24 rnin 

709 h 20 rnin 

20 min 

1511 h 20 rnin 

142 h 31 rnin 

217 h 28 min 

1153 h 32 rnin 

189 h 54 min 

48 h 6 rnin 

425 h 23 min 

48 h 46 rnin 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued man- ned exploration and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms on 19 Apr. 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in semce module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as ‘lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date, lasting 17 

days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recovered 

24 Apr. 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied 

space station for 22 days. Crew perished during 

final phase of Sop 11 capsule recovery on SO June 1971. 

Four:h may? lunar landing and first Apollo “J‘‘ senes mlssion, which carried Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 rnin 12 sec was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

aged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired damDocked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources exDocked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during 

29-day flight. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

after abort. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during 

63-day mission. 

Target for ApoUo in docking and joint experiments of ASTP mission. 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

penments. 

space station for over 14 days. 

49-day fight. 

system. 

18-day flight. 

99 
APPENDIX C--Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1980 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

Soyur 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyur 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyur 32 

Sop2 33 

Sop2 34 

Sop2 35 

Soyur 36 

 sop^ T-2 

Sop2 37 

Soyuz 38 

 sop^ T-3 

10 Dec. 1977 

10 Jan. 1978 

2 Mar. 1978 

15 June 1978 

27 June 1978 

26 Aug. 1978 

25 Feb. 1979 

10 Apr. 1979 

6 June 1979 

9 Apr. 1980 

26 May 1980 

5 June 1980 

23 July 1980 

18 Sept. 1980 

27 Nov. 1980 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

01% G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S . Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popv 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshw 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mender 

Leonid D. Grim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M . Strekalov 

898 h 6 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; 

crew duration 2314 h. 

1558 h 53 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; 

crew duration 142 h 59 min. 

190 h 17 min Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cos- monaut to orbit. 

1911 h 23 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

crew duration 3350 h 48 min. 

190 h 4 rnin Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first Polish 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

1628 h 14 rnin Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

crew duration 188 h 49 min. Jaehn was first 

German Democratic Republic cosmonaut to 

orbit. 

2596 h 24 rnin Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

crew duration 4200 h 36 min, or 175 days. 

47 h 1 min Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

1770 h 17 min Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyur 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

1321 h 29 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. 

Crew duration, 4436 h 12 min. 

1580 h 54 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. 

Crew duration 188 h 46 min. Farkas was first 

Hungarian to orbit. 

94 h 21 min Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of newgeneration feriy. 

1911 h 17 min Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Sow 36. 

Crew duration 188 h 42 min. Pham was first 

Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in Soviet 

program since 197 1. 

188 h 43 rnin 

307 h 8 rnin 

100 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle Stages 

Thrust 

(in 

kiloMax. Height Max' Pay1oad (k) First 

Launch Dia. 

newtons) (m) 

PropellantP 

4. Altair I11 .......... .Solid 

Atlas F/TE 364-4 ..... 1. Atlas booster & 

Atlas-Agena ......... .l. Atlas booster & 

Atlas-Centaur ....... .l. Atlas booster 81 

(SLV/SA) ......... LOX/RP-1 ..... 

sustainer .......... LOX/RP-1 ...... 

2. Agena ... IRFNA/UDMH .. 

2. Centaur ... Titan IIIB-Agena .... .l. LR-87 .... 2. LR-91 ............. NzO,/Aerozine ... ...... .IRFNA/UDMH .. 

481.0 1.12 21.95 186b 38.6b 1972(60)c 

281.0 

83.1 

26.2 

911.9 2.44 35.36 1 769b 476b 1973(60)c 

440.4d 

45.8 

66.7 

1 970.6 3.05 25.91 1497b 1977(60)c 

66.7 

2 237.5 3.05 40.54 2 72Pb 454b 1968(60)c 

71.2 

1912 3.05 40 4 500b 145Oe 1962 

2 353.1 3.05 48.46 3 614 3727' 1966 

133.4 3.05 

444.8 

71.2 

Titan III(23)D ..... 

Titan III(34)D ..... 

Titan III(M)D/IUS . 

.. 

3.05-m dia. ....... .Solid ........... 10 413.3 3.05 40.54 - 14648 1965 

2. LR-87 ............ .N,O,/Aerozine ... 2 353.1 3.05 

3. LR-91 ............. N,O,/Aerozine ... 444.8 

4. Transtage N,O,/ Aerozine 71.2 

. 1. TWO 5-~~gment 

3.05-m dia. ....... .Solid ...... 10413.5 3.05 46.94 11 18zh 1971 

3. LR-91 ... ..... N,O,/Aerozine ... 444.8 

2. LR-87 ... 3. LR-91 ... N,O,/Aerozine ... 444.8 

...... 11 555.6 3.05 49.13 12 545 1981 

. 1 . TWO 554 -=pat 

3.05-m dia. ....... .Solid ........... 11 555.6 3.05 48.00 1 El& 1818i 1981 

2. LR-87 .. . .N,O,/Aerozine ... 2 353.1 

3. LR-91 .. N,O,/Amzine ... 444.8 

Solid ........... 191.3 

5. IUS 2nd St Solid ...... 71.2 

2. TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... 66.7 

3. TE 364-15 ......... .Solid ........... 44.5 

.l. Thor .... LOX/RP-1 756.2 2.44 23.77 

24.23 

512k 

653k 

1976(66)c 

1980(63)C 

Thor LV-2F ....... 

Thor SLV-ZA/Block 

5D-2 ............. .l. Thor plus 3 LOX/RJ-1 ...... 756.2 2.44 

TX 354-5 ........ .Solid ........... 689.5d 

2. TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... 66.7 

3. TE 364-15 ......... .Solid ........... 44.5 

e With TE-364-4 solid-fueled motor. 

f polar launch 185 b. 

(nominal). b polar 185 b (nominal). 

j Synchronous e uatorial (current estimate). 

k Polar 83s l~n ?from WTR). 

a Pro llant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen and a modi& kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a 

single mixture both fuel and oxidizer =solid; inhibited red fuming 

nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine = i Polar 185 km (currmt estimate). IRFNAIUDMH; nitrop tetroxide and mMH/NzH, = NzO4/ 

Aerozine. 

Synchronous 

b Due east launch. c The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

d set of 3. 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

101 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY -BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year 

1959 .................. 1960 .................. 1961 .................. 1962 ...... 1963 .................. 1964 .................. 1965 . . . . ... 1966 .................. 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1970 .................. 

1972 .._............... 1973 .................. 

1978 .............. 1979 .................. 

1982 Est. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NASA 

Total Spacea 

330.9 260.9 

523.6 461.5 

964.0 926.0 

1824.9 1796.8 

3673.0 3626.0 

5099.7 5016.3 

5249.7 5137.6 

5174.9 5064.5 

4965.6 4830.2 

4587.3 4430.0 

3990.9 3822.0 

3745.8 3547.0 

3311.2 3101.3 

3306.6 3071.0 

3406.2 3093.2 

3036.9 2758.5 

3229.1 2915.3 

3550.3 3225.4 

931.8 849.2 

3817.8 3440.2 

4060.1 3622.9 

4595.5 4030.4 

5240.2 4680.4 

5519.1 4997.2 

6118.3 5617.3 

Defense 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1298.2 

1549.9 

1599.3 

1573.9 

1688.8 

1663.6 

1921.8 

2013.0 

1678.4 

1512.3 

1407.0 

1623.0 

1766.0 

1892.4 

1983.3 

460.4 

2411.9 

2728.8 

3211.3 

3848.4 

4789.4 

5916.3 

Com - merce Interior Act:- NSF 

34.3 ... 43.3 ... 67.7 ... 147.8 50.7 

213.9 43.2 

210.0 2.8 

228.6 12.2 

186.8 26.5 

183.6 29.3 

145.1 28.1 

118.0 20.0 

102.8 8.0 

94.8 27.4 

55.2 31.3 

54.2 39.7 

41.7 60.2 

29.6 64.4 

23.3 71.5 ~~ 

4.6 22.2 

21.7 90.8 

34.4 102.8 

58.6 98.4 

39.6 92.6 

42.0 91.9 

38.0 126.3 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.1 

12.6 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

17.2 

... 

0.1 

.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 

Total 

Space 

784.7 

1065.8 

1808.2 

3294.8 

5434.5 

6831.4 

6955.5 

6969.8 

6709.5 

6528.9 

5975.8 

5340.5 

4740.9 

4574.7 

4824.9 

4640.3 

4914.3 

5319.9 

1340.5 

5982.8 

6508.7 

7419.2 

8688.8 

9950.5 

11729.7 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). 

b T.Q. =Transitional Quarter. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

a T.Q. -TRANSITIONAL QUARTER 

OTHER 

DEFENSE 

. . . . . . . . . EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AN0 BUDGET 

. . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . :.:,:,:+:.:.:.:. . . . . . . . . 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

Federal Space Programs 1980 1981 1982 1980 1981 1982 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Est. Est. 

Federal agencies: 

NASAa .................................... Defense .......... .......... .. Energy .................................... Commerce ................................. Interi 

NSF 

Agric 

Total ................................... 

NASA: 

Space flight ................................ Space science, applications, and technology ...... Air transportation ........................... Supporting operations ....................... Lessreceipts ................................ 

Total NASA .............................. 

4680.4 4997.2 5 617.3 4340.1 4733.3 5 375.6 

3848.4 4789.4 5 916.3 3162.3 3920.1 4 952.8 

39.6 42.0 38.0 48.8 42.9 40.0 

92.6 91.9 126.3 88.7 75.6 103.2 

11.7 12.1 12.6 11.7 12.1 12.6 

2.4 2.4 2.0 2.4 2.4 2.0 

13.7 15.5 17.2 13.7 15.5 17.2 

8688.8 9950.5 11 729.7 7667.7 8801.9 10 503.4 

2819.8 3191.3 3623.0 2593.7 3021.3 3487.0 

1424.8 1359.4 1471.5 1345.6 1285.3 1425.1 

559.8 521.8 501.1 508.5 537.1 515.7 

438.8 450.2 526.6 403.8 430.3 467.4 

- 3.0 - 3.6 - 3.9 -3.0 - 3.6 - 3.9 

5240.2 5519.1 6118.3 4848.6 5270.4 5891.3 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation. SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority 

1980 1981 1982 

Actual Est. Est. 

Federal Aeronautics Programs 

NASAa ................................................................. 559.8 521.8 501.1 

Department of Defenseb ................................................... 2335.9 2533.3 2811.1 

Department of Transportation' ............................................. 95.5 106.2 106.5 

Total ................................................................ 2991.2 3161.3 9418.7 

a Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research Federal Aviation Administration Research, Engineering and 

and Program Management. 

related equipment. SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

Development and Facilities, Engineering and Development. 

Research, Development, Testing and Evaluation of aircraft and 

103 

U. 5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1981 358-086