Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1985 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1985 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Contents 

Page Page 

Summary .................................. Communications ........................ Earth’s Atmosphere. Environment. and 

Resources ............................ Space Science .......................... Space Transportation .................... Commercial Use of Space ................. Space Tracking and Data Systems ......... Space Station .......................... Aeronautics and Space Research and 

Technology ........................... 

Administration ........................... Applications ........................... Space Science .......................... Space Transportation .................... Commercial Use of Space ................. Space Station .......................... Space Tracking and Data Systems ......... Space Research and Technology ........... Aeronautics Research and Technology ...... Department of Defense ...................... Space Activities ......................... Aeronautical Activities ................... Space and Aeronautics Support ............ Relations with NASA .................... Department of Commerce .................... Space Systems ......................... Other Uses of Satellites .................. Space and Atmospheric Research .......... Aeronautical Programs .................. Department of Energy ....................... Space Nuclear Power Systems ............. Nuclear Test Detection ................... Department of the Interior ................... Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Processing ........................... Digital Data Processing .................. Remote Sensing Applications ............. International Activity .................... Department of Agriculture ................... Federal Communications Commission .......... Communications Satellites ................ New Satellite Services ................... International Conference Activities ........ Department of Transportation ................ Aviation Safety ......................... Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ...... 

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Aeromedical Research ................... Office of Commercial Space Transportation ............................... Environmental Protection Agency ............. Monitoring and Assessing the Environment ................................ National Science Foundation .................. Astronomical Sciences ................... Atmospheric Sciences .................... Smithsonian Institution ...................... Space Sciences ......................... Planetary Sciences ...................... Department of State ........................ 

Activities within the United Nations ........ Communications Satellites ................ 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ........ 

US . Space Arms Control Activities ........ 

International Discussions on Space Arms 

Control .............................. Space Policy ........................... United State Information Agency .............. Voice of America ........................ Television Service ....................... Other Information Activities .............. 

Appendixes 

A-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ................. A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or 

Beyond ............................. A-3 Successful U.S. Launches - 1985 .......... B-1 U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

1979-1985 ........................... B-2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 

C U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

D 

E-1 

1979-1985 ........................... 

1975-1985 ........................... 

1961-1985 ........................... U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ............. Space Activities of the U.S. 

Government: 

Historical Budget Summary - 

Budget Authority ................. 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ................. E-3 Aeronautics Budget .................... 

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iii 
October 3, 1985, marked the maiden voyage of Atlantis, NASA's fourth and newest Orbiter. 
Summary 

During 1985, research activities in aeronautics 

and space, involving several federal agencies, continued to reflect the Nation’s resolve to employ the 

aerospace environment for the benefit of humankind, to develop new areas of technology, and to 

expand understanding of forces that created the 

Earth, the solar system, the galaxies, and the universe. 

The year’s nine Space Shuttle missions focused 

heavily on the physical and life sciences, and included three Spacelab flights, one of which was 

managed by the government of West Germany. Emerging from Discovery’s cargo bay on June 19, 1985, the 

Telstar 3-D was one of 11 communications satellites that were 

boosted into orbit from Shuttle macecraft. 

Six payload specialists represented foreign nations; a teacher was selected as the first private 

citizen to fly in space; and one mission included, as 

a payload specialist, Senator Jake Garn, who was 

subjected to extensive medical tests in weightlessness. One of two dedicated Department of Defense 

(DOD) missions marked the maiden voyage of the 

fourth Shuttle Orbiter, Atlantis. A total of 11 communications satellites were boosted into orbit from 

the Space Shuttle; two missions were involved in 

reactivation of the Syncom IV-3 satellite; and the 

last flight of the year demonstrated the ease with 

which astronauts can assemble large structures in 

space, a capability which has important implications for the future manned Space Station. 

During the first operational flight of Spacelab, 

the Spacelab 3 microgravity mission, large, welldefined crystals were grown, and life sciences 

experiments measured the effects of microgravity 

on animals. Other activities included fluid 

dynamics experiments, observations of the aurora, 

and atmospheric studies. 

On the flight of Spacelab 2, several astronomy 

and astrophysics experiments were conducted. The 

European Space Agency’s Instrument Pointing 

System was used for the first time and demonstrated its effectiveness as a stable platform for 

sensitive instruments. 

In the area of solar system exploration, the encounter with Comet Giacobini-Zinner by the Interu.S. Senator Jake Garn conducts a medical experiment on 

himself during Space Shuttle mission 51-D. 

national Cometary Explorer provided the first 

spacecraft data on the composition of a comet. In 

1 
September, Voyager 2 obtained the first images of 

Uranus with sufficient resolution to improve our 

knowledge of that planet and its satellites. 

Expendable launch vehicles continued to provide 

service for international communications networks. Three Atlas Centaur launches from the 

Eastern Space and Missile Center in Florida put 

the loth, llth, and 12th satellites of the INTELSAT V series into orbit. This increased to 14 the 

number of communications satellites available for 

the global service provided by the International 

Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). There were two Scout launches of DOD 

payloads from the Western Space and Missile 

Center, Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. 

At White House request, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and 

DOD continued to examine technologies that 

would improve launch capabilities early in the next 

century. This included a study to define requirements for a second-generation Space Shuttle. 

For the near term, in support of the President’s national policy for assured access to space, DOD will 

acquire 10 expendable launch vehicles to complement the Space Shuttle, and will refurbish a 

number of existing Titan 11’s to launch future national security payloads. 

DOD and NASA combined efforts on a hypersonic cruise/transatmospheric vehicle research 

program. The concept for this program centers on 

the ability of aircraft to operate at hypersonic 

speeds in the upper atmosphere, and as a space 

launch vehicle capable of accelerating directly into 

orbit. 

The U.S. Space Command, composed of Air 

Force, Navy, and Army elements, was established 

officially in Colorado Springs, Colorado. By centralizing responsibilities of the various service 

branches, this unified Command will allow more efficient pursuit of common space goals. 

Pursuant to the Administration’s declaration in 

1984 that international communications satellite 

systems separate from INTELSAT were required 

in the national interest, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) granted conditional 

authority to five companies to establish independent satellite systems. Also, in response to a petition filed by NASA, the FCC issued a Notice of 

Proposed Rulemaking to allocate spectrum positions for a mobile satellite system that would provide emergency communications and mobile telephone services in rural areas. 

In accordance with the provisions of Public Law 

98-365, authorizing the transfer of space-based 

land remote sensing to the private sector, the 

Government signed a contract with the Earth 

Observation Satellite Corporation (EOSAT) to 

manage and operate Landsat 4 and Landsat 5 and 

future Landsat 6 and Landsat 7 spacecraft. The 

Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) 

Data Center of the U.S. Geological Survey completed initial modifications to support the transition of Landsat to EOSAT. In 1985, EROS distributed approximately 46,000 film and digital 

products to users worldwide. 

The commercial potential of space was demonstrated with the first sale of a product manufactured in microgravity. Tiny, perfectly formed 

polystyrene spheres, which had been produced during a Space Shuttle mission, were sold by the National Bureau of Standards for use as measurement reference materials by manufacturers of 

medicines, chemicals, and electronic components. 

In related activity, the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation, Department of Transportation, 

issued its first major policy statement on commercial launch licensing procedures, and granted its 

first approval of a commercial launch. 

In the international arena, the Department of 

State and other agencies worked closely with 

NASA on plans to develop the permanently 

manned Space Station, the largest international 

space project in history. Memoranda of 

Understanding on the design phase were signed 

with the European Space Agency, Japan, and 

Canada, and contracts for the definition and preliminary design phases were awarded to eight industry teams. 

Several agencies were involved in the first session of the International Telecommunication 

Union’s World Administrative Radio Conference 

held in Geneva, Switzerland, to review the system 

of allocating slots in geostationary orbit for communications satellites of various nations. 

The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

prepared for a new series of bilateral arms control 

negotiations with the Soviet Union, the Nuclear 

and Space Talks. 

The Voice of America covered all Space Shuttle 

launches, interviewed most of the astronauts, and 

distributed material about the US. space program 

to 134 nations and territories. 

The remainder of this chapter is a summary by 

function of U.S. aeronautics and space activities in 

calendar year 1985. The succeeding chapters present activities of individual agencies in greater 

detail. 

Communications 

In order to maintain US. preeminence in the increasingly competitive communications satellite 

industry, NASA has been intensely involved in a 

program to develop advanced, proof-of-concept 

technology. Interest in experiments involving 

2 
NASA’s Advanced Communications Technology 

Satellite continued. Several experiments using 

spot beams, hopping beams, and switchboard inthe-sky concepts will be conducted in the future. 

NASA has developed technology that would provide a mobile telephone service in rural areas, for 

communications during medical emergencies and 

natural disasters, and for use in commerce by such 

organizations as trucking firms and oil and gas 

drilling enterprises. The FCC received a dozen applications from organizations proposing to build 

mobile satellite systems, and is in the process of 

allocating a domestic frequency for this service. 

No longer responding to commands, NASA’s 

ATS-1 (Advanced Technology Satellite), the backbone of southern Pacific island communications, 

was shut down. ATS-3 remains operational, continuing to support activities of several federal 

agencies, and was instrumental in relaying communications of relief organizations after the earthquake in Mexico and the volcanic eruption in 

Columbia. 

Many developing nations perceive that future access to the geostationary orbit for their communications satellites will be limited due to monopolization of the orbit and its associated frequency bands 

by current users. The first of two sessions of the 

International Telecommunication Union’s World 

Administrative Radio Conference on the Planning 

of the Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Space 

Service Utilizing It was conducted for the purpose 

of reviewing procedures for allocating access to 

the orbit and spectrum. 

The current era, characterized as the “Information Age,” was made possible by communications 

electronics. Communications satellites now constitute a critical and fast-growing segment of the 

communications industry. Eleven communications 

satellites, representing eight organizations from 

five nations, were boosted into orbit from the 

Space Shuttle; and expendable launch vehicles 

launched three communications satellites into orbit 

for INTELSAT. 

Recognizing the importance, for U.S. national 

interests, of technological advances in communications, computers, and information systems, the 

Department of State established a Bureau of International communications and Information Policy. 

Operational Space Systems 

Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT 

satellite system, to detect and relay transmissions 

of aircraft and ships in distress, began its first year 

of regular operations. The United States, Canada, 

France, and the Soviet Union developed the 

system; and Norway, the United Kingdom, 

Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Brazil 

also participate in its use. International participation has resulted in increased benefits and reduced 

costs for the combined satellite and ground 

system. By the end of 1985, use of the system in actual distress situations had saved 510 lives worldwide. 

INTELSAT and INMARSAT. Service by the 

109-member nation INTELSAT improved with 

launches of three satellites of the INTELSAT V 

series, making a total of 14 satellites available on a 

worldwide basis. The satellite constellation was reconfigured into operational zones providing six v’s 

and one IVA in the Atlantic Ocean Region; three 

V’s in the Indian Ocean Region; and two IVA’s and 

two V’s in the Pacific Ocean Region. Three of the 

IVA satellites exceeded estimated maneuver life. 

Approval was granted for 22 new Earth station 

facilities to access the INTELSAT system in the 

Atlantic Ocean Region for INTELSAT (digital) 

Business Service. Conditional authority was 

granted to five companies to establish international satellite communications systems separate 

from INTELSAT for business, video, and other 

private purposes. 

In its fourth year of maritime communications 

service, the 44-member International Maritime 

Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) leased 

satellite capacity from U.S. satellite companies, 

the European Space Agency, and INTELSAT. 

Currently, INMARSAT leases three operational 

and three in-orbit spare satellites serving the 

Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean Regions. 

Second-generation satellites built to meet INMARSAT specifications, the first of which is expected to 

become operational in mid 1988, will have significantly increased capacity from that of the present 

leased spacecraft. INMARSAT serves about 4,000 

vessels; and 13 coast stations in 10 nations are 

operational, with five more expected in 1986. At 

the fourth session of the INMARSAT assembly, 

amendments to the INMARSAT convention were 

adopted, along with an operating agreement that 

allows INMARSAT to provide aeronautical communications services. The assembly also adopted 

an international agreement on the use of INMARSAT ship-Earth stations within territorial seas and 

ports. 

National and international efforts to establish a 

future global maritime distress and safety system 

are continuing. The system under development will 

use terrestrial techniques and satellite emergency 

position indicating radio beacons (EPIRB’s) to 

relay information from ships to rescue coordination centers. Current plans call for satellite 

EPIRBs to operate through INMARSAT and 

COSPASISARSAT, and a decision on future 

operations will be made in 1986. 

3 
Domestic Communications Satellites. Currently, 

there are 25 domestic communications satellites in 

service. The FCC authorized the construction and 

launch of 20 additional domestic fixed-satellites 

that will provide communication services through 

the end of the century. Several licenses were 

awarded to companies new to the satellite industry 

under this authorization. In order to reduce orbital 

spacings, locations for new satellites in the geostationary orbit were assigned with 2-degree 

separations in both the 4/6-GHz and 12/14-GHz 

bands. The FCC’s Advisory Committee on 2’ Spacing was established to elicit recommendations by 

industry on the most efficient and economical 

methods to accommodate satellite operations 

under the conditions of reduced spacing. Conditional construction permits for new Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) systems were issued to three 

“third-round” applicants. After fulfilling the “due 

diligence” requirement, they will be eligible for 

assignment to specific orbital positions and channels. Three of the eight “first-round” DBS companies are continuing to construct their satellites; 

one of the six “second-round” DBS companies has 

demonstrated “due diligence”; and, currently, a 

“fourth-round” of DBS applicants is pending. New 

technology continued to bring improved satellite 

service to users. The FCC allocated frequencies for 

domestic radio determination satellite service that 

will allow subscribers to determine latitude, longitude, and altitude, and to exchange messages using hand-held transceivers. 

Military Communications Satellites. Military 

Satellite Communications (MILSATCOM) is a 

system that provides a reliable and survivable linkage between decision makers and military forces 

deployed worldwide. A crucial part of the President’s strategic modernization program is Milstar, 

a communications satellite system that will provide 

jam-resistant, survivable voice communications for 

national command authorities. The Air Force is responsible for airborne and some strategic ground 

terminals, and the Navy and Army for shipboard 

and ground terminals, respectively. Plans for the 

satellite control segment were developed by the 

Air Force; an engineering development contract 

was awarded for the Army’s terminals; and the 

Navy demonstrated two prototype terminal 

designs. 

Navigation Satellites. Navstar 11, the last developmental Global Positioning System (GSP) 

satellite, was launched, bringing to seven the 

number of GPS developmental satellites, all of 

which are performing well. These satellites provide 

radio position and navigation information to support defense missions worldwide. 

Earth’s Atmosphere, Environment, 

and Resources 

Sophisticated equipment on aircraft, marine 

vessels and spacecraft continue to help increase 

understanding of the processes, composition, and 

origin of the Earth’s atmosphere, environment, 

and natural resources. 

Monitoring and Analysis 

Satellite Operations. The Nation’s primary 

operational polar weather satellites, NOAA 8 and 

9, orbit the Earth about the poles in Sunsynchronous orbits and provide environmental observations of the entire Earth four times each day. 

NOAA 9 is the first operational spacecraft to carry 

solar backscatter ultraviolet radiometers that provide, for both NASA and NOAA, global measurements of atmospheric ozone concentration. It also 

carries the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

(ERBE) that measures the Earth’s radiation 

balance between incoming and outgoing energy, 

and supplies data for NASA’s continuing climate 

research activities. ERBE received and processed 

data both from the instruments aboard the NOAA 

9 spacecraft and from the Earth Radiation Budget 

Satellite, boosted into orbit from the Shuttle in 

1984. Among interesting scientific data that have 

emerged are measurements of the “solar 

constant,” or solar irradiance at the mean distance 

of the Earth from the Sun. 

NOAA’s GOES 6 (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) continued to provide 

valuable imaging and sounding data about the summer/fall hurricane Season and winter weather conditions. Coverage by the VAS (VISSR Atmospheric Sounder) on GOES was modified to support operations at the National Hurricane Center. 

Throughout the hurricane season, VAS data were 

used to monitor the development, strength, and 

movement of tropical storms in the Gulf of Mexico, 

the Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea. The 

GOES data Collection System relays environmental data from remotely located Data Collection 

Platforms to 68 national and 28 international 

users. A contractor was selected to build the 

“GOES-Next” series (GOES I-M) planned for 

operation in the 1990’s. 

The International Satellite Cloud Climatology 

Project (ISCCP), co-sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization and the International 

Council of Scientific Unions, entered its second 

year of collecting and processing data on the global 

distribution of clouds supplied by an international 

array of polar orbiting and geostationary satellites. NASA continues to play an important role in 

the ISCCP through its support of the Global Proc4 
essing Center, where data are merged and analyzed. The national project office for the First 

ISCCP Regional Experiment, established by 

NASA, issued an implementation plan that focuses 

on modeling activities and data gathering on cirrus 

and marine stratocumulus cloud systems, both believed to be important to the Earth’s radiation 

budget and climate. With support from several 

federal agencies, the plan will be implemented by a 

universitylgovernment science team. 

Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Geologic Research. 

Joint efforts of NASA, the Federal Aviation Administration, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the World Meteorological 

Organization, the U.N. Environmental Program, 

and the Federal Republic of Germany culminated 

in a report assessing perturbations in the distribution of ozone in the atmosphere and adjacent 

regions. 

NASA and the government of Brazil conducted a 

joint atmospheric chemistry and meteorology experiment in the Amazon rain forest. The purpose 

was to test hypotheses about the unusual distributions of carbon monoxide off South American 

coasts that were detected by a sensor aboard a 

Space Shuttle flight. 

In oceanography, NASA is developing the Scatterometer (NSCAT) to fly aboard the Navy’s 

Remote Ocean Sensing System satellite. NASA is 

also studying the possibility of initiating the Ocean 

Topography Experiment (TOPEX), a dedicated 

altimetric satellite, and the Ocean Color Imager 

(OCI), an improved version of the Coastal Zone ’ 

Color Scanner currently flying aboard Nimbus-7. 

TOPEX, NSCAT, and OCI are key elements of the 

World Climate Research Program, and, if 

developed, will improve capabilities for understanding how atmospheric and oceanic forces influence the Earth’s climate. 

The Navy’s geodetic and geophysical satellite 

(GEOSAT) was boosted into orbit. Its mission is to 

determine a global marine geoid by measuring 

small variations in the height of the ocean surface. 

The satellite will also furnish useful oceanographic 

information about surface wind speeds, and the 

location of ocean fronts and eddies, 

The Federal Aviation Administration conducted 

technical and operational investigations using a 

Doppler weather-radar support facility to detect 

low-altitude wind shear and other conditions. Installation of Low Level Wind Shear Alert Systems 

in the Nation’s airports continued, along with tests 

using additional periphery sensors to detect wind 

shears generated by microbursts. Under NASA’s 

Mesoscale Atmospheric Research Program, new 

techniques are being developed to use remote sensing to identify deadly microbursts and tropical 

cyclones, and to make calculations that will lead to 

more precise storm warnings. 

As the transfer of the Landsat system to the 

private sector was taking place, NASA completed 

a 2-year study of the Thematic Mapper carried on 

Landsat, and initiated a new science investigations 

program using the sensor. The new science program complements the previous program that 

focused on nearer term applications, and is aimed 

at developing next generation systems for scientific and commercial use beginning in the 

mid-1990’s. The U.S. Geological Survey conducted 

two international remote sensing workshops on 

topics such as the application of Landsat data to 

geologic and hydrologic assessment problems, and 

the application of digital image processing techniques to resource monitoring and mapping. 

A significant milestone was reached with the 

conclusion of the Department of Agriculture’s 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys Through Aerospace Remote 

Sensing). This was a 6-year, multi-agency, 

cooperative effort to determine the feasibility of integrating remote sensing technology into the 

Department of Agriculture’s information system 

for such purposes as forecasting crop production, 

assessing renewable resources, and detecting 

pollution. The Department’s Agricultural Research 

Service established a Remote Sensing Research 

Laboratory under a newly created Agricultural 

Systems Research Institute. The Laboratory is expected to play a major role in developing useful applications of remote sensing data. 

NASA initiated the Interdisciplinary Research 

Program to investigate long-term physical, chemical, and biological changes in the Earth‘s environment. The agency’s Geodynamics Program obtained measurements of the movement of tectonic 

plates that make up the crust of the Earth. 

Measurements using special spacecraft, such as 

the Laser Geodynamics Satellite and Very Long 

Baseline Microwave Interferometry, should lead to 

a better understanding of the causes of motions 

and the geophysics of crustal deformation in earthquake prone areas. NASA and other agencies are 

in the process of developing the use of DOD Global 

Positioning Satellites for geodetic measurement. 

The Environmental Protection Agency and 

NASA are cooperating in the development and application of a number of aerospace technologies to 

monitor and assess the environment. This includes 

the creation and use of a computerized Geographic 

Information System as a data base and an inventory of such environmental variables as weather 

conditions, land uses and soil types, and water well 

locations. 

5 
Space Science 

Space science programs investigate the origin 

and evolution of life, the Earth, the solar system, 

and the universe. Investigations are aided by satellites, space probes, experiments conducted on the 

Space Shuttle, suborbital vehicles, and groundbased facilities. In 1985, the microgravity of space 

proved to be an ideal environment for conducting 

research in the medical and biological sciences. 

Solar System Exploration 

Cometary Studies. The encounter of the International Cometary Explorer (ICE) with Comet Giacobini-Zinner provided valuable information on a 

comet’s magnetic field, plasma environment, and 

dust content. ICE, along with the Pioneer Venus 

spacecraft, also are scheduled to observe the more 

famous Comet Halley during its approach to the 

Sun between February and April 1986. 

Voyagers 1 and 2. Voyager 2 obtained images of 

Uranus, its satellites, and its rings, the first such 

pictures ever made by a spacecraft. New tracking, 

communications, and operating procedures were 

established for data collection in preparation for 

Voyager’s close encounter with Uranus in 1986. 

When Voyager 2 leaves Uranus, it will travel on a 

trajectory toward Neptune, which it is expected to 

reach in 1989. Voyager 1, on a path toward the star 

Rasalhagne, about 25 astronomical units from the 

Sun, has ventured farther above the ecliptic plane 

of the solar system than any previous spacecraft. 

Pioneer Venus. Instruments on the Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter spacecraft, in its sixth year of 

operation, made significant new measurements of 

the solar wind‘s interaction with Venus. Aurorae, 

called “Northern Lights,” were also discovered in 

the atmosphere of Venus. The observation of Comet Giacobini-Zinner by Pioneer’s Ultraviolet Spectrometer during ICE’S encounter with that Comet 

resulted in a better understanding of the Comet’s 

rate of water evaporation. 

Pioneers 10 and 11. Pioneer 10, now about 37 

astronomical units from the Sun, continues to 

return data about the solar system, aiming to 

detect the heliopause, the boundary between the 

Sun’s magnetic influence and interstellar space. 

Pioneer 11, traveling in the opposite direction from 

Pioneer 10, is now past the orbit of Uranus, about 

20 astronomical units from the Sun. 

Galileo and Ulysses. Flight software was tested 

on Galileo, a spacecraft that will be launched on a 

mission to study Jupiter and its moons. Pre-launch 

testing of the Ulysses spacecraft, a joint effort 

with the European Space Agency, was also conducted. Ulysses will circle Jupiter, and then 

traverse the Sun’s south pole. 

Venus Radar Mapper and Mars Observer. Critical reviews were completed of the Venus Radar 

Mapper, which will use orbital radar to map the 

cloud-shrouded surface of Venus. Proposals were 

solicited and received for both the Mars Observer 

spacecraft and the scientific investigations that it 

will carry when it orbits Mars on a future mission 

to study that planet’s surface and climate. 

Space Plasma Physics. The National Academy of 

Sciences completed a study entitled “An Implementation Plan for Priorities in Solar-System 

Space Physics” which proposes a 10-year plan of 

solar and space plasma physics research. The International Solar-Terrestrial Physics program is 

given the highest priority, with the United States 

contributing to mission support in the form of 

satellites, instruments, data handling and modeling. The Dynamics Explorer 2 (DE-2) re-entered 

the atmosphere after providing considerable information about solar interactions with the Earth’s 

atmosphere and magnetic field; another spacecraft, DE-1, continues to provide new data on the 

interactions between hot magnetospheric plasma 

and cool ionospheric plasma, and on auroral morphology. A total of 22 space plasma physics sounding rockets were launched to study properties of 

the middle atmosphere and the auroral regions. 

Important data were obtained on plasma flow, 

plasma turbulence, electric fields, and coupling 

from the polar ionosphere to the middle atmosphere. 

Study of the Universe 

NASA’s Astrophysics program investigates the 

physical nature of the universe, from the star 

nearest the Earth, the Sun, to the most distant 

quasars. Since many observations cannot be made 

through the Earth’s atmosphere, instruments for 

such observations must be carried above the atmosphere into space. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO). 

Data from HEAO-2 revealed the existence of a significant amount of “dark matter” in galaxies and 

x-ray “haloes” surrounding the optical disks of 

galaxies. A determination of the origin of these 

phenomena is expected when a future x-ray facility 

is launched and operational. Five scientific instrument proposals for such a facility were selected for 

definition. 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). Design and the 

critical design review of GRO, which will investigate the highest energy reaches of the electromagnetic spectrum, were completed, along with 

testing and assembly of all hardware for the four 

GRO scientific instruments. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). The SMM, 

repaired in orbit by the crew of the Space Shuttle 

6 
in 1984, provided valuable new information about 

solar flares, solar eruptions, and the global solar 

corona. Possible use of a reconfigured SMM that 

could accommodate future scientific payloads such 

as the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer is being explored. 

Hubble Space Telescope. Launch readiness for the 

Hubble Space Telescope is nearing. This astronomical observatory will be able to detect and 

observe celestial objects with considerably more 

precision than is currently possible. 

Astro. The Astro payload, three complementary 

ultraviolet telescopes that will photograph and 

measure a variety of celestial objects, has been fully integrated into the European Space Agency's 

Instrument Pointing System and will be carried on 

Spacelab. 

Spartan. The first Spartan mission was conducted when the small, versatile spacecraft was deployed from the Space Shuttle to map the central 

region of the Milky Way and the Perseus cluster of 

galaxies. 

Li,fe Sciences 

In preparation for the permanent presence of 

humans in space, an important objective of 

NASA's Life Sciences program is to determine the 

effects of long-term space flight exposure on 

humans. 

Space Medicine. Emphasis was placed on monitoring and maintaining the health of crews experiencing weightlessness during Space Shuttle missions. Diagnostic techniques for assessing bone 

demineralization and muscle atrophy were tested; 

experiments were conducted on the effectiveness 

of space motion sickness treatments and the ability 

of the gastrointestinal tract to absorb drugs; and 

dosimeters were used to monitor crew member 

radiation exposures and background radiation 

penetrating the Space Shuttle cabin. 

Gravitational and Planetary Biology. The Gravitational Biology program endeavors to understand 

how gravity has shaped life on Earth, and to determine how microgravity affects both plants and 

animals. Results of ground-based animal studies 

were confirmed during the data analysis of Spacelab 3, which carried 12 adult and 12 juvenile rats. 

Substantial progress was also made in understanding the gravity-sensing mechanisms of plants. 

These studies have important implications for 

future manned space flight, and for biological life 

support systems that will provide food, water, and 

oxygen for crews. 

The Planetary Biology program investigates 

conditions and processes required for the origin 

and evolution of life. In 1985, scientists speculated 

that certain clay minerals were important factors 

in the origin of life and may have significantly influenced the rate and direction of chemical evolution. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System. This 

program develops technology for life support 

systems that regenerate air, water, and food needed for long duration manned missions. Research 

focused on techniques for growing higher plants 

and algae in space, and recycling solid and liquid 

wastes. 

Spacelab 

The launch of Spacelab 2 culminated nearly 10 

years of work. Flight verification tests of 

Spacelab's igloo-pallet configuration were conducted, and the Instrument Pointing System was 

used. Important data were obtained in solar and 

plasma physics, x-ray and infrared astronomy, 

cosmic ray astronomy, life sciences, and technology. Spacelab 3 was a 7-day microgravity mission that yielded exciting results in materials 

science, life sciences, fluid mechanics, and atmospheric and astronomical observations. 

Microgravity Science 

Scientific experiments involving semi-conductor 

materials, miscibility gap materials, and containerless processing of glass melts were conducted on 

the second flight of the Materials Experiment 

Assembly, which flew as part of the German D-1 

Spacelab mission. 

The Microgravity Materials Science Laboratory 

was opened at NASA's Lewis Research Center for 

the purpose of assisting industry, academia, and 

government researchers requiring special equipment and new processes to conduct future experiments in microgravity. 

Space Transportation 

NASA's Space Flight program experienced its 

busiest year ever with nine flights of the Space 

Shuttle. A public official was flown aboard the 

spacecraft for the first time; eleven communications satellites were boosted into orbit from the 

Space Shuttle; and three Space Shuttle missions 

used Spacelab. Three Atlas Centaur and two Scout 

expendable launch vehicles placed military and 

civilian satellites into orbit. 

Shuttle Operations and Missions 

To improve Mission Control operations at 

Johnson Space Center, a procurement contract 

was under negotiation to replace overloaded and 

outdated computers. The Center awarded a Space 

7 
Transportation System operations contract that 

consolidated support contracts involving several 

firms. 

Orbiter improvement programs continued that 

will significantly improve performance on future 

flights. Work centered on the auxiliary power unit, 

brakes, nosewheel steering, general purpose computer, and inertial measurement unit. Flight certification extension testing of the Space Shuttle 

main engines (SSME’s) at 104-percent power level 

was completed, along with the Phase I1 certification test program involving SSME high pressure 

pumps. 

All Space Shuttle external tanks that were flown 

performed as expected. Ten tanks were manufactured and delivered on or ahead of schedule and, at 

the end of the year, fifteen tanks were in various 

stages of manufacture at the Michoud Assembly 

Facility in Louisiana. 

The Space Shuttle’s Solid Rocket Boosters 

(SRB’s) continued to perform as predicted; all were 

recovered and are being refurbished. Development 

of the Filament Wound Case (FWC) for the SRB 

continued with completion of two static test firings. The composite cases for the first flight from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base were delivered, and 

stacking of the first FWC SRB began. 

In accordance with the Shuttle’s commitment to 

national security requirements, the first Shuttle 

flight of the year was also the first dedicated DOD 

Shuttle mission. The second dedicated DOD mission was also the maiden voyage of Atlantis, the 

fourth Shuttle orbiter. 

When astronauts ventured outside the confines 

of the Space Shuttle on three separate missions to 

perform extravehicular activity (EVA), they 

proved once again that one of the most important 

assets of the spacecraft is its crew. The first mission EVA made preparations for the second mission spacewalk which enabled successful activation 

of the Syncom IV-3 communications satellite. The 

third mission EVA involved assembling and 

disassembling structures in space, activities that 

are crucial to the success of building the Space Station. 

Payloads. The missions of Spacelab 3, Spacelab 

2, and the West German D-1 Spacelab mission 

were highly successful, providing valuable new information on space science to the U.S. and international scientific communities. Spacelab 3 flew the 

first large-scale animal colony, and several experiments were conducted in the areas of life 

sciences, microgravity processes, and atmospheric 

observation. Spacelab 2 carried the Instrument 

Pointing System, used as a stable platform for 

astronomical instruments; and investigations were 

conducted in various scientific disciplines. The 

West German D-1 Spacelab mission introduced a 

new feature of reimbursable Shuttle flights- the 

scientific laboratory for hire. Its crew included one 

Dutch and two German payloads specialists who 

performed experiments, assisted by NASA’s mission specialists. 

A total of 52 individuals flew aboard Shuttle 

spacecraft. This group included payload specialists from five foreign countries, and U.S. 

Senator, Jake Garn, who flew as an observer. 

NASA also selected teacher, Christa McAuliffe, to 

fly in space as part of the citizen participation program. In preparation for a January 1986 launch of 

the Space Shuttle, she spent the last four months 

of 1985 in training, along with her backup, Barbara 

Morgan. 

The eleventh class of astronaut candidates was 

selected, which includes six pilots and seven mission specialists. Henceforth, NASA will accept applications and maintain a roster of eligibles from 

which selections will be made as needs arise. 

Upper Stages. A major effort in upper stages was 

the continued design, development, and procurement of the STS/Centaur. Two versions are under 

development: the Centaur G prime, for use in 

NASA’s Galileo and Ulysses missions, and the Centaur G, funded jointly by NASA and DOD. 

Commercially developed upper stages such as 

the PAM-D and the PAM-DII also play a major role 

in the Nation’s space activities. They performed 

well on several missions launched by expendable 

launch vehicles and the Shuttle. Other upper 

stages with increased capabilities to lift payloads 

into orbit, such as the Transfer Orbit Stage and the 

Apogee Maneuvering Stage, are under development. 

Tethered Satellite System 

Science investigations for the first mission were 

selected and preliminary design reviews were conducted on the Tethered Satellite System, a 

cooperative development between NASA and Italy. The system will provide the capability to conduct experiments in the upper atmosphere and 

ionosphere by means of a tethered satellite that 

can be deployed and retrieved up to 100 kilometers 

below or above the Space Shuttle. 

Advanced Plunning 

System definition studies were completed for an 

Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle capable of performing payload delivery and retrieval from the Space 

Shuttle. Initial studies also were completed of an 

Orbital Transfer Vehicle, a high-performance upper stage that will be based at and launched from 

the Space Station. 

In accordance with a White House directive to 

define technologies that will improve launch 

8 
Artist’s depiction of the Tethered Satellite System. 

capabilities in the 1990’s and beyond, NASA and 

DOD are currently examining concepts for future 

launch vehicles. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

of the Department of Transportation is responsible 

for encouraging, regulating, and promoting a commercial expendable launch vehicle industry. In 

1985, the Office reviewed policies affecting the 

commercial space industry, and established an interagency working group of representatives from 

the Departments of State, Defense, and Commerce, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Federal Communications 

Commission to coordinate and expedite review of 

launch proposals, license applications, and 

regulatory issuances. The Department’s Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee 

met twice to discuss such issues as financing and 

insurance for commercial space ventures, licensing 

procedures, use of national launch ranges, and 

maintaining the confidentiality of proprietary 

data. 

NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs, 

established to encourage investment in commercial 

space ventures and to facilitate the application and 

transfer of existing aeronautics and space 

technology to the private sector, has completed its 

first full year of operation. Five Centers for the 

Commercial Development of Space were selected 

and funded for the purpose of conducting space 

research in areas considered to have commercial 

potential. The Modified Launch Services Agreement, a new type of agreement for doing business 

with the private sector, was developed; and significant progress was made in information and 

technology dissemination through wider circulation of the publication, NASA Tech Briefs, and 

through the establishment of additional independent university and state-sponsored Industrial Applications Centers. 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

NASA’s space tracking and data systems program continued to provide vital tracking, command, telemetry, and data acquisition support to 

meet the requirements for NASA, other U.S., and 

international programs. Once the required satellite 

constellation of three Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellites are in orbit, the program will reduce 

substantially the ground-based tracking network 

that supports low-Earth orbit spacecraft. The first 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, launched in 

1983, provides excellent support of the Space Shuttle, Landsat, the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, 

the Solar Mesospheric Explorer, and the Solar 

Maximum Mission. 

The Ground Network, composed of the 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, the Deep 

Space Network, and facilities that support 

aeronautics, balloon, and sounding rocket programs, provided support for several missions. The 

Deep Space Network supplied vital tracking and 

telemetry support for the Soviet-French balloons 

inflated in the atmosphere of Venus, and for the International Cometary Explorer’s encounter with 

Comet Giacobini-Zinner. A major improvement of 

the Deep Space Network that will increase its ability to acquire scientific data also was completed. 

For the near term, this improvement will allow acquisition of more images from Voyager as it 

travels closer to the planet Uranus in 1986. 

Space Station 

NASA’s Space Station program moved closer to 

the realization of President Reagan’s goals to 

develop a permanently manned Space Station, 

with international participation, and to promote 

private sector investment in space. 

In cooperation with NASA’s Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology, an extensive advanced development program was initiated. A 

9 
series of technology test-beds were established at 

various field centers that will validate the performance of components and subsystems during advanced development. Evaluation and testing also 

were initiated in major disciplines such as attitude 

control and stabilization, environmental control 

and life support, and auxiliary propulsion. 

Contracts were awarded for each of four work 

packages designated for the definition and 

preliminary design phase of the Space Station; a 

Space Station system engineering and integration 

program office was established at Johnson Space 

Center; an operations concept for the Space Station was formulated; a key engineering report on 

the subjects of automation and robotics and a plan 

to implement the report's recommendations were 

submitted to Congress; and agreements were formalized through Memoranda of Understanding 

with Canada, Japan, and the European Space 

Agency on the definition and preliminary design 

phase of the program. 

Aeronautics and Space Research and 

Technology 

U.S. efforts in aeronautics research and 

technology continue to improve capabilities in civil 

and military aviation, and to expand the industrial 

base, contributing significantly to economic selfsufficiency and national security. These efforts 

span the flight spectrum from hovering to hypersonic aircraft. Wind tunnels, supercomputers, 

simulators, and experimental flight vehicles are examples of some of the research tools used to meet 

today's design challenges and to help fashion 

tomorrow's aircraft. 

In the areas of space exploration and space 

science, U.S. advances are made in conjunction 

with developments in space research and 

technology programs. NASA's centers work with 

industry, and universities to increase the 

capabilities of space transportation systems; to 

develop large space systems and structures such as 

the Space Station and geosynchronous communications platforms; and to plan, design, and 

develop manned planetary missions, lunar bases, 

and spacecraft for Earth observation and 

planetary exploration. 

Aeronautics 

To insure continued U.S. leadership into the next 

century, the White House Office of Science and 

Technology Policy issued a report recommending 

specific goals for aeronautical research and 

development. For U.S. aeronautics programs, 

these goals present substantial challenges which 

translate into exciting opportunities for both the 

public and the private sectors. 

Joint Programs. NASNDOD research programs 

such as those for the X-29A forward-swept wing 

aircraft, the tilt rotorlJVX aircraft, the oblique 

wing research aircraft, and the convertible gas turbine engine allow the United States to maintain its 

superiority in the areas of civil and military aviation. In the area of aviation safety, joint 

NASNFAA programs investigate such conditions 

as aircraft icing, wind shear, lightning strikes, and 

circumstances under which crew errors occur. 

In 1985, the flight research program of the 

X-29A began. The unique forward-swept wing of 

the aircraft is made of composite materials that 

reduce the wing's weight up to 20 percent compared to the weight of conventional aft-swept 

wings. The forward "canard" wings are computer 

adjusted 40 times a second to improve flight efficiency and airqaft agility. 

The new and revolutionary convertible gas turbine engine was demonstrated at NASA's Lewis 

Research Center. It allows a gas turbine engine's 

output to be in the form of either shaft power or 

fan power. This type of propulsion system is required for advanced high-speed rotorcraft concepts 

such as the X-wing, where rotor blades operating 

in a spinning mode for takeoff and landing are 

stopped and locked in place as an X-shaped fixed 

wing for high-speed flight. 

Flight testing began in the Mission Adaptive 

Wing program using an F-111 aircraft to 

demonstrate use of variable smooth camber (fore 

to aft curvature) wing technology. The wing can 

change its contour in flight by means of a computerized system of sensors, controls, and internal 

hydraulic actuators, a capability which significantly increases aircraft range, maneuverability, and 

fuel efficiency. 

A joint NASAlCanada program to test a largescale short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) 

flight model was initiated. A cooperative program 

with the United Kingdom to investigate advanced 

STOVL concepts is planned. 

NASA's Lewis Research Center conducted a 

symposium for industry that focused on an 

Electro-Impulse Deicing System that shows potential as an effective, lightweight ice protection 

system with many aeronautical uses. 

Fluid and Thermal Physics. Computational 

Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has become important for 

understanding aircraft and propulsion system flow 

physics. The Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation 

System under development at NASA's Ames 

Research Center will provide the most advanced 

computational methods in the world for solutions 

to CFD problems. The system's Cray 2 supercom10 
puter, currently the most powerful and fastest in 

the world, was delivered and installed. 

Materials and Structures. NASA has conducted 

substantial research on structures composed of 

composite materials that are lighter and stronger 

than metals. An Air Force KC-10 aircraft was 

flown with a NASA-developed vertical stabilizer 

fabricated with graphitelepoxy composites. Advanced technologies for lightweight structures are 

important for development of supersonic aircraft. 

Research in Wind Tunnels. The National Transonic Facility became fully operational at NASA's 

Langley Research Center. It is a unique wind tunnel that uses a cryogenic test gas and is capable of 

simulating and controlling actual flight parameters 

for advanced aerodynamics research. 

Tests were conducted on single-rotation and 

counter-rotation propfan models in wind tunnels at 

NASA's Lewis and Langley Research Centers to 

determine high-speed performance, flutter, and 

acoustic characteristics. Advanced propellers or 

propfans can provide jetliner speeds at fuel comsumption rates 20 to 30 percent lower than those 

of jet engines. 

Propulsion. Current research on propulsion involves a variety of technologies that promise more 

effective research tools, engine components, and 

system capabilities. 

Space 

Space research and technology programs provide critical elements of the technology base that 

allow the United States to maintain its leadership 

in space activities. The programs involve the 

disciplinary areas of propulsion, space energy, 

aerothermodynamics, materials and structures, 

controls, automation and robotics, human factors, 

computer sciences and sensors, data and communications systems, and in-space experiments. 

Propulsion. Thermal models designed to 

calculate the temperatures of cryogenic bearing 

elements under variable operating speeds, loads, 

and coolant flow rates were developed and are being validated in a NASA test facility that simulates 

actual loads occurring in high-pressure cryogenic 

turbopumps. An isotope bearing-wear detector and 

a fiber-optic deflectometer also were tested in this 

facility. These diagnostic sensors will be integrated 

into Space Shuttle Main Engine turbopumps for 

evaluation during actual engine operations. 

Space Energy. The thermoelectric reactor power 

system concept was selected by NASA, the 

Department of Defense, and the Department of 

Energy for further design, development, and 

ground demonstration testing in Phase I1 of the 

SP-100 Space Reactor Power Program. 

Changes in the chemistry and design of nickelhydrogen batteries resulted in a 6-fold increase in 

cycle life and show promise of meeting the 50,000 

cycle requirement of low-Earth orbit systems. As a 

result of this advance, nickel-hydrogen batteries 

are now a prime candidate for energy storage on 

the Space Station and associated scientific platforms. 

Aerothermodynamics. Progress continues to be 

made in developing advanced computational 

methods to characterize the complex flowfields of 

aeroassisted orbital transfer vehicles. The main 

concern for these vehicles is the effect of flow they 

encounter maneuvering in the Earth's upper atmosphere. A computational code, based on a full 

Navier-Stokes solution to the aerobrake flowfield 

problem, was developed and permitted detailed 

study of proposed aerobrake designs. 

Significant changes were made to the Columbia 

orbiter to accommodate three research experiments to measure orbiter aerodynamic and thermodynamic characteristics as the spacecraft 

reenters the Earth's atmosphere. Data from these 

experiments will contribute significantly to validation of the aerothermodynamic data base, and will 

assist in the design and development of future 

space transportation systems. 

Materials and Stwctures. Silica and silicon carbide (Nicalon) fibers were woven into 3-dimensional fabrics forthe first time, for use in the highperformance thermal protection system (TPS) required by the Orbital Transfer and advanced 

Earth-to-Orbit vehicles. This innovative technology will provide lightweight, high strength, 

reusable TPS structural concepts. 

The first demonstration of in-space construction 

and repair techniques was the Experimental 

Assembly of Structures in Extravehicular Activity/Assembly Concept for Construction of 

Erectable Space Structures (EASEIACCESS), 

conducted by crew members of Shuttle mission 

61-B. Data from the flight will be used in developing methods for future space construction. 

Human Factors. Because existing astronaut 

space suits will be inadequate for future Space Station extravehicular activity, a new suit was designed and tested at NASA's Ames Research 

Center. A helmet-mounted device to improve 

visual monitoring of remote operations in space 

also was designed. 

11 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), established in 1958, is 

responsible for planning, conducting, and managing civilian research and development activities in 

aeronautics and space. The Department of Defense 

(DOD) is responsible for the Nation’s military 

aeronautics and space programs. Although the 

missions are different, there is extensive cooperation between NASA and DOD. Other federal agencies, state, local, and foreign governments, as well 

as educational institutions and private industry, 

also share in NASA’s programs. 

NASA’s mission continues to reflect the intent of 

Congress in creating the agency; that is, to explore 

space for peaceful purposes, with international 

cooperation, for the benefit of all humankind. 

Technological advances have resulted in significant economic and social benefits for the United 

States and other nations, and remain the catalyst 

for national pride, progress and achievement. The 

continued success of NASA’s programs will allow 

the US. to maintain its leadership status in 

aeronautics and space. 

Space Science and Applications 

During 1985, NASA’s scientific research continued to focus on the origin, evolution and structure of the universe and on the fundamental laws 

of physics that govern it. This research involves 

observation of the distant universe, exploration of 

the near universe, and characterization of Earth 

and its environment. Space science efforts include 

astrophysics, astronomy, planetary exploration 

and life sciences. Applications efforts include 

Earth science and applications, materials processing, communications, and information systems. 

Applications 

Communications 

In 1973, NASA launched its last experimental 

communication satellite, and, for a few years, remained only minimally involved in this area of advanced technology. However, concerns arose 

about possible congestion of the frequency spectrum and the geostationary orbital arc, and about 

competition with Europe and Japan in satellite 

communication technology. In 1978, in cooperation 

with U.S. industry, NASA initiated a vigorous program to develop advanced high-risk, proof-ofconcept technology which would be available to 

U.S. spacecraft manufacturers to ensure continued growth of this important industry, and to 

maintain US. preeminence in the world marketplace. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

(ACTS). In 1984, NASA was directed by Congress 

to start work on ACTS, the world‘s most advanced 

communication technology satellite. ACTS will be 

built by expanding upon proof-of-concept 

technology developed for ACTS by NASA, and is 

on schedule for launch and experimentation in 

1989. ACTS will allow a large number of U.S. companies, universities, and government agencies to 

experiment with spot beams, hopping beams, and 

switchboard in-the-sky concepts that will enter the 

marketplace by the mid-1990’s. 

Mobile Satellite. Satellite-aided communications 

from cars, trains, buses, and other mobile platforms have been one of the unfilled promises of 

modern technology. Such a communications 

system would augment planned terrestrial service 

in non-metropolitan areas of the United States and 

thus provide a truly ubiquitous, nationwide network. Applications include emergency response 

communications needed in wide-area law enforcement, national disasters, medical services, and 

numerous business and commercial endeavors 

such as interstate trucking and remote oil and gas 

well drilling operations. By mid-1985, the FCC had 

received 12 applications to build a mobile satellite. 

It is currently in the process of allocating a 

domestic frequency for mobile satellite service. 

In 1984, through agreements with U.S. industry 

and Canada, NASA initiated a program that will 

help industry provide commercial mobile com13 
munications by the end of the decade. This program was in direct response to the President’s 

policy on the commercial use of space to develop 

new hardware markets, businesses, and service induskies. In 1985, NASA continued to investigate 

technologies related to frequency spectrum and orbit resources so important to the future growth 

and economic viability of communications. Important examples of these technologies include higher 

gain vehicle rooftop antennas, low data rate digital 

voice, and multibeam spacecraft antennas that can 

reuse the allotted frequencies many times. A 

special feature of the technology development is a 

55-meter antenna that can be unfurled in space; 

such an antenna is generic to giant antennas now 

planned for the Space Station era. In addition, 

NASA is working with other government agencies 

on an experimental program that would help them 

determine the usefulness of mobile satellite service 

for their operations. 

Search and Rescue. In 1985, the COSPASISARSAT system began an era of regular operation. 

The international cooperative program has 

demonstrated the success of satellite technology to 

detect and locate aircraft and vessels in distress. 

The technical performance of the combined 

satellite and ground system has equalled or exceeded expectations of sensitivity, accuracy, and 

ground coverage. By late 1985, the use of the 

system in real distress operations had resulted in 

saving more than 510 lives throughout the world. 

There is wide international participation in the 

system which has resulted in reduced costs and a 

broad sharing of the benefits. The United States, 

Canada, France, and the Soviet Union developed 

the system; and Norway, the United Kingdom, 

Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Brazil 

also participate. 

ATS-1 and ATS-3. In 1985, ATS-1 began drifting 

eastward. It would no longer respond to station 

keeping commands. On August 1, 1985 ATS-1 was 

shut down to prevent interference with ATS-3. 

Congress asked NASA to investigate options to 

replace ATS-1 in the Pacific Basin; a report on 

viable ATS-1 replacement options has been forwarded to Congress. ATS-3 continues to support 

the National Science Foundation, NOAA, the 

Departments of Defense and Interior, the Drug 

Enforcement Administration, several universities, 

state and local governments, and a number of 

domestic and international disaster relief organizations. ATS-3 is a useful communications tool in 

support of relief efforts, such as those that occurred after the earthquake in Mexico City and the 

volcano eruption in Columbia. 

Optical Intersatellite Links and Other Component Techniques. NASA is involved in advanced 

research in which solid state and electron device 

power amplifiers, and monolithic receivers and 

power amplifiers are being developed. A major effort continues to develop laser communications for 

intersatellite links between geosynchronous and 

low Earth orbiting spacecraft, and for deep space 

communications that places a gallium arsenide 

laser transmitter and receiver on both the Shuttle 

and the ACTS satellite. A link would be established, around 1990, providing a 300 Mbps optical 

communications channel between ACTS and a 

vehicle in low Earth orbit. This would demonstrate 

the interoperability of optical and RF communications technologies. 

Space Station. NASA initiated contracts in 1984 

to configure and design a Space Station for future 

construction and integration in space. NASA’s 

Communications Division has been very active in 

determining missions to use the Space Station, 

including geostationary platforms, advanced 

mobile communication satellites, an antenna and 

payload test range and, in conjunction with 

NOAA, advanced search and rescue technology 

tests. 

Geostationary Platj?ms. In 1984, NASA awarded four contracts on geostationary platforms to 

U.S. industries; two were directed toward aggregate payload definition and two were for towbus definition. These four contracts were essentially completed in 1985 and provide both alternative 

traffic scenarios and bus and payload designs for 

the alternative scenarios; this reflects the growing 

demand for geostationary arc usage by both communication and science users, and for use of the 

Space Station and the Shuttle to provide a platform assembly base in low Earth orbit before 

transfer of the platform to geostationary orbit. 

Environmental Observations 

Advanced instrumentation, in the form of more 

complex sensors and satellites, provides increasingly refined information about the Earth’s atmosphere and environment and helps us to understand the processes that affect them. 

Upper Atmosphere. In cooperation with its 

Brazilian counterpart space agency, INPE, in July 

and August 1985, NASA conducted a joint atmospheric chemistry and meteorology experiment 

in the Amazon rain forest to study the forest as a 

source and sink region for important atmospheric 

gases and aerosols, and to investigate the 

mechanisms of exchange between the boundary 

layer and the free troposphere over the forest. The 

14 
experiment involved more than 100 U.S. and 

Brazilian scientists operating instrumented micrometeorology towers located in the forest, tethered 

balloons, ground-based chemical flux instruments, 

radiosondes, ozonesondes, and satellite weather 

data receivers. Called the Global Troposphere Experiment/Amazon Boundary Layer Experiment, 

this mission examined one of the largest and most 

interesting ecological systems in the world from 

the standpoint of its influence on the global environment. U.S. and Brazilian scientists also conducted tests aboard a NASA Electra research aircraft operating over the forest during the mission. 

The experiment was designed to test hypotheses 

that account for unusual distributions of carbon 

monoxide off the northwest and northeast coasts 

of South America that were observed by a sensor 

aboard the second Space Shuttle flight in 1981; a 

second ground-based and aircraft campaign is 

planned for 1987. A third experiment near the end 

of the decade will be planned to coincide with a 

reflight of the Shuttle-based sensor. 

During 1985, NASA coordinated efforts to prepare a comprehensive report assessing the current 

state of knowledge of the process which controls 

the distribution of atmospheric ozone and its 

susceptibility to change due to natural and anthropogenic perturbations. This assessment is being co-sponsored by NASA, FAA, and NOAA, and 

by the World Meteorological Organization, the 

United Nations Environmental Program, and the 

Federal Republic of Germany. Approximately 150 

scientists from 11 countries have contributed to 

the assessment. It includes, among other topics, 

the physical, chemical, and radiative processes 

which control the spatial and temporal distribution 

of ozone in the troposphere and stratosphere; the 

magnitude of natural and industrial sources of 

substances capable of modifying atmospheric 

ozone; the predicted magnitude of ozone perturbations for a variety of emission scenarios involving a 

number of substances changing both individually 

and together; the predicted climate change for the 

same trace gas scenarios used to predict ozone perturbations; and the ozone and temperature data 

used to detect the presence or absence of a longterm trend. 

One major conclusion of the assessment is that 

the increasing atmospheric concentrations of 

gases such as chlorofluorocarbons, methane, 

nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide are predicted to 

perturb the temporal and spatial distribution of 

ozone with potential consequences for the global 

climate system. 

Interdisciplinary Research. In 1985, NASA initiated the Interdisciplinary Research program in 

Earth Science, to investigate and understand longterm physical, chemical, and biological changes in 

the Earth’s environment on a global scale. Similar 

investigations are being conducted under existing 

NASA programs in upper atmospheric research, 

atmospheric dynamics and radiation, oceanic processes, global biology, tropospheric chemistry, air 

quality and climate, and land processes. The Interdisciplinary Research Program focuses on advancing research in important areas cutting across 

these existing discipline areas. In consultation with 

the scientific community, three specific areas have 

been selected for emphasis in the new program, 

based on their importance to science: research to 

understand the origins and consequences of increases in atmospheric concentrations of methane; 

research to understand the extent to which 

changes are taking place in climatologically important properties of land surfaces; and studies to 

develop a better understanding of the magnitude 

and variability of oceanic carbon fluxes on a basin 

to global scale. 

Geodynamics. Direct measurements of the movement of the tectonic plates that make up the crust 

of the Earth have been obtained by the NASA 

Geodynamics program, using laser ranging to 

special satellites such as the Laser Geodynamics 

Satellite (Lageos), and using very long baseline 

microwave interferometry (VLBI), a technique 

pioneered by radio astronomers. These measurements constitute a key test of the plate tectonics 

theory. 

The new VLBI data show, for example, that 

North America is moving away from Europe at a 

rate of 1.3 centimeters per year; and this and the 

observed relative motion of other pairs of plates 

are in good agreement with the predictions based 

on the geological record, averaged over millions of 

years. Continuation of these observations for 

longer times should result in information on how 

the dynamics of the Earth’s interior affect the rate 

of motion of the plates. 

Satellite laser ranging observations of the 

Lageos satellite are being used in California to 

measure the gross motion across the San Andreas 

Fault. Measurements from 1972 until about 1981 

showed the motion across the fault, which is the 

boundary between the Pacific and North American 

plates, to be about 6 centimeters per year. During 

the last few years the rate of motion appears to 

have decreased significantly to a level of only 

about 3 centimeters per year. This new rate of motion has been confirmed by measurements made by 

VLBI. The change is of considerable scientific interest and represents the first time a possible 

change in deformation and strain accumulation has 

been observed by the space techniques. The im15 
plications of this change in motion may relate to 

the probability of the occurrence of earthquakes in 

the western United States. Measurements by both 

lasers and VLBI are continuing in many parts of 

California and the western United States in an attempt to determine the extent of the motion, and 

to understand better the causes of the observed 

motions and the geophysics of crustal deformation 

in an earthquake prone area. 

The Italians are developing a second Lageos 

satellite to be placed in orbit by the Shuttle in the 

late 1980’s to early 1990’s. Lageos I1 will be identical to its predecessor. It will orbit at the same 

6000-km altitude, but with an inclination of 52 

degrees instead of the 110 degrees for Lageos I. 

This lower inclination will be optimum for the 

Mediterranean and other lower latitude laser stations. The addition of Lageos I1 is expected to improve, by a factor of two, the accuracies of the 

geodetic quantities produced by Lageos I alone. 

Tracking of the two satellites will greatly enhance 

research in the areas of plate tectonics, crustal 

deformation, and Earth dynamics. 

In addition to the laser and VLBI techniques 

discussed above, NASA and other agencies are 

developing the use of the DoD Global Positioning 

Satellites (GPS) for geodetic measurements. A 

NASA developed GPS receiver called SERIES 

(Satellite Emission Range Inferred Earth Surveying) partipated in interagency comparison tests 

with two other receiver systems in the desert of 

southeast California in early 1985. The use of low 

cost, portable GPS receivers for a highly accurate 

measurement of vector baselines will introduce a 

new era in geodesy. A number of important 

geophysical questions can now be addressed with 

this measurement capability, due to the large 

number of observations which can be made 

economically with a GPS-based system. NASA’s 

goals for this program are to design and 

demonstrate a GPS-based measurement system 

for centimeter geodesy and to accumulate scientifically important data in a key tectonic region, 

such as Central America and the Caribbean. An additional goal is to develop an active participation in 

GPS-based geodetic programs by scientific groups 

residing in North America, the Caribbean, and 

Latin America. 

Land, Observations. The Land Processes program includes studies relating to the conditions of 

the terrestrial surface and the processes which 

control them. The research, which is concentrated 

on those processes involving changes in the terrestrial surface on continental to global scales, includes the geologic and hydrologic sciences as well 

as the study of terrestrial ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles. Typical activities are theoretical 

modeling, field experiments, sensor development, 

and analysis of data from satellite and aircraft sensors. The major data sources are the Multispectral 

Scanner and the Thematic Mapper on Landsat-5, 

the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) on NOMS operational weather satellites, and a variety of aircraft and Shuttle experiments. 

As the transfer of the Landsat system to the 

private sector was being made in accordance with 

the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act 

of 1984, NASA completed a 2-year study of the 

performance of the Thematic Mapper and initiated 

a new science investigations program using the 

sensor. The new science program complements the 

emphasis on nearer term applications which 

characterized the program in the past. Key studies 

include investigations of the tectonic evolution of 

the Brooks Mountain Range in Alaska, of desertification in Mali and Botswana, and of the West 

Antarctic Ice Sheet. 

The sensor development program is aimed at 

developing the next generation systems for scientific and commercial use in the mid-1990’s. It consists of a set of combined airborne and spaceborne 

systems operating the visible, infrared, and 

microwave regions of the spectrum. In the visible 

region, an airborne system, the Advanced Visible 

and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer is nearing 

completion, while a more powerful Shuttle-borne 

system, the Shuttle Imaging Spectrometer 

(SISEX), is in the initial stages of development. 

These instruments will provide high spectral 

resolution information about the land surface, permitting identification of mineral species and determination of plant condition. Another airborne instrument, the Advanced Solid State Array Spectrometer, is optimized to provide diagnostic information on the directional reflectance from the 

land surface for use in climatic studies and forest 

composition studies. SISEX will include similar 

capabilities, thereby increasing its utility. Information in the thermal infrared portion of the spectrum provides additional unique information about 

surface mineralogy and stress conditions in 

vegetation. The recently developed airborne Thermal Infrared Multispectral Spectrometers are used 

for studies of this type. 

The ability of synthetic aperture radars to obtain 

imagery through clouds makes them valuable tools 

for studying deforestation in the tropics. The use 

of multiple views of the same scene permits 

stereoscopic measurements of topography, while 

the strength of the signals at various wavelengths 

allows estimates of surface roughness. These are 

powerful aids to the study of surface geology. 

Analysis of the data returned by the Shuttle Imaging Radar mission in 1984 continues. An airborne 

dual-wavelength, four-polarization imaging radar 
system which was used to prepare for a more advanced Shuttle mission in 1989 was destroyed in 

the crash of the NASA CV-900 airborne 

laboratory. An effort to rebuild the system is 

underway. 

Studies of the interannual variations in African 

grassland productivity using the AVHRR continued in 1985. The increased productivity due to 

abundant rainfall is apparent in the data. Detailed 

studies and ground verification are underway. 

Related theoretical studies will use the data in 

physical modeling of the exchange of energy and 

water in these regions, which are subject to desertification. Observations from the Scanning 

Multifrequency Microwave Radiometer, also on 

the NOAA satellite, are expected to be equally important. 

Field experiments to increase our understanding 

of stress in natural vegetation are underway. The 

major activity is in the forests of Vermont where 

acid deposition is apparently causing damage. Using high spectral resolution sensors from a 

helicopter and a variety of sensors aboard NASA’s 

C-130 research airplane, investigators are finding 

spectral indicators of damage which should lead to 

earlier detection and identification of the most sensitive areas. 

Considerable progress has been made in the 

study of the interaction between the land surface 

and the climatic system. For the first time, an interactive biosphere has been incorporated into a 

General Circulation Model of the atmosphere. 

Studies are underway which use the new model to 

investigate the role of vegetation through its influence on surface roughness, evapotranspiration, 

and interception of rainfall. At the same time, the 

International Satellite Land Surface Climatology 

Project will conduct a major experiment in 1987 to 

better relate satellite measurements to climatically 

important changes in the land surface. The experiment will take place in the Konza Prairie. In 

preparation for the experiment, U.S. investigators 

will participate in a related French experiment in 

1986. 

A major advance was made in the use of 

multispectral imaging systems when investigators 

using the Airborne Imaging Spectrometer found a 

little-known mineral, Buddingtonite, in one of their 

studies. Ground readings did not distinguish this 

mineral from a variety of others. Only after its 

spectral signature was noted in the aircraft data, 

was it identified. This is a major step forward. 

Previously, using lower spectral resolution 

devices, selected minerals could be distinguished 

from one another, but conclusive identification was 

not possible. 

Operational Meteorological Satellites. At the end 

of 1984 NOAA-9 replaced NOAA-7 as NOMS 

operational afternoon (230 p.m. local time) spacecraft. NOAA-9 is the second of the advanced 

TIROS-N spacecraft. These spacecraft are a 

“stretched” version of the original TIROS-N series 

and provide expanded capabilities to handle additional operational and R&D instruments. NOAA-9 

is the first operational spacecraft to carry solar 

backscatter ultraviolet radiometers to provide 

global measurements of atmospheric ozone concentration for both NASA research and NOAA 

operational objectives. NOAA-9 also carries the 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment intended to 

measure the Earth’s radiation balance between incoming and outgoing energy. The data will be used 

in support of climate research activities. 

Due to a conflict with an Air Force mission, the 

launch of NOAA-10, intended to become NOAA’s 

operational morning (7:30 a.m. local time) 

spacecraft, was postponed until 1986. Plans also 

continued to launch GOES-7 in May of 1986. 

GOES-7 is a geosynchronous weather satellite that 

will provide east coast coverage, replacing 

GOES-5, which failed during the summer of 1984. 

Until then, GOES-6 will be operating at midcountry to provide round-the-clock imagery of the 

continental United States. 

A contract was signed with Ford Aerospace to 

build three next generation geosynchronous 

weather satellites. The contract covers the construction of these spacecraft plus an option for two 

more. The first of the new series will be flown in 

late 1989 or early 1990. They will be Shuttle 

launched and provide independent imaging and atmospheric sounding capabilities. 

Climate 

Climate Research. During the past year, the 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) has 

been receiving and processing data both from the 

Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, launched in October 1984, and from ERBE instruments aboard 

the NOAA-9 operational meteorological satellite, 

launched in December 1984. A third set of identical 

instruments is expected to be launched aboard the 

NOAA-G spacecraft in early 1986. Although most 

of the activity during the past year has been 

devoted to validation of the ERBE results, some 

interesting scientific results are emerging. One example is the measurement of the “solar constant,” 

or solar irradiance at the mean distance of the 

Earth from the Sun. 

The International Satellite Cloud Climatology 

Project (ISCCP) is continuing to collect and process data on the global distribution of cloudiness. 

Uncertainties in the geographical and temporal 

distributions of clouds are recognized as a major 

impediment to improved climate prediction. The 

17 
ISCCP entered its second year of operations on 

June 30, 1985, collecting data from the international array of operational polar orbiting and geostationary satellites. NASA continues to play a major role in the ISCCP through its support of the 

Global Processing Center, which serves as the hub 

of international operations. 

Planning has also continued in support of Project 

FIRE (First ISCCP Regional Experiment), a 

multiagency U. S. sponsored research program 

whose goals are: to seek a better understanding of 

the roles played by physical processes in controlling the life cycles of climatically important cloud 

systems, to improve the parameterization of clouds 

in climate models, and to contribute to a validation 

of the ISCCP cloud climatology on a regional basis. 

The national project office for FIRE, located at 

NASA’s Langley Research Center, issued an implementation plan in 1985 describing a series of 

data gathering and modeling activities which focus 

on cirrus and marine stratocumulus cloud systems, 

both of which are believed to be important to the 

Earth’s radiation budget and climate. This plan 

will be implemented by a university/government 

science team over the next few years, with primary 

support from NASA, NSF, NOAA, DOE, and 

DOD. 

Global Scale Atmospheric Processes. Advanced 

techniques, both active and passive, for satellite 

observations of the Earth’s atmosphere are being 

developed. The active remote sensing techniques 

apply both laser radars and microwave radars to 

sensing atmospheric parameters. Emphasis is 

placed on the application of laser techniques in anticipation of their potential to overtake present 

technology. Several of these laser techniques were 

tested on aircraft platforms during 1985 to 

observe, remotely, atmospheric temperature, 

pressure, and moisture profiles. As a result of present and planned airborne experiments, the scientific justification and engineering requirements for 

these instruments will be developed to permit their 

use on future experimental space platforms. Additional laser techniques being developed use 

coherent laser radars to observe wind profiles. A 

preliminary design study for a coherent laser radar 

wind sensor on the Shuttle was completed in 1985. 

This study provided positive indication of the 

viability of this next step in developing a satellite 

global wind sensor. 

Analysis approaches have been developed to use 

the passive, multispectral data obtained from instruments on operational meteorological satellites. 

Application of these extensive analyses has produced global maps of a number of parameters 

descriptive of processes on the Earth’s surface and 

atmosphere. Further use of the operational data to 

test the limits of their information content will pro- 

’ 

vide useful guidelines needed to develop the next 

generation sensor for operational use. 

Computational techniques to model physical 

processes in the Earth’s atmosphere have improved in step with the development of computational hardware. Through this NASA program, 

computational techniques are being developed to 

improve use of satellite data to understand largescale atmospheric processes. Through impact 

studies using the models developed, satellite data 

have been shown to augment effectively conventional meteorological data, especially in data 

sparse, oceanic regions. These data sparse regions 

cover more than one-half of the Earth’s surface 

area. The computational models of the large-scale 

motions in the Earth’s atmosphere have been used 

to guide the development of future satellite sensors. Model studies completed and reported in 1985 

show that satellite observations of global wind profiles will dramatically improve our understanding 

of large-scale atmospheric processes. This improved capability to observe atmospheric motions and 

atmospheric moisture will increase our 

understanding of that portion of the hydrological 

cycle. 

An experiment to model fundamental fluid 

dynamical processes in planetary atmospheres was 

flown as part of the Spacelab-3 payload launched in 

1985. The experiment met or exceeded its objectives and provided a wealth of data to be analyzed 

over the next several years. Early analyses have 

indicated that these data may provide information 

to help understand questions as diverse as the 

cause of Jupiter’s red spot or the dynamics of the 

solar chromosphere. Due to the success of this Geophysical Fluid Flow Experiment, and the large 

number of additional case studies in which it could 

be used, scientists hope that it will be a candidate 

instrument for inclusion on future Spacelab missions. 

Mesoscale Research. This atmospheric research 

and development program stresses the understanding of severe weather and the environmental 

influences which cause it. There is strong use of 

simultaneous data from various satellite sensors, 

high-altitude aircraft remote sensing missions, 

ground-based Doppler radars, and wind and 

temperature profilers, as well as of conventional 

weather information. New techniques are being 

developed to use remote sensing to identify deadly 

downdrafts called microbursts and tropical 

cyclones; to make storm surge calculations leading 

to more precise warnings; to determine land surface and vegetation influences on local storm 

development; to provide rainfall estimates leading 

to improved flood warnings; and to identify the 

trigger mechanisms for surprise east coast winter 

18 
storms that leave paralyzing amounts of snow that 

cripple commerce in the major cities. 

Some of the specific science experiments which 

led to the above technology applications involved 

numerous flights of aircraft with microwave, optical, and infrared sensors to study cloud structure, 

radiative processes, and lightning emissions, as 

well as the land-surface and atmospheric environments producing the cloud development. Precipitation estimation has been a focus of remote data 

interpretation efforts, since interest in the value of 

accurate rainfall estimates is worldwide. 

Two international developments are of 

significance in this area. First, a multimillion dollar 

Agro-ClimatidEnvironmental Monitoring Center 

was implemented by NASA for the U.S. Agency 

for International Development in Bangladesh. This 

facility received and processed a wide variety of atmospheric, oceanic, and land remote sensing data 

for resource management and disaster warning 

purposes. A little known fact is that during the 

killer cyclone which hit Bangladesh in May 1985, 

approximately 10,000 lives were saved because the 

newly-installed NASA system was able to pinpoint 

the islands which were about to be hit. This was 

confirmed by a New York Times reporter on the 

scene. The second development is work with India 

on a cooperative remote sensing experiment an Indian payload specialist will perform aboard the 

Shuttle during the INSAT-C mission. Mesoscale 

cloud, climate, and land classification data will be 

obtained. 

Extensive multi-agency coordination efforts 

were made in preparation for two mesoscale meteorological field experiments: the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment and the Satellite Precipitation and Cloud Experiment. Significant quantities 

of satellite and high-altitude remote sensing will be 

conducted during each of these 1986 experiments. 

Oceanic Processes. In oceanography, NASA is 

developing the Scatterometer (NSCAT) for flight 

aboard the Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System. 

The Announcement of Opportunity for selection of 

scientific investigators to utilize NSCAT data was 

issued and responses are currently under review. 

In addition to NSCAT, 1985 budget approval 

covered the establishment of an Alaskan SAR 

Facility to receive and process synthetic aperture 

radar (SAR) data from the European Space Agency’s ERS-1 satellite, due to fly in 1990. 

The second element of the above research 

strategy is the Ocean Topography Experiment 

(TOPEX), a dedicated altimetric satellite which 

may be proposed as a high-priority new start in the 

1987 budget in a joint mission between NASA and 

France. The third element is the proposed Ocean 

Color Imager (OCI), an improved version of the 

Coastal Zone Color Scanner currently flying 

aboard Nimbus-7. The NOAA K, L, and M series of 

spacecraft have been considered for an OCI. 

If flown with significant overlap in time, these 

three missions- TOPEX, NSCAT, and OCI - will 

permit global observations of atmospheric wind 

forcing, ocean current response, and associated 

phytoplankton productivity, respectively. They are 

key elements of the World Climate Research Program, proposed for initiation in the early 1990’s. 

Observations from these three missions will permit, for the first time, an assessment of the interdepedence of atmospheric and oceanic variability, and its collective influence on the Earth’s 

climate. 

Informatima Systems 

The Information Systems Office (ISO) manages a 

data systems program to serve the data management and information processing needs of the Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA). In 

1985, ISO’s computer networks allowed real time 

science analysis during the International Cometary Explorer encounter, and its advanced processing systems and data bases supported modeling 

and analyses for the oceans, planetary, and climate 

programs. In general, IS0 programs complement 

the data systems capabilities developed by OSSA 

flight projects. 

The systems and technologies developed by IS0 

are transferred upon completion to the host 

discipline programs for their subsequent operational use, possibly as part of the data systems of 

new flight projects. 

Though relatively small, the IS0 organization is 

a vital part of OSSA’S total program, providing 

essential technologies, tools and techniques to 

enable more productive scientific research through 

improved access to, utilization of, and management of space-acquired data. 

The Information Systems Office serves as a focal 

point within OSSA to identify and coordinate data 

system requirements common among all the OSSA 

disciplines, and to develop generic information 

system capabilities which can be shared among 

discipline programs. IS0 also represents agencywide interests and can apply its broad experiences 

to specific OSSA disciplines and flight projects. 

Space Science 

During 1985, studies of the nature of the 

universe and solar system were highlighted by the 

exciting first spacecraft encounter with a comet. 

Preparations also continued for the Voyager 2 

spacecraft’s flyby of Uranus. 

19 
The International Cometary Explorer intercepted Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner on September 11, 1985. 

Voyager 2 on its approach to the planet Uranus. 

Solar System Exploration 

Preparations were underway for several major 

events- the Voyager 2 encounter with Uranus, the 

appearance of Halley’s Comet, and the launch of 

Galileo and Ulysses missions toward Jupiter. Active development continued on the Venus Radar 

Mapper and the Mars Observer. Also, Pioneer 

Venus and other Pioneer spacecraft continued to 

collect and transmit data. 

Cmetary Studies. On September 11, 1985, after 

the most complicated orbital maneuvers every performed by a spacecraft, the International Cometary Explorer (ICE), intercepted Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner, passed through the comet’s tail 

and provided the first spacecraft data on a comet’s 

magnetic field, plasma environment, and dust content. 

The active study of the more famous Comet 

Halley has already begun. The appearance of this 

comet, and its close approach to the Sun that will 

occur between February and April 1986, are 

generating more public and scientific interest than 

any celestial event in recent years. Comet Halley 

will be the focus of observations made from the 

ground, by spacecraft from Earth’s orbit, and from 

sounding rockets. Five spacecraft from Europe, 

Japan, and the USSR will fly past the comet in 

March. The comet will also be observed at long 

distance by the U.S. ICE and Pioneer Venus 

spacecraft. The International Halley Watch, a 

ground-based network of 900 observatories in 47 

countries, will insure nearly continuous observation of the comet as it passes through the inner 

solar system. 

Voyager ut Uranus. During 1985, intensive 

preparations were completed for the first spacecraft encounter with the distant planet Uranus, by 

Voyager 2 in January 1986. Uranus is already 

known as a unique planetary system, with five 

known moons, at least nine rings, and a rotational 

axis so highly tipped that the planet appears to lie 

on its side relative to other planets. 

In September, 1985, the spacecraft obtained images of Uranus, its satellites, and its rings, the first 

such pictures ever made by a spacecraft. Also, 

measurements of the plasma and magnetic fields 

showed the magnetic field of Uranus to be much 

weaker than expected. 

On its historic flyby through the Uranus system, 

Voyager 2 will pass within 30,000 kilometers of the 

smallest moon (Miranda) and within 107,000 

kilometers of the planet’s cloud tops at 1:OO p.m., 

January 24, 1986. A variety of new tracking, communications, and operations procedures have been 

established in order to allow collection of data from 

this planet, located more than 2 billion miles from 

Earth. Leaving Uranus, Voyager 2 will pass near 

the planet’s outermost ring and then travel on a 

trajectory toward the planet Neptune, which it will 

reach in August, 1989. 

Pioneer Venus. Due to continual change in orientation of the spacecraft orbit, instruments on the 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter spacecraft, in its sixth year 

of operation, were able to make significant new 

measurements of the solar wind interaction with 

Venus. The first measurements of electric field 

disturbance and elevated plasma densities were obtained at the subsolar Venus bowshock zone, a 

region not previously accessible to direct probing. 

A guest investigator on the mission, studying the 

nightside ultraviolet imaging data, unexpectedly 

discovered aurorae in the Venus atmosphere 

known as “Northern Lights.” No explanation has 

20 
yet emerged to explain how these spectacular and 

powerful emissions can be produced on a planet 

with no magnetic field. 

The Pioneer Venus spacecraft also has a new 

role in comet studies. Following the observations 

of Comet Encke in 1984, the spacecraft was 

reoriented in September, 1985 so that the Ultraviolet Spectrometer instrument could observe 

Comet Giacobini-Zinner for ten hours during the 

ICE spacecraft’s encounter with it. This has 

resulted in a better determination of the rate of 

water evaporation from the comet. Similar, and 

more extensive, observations of Comet Halley are 

planned for January-March, 1986. 

The Interplanetary Medium. Extensive studies 

of the interplanetary medium were made by four 

spacecraft-Pioneers 10 and 11, Voyagers 1 and 

2 -in the outer solar system during 1985. Pioneer 

10, traveling through the Milky Way Galaxy in a 

direction opposite the motion of the Sun, is now 37 

astronomical units from the Sun, well outside the 

orbit of Neptune, the outer boundary of the solar 

system itself. The spacecraft continues to return 

data with the aim of detecting the heliopause, the 

boundary between the Sun’s magnetic influence 

and interstellar space. Pioneer 11, traveling in the 

opposite direction from Pioneer 10, is now about 

20 astronomical units from the Sun, just past the 

orbit of Uranus. 

Voyager 1 is exploring the space environment 

above the ecliptic, the plane of the solar system, on 

a path toward the star Rasalhagne. The spacecraft 

is now about 25 astronomical units from the Sun 

and has ventured farther above the ecliptic plane 

of the solar system than any previous spacecraft. 

Voyager 2 continued to observe the interplanetary 

medium as it approached Uranus. 

Galileo to Jupiter. The major planetary mission 

under development is the Galileo mission to 

Jupiter. During 1985, several essential milestones 

were completed. This included development of 

flight software, which was successfully tested on 

the spacecraft. To prevent computer failures due 

to radiation events in space, new radiationresistant electronic microcircuits were designed, 

fabricated, and installed in critical subsystems. 

Ulysses to the Sun. This mission, a cooperative effort with the European Space Agency (ESA), will 

launch a spacecraft to and around Jupiter, and 

then pass closely over the Sun’s south pole. During 

1985, pre-launch testing of the spacecraft and instruments was completed by ESA. Because both 

Ulysses and Galileo are aimed at Jupiter, these two 

spacecraft share a 23-day launch window and both 

must be launched during this period if they are to 

proceed on a direct trajectory. The earliest they 

can be launched is July 1987 when Earth, the Sun 

and Jupiter will be in the proper alignment. 

Flight paths of Voyagers 1 and 2. 

Venus Radar Mapper. Under active development 

for a 1988 launch is the Venus Radar Mapper 

spacecraft, which will use orbital radar to map the 

cloud-shrouded surface of the planet Venus. During 1985, critical reviews were completed on the 

radar sensor, the spacecraft, and ground data 

processing systems. These reviews were essential 

before fabricating the flight hardware. Also, an improvement in the ground resolution of the radar 

sensor was incorporated into the plan and design; 

this improvement will make possible the detection 

of surface features twice as small as originally 

planned. 

Mars Observer. Scheduled for launch in 1990, the 

Mars Observer mission will place a spacecraft in 

orbit around Mars in 1991, for a full Martian year 

(687 days), to study aspects of that planet’s surface 

geoscience and climatology. During 1985, proposals were solicited and received for both the 

Shuttle-launched Mars Observer spacecraft and 

the scientific investigations that it will carry. 

Selection of both spacecraft and investigations is 

planned for early 1986. 

Flight Support. Significant modifications in the 

Flight Support and Missions Operations Systems 

have been carried out in order to respond to requirements of current and future missions in a 

systematic and cost-effective way. In 1985, final 

development and upgradings were completed to 

support testing of the Ground Data Systems for 

the Voyager, Galileo, and Ulysses missions. In support of spacecraft missions to Halley’s Comet, commanding capabilities were provided to support the 

launch of ESA’s Giotto spacecraft in July, 1985. 

Tracking and telemetry acquisition support were 

also provided for the USSR Vega missions to 

Venus and Halley’s Comet. 

Advanced Programs and Planning. Efforts continue to identify and characterize possible future 

planetary missions and to identify critical 

21 
technology needs for such missions. Current 

studies have been based on the recommendations 

of the Solar System Exploration Committee, which 

recommended a “Core Program” in 1983. The 

recommendations included two new classes of 

spacecraft: Planetary Observers for near-Earth 

missions and Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft to explore the outer solar system. 

The Planetary Observer series was initiated in 

1985 with the Mars Observer mission, and several 

candidates for the second Planetary Observer mission were studied: a Lunar Polar Orbiter to map 

the Moon and to search for frozen water near the 

lunar poles; a Near-Earth Asteroid Rendezvous to 

study scientific problems and to categorize the 

resource potential of one of several asteroids that 

repeatedly approach the Earth; and a Mars 

Aeronomy Observer to study the upper atmosphere of Mars and the interaction of the solar 

wind with the Martian environment. 

The first Mariner Mark I1 mission recommended 

by the Committee is a Comet RendezvouslAsteroid 

Flyby (CRAF) mission that would fly past an 

asteroid and then rendezvous with a comet for extended observation and study. One possible mission would involve a 1992 launch to the Comet 

Tempe1 2, with a flyby of the Asteroid Hestia. The 

CRAF spacecraft design is modular and can be 

readily adapted to later planetary missions. 

Another potential mission would use a Saturn orbiter that would carry a probe to penetrate the atmosphere of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. During 

1984 and 1985, NASA and ESA studied this latter 

mission, named Cassini, and developed a mission 

concept in which the Mariner Mark I1 Orbiter 

would be mated with an ESA-developed Titan 

probe to form a single mission. 

Space Plasma Physics 

Plasmas exist from just above the Earth’s atmosphere, through the Earth’s magnetosphere to 

the solar atmosphere, and into the atmospheres 

and magnetospheres of the other planets. Space 

plasma research involves both in situ measurements of natural plasma environments and active 

plasma experiments to simulate plasma 

phenomena. 

In 1985, the National Academy of Sciences completed a study entitled “An Implementation Plan 

for Priorities in Solar-System Space Physics” 

which proposes a systematic plan of solar and 

space plasma physics research until 1995. It gives 

the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) 

program the highest priority, and supports efforts 

to define the U.S. contribution through use of 

satellites, instruments, data handling and modeling. Planning for the program is by the Japanese 

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

(ISAS) and the European Space Agency (ESA). 

IS AS is developing the Geotail spacecraft designed 

to explore the geomagnetic tail of the Earth. ESA 

continues to develop the solar-terrestrial cornerstone of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

(SOHO), a solar pointed spacecraft to measure 

basic physical processes of the Sun, and Cluster, a 

set of four spacecraft to study basic plasma 

phenomena; and NASA is pursuing an initiative 

which would support all three missions with instruments, tracking and ground data processing. 

In addition, NASA plans to launch Geotail and one 

ESA mission. 

The IMP-8 satellite is about 12 years old, but continues to monitor solar wind in the Earth’s 

magnetosphere, and provides a crucial baseline for 

missions to the outer planets. 

Support of the International Sun-Earth Explorers satellite program, begun in 1977, continues; over 100 scientific papers per year have 

been published, including many of the study of collisionless plasmas and fields. 

In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer 

passed within 8,000 kilometers of comet GiacobiniZinner’s nucleus through the middle of the ion tail. 

The comet was found to be extremely active in the 

area of plasma physics. The ion tail model of dual 

lobes of opposite polarity separated by a neutral 

sheet was verified; dust levels were several orders 

of magitude less than the predicted rate. 

The Dynamics Explorer 2 (DE-2) spacecraft reentered the atmosphere after providing considerable amounts of information since its launch 

in 1981; DE-1 continues to provide new data on 

ionosphere-magnetosphere interactions and 

auroral morphology, as well as on global airglow 

and ozone measurements. 

In 1985, the Active Magnetospheric Tracer Explorer completed its primary mission, or active 

phase, and began its extended mission, or passive 

measurement phase. 

Work continues on the Combined Release and 

Radiation Effects Satellite that involves release of 

chemicals from 48 canisters located on the 

satellite. Measurements are made from groundbased, airborne and satellite instrumentation to 

determine the origin, energization and flow of 

plasma in the magnetosphere. 

Investigations have been selected and defined 

for the first tethered satellite mission, a joint program with Italy. This first mission will investigate 

the electrodynamical interaction between the 20 

kilometer tether wire and the ambient plasma. 

Payload development continues for Earthobserving missions, and for the Space Plasma 

Laboratory, all of which will make use of the Shuttle. Instrumentation developed for these missions 

22 
will eventually become part of the Space Station 

Solar-Terrestrial Observatory. 

In 1985, 22 space plasma physics sounding 

rockets were launched to study properties of the 

middle atmosphere and the auroral regions. One 

particularly successful campaign was conducted in 

Greenland with Danish scientists. The rockets 

returned data on plasma flow, plasma turbulence, 

electric fields and coupling from the polar 

ionosphere to the middle atmosphere. 

Through the Research and Analysis program, 65 

grants and contracts were funded with universities 

and private industry, and 45 additional projects 

were funded through five NASA centers. They 

covered a broad range of topics in space plasma 

physics, and considerable information was 

discovered. A notable example is the “Global SolarTerrestrial Electrostatic Coupling Study” by the 

National Center for Atmospheric Research, in 

which electrodynamic effects of the Earth’s thermosphere are included in a global circulation 

model. The results show important interactions 

between the ionospheric wind dynamo, the solar 

wind/magnetosphere dynamo and thermospheric 

neutral wind systems. Implications of such interactions for proposed Sun-weather connections and 

other important problems will require continued 

monitoring of these electrodynamic systems. 

Study of the Universe 

NASA’s Astrophysics program investigates the 

physical nature of the universe, from our own Sun 

to the most distant quasers, in order to determine 

the laws that govern cosmic phenomena, to understand the Sun as a star, and to learn how the 

universe began and how it will end. Many observations cannot be made through the Earth’s atmosphere, so instruments for such observations 

must be carried above the atmosphere into space. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO). 

During 1985, data from the High Energy 

Astronomy Observatories contributed substantially to our understanding of high energy astrophysical processes. A continuing, detailed analysis 

of the HEAO-2 data, for example, has revealed the 

existence of x-ray “haloes” surrounding the optical 

disks of normal galaxies. While a definitive determination of the origin of this x-ray emission must 

await the launch of a future x-ray facility, present 

observations indicate the presence of a significant 

amount of “dark matter” in otherwise normal 

galaxies. The HEAO-3 analysis has demonstrated 

that the relative abundance of lead and platinum in 

the cosmic radiation is different from the abundance in the solar system. Taken at face value, this 

indicates that the chemical evolution of the solar 

system material is different from that of the 

cosmic ray sources. A vigorous Guest Investigator 

Program has involved the broader astronomical 

community, which has enhanced the quality of 

analysis and interpretation of the HEAO data. 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). In 1985, 

substantial progress was made in the design and 

development of the Gamma Ray Observatory, 

which is scheduled for launch in 1988. The design 

was completed and the critical design review of the 

observatory was conducted. The mission contractor began manufacturing the GRO structure and 

mechanisms, and built the large 30-inch aluminum 

I-beams in the GRO platform. Fabrication of all 

hardware for the four GRO scientific instruments 

was nearly completed, and assembly and testing 

began. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). Most of the 

Solar Maximum Mission’s instruments continued 

normal operations, making valuable new observations on flares, eruptive prominences and the 

global solar corona. Observations obtained with 

the Coronagraph/Polarimeter allowed the study of 

the corona’s global evolution, as the solar cycle 

reached its minimum, and the comparison of this 

cycle with coronal features observed on a Skylab 

mission during the solar cycle’s previous minimum. 

The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor 

continued to observe small fluctuations in total 

solar output. Now established is an unambiguous 

correlation of such fluctuations with individual active regions on the solar surface. The declining 

trend of the total output of the Sun, which was 

previously observed, continues and remains unexplained. Continued operation of SMM into the 

declining phase of the solar cycle will allow 

monitoring the total flux, and determining when it 

begins to increase once again. This measurement is 

of critical importance in understanding a number 

of mechanisms related to the solar cycle. 

Explorers. If the SMM is retrieved from space, it 

could be reconfigured into an Explorer platform to 

accommodate Explorer scientific payloads. 

However, since recovery of the SMM is uncertain 

due to a backlog of Shuttle launches, the possibility 

of building a new Explorer platform using the 

SMM design also is being explored. In addition, the 

approach of using an existing NASA satellite as a 

reuseable spacecraft bus for Explorer missions is 

being investigated. To maintain maximum flexibility, both the retrieved and new Explorer platforms 

would be compatible with a Shuttle and a Delta 

launch vehicle. The first potential payload, the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), is under 

development at the University of California at 

Berkeley. Upon completion of the EUVE mission, 

the Shuttle would rendezvous with the EUVE’s 

Explorer platform and replace the EUVE payload 

with the X-ray Timing Explorer. This reusable 

spacecraft approach will be cost-effective and will 

23 
provide a defined interface for future Explorer 

scientific instruments. 

Analysis of data from the Infrared Astronomical 

Satellite (IRAS), launched in January 1983, continues to yield dramatic increases in astrophysical 

knowledge. The largest and most detailed catalog 

of infrared celestial objects ever created was completed and released to the public. A new facility, 

the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, was 

built by the California Institute of Technology as a 

national center where scientists can study the 

IRAS data and explore the infrared sky. NASA 

has instituted a grant program, for scientists not 

previously involved with the IRAS mission, to investigate the nature of celestial objects that emit 

much of their energy in infrared wavelengths; the 

program also assists astronomers seeking to 

understand objects at other wavelengths of the 

electromagnetic spectrum. 

Advanced Technology Development. Phase B 

studies for the proposed Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) will continue 

through most of 1986. Data on the AXAF Program’s Test Mirror Assembly (TMA) reveal that 

the TMA constitutes the best x-ray mirror in the 

world and show that the TMA mirrors can be produced. In 1985, five scientific instrument proposals 

were selected for definition. Definition contracts 

for the scientific instruments began in December 

1985, and will continue for two years. 

During 1985, the science working group (SWG) 

of the proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

(SIRTF) was formed and instrument technology 

development began. In conjunction with the SWG, 

the SIRTF study office completed a comprehensive 

review of the SIRTF mission. A system study was 

completed, and a proof-of-concept flight 

demonstration and technology efforts were initiated for development of on-orbit helium cryogen 

transfer, a capability necessary for extending 

SIRTF mission lifetime to a decade or more. 

Hubble Space Telescope. The Hubble Space 

Telescope is an astronomical observatory which 

will be serviced on orbit by the Space Shuttle. It 

will be capable of detecting and observing objects 

50 times fainter and 7 times farther than is currently possible from large ground-based telescopes. 

Astro. The Astro payload, consisting of three 

complementary ultraviolet telescopes, will fly as an 

attached payload on three Shuttle missions. The 

payload will take ultraviolet photographs and perform ultraviolet spectroscopic, photometric, and 

polarimetric measurements of a broad variety of 

celestial objects. Instrument development is complete and the Astro payload has now been fully integrated into the Spacelab Instrument Pointing 

System. 

Spartan Program. The first flight in the Spartan 

program was successful. The flight systems were 

proven and good scientific data were obtained. 

Preliminary results indicate that the program will 

satisfy the mission’s primary objectives of mapping 

x-ray emission from the central region of the Milky 

Way and the entirety of the Perseus cluster of 

galaxies. The results of observation of the galactic 

center will be used to investigate the myriad of 

point sources in the nucleus and, in particular, to 

define more accurately the nature of the central 

source, which is believed to be a massive black 

hole. Determination of the spatial distribution of 

emissions of ionized iron and other hot gases in the 

Perseus Cluster promises to yield important insight into the nature and evolution of galaxy 

clusters. 

Two more Spartans are under construction, one 

for ultraviolet studies and one for solar studies. 

Eight additional missions have been selected for 

flights through 1989. International interest has 

been high, and several studies are underway, here 

and abroad, to make possible international use of 

this satellite. 

Gravity Probe-B. Engineering test activity is 

underway on the proposed Gravity Probe-B instrument for flight on the Space Shuttle in the early 

1990’s. An outstanding team of scientists and 

managers has been assembled at Stanford University to conduct this testing, which will determine 

the feasibility of the scientific flight mission. Stanford University has subcontracted with Lockheed 

Corporation to enhance the Stanford technical 

team. 

ROSAT. Progress continued to be made on the 

ROSAT project, a joint x-ray astronomy mission of 

the United States, Germany and the United 

Kingdom to be launched on the Space Shuttle in 

the early 1990’s. To prepare for the US. role in formulating the observing plan and using the data obtained during the pointed phase of the mission, a 

plan for data transmittal to regional “distributed 

data analysis centers” has been devised. 

Life Sciences 

The goals of NASA’s Life Sciences program are 

to establish biomedical foundations for permanent 

human presence in space and to conduct biological 

investigations, including study of the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the universe. 

Space Medicine. In 1985, emphasis continued to 

be placed on Space Shuttle operations, refinement 

of diagnostic techniques, medical selection of 

crews, and monitoring and maintaining the health 

24 
and career longevity of crews. Noninvasive 

diagnostic techniques for assessing bone 

demineralization and muscle atrophy using computerized tomography and nuclear magnetic imaging, respectively, were tested. 

Adaptation to microgravity involves many 

physiological changes. For example, an experiment conducted on Shuttle mission 51-D, in April 

1985, confirmed previous information which suggested that drug effectiveness is reduced during 

space flight due to decreased drug absorption from 

the gastrointestinal tract. Alternative approaches 

to drug treatment in orbit are now being 

evaluated. 

As Shuttle crews are called upon to retrieve and 

repair satellites, they are required to conduct more 

frequent and lengthy extravehicular activities 

(EVA’s). The internal atmsopheric pressure of the 

EVA suit (4.3 psi) is considerably less than the 

Shuttle’s “Earth-normal” cabin pressure (14.7 psi). 

As a result of this pressure differential, crews performing strenuous and frequent EVA’s face the 

risk of decompression sickness. In anticipation of 

the increased EVA requirements for Space Shuttle, a special pressure chamber is being validated 

at the Johnson Space Center for use in designing 

even better EVA protocols. 

Inflight investigations have continued to test the 

efficacy of space motion sickness treatments. 

Treatments such as preflight conditioning, biofeedback training, and various drugs and drug combinations show promise. Progress has also been 

made in developing techniques for predicting individual susceptibility to motion sickness. The 

Space Biomedical Research Institute was 

established in 1984 to seek a satisfactory solution 

to this operational problem. Currently, the Institute is concentrating on clinical investigations 

and space flight experiments to determine the 

etiology of space motion sickness and to devise appropriate treatments and countermeasures. 

To understand how the human cardiovascular 

system compensates for weightlessness, researchers have conducted bedrest studies simulating 

microgravity. These studies offered a promising 

countermeasure to observed dizziness or fainting 

in returning space crews. A carbohydrate diet 

combined with several therapeutic drugs protected 

four out of seven subjects known to be susceptible 

to fainting immediately after bedrest. Other 

simulation studies suggest that, during flight, exercise capacity diminishes due to muscle atrophy 

and bone demineralization. The time separation 

between successive bedrests has been only two 

weeks, and an exercise regimen has allowed full 

recovery from deconditioning. 

During space flight, bone loss occurs in areas of 

the body that provide support against the force of 

gravity. Previous investigations have suggested 

that repeated or prolonged exposure to 

weightlessness will lead to progressive bone 

demineralization. Physical countermeasures tested 

have thus far not been effective in preventing the 

loss of calcium from bedrest subjects. However, 

dietary supplements of calcium and phosphate are 

partially effective in increasing calcium retention 

during bedrest. 

For similar reasons, it is also difficult to prevent 

the muscle atrophy that occurs during weightlessness. Experiments conducted in simulated weightlessness investigated the use of stretching and 

electrical stimulation to prevent muscle atrophy 

due to inactivity. Muscle atrophy was prevented by 

stretching the muscles in an extended position; and 

when stretching was combined with electrical 

stimulation, there was an increase in size of muscle 

fibers. However, since these models simulate only 

some aspects of weightlessness, the use of exercise, growth hormones, passive stretching, and 

electrical stimulation must be further tested in 

space. 

Although the problems described above are of 

considerable medical concern, perhaps the most 

significant limiting factor on long-term manned 

space missions is the radiation hazard. 

During 1985, sensitive dosimeters were used to 

monitor crew member radiation exposures and 

background radiation penetrating the Space Shuttle cabin. Ground-based experiments using 

moderate doses of radiation on the retina and brain 

of animals showed an increase in aging of these 

areas. In addition, behavioral evaluations in 

animals indicate brain damage that resulted in 

poorer scores on performance tests. 

For several decades, researchers thought that 

the risk level from radiation was related to the 

amount of energy retained in tissues after exposure to radiation. Recent findings indicate that 

the nature of the path or track made by an ion 

passing t,hrough a cell also plays a role in producing 

cancer-causing damage. These studies add to basic 

understanding of radiation-induced cancer, and 

contribute to the development of more effective 

radiation protection standards for occupational exposures on Earth as well as in space. 

The development of concepts and implementation plans for a Health Maintenance Facility in the 

Space Station is underway. This facility will provide both medical care to sick crew members and 

provisions for maintaining the general health of 

crews for 90-day periods through the use of exercise, nutrition, and drug therapies. 

Gravitational Biology. The goals of the Gravitational Biology program are to use the unique 

characteristics of space, particularly microgravity, 

as tools to advance knowledge in the biological 

25 
sciences; to understand how gravity has shaped life 

on Earth; and to determine how the space environment affects both plants and animals. 

In 1985, various results of ground-based animal 

studies were confirmed during the data analysis of 

Spacelab-3, which carried aloft 12 adult and 12 

juvenile rats for 7 days. Postflight examination 

revealed pronounced changes in muscle cells, in 

certain organs, and especially in bones. Production 

of interferon, an important immune system chemical and growth hormone was markedly reduced. 

These findings have implications not only for 

biological science, but also for other mammals in 

space, notably humans. 

Ground-based animal research provided other 

significant information that is consistent with 

observations on humans in flight. Weight-bearing 

was found to be essential in the activation of bone 

forming cells. Also, muscle loss in rat hindlimbs 

during simulated weightlessness caused the remaining muscle to fatigue more readily and to 

develop an increased sensitivity to hormones that 

regulate muscle mass. 

In 1985, substantial progress was made in 

delineating the gravity-sensing mechanisms of 

plants. Starch-containing organelles in certain 

plant cells (amyloplasts) settle against the cell wall 

in the direction of gravity. This settling is thought 

to cause the cell membrane to deform and to institute the redistribution or activation of calcium 

and the hormone auxin, substances which play a 

pivotal role in linking gravity detection with cell 

growth patterns. 

Information concerning the fundamental 

behavior of plants and methods for growing and 

maintaining them in space contributes directly to 

the development of a biological regenerative life 

support system to provide food, water, and a 

breathable atmsophere for crews on extended 

space missions. 

Planetavy Biology. The Planetary Biology program supports investigations which study the conditions necessary for the origin and evolution of 

life, traces evolutionary paths taken by atoms and 

molecules that comprise living organisms, and 

searches for life and life-related molecules beyond 

Earth. 

Among the investigations is a project designed 

to trace physical and chemical paths of biogenic 

elements and compounds from their origins in 

stars to their incorporation in pre-planetary 

bodies. Four new interstellar organic molecules, 

including the first interstellar hydrocarbon ring 

compound, have recently been detected by analysis 

of laser probe data. 

In 1985, researchers found that certain clay 

minerals showed properties previously thought to 

be associated only with organic living systems. The 

ability of those clay minerals to store and release 

energy, bind and retain biologically important 

molecules, and catalyze complex organic reactions 

caused scientists to speculate that clay minerals 

were important in the origin of life on Earth and 

may have significantly influenced the rate and 

direction of chemical evolution. 

Work is currently underway to conduct Exobiology experiments on NASA's upcoming Comet 

Rendezvous and Asteroid Flyby mission which 

should provide information on the organic 

chemistry of the early solar system and on the 

chemistry required for the origin of life on Earth. 

NASA's Life Sciences program is also supporting 

the search for intelligent life beyond the solar 

system. Preparations for the search have already 

begun. Scientists from various disciplines joined 

engineers and computer experts to devise the most 

cost-effective approach to conduct a search for extraterrestrial intelligence. A special prototype 

device to verify system design was installed and 

tested at the radio antenna at NASA's Goldstone 

facility. 

Biospherics Research Program. The Biospherics 

Research program supports research on the 

dynamics of the Earth's biosphere in order to 

understand how living and nonliving components 

of Earth modify each other on a global scale. 

To determine what laws govern biogeochemical 

cyclic processing, research efforts are concentrated in four specific areas: wetlands, along the 

eastern part of the United States; temperate 

forests, represented by Sequoia National Park; 

tropical forests, represented by studies in the 

Amazon; and global studies concentrated on biogeochemical models. A new effort on remote sensing and public health will evaluate the use of 

remote sensing technology to predict the spread of 

disease-bearing insects. 

Although the Biospherics Research program is in 

its infancy, it has the potential to make major contributions toward monitoring and managing 

Earth's resources. In time, scientists may be able 

to develop global techniques for effective land use 

management, increased food and fiber yield and 

biomass productivity, and the repair of ecosystem 

damage from natural causes and man-made incursions. 

Controlled Ecological L$e Support System. Up to 

the present, all NASA manned space missions 

have been of short duration, using expendable supplies of air, water, and food. However, for the 

90-day missions of the Space Station, it will be advantageous to use available technology to 

regenerate the air and water supplies. For missions contemplated for the first quarter of the 21st 

century, of longer duration and at greater 

26 
distances from Earth, it will also be necessary to 

regenerate the food supply. 

A goal of the Controlled Ecological Life Support 

System (CELSS) program is to develop the technology needed to make food-regenerating life support systems practical. 

The main topics of CELSS research have been 

techniques for growing higher plants and algae, 

processes for recycling solid and liquid wastes, and 

system interactions in biological life support 

systems. The goal is to achieve a space system 

which consumes no more than 5 to 6 kilowatts per 

person and is contained in a volume of approximately 20 cubic meters per person. 

Laboratory results obtained in 1985 show that 

these specifications can probably be met or exceeded. Energy conversion efficiencies (in terms of 

usable dietary calories divided by the photosynthetically active light energy needed to produce 

them) in the 7 to 9 percent range have been obtained for wheat, potatoes, and soybeans; efficiencies approximately twice as high have been 

measured for two kinds of algae. A demonstration 

model of CELSS is being constructed at the Kennedy Space Center. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

Spacelab 2. The launch of Spacelab 2 in July 1985 

culminated nearly 10 years of work. This Shuttle 

mission was the most complex one to date. During 

the mission, flight verification tests were conducted of Spacelab’s igloo-pallet configuration, 

developed by the European Space Agency; and the 

Instrument Pointing System was used. Data were 

obtained in solar physics, plasma physics, x-ray 

and infrared astronomy, cosmic ray astronomy, 

life sciences, and technology. The value of the 

scientist-astronaut and payload specialists was 

once again demonstrated. The two payload 

specialists were solar physicists who actively controlled, planned and operated the cluster of solar 

instruments. 

The Solar Optical Universal Polarimeter (SOUP) 

instrument obtained 6,000 images of the Sun. The 

smallest visible features on the pictures were 350 

kilometers in size. While a few images of such high 

resolution have been obtained previously, such an 

extended time coverage from the ground is not 

possible because of atmospheric turbulence. The 

solar “movie” obtained by SOUP will be a powerful 

tool for the study of convection, a basic heat 

transport mechanism in stellar atmospheres. 

The Solar Ultraviolet High Resolution Telescope 

and Spectrograph obtained a very large number of 

spectra of the chromosphere, the layer of the solar 

atmosphere just outside the Sun’s visible surface. 

The main purpose of this investigation was to obAn image of the Sun taken by the Solar Optical Universal 

Polarimeter instrument flown on Spacelab 2. 

tain information on rapidly changing features. Jetlike features, shooting material out at velocities of 

a few hundred kilometers a second, had been 

detected previously on short-duration rocket 

flights but the physical process could not be studied 

in detail until now. These features may be responsible for heating the base of the solar corona, the 

extremely hot layer of gas that extends beyond the 

surface of the Sun. 

The Coronal Helium Abundance Experiment obtained data on the abundance of helium, the second 

most plentiful component of the Sun and the 

universe. Information on the amount of helium is 

crucial for theories of the solar interior, as well as 

for cosmological models. 

A unique set of active plasma physics experiments was conducted using the orbiter, an 

electron beam generator, and a small sub-satellite 

deployed and recovered during the mission. 

Scientists have recently begun analyzing the 

Spacelab 2 data and preliminary results will be 

reported in 1986. 

Spacelab 3. In May 1985, Spacelab 3 successfully 

completed a seven day microgravity mission in orbit. Exciting results were obtained in materials 

science, life sciences, fluid mechanics, and atmospheric and astronomical observations. 

A vapor transport system and a fluid experiment 

system were used to grow crystals without the effects of gravity, convection, and circulation which 

affect their formation on Earth. Initial results indicate significant improvements in the characteristics of crystals for application in the areas of electronics and sensors. Crystals of mercuric iodide 

27 
High quality mercuric iodide crystal grown during the Spacelab 

3 microgravity mission. 

and triglycine sulfate were grown using the Fluid 

Experiment SystemlVapor Crystal Growth 

System. Analysis of the flight crystals has begun, 

and preliminary indications are that the crystals 

are of high quality. 

Fluid dynamics experiments resulted in new 

postulates and unusual effects relative to fluid 

properties. Containerless processing was demonstrated using acoustical levitation techniques. Key 

results are expected to influence future Spacelab 

and Space Station operations in materials handling 

and processing. 

Two of the investigators selected for flight were 

aboard the Spacelab 3 mission as payload 

specialists. The benefits of having scientists, both 

mission and payload specialists, to conduct experiments in a space laboratory were clearly 

demonstrated. In spite of some difficulties with the 

animal housing equipment, life sciences experiments were able to measure the effects of 

microgravity on animals. The results provide an 

excellent data base with which to compare human 

responses on future flights. Valuable data on the 

composition of the atmosphere and aurora were 

also obtained during the mission. 

Spacelab 3 was the first fully operational 

Spacelab mission with primary emphasis on scientific operations. Important data were acquired, 

and provided to the investigators, and a science 

symposium on the results was held in December, 

1985. 

Japan has entered into an agreement with 

NASA for a reimbursable Spacelab Shuttle flight 

(Spacelab-J) in early 1989. Approximatly 45 experiments are planned, primarily in the areas of 

materials processing and life sciences. A 

Preliminary Design Review of the Japanese 

payload was concluded in June 1985, and the 

Critical Design Review was completed in 

November 1985. Three Japanese payload specialist 

candidates were selected, one of which will be 

chosen for the actual flight. A complementary set 

of U.S. experiments is being developed for flight 

on the same mission. The first science working 

group, with participants from the United States 

and Japan, met in September 1985 to formulate 

plans for the mission. 

Materials Microgravity Science. Scientific experiments on materials in a microgravity environment were conducted in November 1985 on the 

second flight of the Materials Experiment 

Assembly (MEA), which flew as part of the German Spacelab D-1 complement. Experiments included investigations of semi-conductor materials, 

miscibility gap materials, and containerless processing of glass melts. These experiments complement and extend investigations which were conducted in June 1983 on the first flight of the MEA 

on the STS-7 Shuttle flight. Data analysis and 

evaluation of processed specimens are expected to 

confirm previous results and provide criteria for 

continuation of these investigations on future 

MEA flights. 

Procurement of the Materials Science Laboratory (MSL) payload carrier for microgravity investigations in the Shuttle cargo bay was completed in May 1985; and the MSL was delivered to 

the Kennedy Space Center for integration and 

future flight of the first MSL payload. The MSL 

payload carrier is designed to use residual space in 

the orbit cargo bay and to satisfy user needs for accommodations which are compatible with the 

standard mixed cargo allocation of Shuttle 

resources (power, data, and thermal control). This 

design philosophy will greatly enhance flight opportunities for microgravity science investigations 

in the orbiter. Experiments conducted on the mission in December 1985 used the Electromagnetic 

Levitator Furnace, the Automatic Directional 

Solidification Furnace, and the 3-Axis Acoustic 

Levitator. Investigations were in the areas of: 

undercooled solidification in quiescent levitated 

drops, aligned magnetic composites, containerless 

28 
glass processing, and dynamics of compound 

drops. 

Microgravity Science and Applications. The 

Microgravity Science and Applications program 

conducts research into the effect of microgravity 

on basic physical phenomena and processes. 

Research is carried out in six disciplines; combustion science, biotechnology, electronic materials, 

metals and alloys, glasses and ceramics, and fluid 

dynamics and transport mechanisms. The goal of 

the program is to quantify the effects imposed by 

gravity on phenomena and processes and to apply 

this basic knowledge to specific ground and spacebased processes and products. 

Research and Analysis. In 1985, the Microgravity Materials Science Laboratory was opened at 

NASA's Lewis Research Center. It provides easy 

access and assistance to U.S. industry, academia, 

and government researchers wishing to conduct 

materials research on Shuttle flight-type equipment. It has facilities for research in metals and 

alloys and electronic materials, and will be expanded to additional areas. The laboratory provides characterization and chemical analysis 

facilities, as well as apparatus for conducting experiments. 

Two Centers of Excellence in Bioprocessing and 

Pharmaceutical Research are in place. One is 

located at the University City Science Center in 

Philadelphia, and the other is at the University of 

Arizona in Tucson. 

Also in progress is a research program on growing protein crystals in microgravity. The first 

phase of this program is essentially an engineering 

proof-of-concept of the hardware and the technique. More controlled scientific research will begin 

on later Shuttle flights. 

Apparatus Developent. A number of pieces of 

experimental apparatus were completed in 1985, 

including a Three-Axis Acoustic Levitator, an 

Automatic Directional Solidification Furnace, an 

Electromagnetic Levitator, and a Solid Surface 

Combustion Experiment. Work began on the 

development of an Advanced Automated Directional Solidification Furnace capable of more controlled processing temperatures than earlier versions provided. Work also was started on an experiment, the Specific Heat of Helium through the 

Lambda Point. 

Space Trans porta tion 

Space Shuttle Flights 

Nine Shuttle flights were launched in 1985. 

Highlights of these flights include the first public 

official in space, Senator Garn; the largest crew to 

The first flight of the year by Space Shuttle Discovery was also 

the first dedicated Department of Defense mission. 

date, eight; two dedicated Department of Defense 

missions; four flights deploying commercial communications satellites; and three Spacelab flights. 

The first flight of the year, on January 24, 1985, 

was also NASA's first dedicated Department of 

Defense (DOD) Shuttle mission. The second DOD 

dedicated mission, October 3, 1985, marked the 

maiden voyage of Atlantis, the fourth Shuttle orbiter. 

As part of its program for launching commercial 

and foreign payloads, NASA launched several 

communications satellites into geosynchronous orbits during shared Shuttle flights. They include 

Telesat-1, Syncom-IV-3, Morelos-A, Arabsat-A, 

Telstar 3-D, ASC-1, AUSSAT-1, Syncom-IV-4, 

Morelos-B, Satcom Ku-2, and AUSSAT-2. 

In addition to these deployments, the Shuttle 

and crew salvaged and repaired the Syncom-IV-3 

satellite. In April, the crew attempted to activate 

the satellite after it was deployed from the Shuttle 

and its boost stage failed to fire. Although the 

salvage operation went according to plan, the 

satellite failed to respond and continued to drift in 

a low Earth orbit. In August, a second Shuttle 

169-254 0 - 86 - 2 29 
Crew members aboard flight 51-D take time from their busy full 

week in space to pose for a photograph. Counter-clockwise from 

the bottom left are Jeffrey A. Hoffman, mission specialist; Dr. 

Rhea Seddon, mission specialist; Charles D. Walker, payload 

specialist; U.S. Senator Jake Garn, payload specialist; S. David 

Griggs, mission specialist; Karol J. Bobko, mission commander; 

and Donald E. Williams, pilot. 

salvage and repair mission modified the satellite so 

that it could be activated by the ground. Subsequently, it was boosted into geosynchronous orbit. Although such a repair mission had never 

before been attempted, confidence was high due to 

experience from repairing the Solar Maximum 

Mission satellite in April 1984 and from retrieving 

the Palapa B-2 and Westar VI satellites in 

November 1984. 

The three Spacelab missions were very successful and provided valuable scientific data to the 

U. S. and foreign scientific communities. Spacelab 

3, the first operational flight of Spacelab, demonstrated capabilities for multidisciplinary research 

in areas of the life sciences, microgravity processes, and atmospheric observation. The second 

Spacelab mission, Spacelab 2, flew without the 

habitable module, but with the Instrument Pointing System used for the precise aiming of telescopes. Both the science aspects and the test of the 

new Spacelab systems were highly successful. The 

Spacelab D-1 mission on October 30, 1985, was the 

first German Spacelab mission. Its crew included 

one Dutch and two German payload specialists who 

performed experiments, assisted by NASA’s mission specialists. Control of payload operations was 

conducted from a site near Munich rather than 

from Houston. All of the Spacelab systems performed flawlessly. 

As part of the long-range basic research goal of 

exploring the space frontier for potential commercial applications in materials processing, the Shuttle also carried research experiments sponsored by 

the 3M Company during its mid-April and 

December missions. 

Astronaut Bonnie J. Dunbar and German payload specialist 

Reinhard Furrer examine scientific experiments aboard the 

West German D-1 Spacelab mission. 

Flight Operations 

The Space Transportation System’s flight operations include mission planning, crew training, mission control and flight software production. 

Improvements to the operations facilities at 

Johnson Space Center continued, with emphasis 

on the Shuttle Mission Simulator and the Mission 

Control Center. Phase 1 of the Simulator Reconfiguration System was completed and utilized in 

the training for the Shuttle’s December flight. 

Completion of Phase 2 in 1986 will raise training 

capacity to the equivalent of 18 flights per year. 

With regard to the Mission Control Center, the 

first major procurement contract was under 

negotiation to replace four IBM 370’s and one IBM 

4341, which are now overloaded, with four 

machines having considerably greater capacity. 

Johnson Space Center awarded a Space Transportation System operations contract which consolidates all or parts of 22 support contracts involving 16 firms. Consolidation will reduce overhead 

costs, and use of completion form contracting and 

incentives will reduce costs further. The 2-year 

contract starts January 1986, and is for approximately 3,600 man-year equivalents. 

The eleventh class of astronaut candidates was 

selected in 1985. Six pilots and seven mission 

specialists were chosen. Henceforth, NASA will 

accept applications and maintain a roster of 

eligibles from which selections will be made as 

needs arise. 

30 
Diffusive Mixing of Organic Solutions (DMOS), a 3M experiment that produced organic crystals in microgravity on Shuttle 

mission 61-B. 

Launch and Landing Operations 

Orbiter Atlantis was delivered to the Kennedy 

Space Center (KSC) for its initial flight. Of the nine 

Shuttle missions flown in 1985, three were by 

Challenger, four by Discovery, and two by Atlantis. With additional operational experience, turnaround capability for processing flight hardware 

has continued to improve. Also, plans and action 

were initiated to transfer responsibility for orbit 

logistics to KSC. 

Emergency Landing Site 

In August 1985, an agreement was signed with 

the Government of Chile that will allow use of 

Mataveri Airport, Isla de Pascua (Easter Island), 

as an emergency landing site for the Space Shuttle. As a provision of the agreement, the runway at 

Mataveri will be extended to 11,000 feet. The use 

of Mataveri will be as an emergency landing field 

only €or those launches taking place from the West 

Coast Shuttle launch and landing facilities at 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, 

Orbiter 

In 1985, Atlantis completed two missions. The 

maturity of the orbiter’s subsystem is characterized by a decrease in the number of anomalies during its mission. Also, the orbiter flight test vehicle, 

Columbia, was modified to bring it to an operational configuration. Columbia was returned to 

KSC where it was processed for its seventh mission scheduled for the following January. During 

1985, orbiter improvement programs were continued on the auxiliary power unit, brakes, 

nosewheel steering, general purpose computer, 

and inertial measurement unit. These programs 

will significantly improve the performance of the 

oribiter . 

While the nosewheel steering modification was 

being incorporated into the fleet, several landings 

took place at Edwards Air Force Base, California. 

The modification was checked out on the lateNovember Shuttle flight for landings at KSC 

scheduled for the following January. After delivery 

of Atlantis and Columbia, use of the oribiter 

assembly facility at Palmdale, California, was 

essentially discontinued. However, the structural 

spares program continued on schedule, and the 

spares will be stored in the Palmdale facility. These 

structural elements will reduce the down time of 

an orbiter, and will decrease the delivery time for 

an additional orbiter. 

The procurement of lay-in spares to support the 

increasing flight rate continued. The usage data 

accumulated through 24 flights is being used to 

calibrate the accuracy of previous estimates of outyear requirements. As the data base matures, the 

ability of the logistics program to support the flight 

rate will continue to improve. 

The Remote Manipulator System (RMS) continues to be a very useful tool and has performed 

excellently. During 1985, extravehicular activity 

(EVA) by astronauts also was significant. The first 

contingency EVA in April, attempted to activate 

the nonresponsive Syncom-IV-3 satellite by tripping an activation switch. The EVA was successful 

in installing a “flyswatter” mechanism on the RMS, 

which then succeeded in tripping the switch. 

However, the spacecraft could not be activated. In 

August 1985, a second EVA repaired the multimillion-dollar spacecraft verifying the Shuttle’s 

ability to repair and service oribiting spacecraft. 

On the last mission in November, another EVA 

capability was demonstrated, that of assembling 

space structures. This capability will be of particularly great value during assembly of the Space 

Station. 

Main Engine (SSME) 

The Space Shuttle main engines (SSME’s) exhibited excellent performance and endurance on all 

flights in 1985, although one engine was prematurely shut down as a result of instrumentation 

failure during the Shuttle’s July flight. Flight certification extension testing at 104-percent power 

level was completed, with engines 2010 and 2014 

accumulating over 20,000 and 14,000 seconds of 

tot31 ground test time, respectively. This is 

equivalent to 38 and 27 Shuttle missions, respectively, since the nominal duration of engine operation during a mission is 520 seconds. The Phase I1 

certification test program, covering improvements 

in the design of the two high-pressure pumps to increase their operating life and performance 

margin, was completed. Also, significant im31 
Aided by mission specialist James D. van Hoften, Astronaut 

William F. Fisher repaired the Syncom IV-3 satellite; subsequently, it was boosted into geosynchronous orbit. 

provements were realized in the operating life and 

performance margin of SSME hardware at full 

power level, 109 percent. 

Manufacturing improvements to increase the 

capacity and capability of flight hardware are continuing. Plant modernization projects, to be completed in 1986, include establishment of a new 

turbopump fabrication center, and an engine overhaul center, plant rearrangement, machine tool 

modernization, and improved welding processes. 

External Tank 

All Space Shuttle external tanks flown in 1985 

performed as expected. Ten tanks were manufactured and delivered on or ahead of schedule, and 

cost savings and production improvements continued to be implemented. Two additional tanks 

were delivered to the West Coast launch site, making a total of three tanks available at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base (VAFB). At the end of 1985, fifteen 

tanks were in various stages of manufacture at the 

New Orleans, Louisiana, Michoud Assembly Facility. Negotiations should conclude in 1986 on a proposal from Martin Marietta Corporation for a sixty 

tank “fifth buy. ” 

Solid Rocket Booster 

The Shuttle’s Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB’s) continued to perform as predicted. All boosters were 

recovered and are being refurbished for reuse. 

Twenty boosters, or ten flight sets, were delivered 

in 1985. Development of the Filament Wound Case 

(FWC) for the SRB progressed with completion of 

two development static test firings. Qualification 

and certification of the FWC for flight will be completed in 1986 with the third static test firing and 

the testing of the structural test article. All of the 

composite cases for the first flight from VAFB 

were delivered by July 1, 1985 and stacking of the 

first FWC SRB began in late November 1985. 

Construction of a new SRB assembly and refurbishment facility at KSC was initiated. Activities 

also continued to incorporate improvements that 

reduce the time it takes to process the boosters. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

NASA’s expendable launch vehicles continued to 

provide launch support to spacecraft users during 

the transition of payloads to the Shuttle. Five 

launches were conducted using expendable launch 

vehicles, two by Scout for DOD satellites, and 

three by Atlas Centaur, on a reimbursable basis for 

INTE LS AT. 

Upper Stages 

The major effort in upper stages is the continued 

design, development and procurement of the STSI 

Centaur. Two versions are being developed: the 

Centaur G prime, which is being funded by NASA, 

and will be used for NASA’s Galileo and Ulysses 

missions, and the Centaur G, called the Common 

Centaur, which is being funded jointly by NASA 

and the DOD. Delivery of hardware and testing are 

continuing, although on a tight schedule. 

NASA is using the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) 

developed by the Air Force for boosting spacecraft 

in the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

from the Shuttle to geosynchronous orbit. 

Commercially developed upper stages also are 

playing a significant role in the Nation’s space activities. The PAM-D and PAM-DII Payload Assist 

Modules, developed by McDonnell Douglas, performed successfully on 38 missions launched by expendable launch vehicles and the Shuttle since 

1980. Twelve of these successes occurred in 1985. 

Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC) is developing 

two upper stages. The Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS), 

which is expected to be ready for use in the first 

quarter of 1987, will have a greater capability than 

that of the PAM stages. It is competing with other 

upper stages for missions such as the Mars Orbiter. 

The other OSC stage is the Apogee Maneuvering 

Stage, whose capability will exceed that of the 

IUS. In addition, it will be able to be used in concert with the TOS to boost even heavier payloads 

into geosynchronous orbit. 

32 
Tethered Satellite System 

The Tethered Satellite System is a cooperative 

development between NASA and Italy to provide a 

capability for conducting experiments in the upper 

atmosphere and ionosphere. It will be capable of 

deploying and retrieving a tethered satellite up to 

100 kilometers below or above the Space Shuttle 

which will serve as the orbiting base. In 1985, preliminary Design Reviews were conducted on the 

Italian supplied satellite and the NASA supplied 

deployer, and hardware manufacture started. The 

science investigations for the first mission were 

selected in late 1985. The first use of this system is 

planned for late 1988. 

Space1 ab 

The first operational Spacelab mission (SL-3) 

took place in April 1985, and the second verification flight (SL-2) in July 1985. SL-3 was a flight of 

the Spacelab module, while SL-2 was the first 

flight of the Igloo Pallet Configuration and the Instrument Pointing Subsystem. The first reimbursable Spacelab mission was for West Germany 

in November 1985. Demonstration flights are 

planned for the Shuttle Payload of Opportunity 

carrier known as “Hitchhiker.” The new Payload 

Operations Control Center at Marshall Space 

Flight Center is nearly complete and will be used 

first during the Astro-1 mission. 

During 1985, the second Instrument Pointing 

Subsystem, the last major hardware item of 

NASA’s procurement contract with ESA, was delivered. Additional Spacelab hardware is also being 

procured from Europe, primarily for Spacelab 

Dedicated Discipline Laboratory flights and an initial hardware reserve. Establishment of a depot 

maintenance system in Europe also progressed. 

Development of the Spacelab Pallet System and 

the Enhanced Pallet System continued. The latter 

system will be used for Space Technology Experiment Platform missions and Tethered Satellite 

System missions. 

Advanced Planning 

System definition studies for an Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV) were completed, and 

initiation of system development is planned for 

mid-1986. The proposal process should be completed in 1986, leading to the availability in 1991 of 

an OMV capable of performing payload delivery 

and retrieval from the Shuttle Orbiter. A second 

OMV will be acquired for the Space Station. 

Initial studies of an Orbital Transfer Vehicle 

(OTV) for basing at the Space Station were completed. Subsequent studies are underway of key 

concepts such as the use of Earth’s atmosphere for 

Artist’s depiction of the Orbital Transfer Vehicle, to be based at 

the Space Station, to transport payloads to and from different 

orbits. 

braking the OTV when it returns to low orbit. A 

flight experiment of this concept is being defined. 

A study and laboratory program to define and 

evaluate several highly promising applications of 

tethers in space continued in 1985. Applications 

being investigated include power generation, orbit 

raising in the absence of propellants, artificial 

gravity, and space vehicle constellations. 

Under a White House directive to define technology that will lower the costs of and improve 

launch capabilities in the post-1995 period, examination of future launch vehicles is underway 

jointly with DOD. NASA is managing two of the 

system architecture study contracts toward these 

objectives. Concurrently, preliminary studies were 

initiated in key technology areas, particularly 

those related to improvement of booster engines. 

A study to define a second-generation Shuttle also 

was initiated. 

Development was completed of a significant 

flight demonstration which then flew on the Shuttle’s November mission. The demonstration, which 

consisted of the Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA and the Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structure, is important to both the Shuttle and the Space Station and, 

therefore, to the Nation’s future in space. It 

demonstrated the ability of astronauts to assemble 

elements of a large structure in orbit and measured 

the productivity of EVA crews. 

In 1985, another group of flight demonstrations 

was initiated, including a proof-of-concept demonstration of a plasma motorlgenerator, and demonstration of an internal Shuttle communications 

system using infrared light waves to replace wir33 
On the last flight of 1985, STS 61-B, Astronauts Jerw L. Ross and Sherwood C. Spring demonstrate the ease with which large structures can be assembled in space. 

ing, and a voice command system to control equipment and reduce current hands-on requirements. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The focal point for NASA’s agency-wide program to encourage commercial space activities is 

the Office of Commercial Programs (OCP). Established in late 1984, the office has completed its first 

full year of operation. The primary objectives of 

the office are to encourage U.S. private sector investment in commercial space ventures and to 

facilitate commercial application and transfer of 

existing aeronautics and space technology to the 

private sector. OCP receives inquiries and proposals related to commercial space activities and 

also serves as NASA’s prime channel of communication and negotiation with private concerns interested in pursuing commercial endeavors in 

space. 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space 

In order to stimulate scientific research considered by the private sector to have potential in 

the industrial market place, OCP selected and 

funded five Centers for the Commercial Development of Space. Those chosen and their areas of research concentration are: Battelle Columbus 

Laboratories - multiphase materials processing; 

University of Alabama at Birmingham- macromolecular crystallography; University of Alabama 

at Huntsville - materials processing; Institute for 

Technology Development in Hancock County, 

Mississippi - space remote sensing; and Vanderbilt 

University in Tennessee - metallurgical processing. These centers will perform basic space research activities and, if certain performance 

criteria are met, will be funded up to five years, 

after which each center will become self-supporting. Additional centers will be selected in the 

spring of 1986. 

NASA has 24 joint agreements for commercial 

space ventures in operation. OCP is in the process 

of evaluating and negotiating an additional 25. In 

1985, OCP developed a new type of agreement for 

doing business with the private sector. This type of 

agreement, called a Modified Launch Services 

Agreement (MLSA), features a deferred payment 

schedule for Shuttle transportation and other related NASA services. In August 1985, OCP developed and negotiated an MLSA with Space Industries, Incorporated, for construction and operation of the first man-tended commercial platform 

in space. 

Federal Research Facilities 

Another mechanism to facilitate private sector 

activities is access to available US. Government 

facilities. OCP will develop facilities with generic 

34 
Payload Specialist Charles C. Walker of McDonnell Douglas 

works with a protein crystal growth experiment aboard a Shuttle flight. 

capabilities that will serve many users, but only 

after the private sector has committed resources 

for experimental use. During 1985, OCP funded 

construction of four refrigeration modules, started 

procurement of an Advanced Automated Directional Solidification Furnace, and began developing a Multiple Experiment Processing Furnace. In 

addition, OCP partially funded the Microgravity 

Materials Science Laboratory at NASA’s Lewis 

Research Center. All NASA centers are available 

to private sector researchers who do not have access to facilities for space-related research. 

Technology Utilization Program 

The wealth of aeronautics and space technology 

generated by NASA programs is a valuable national resource having the potential to assist the 

private sector in developing new products and 

processes. Translating this potential into reality 

through information on new applications is accomplished by OCP’s Technology Utilization Program. In 1985, significant advances in information 

dissemination continued through expansion of the 

The Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, developed by 

McDonnell Douglas, to separate biological materials without the 

Earthly influences of gravity and convection. 

independent, university and state-sponsored Industrial Applications Centers (IAC) and through 

wider circulation of the publication, NASA Tech 

Briefs. NASA has successfully completed arrangements with the Joint Committee on Printing 

of the U.S. Congress to allow dissemination of 

NASA Tech Brief. as a secondary private sector 

publication. This arrangement should save the 

government approximately $400,000 to $500,000 

per year because the costs of publication will be 

covered by commercial advertising. Further, it 

lifts the 75,000 publication limit imposed by the Office of Management and Budget to restrict publication costs. 

In February, the NASA IAC at the University of 

Southern California entered into an experimental 

12-month agreement with the Far West Region of 

the Federal Laboratory Consortium. The Constorium provides direct access to technical expertise in western laboratories, thus expanding the 

technology transfer services available to industrial 

clients. In 1986, OCP plans to negotiate a follow-on 

agreement to tie NASA IAC’s with all federal 

laboratories. OCP also plans to establish an experimental technology transfer program at 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). In 

response to expressions of interest by at least 30 

private sector companies, this program will provide private sector access to JPL’s scientific and 

technical expertise. Currently, implementation 

discussions are taking place with 10 companies. 

Applications projects are developed at each of 

NASA’s centers with the support of an applications 

35 
The Automatic Implantable Defibrillator, a spinoff from NASA 

developed technology, can prevent thousands of deaths annually 

by detecting and automatically correcting erratic heart actions 

known as arrhythmias. 

team. The centers and the team work with both 

private and public sector sponsors to transfer 

NASA developed technology to meet a specific 

need. Examples of results from projects completed 

in 1985 are: an automatic implantable defibrillator 

for the heart; Autocuer-a device which electronically assists the deaf or the hard of hearing in 

lip reading; graphite composites providing lightweight, durable mirrors; klystron technology for 

television transmission; and an ion beam surface 

application that prevents rejection by the body of 

implantable devices. The subjects of projects 

planned for completion in 1986 are: a programmable implantable medication system; corneal 

topography; advanced radio for emergency communications; a forest fire detection system; and a 

burn diagnostic system. 

Small Business Innovation Research 

In July 1985, the Small Business Innovation 

Research (SBIR) office was transferred administratively to OCP. This office manages the 

agency-wide SBIR program initiated in 1983, in 

response to statutory requirements, and subsequent policy direction from the Small Business 

Administration. Program objectives are to 

stimulate technology transfer to, and technology 

innovation by, small business while also supporting 

agency mission objectives. 

In 1985, 151 of the 1,164 proposals received in 

response to the 1985 SBIR program solicitation 

were selected in Phase I contract awards. They 

averaged approximately $50,000 each. In addition, 

approximately 60 of the 113 proposals received for 

Phase I1 extensions of previous Phase I projects 

were also selected for contract awards averaging 

approximately $500,000 each. Since the SBIR program spans all NASA missions and technological 

objectives, only a few SBIR project awards, to 

date, relate to potential commercial uses of space. 

However, greater visibility for this area in the 

small business community is planned for the 

future. 

Space Station 

NASA’s Space Station program gained momentum in 1985 toward fulfilling President Reagan’s 

commitment for the Nation to develop a permanently manned Space Station, with international participation, and to promote private sector 

investment in space. 

The Space Station will be the centerpiece around 

which a major segment of the U.S. civil space program will be structured. It will be an orbiting scientific laboratory; a test, service, and repair facility 

for satellites, upper stage rockets, and instruments; an assembly base for large structures; a 

transportation staging base, a manufacturing site, 

and an observation platform that will open broad 

new arenas of opportunity for the scientific, commercial, federal, and international users of space. 

The Space Station will provide a foundation for 

leadership in the free world, and for international 

cooperation in space, for the next decade and 

beyond. 

System Description and Program Status. The 

Space Station will consist of a manned base, 

associated co-orbiting and polar orbiting unmanned platforms, and collateral support equipment, such as the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle. 

The base will be delivered to and assembled in orbit 

using the Space Shuttle. It will then be placed in a 

circular orbit at an altitude of approximately 250 

nautical miles and an inclination of 28.5 degrees. 

Its base station will consist of a truss and servicing 

structure; habitat, logistics, and laboratory 

modules; berthing and assembly fixtures; power 

generating solar arrays; and an advanced remote 

manipulator system. Its unmanned polar platforms 

will be tended and serviced by the Space Shuttle. 

The Space Station’s development and operation 

will be responsive to the needs of users. Because of 

36 
Electronics technology for space missions is used to aid the deaf through the Autocuer, a device attached to special eyeglasses that 

allows accurate speech perception. 

an evolutionary design philosophy, it will be adaptable to emerging requirements. It is supported by 

an extensive advanced development program initiated in 1985 in cooperation with NASA's Office of 

Aeronautics and Space Technology. In order to 

conduct the testing necessary during advanced 

development, NASA established a series of technology test-beds in 1985. The test-beds, located at 

various field centers, will quantify and validate the 

performance of advanced components and subsystems in a ground laboratory environment. Also 

in 1985, evaluation and testing were initiated in a 

number of major disciplines such as attitude control and stabilization, power generation and 

management, thermal control, environmental control and life support, auxiliary propulsion, data 

management, structures and mechanisms. 

Program Management. The Space Station program plan maintains a strong role for NASA in 

program management, and provides a framework 

for competition in industry. The plan is compatible 

*i ith meaningful international participation, 

establishes a significant effort in technology 

development, and provides the opportunity for 

considerable participation by the user community. 

In order to define an optimum configuration for 

the Space Station, and to minimize technical, 

schedule, and cost risks, NASA established an extended detailed definition and preliminary design 

phase for the program. Three years and approximately 10 percent of the program cost will be 

devoted to detailed studies and preliminary design. 

To utilize the experience of industry, two prime 

A proposed configuration for the permanently manned Space 

Station. 

contractors were selected on a competitive basis 

for each of four work packages designated for the 

definition and preliminary design phase. The four 

work packages are: common module, related 

systems, and accommodations for the Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicle; overall structure and 

related systems; free-flying platforms and Space 

Station servicing provisions; and the electrical 

power system. These contracts were awarded in 

April 1985, effective for a period of 21 months. 

Space Station system engineering and integration (SE&I) will be conducted by NASA. In 1985, 

37 
A possible configuration for the interior of a working Space Station module under evaluation by NASA scientists and 

engineers. 

an SE&I program office was established at 

Johnson Space Center, which also coordinates 

Space Station projects at various NASA centers. 

Technical panels were formed to review results of 

trade studies, a master schedule was developed for 

the definition process, and a data base is being 

created for exchange of technical information. 

Planning is underway for a Technical and 

Management Information System (TMIS). When 

operational, TMIS will support communications, 

coordination and integration, essential for effective program management and control. 

A major focus of planning in 1985 was productivity enhancement for the Space Station. This applies to human engineering as well as to the appropriate use of automation and robotics. NASA’s 

Advanced Technology Advisory Committee 

prepared a key engineering report, mandated by 

Congress, on the subjects of automation and 

robotics. The report was submitted to the Senate 

Appropriations Committee, and a plan to implement the report’s recommendations was submitted 

to the Senate Commerce Committee. 

Prior to selection of a baseline configuration for 

a permanently manned Space Station, NASA will 

submit a plan to Congress on the Station’s proposed man-tended system. The plan will address an 

approval wherein the permanently manned 

features are expected to be phased in over three to 

five years following deployment of the basic Station. 

Operations Planning. An operations concept for 

the Space Station was formulated in 1985, taking 

into consideration preliminary launch, orbital, and 

logistics operational requirements, and such objectives as reduced life-cycle costs, and international 

operations. The operations concept also functioned 

as input to early phases of Space Station systems 

design. Two criteria for developing the operations 

approach were that Station program elements 

must fulfill affordably the requirements of users, 

and that the overall system infrastructure and logistics must be affordable to NASA. 

As part of this program definition and 

preliminary design (Phase B) work, contractors 

studied operational impacts of their design choices. 

Requirements were established for ground 

facilities that will allow efficient operations. These 

requirements will be part of later deliberations on 

construction of facilities. Congress expressed 

special interest in NASA’s Space Station operations planning and requested a detailed report on 

the subject, which was delivered. 

User Requirements. In 1985, the Space Station 

Utilization Data Base included over 300 potential 

payloads from the commercial sector, and 

technology development, science and applications 

communities. Besides NASA, user sponsors include the European Space Agency (ESA), Canada, 

Japan, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. Other federal agencies are in the 

process of formalizing their own requirements. 

A large number of users have requested accommodations on the Space Station, and NASA is improving its plan for satisfying those requests. 

Activities will be in the areas of astronomy, solar 

physics, materials research and production, Earth 

observations, solar-terrestrial physics, life and 

planetary sciences, communications research, 

technology research and development, and spacecraft servicing. 

In the area of co-orbiting platforms, attention 

has focused on understanding servicing capabilities, and on designing modular platforms that 

can be customized for different users. 

At both operational and research levels, there is 

significant interest in the use of polar platforms in 

the areas of solar-terrestrial physics, life sciences, 

astronomy, and Earth observation. Polar platforms are attractive because they can support 

many related instruments, can provide operational 

flexibility because of their anticipated modular 

design, and can have indefinitely long lifetimes 

because of their capability for servicing while in 

orbit. 

International Cooperation. In 1985, Space Station agreements with Canada, Japan, and ESA 

were formalized for Phase B efforts through 

Memoranda of Understanding. International partners are conducting parallel definition studies of 

Space Station elements. The Memoranda establish 

a process to identify elements for preliminary 

38 
design and, subject to agreement on future phases, 

for development. ESA is studying pressurized 

modules, man-tended platforms, and ground support facilities. Canada is studying a module servicing system that includes the Station remote 

manipulator system. Japan is studying the concept 

of a multipurpose experiments module. Each of 

these potential investments could provide significant capabilities to the Space Station and become 

the foundation for long-term, mutually beneficial 

activities in the Space Station era. 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

NASA’s space tracking and data systems continued to provide vital tracking, command, 

telemetry, and data acquisition support to meet the 

requirements for NASA, U.S. and international 

programs. Tracking sites, control centers, and 

data processing facilities, linked through a global 

communications system, provided real-time data 

processing for mission control, orbit, and attitude 

determination, and routine processing of telemetry data for space missions. 

The Space Tracking and Data Systems program 

is transitioning from a totally ground-based network mode of operation to space-based tracking of 

low-Earth orbit spacecraft, coupled with tracking 

and data acquisition of deep space missions by 

ground stations. The first Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite has provided excellent support of 

several spacecraft missions. With the launches of 

the next two Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, 

the required satellite constellation of three in orbit 

will be completed. The program then will make 

substantial reductions in the ground-based tracking network that supports near-Earth orbit 

spacecraft. Most of the network’s tracking stations 

will be closed or transferred to other agencies once 

the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS) becomes operational. 

The Deep Space Network continues to support 

some 12 planetary and interplanetary exploration 

missions and is preparing for an extremely active 

period in 1986, highlighted by Voyager’s encounter 

with Uranus, and the observation of Comet Halley. 

Space Network 

The Space Network consists of the Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellites, the White Sands Ground 

Terminal, the Network Control Center, the Flight 

Dynamics Facility, the Simulations Operations 

Center, the Compatibility Test Vans, and the 

Bilateration Ranging Transponder System. 

The missions that the first Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite (TDRS-1) supported in 1955 inThe Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-1). 

cluded those of the Space Shuttle, Landsat, the 

Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, the Solar 

Mesospheric Explorer, and the Solar Maximum 

Mission. The launch of TDRS-2 was deferred due 

to a problem in the timing circuit of the spacecraft. 

The problem has been resolved and the launch of 

TDRS-2 is currently planned for January 1986. 

Ground Network 

The Ground Network provided tracking and data 

support for several missions during 1985. It is composed of the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, the Deep Space Network, and ground tracking and data acquisition facilities that support the 

aeronautics, balloon, and sounding rocket programs. 

The Ground Network Consolidation program, 

with facilities located in Spain, Australia and 

California, was completed on schedule during 

February 1985. It gives the Deep Space Network 

support responsibility for spacecraft above the 

view of the TDRSS, and for older spacecraft that 

are not compatible with the TDRSS. The Deep 

Space Network supplied vital tracking and 

telemetry support for the Soviet-French balloons 

inflated in the atmosphere of Venus in June 1985 

and for the International Cometary Explorer’s encounter with Comet Giacobini-Zinner in September 

1985. 

A major improvement of the Deep Space Network completed at the end of 1985 provided a 

modern, efficient ground network with new 

capability to combine signals from several antennae to increase the Network‘s acquisition of scientific data. This capability is needed to obtain more 

images from Voyager as it encounters the planet 

Uranus in January 1986. Currently, the Network is 

actively supporting many phases of the mission 

preceding the actual encounter. 

39 
Consolidated Ground Network facilities, Canberra, Australia. 

Communications and Data Systems 

Basic elements of the Communications and Data 

Systems program form a vital link between the 

data acquisition stations and the users, including 

communications, mission control, and data processing. Two major activities under way in the Communications part of the program during 1985 will 

become operational in 1986. First, a Time Division 

Multiple Access system is being incorporated as 

part of the NASA communications network that 

provides operational support to NASA missions. It 

will enable more effective use of communications 

satellite transponders and will improve services 

throughout the agency. Second is the development 

and implementation of a Program Support Communications Network to handle the increasing administrative and program management communication needs of NASA and its centers. 

In the Data Systems part of the program during 

1985, the Spacelab Data Processing Facility processed and delivered on schedule considerable data 

received from Spacelab-3 in April, Spacelab-2 in 

July, and the German Spacelab D-1 in November. 

In addition, development of the Data Capture 

Facility for the Hubble Space Telescope was completed. 

Space Research and Technology 

NASA's Space Research and Technology program provides critical, and often unique, elements 

of the technology base which allow the U.S. to 

maintain its leadership in space activities. The program focuses on technology for the development of 

more capable, less costly space transportation 

systems; large space systems with growth potential such as the Space Station; geosynchronous 

communication platforms; lunar bases; manned 

planetary missions; and advanced scientific, Earth 

observation, and planetary exploration spacecraft. 

The program includes the disciplinary areas of propulsion, space energy, aerothermodynamics, 

materials and structures, controls, automation and 

robotics, human factors, computer sciences and 

sensors, and data and communication systems, as 

well as in-space experiments where in situ data are 

essential. All NASA centers are involved, along 

with significant industry and university participation. 

Propulsion. The technology program for advanced propulsion systems for reusable Earth-toOrbit transportation is focused on combustion and 

heat transfer; high-performance, long-life turbomachinery; engine critical component monitoring 

systems; non-intrusive diagnostic sensors; and 

data analysis systems. Experimental data, combustion, and heat transfer characteristics of highpressure LOWhydrocarbon combustion devices 

are used to update analytical models in order to 

understand combustion stability and cooling requirements for high-performance design concepts. 

Thermal models for cryogenic bearings have been 

developed and are being validated in a NASA test 

facility which simulates both lateral and axial bearing loads occurring in high-pressure turbomachinery. An isotope bearing-wear detector and 

a fiber-optic deflectometer, which provide an indication of the wear of critical bearing elements, 

have been tested in this facility. These diagnostic 

sensors will be incorporated into Space Shuttle 

Main Engine turbopumps for evaluation during actual engine operations. 

Propulsion studies conducted in conjunction with 

the analysis of orbit transfer vehicle systems indicate that multiple, high-performance, low-thrust 

engines with 3,000 to 7,500 pounds of thrust are 

appropriate and cost effective for a space-based, 

aeroassisted vehicle. The subcomponent technologies program focuses on appropriately sized highperformance combustors and turbomachinery 

hardware. Combustion and heat transfer data indicate that lower-thrust designs are compatible 

with the requirements of engine performance and 

service lifetime. 

The objective of the Auxiliary Propulsion program is significant improvement in the performance of satellite altitude control and orbit changing 

systems through use of electric-powered thrusters 

known as arcjets. When adequate power is 

40 
Arcjet thruster operating with ammonia propellant. 

A cryogenic bearing test model used to validate bearing 

characteristics and to predict performance with liquid hydrogen 

and liquid oxygen. 

available, these thrusters offer more than twice the 

energy level per pound of fuel that conventional 

chemical systems provide. Since many satellites 

are power limited, low-power level capability is important. During 1985, one type of arcjet thruster 

operated stably at only 500 watts of input power, 

developing over 400 seconds of specific impulse (31 

percent efficiency) with ammonia propellant. Arcjet technology objectives include developing hightemperature materials that are resistant to the 

electric arc and design concepts for both higher efficiency and longer life. Electric propulsion efforts 

are closely coordinated with the Air Force; a 

Memorandum of Agreement emphasizing higher 

power systems has been signed. It coordinates 

NASA’s arcjet programs with the Air Force’s 

research activities. During 1985, several tests of 

Air Force 30-kilowatt arcjets were conducted in a 

NASA laboratory. 

When megawatt power is available from nuclear 

power systems, Magneto Plasma Dynamics (MPD) 

propulsion technology becomes an attractive option. MPD is capable of developing the highest 

specific impulse and relatively high thrust. The 

main technology goal is long life cathodes capable 

of resisting erosion caused by intense heat (over 

3000°F) and electric plasma. During 1985, tests in 

an MPD simulator at NASA’s Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory demonstrated that there was less erosion at higher power than at low, indicating electron cooling effects. Efforts to develop the 

technology base for the MPD process are under 

way at Princeton University. 

Space Energy. The Technology Assessment and 

Advancement Phase (Phase I) of the joint 

DOE/DOD/NASA Space Nuclear Reactor Power 

Development Program (SP-100) was completed in 

1985. Recommendation that the thermoelectric 

reactor power system concept be the base-line was 

approved. A Memorandum of Agreement between 

DOD, DOE, and NASA for Phase I1 of the SP-100 

Program was executed October 8,1985. NASA has 

completed an extensive investigation of future civil 

space missions that could be aided significantly by 

nuclear reactor power system technology; they include large manned or man-tended facilities in low 

Earth orbit, planetary exploration, lunar and 

planetary bases, large platforms in geosynchronous orbit, and high-performance, in-space 

transportation systems. In the SP-100 technology 

advancement effort, significant progress was 

made in free-piston Stirling energy conversion 

technology. A 25-kilowatt Stirling demonstration 

engine, the largest of its kind in the world, has 

been built and is undergoing performance testing. 

Solar cell and solar array technology to improve 

conversion efficiency, reduce mass and cost, and 

increase operating life showed significant progress 

in 1985. Over 20-percent conversion efficiency was 

demonstrated for gallium-arsenide thick-cell 

technology. Tests of thin-cell gallium arsenide 

verified cell efficiency exceeding 14 percent. 

Research was also initiated for indium-phosphide 

cells; these self-annealing cells promise an efficiency of 22 percent and offer an order of magnitude 

increase in radiation resistance. In 1984, an experimental flat-plate solar array flown in space as 

a Shuttle experiment established 66 watts/ 

kilogram as the current state-of-the-art. A contracted effort was initated to demonstrate advanced designs at 130 wattslkilogram, and 

41 
Artist’s rendit;on of SP-100 nuclear-electric propelled 

spacecraft in the vicinity of Saturn. 

concentrator-array designs under investigation 

promise specific powers up to 300 wattslkilogram. 

Technology for solar dynamic systems, which are 

based on higher receiver temperatures and more 

efficient conversion systems, offers compactness 

combined with a potential for increased performance, operational versatility, and longevity. In 

1985, a wide-ranging systems study was initiated 

to identify critical technologies and in-space (zerogravity) experimentation for specific system component research and technology efforts. Advanced 

solar dynamic power systems are applicable to 

both large and small manned and unmanned space 

systems. 

The nickel electrode is currently the life-limiting 

component of state-of-the-art Individual Pressure 

Vessel (IPV) nickel-hydrogen power cells cycled at 

the deep depths of discharge that result from the 

duty cycles under which they are operated in low 

Earth orbit. Cycle life performance improved by a 

factor of four when the electrolyte concentration 

was reduced from 31 percent to 26 percent; continuing life cycle testing indicates the potential for 

greater improvement. Significant IPV nickelhydrogen product improvements for geosynchronous applications have also been verified 

through testing, and the technology has been 

transferred to industry. 

Space power systems generate considerable 

energy that must be dissipated as waste heat. New 

thermal management concepts will be required due 

to the large increases in power needed by planned 

space missions. Advanced, high-capacity and highefficiency radiator designs were defined and include heat-pipe, liquid-drop, and liquid-belt approaches. Progress was made in the testing of 

liquid-drop radiator technology, and a coordinated 

technology development program with an Air 

Force field laboratory was established in 1985. Ini- . 

tial liquid-belt radiator design studies were completed, identifying key design issues. These include 

42 

interface heat exchanger design, containment seal 

design, and the stowageldeployment system. 

Deployable heat-pipe radiator configurations were 

assessed from a design performance standpoint, 

and critical technology needs were identified for 

multi-hundred kilowatt power systems like the 

SP-100 reactor. 

Crew life support system technology is focused 

on regenerative, closed-loop life support systems 

for long-term needs of lunar or expeditionary 

manned bases, and for extensive orbital systems 

operations. Air revitalization, water reclamation, 

and waste management investigations required for 

such closed-loop systems have been initiated. Advanced components for these concepts are being 

tested under simulated conditions. 

Aerothermodynamics. Progress continues to be 

made in developing advanced computational 

methods to characterize the complex flowfields of 

aeroassinted orbital transfer vehicles. The principal concern for these vehicles is the effect of flow 

they encounter maneuvering in the Earth’s upper 

atmosphere. Understanding this is critical to the 

control of the vehicle and to the design of its thermal protection system. In 1985, an analytical code 

based on a full Navier-Stokes solution to the 

aerobrake flowfield problem was developed and 

studied, and indicated weakness in some of the proposed aerobrake designs. 

The Orbital Experiments program developed the 

research-quality instrumentation flown on Columbia and Challenger Shuttle flights. This instrumentation obtained flight data that is being compared 

to wind-tunnel and analytical data on entry performance. Three instrumentation systems 

developed in the program were installed on the 

Shuttle Columbia in 1985: Shuttle Infrared Leeside 

Temperature Sensor, Upper Atmosphere Mass 

Spectrometer, and Shuttle Energy Air Data 

System. They are planned for a minimum of six 

flights. The Leeside Temperature Sensor will obtain thermal maps of the orbiters’ top surfaces, 

providing data not available through analytical or 

experimental means. The Mass Spectrometer will 

provide in situ air environment data, allowing 

characterization of orbiter high-altitude performance, and the Air Data System will provide high 

quality, low altitute air and vehicle data. Data from 

these instruments will contribute significantly to 

the validation of the aerothermodynamic data base 

and support the design and development of future 

space transportation systems. 

The first flight in the Shuttle of an advanced 

autopilot system occurred in 1985. This system can 

select an optimum control strategy for a given activity, that accounts for thruster or sensor failure. 

Subsequent flights will investigate the application 
Computational fluid dynamics solution for an aeroassisted 

Orbital Transfer Vehicle concept. 

An innovative concept for a liquid-droplet heat rejection system. 

of this technology to control docking and berthing, 

proximity operations, rendezvous, and formation 

flight. 

Materials and Structures. In 1985, significant 

advancements were made in the high-performance 

thermal protection system (TPS) for advanced 

space transportation systems. Silica and silicon 

carbide (Nicalon) fibers were woven in threedimensional fabrics for the high-temperature TPS 

applications required by the Orbital Transfer and 

advanced Earth-to-Orbit vehicles. This technology 

will provide lightweight, high-strength, reusable 

TPS structural concepts. By predicting the distortion and temperature distribution of a large, 

superalloy metallic TPS panel, subjected to 1800°F 

temperatures in an 8-Foot High Temperature Tunnel test, a major accomplishment in analytical 

capability was demonstrated. A 3-dimensional integrated thermal, structural and flow analysis was 

conducted; and the results were correlated with 

the results of the test. 

Significant research efforts are underway to 

develop structral and insulation concepts for the 

cryogenic propellants tanks in flight vehicles. This 

research has potential for significantly reducing 

the vehicles’ weight. Cryogenic foam insulation has 

demonstrated that it can withstand repeated thermal cycling of 400°F. A 50 percent weight reduction over that of conventional foam material 

systems is possible. 

Advances in space structures and construction 

techniques were made in support of NASA’s Space 

Station program. The ACCESSlEASE in-space 

construction experiment was conducted as part of 

the STS-61B Shuttle flight in November 1985. To 

demonstrate assembly methods, and maintenance 

and repair concepts, the Shuttle flight crew 

assembled and disassembled a 45-foot-long 

triagular truss from individual structural elements 

and joints stored in the Shuttle cargo bay. A 

12-foot tetrahedral pyramid was also assembled in 

order to provide data on human learning and productivity during in-space structural assembly. It 

was the first demonstration of in-space construction and repair methods. In preparation for this inspace experiment, Earth-based zero gravity 

simulation tests, using KC-135 aircraft and the 

underwater neutral buoyancy facility, were completed. 

Development continues of analytic tools and test 

methods for a better understanding of the 

dynamics of flexible structures. Deployment 

dynamics involving nonlinear, large motions were 

simulated, and the simulation method will be applied to the evaluation of various large, flexible, 

space structural concepts. 

Controls and Guidance. Research has focused on 

control of large, flexible space systems for application on the Space Station, large antennas, or large, 

segmented astrophysics telescopes. During 1985, 

control experiments were conducted for later 

validation in the Control of Flexible Structures 

flight experiment. The flight experiment hardware 

consists of an instrumented, highly flexible, 

60-meter beam deployed from the Shuttle. The 

submillimeter ranging and lateral displacement 

capability of the Spatial, High Accuracy, PositionEncoding Sensor (SHAPE) was demonstrated for 

a single point on a large space structure. Plans for 

a multi-point demonstration have been initiated. 

The Spacecraft Control Laboratory Experiment 

(SCOLE) program, to develop control algorithms 

and control methodologies for large slewed 

spacecraft, was responsible for a workshop in 

43 
Weaving of ailica and nicalon fibers to provide lightweight, 

reusable thermal protection system for Orbital Transfer 

\.chicles 

which representatives from eight universities participated, contributing several unique and innovative approaches. The SCOLE test apparatus, 

which resembles a large offset antenna attached to 

a model of the Shuttle, will be used to validate 

control-technique approaches. Initial characterization tests were completed. In ground tests conducted in NASA’s 20-meter, vertical, Voyagermast test facility, the addition of active controls at 

the mast’s base yielded an order of magnitude improvement for damping disturbances. This result 

gives preliminary verification to the feasibility of 

tlying on the Shuttle and Space Station long, 

slender, precisely pointed systems, such as the 

Pinhole Occulter Experiment. 

A comprehensive technology plan has heen completed for the advanced navigation and control 

system needed by an Orbital Transfer Vehicle using the Earth’s atmosphere to slow its return to 

low-Earth orbit. This plan has been expanded to include the needs of advanced Earth-to-Orbit 

vehicles. 

A test of a highly accurate guidance sensor called 

the Fiber Optic Kotation Sensor was completed. 

When fully developed, this sensor will be more accurate and more stable than existing sensors. 

Also comdeted was the design of a real-time. 

distributed,Ifault-tolerant contrz system called the 

Advanced Information Processing System. 

Fabrication of a prototype of the critical element, 

the data processor, was initiated. 

Automation and Robotics. During 1985, several 

technology efforts were combined into an Automation and Robotics Program. This was done in 

response to Congressional interest in Space Station, and to reduce costs and increase performance 

of future missions. The program will develop and 

demonstrate technology applicable not only to 

Space Station, but also to potential spacecraft such 

as the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, the Orbital 

44 

The Spacecraft Control Laboratory Experiment @COLE)- An 

important tool in the research of large, flexible structures such 

as space antennas, Space Station, and reflector telescopes. 

Transfer Vehicle, the Mobile Remote Manipulator 

System, and the Mars Rover. The program’s two 

foci are telerobotics, which will develop technology 

to evolve teleoperation through supervisory control of in-orbit robots, and system autonomy, which 

will develop technology to reduce the need for 

ground control crews through the use of artificial 

intelligence. Each of the foci will have a series of 
Telerobotics demonstrator designed to be a world-class test-bed 

for integrating and evaluating state-of-the-art technology for 

supervisory control of in-orbit robots. 

demonstrations to show evolving capabilities. The 

research program is divided into five technology 

areas: sensing and perception, planning and execution, operator interface, control mechanization, 

and system architecture and integration. 

Advanced automation techniques, such as expert 

systems, will increase substantially the productivity of Space Station crews, while ensuring that 

potentially dangerous systems failures are quickly 

identified and reversed. To test the concept, an expert system for ground fueling the Shuttle orbiter 

was constructed in 1985. Such a system will allow 

Space Station crews to refuel satellites and Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicles with greater safety and efficiency. 

To reduce the time-consuming and expensive 

process of planning mission schedules, an expert 

system called PLAN-IT has been developed at 

JPL. This system develops schedules for efficient 

utilization of resources, and identifies and indicates options for resolving conflicting resource 

requirements. PLAN-IT was developed to satisfy 

the need for rapid and effective rescheduling of 

planetary spacecraft activities, and the success of 

this system has resulted in its application to the 

scheduling of the Deep Space Network. 

To meet the need of autonomous robots for extensive vision capabilities, a Programmable Image 

Feature Extractor, using Very Large Scale Integrated circuit technology has been developed. It 

includes feature tracking, motion stereo, and 

stereo matching, and will process visual information in real time for intelligent robot systems. 

Human Factors. Since current suits for Space 

Shuttle extravehicular activity (EVA) will not 

meet the requirements of routine Space Station 

EVA operations, a new suit is being designed and 

tested at NASA’s Ames Research Center. Two 

Hard Space Suit Demonstrators completed in late 

1985 will increase EVA crew productivity by 

eliminating the need for lengthy pre-breathing, 

while providing excellent mobility and dexterity, 

and reducing maintenance requirements. 

Because visual monitoring of remote operations 

will be a vital element of Space Station activities, 

an ultra-wide field-of-view, helmet-mounted 

display was designed in 1985. This device is a major breakthrough in engineering design because of 

its high capacity and very low weight, power, consumption and cost. Because the advanced spatial 

display makes the remote scene appear to surround the wearer, the user experiences visual 

“telepresence.” 

Advanced aerospace vehicles will require cockpit 

displays that are more advanced than the small 

cathode ray tubes and electro-mechanical displays 

in the latest transport aircraft. NASA’s Ames 

Research Center leads the Nation in quantitative 

design of spatial information and pictorial displays 

through an extensive program of experimentation. 

Studies conducted in 1985 showed that use of new 

classes of displays can decrease reaction time and 

increase accuracy in assessing tactical situations 

and vehicle control. 

Computer Science. Spectacular growth in the 

volume of space science data has begun to strain 

information processing resources. Distribution and 

analysis of massive amounts of data will require 

major improvements in the cost-performance ratio 

of telecommunications. Through a grant to Stanford University’s Center for Aeronautics and 

Space Information Sciences, research is underway 

to implement a new, low-cost satellite network 

that will allow university scientists to access 

directly experiment payloads on the Space Station. 

The first link in the network connects Goddard 

Space Flight Center to Stanford. After testing, the 

link will be used to conduct an experiment with a 

future ShuttlelSpacelab mission. 

Another approach has been developed for accommodating the volume and complexity of space 

science data. A knowledge-based expert system 

serves as the basis for a hyperspectral analyzer. 

The expert system approach to analysis and interpretation of imaging spectrometer data has application in such remote sensing disciplines as 

geology, geobotany, agriculture and forestry. The 

amount of spectral data produced by imaging spectrometer instruments (128 to 246 spectral channels 

per pixel) is overwhelming, and presents a significant challenge to traditional image-processing and 

analysis methods. The development of knowledgebased expert system methods to cope with the data 

45 
will greatly enhance the ability of the science investigator to extract useful information from imaging spectrometer instrument systems. This task 

requires development of an efficient expert system 

design tool for use in a common programming 

language, new knowledge representation schemes 

which allow efficient coupling of symbolic and 

numerical computation, and development of a 

specific knowledge base for spectral interpretation 

in a remote sensing geology context. 

Accomplishments in 1985 include design and implementation of a portable expert system tool 

called Simple Tool for Automated Reasoning 

(STAR), design and implementation of a 

knowledge representation scheme based on semantic network concepts, implementation of a prototype expert system using STAR for carrying out 

imaging spectrometer analysis in a geology context, and utilization of the prototype expert system 

by remote sensing geology “experts” to build interactively the required knowledge base for 

sophisticated interpretation problems. 

Sensors. The use of charge coupled devices 

(CCDs) has resulted in a breakthrough for 

ultraviolet astronomy. Through detailed investigation of the short wavelength response and performance potential of CCDs as detectors, instability of the detector efficiency can be overcome by 

“backside charging.” This induces a phenomenon 

called pinning, which results in collection of all 

photo-generated electrons. Direct methods to control pinning provide a basis for the design of instruments that are more capable in the extended 

spectrum. Backside charging of sensor CCDs has 

already been applied to the Planetary Camera of 

the Space Telescope. 

Data Systems. The Advanced Digital Synthetic 

Aperture Radar Processor is under development to 

demonstrate technology that can meet data processing requirements of missions in the late 1980’s. 

An engineering model under construction will 

demonstrate this capability in 1986 using existing 

flight data from the Shuttle Imaging Radar. 

Fiber optics data communications provide the 

benefits of high speed and insensitivity to 

elecromagnetic interference. A brassboard, 

100-megabit per second, fiber optics data bus 

called STAR*BUS was delivered in October 1985. 

STAR*BUS will demonstrate the space technology 

readiness of fiber optics and will highlight the 

unique features of star coupler and access protocols. The system has demonstrated the expected 

100-megabit performance through a 32-by-32 star 

coupler. It will be incorporated into the Space Station Focuses Technology Program for use in the 

Data Management System Testbed. 

Communication Systems, The use of a singleaperaturelmultiple-beam antenna with very low 

sidelobes was successfully demonstrated. This kind 

of antenna will provide excellent ground coverage 

and frequency reuse in mobile satellite applications, without using multiple apertures. An 8-beam 

overlapping cluster feed was developed and tested. 

The test used the deployable hoop-column reflector 

antenna, which also is under development. 

Preliminary results indicate that contiguous noninterfering beams are possible with single aperture 

reflector antennas. 

A study of advanced communication satellite requirements conducted by NASA’s Lewis Research 

Center determined that a traveling wave tube in 

the 60-gigahertz range could be required for effective intersatellite links. To meet this need, two 

coupled cavity tubes to cover the frequency range 

of 59 to 64 gigahertz were developed. These tubes 

provide over 100 watts of power. This technology 

breakthrough allows very high data rate intersatellite communication in this important frequency range. Potential applications include the next 

generation NASA Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite and commercial satellite communications. 

In-Space Experiments. Use of the Shuttle to advance space technology continued in 1985 with the 

conduct of several significant in-space experiments. In addition to those described above, 

two are of special interest to the scientific community: the Drop Dynamics and Superfluid Helium 

experiments. The Drop Dynamics experiment was 

flown on Spacelab 3, which was launched on April 

29, 1985. It involved an experiment module which 

investigted the dynamics of rotating and 

oscillating fluid drops in very low gravity. A set of 

fundamental experiments were performed by the 

payload specialist, who was also the module 

designer and the Principal Investigator. The highly 

successful experiment verified that this new facility can manipulate drops acoustically, test 

theoretical predictions of drop behavior, and 

observe new phenomena for further investigation. 

The information gained from this experiment, and 

from those on subsequent flights, will have practical applications in the development of containerless processing techniques and in the refinement of industrial processes in metallurgy and 

chemical engineering. 

The Superfluid Helium experiment was flown on 

Spacelab 2, which was launched on July 29, 1985. 

The objective of this experiment was to investigate 

the behavior of liquid helium at temperatures 

below 2.2” Kelvin, when helium is in the superfluid 

state. In this state helium exhibits several unique 

properties: its thermal superconductivity is 1,000 

times that of copper, and its viscosity is a 

thousandth that of water. Exact behavioral 

characteristics in the long-duration space environment are difficult to predict. This experiment has 

46 
The Superfluid Helium experiment flown on Spacelab 2 to investigate superfluid cryogenic properties in zero-gravity. 

provided improved understanding of the fluid and 

thermal properties of superfluid helium. Future applications of superfluid helium technology will include the measurement of critical point phenomena 

and the cooling of telescope sensors, optics and 

baffles for far infrared astronomy, superconductive devices, gyroscopes, and gravitational wave 

detectors. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

The United States has long been the world’s 

leader in aeronautics research and technology. It is 

crucial to retain this leadership, so important to 

national defense, the economy, and the U.S. international trade balance. While the United States 

still maintains a broad base of technological advantage, the margin of advantage has narrowed 

dramatically in recent years. Recognizing that further erosion of the U.S. competitive position can be 

ill-afforded, the White House Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP) issued a report entitled 

“National Aeronautical R&D Goals, Technology 

for America’s Future.” The report was prepared 

last year by the Aeronautical Policy Review Committee, a group of individuals in government, industry, and academia assembled by the OSTP 

Director and Science Advisor to the President. The 

report recommends specific goals for aeronautical 

research and development to insure continued U. S. 

leadership well into the next century. Moreover, in 

order to revitalize America’s competitive position, 

it recommends an intensified research and 

development program concentrated on certain 

“high payoff” technologies that offer dramatic new 

aeronautical systems. Investing in NASA’s 

aeronautical research and technology program is 

the best way to develop the technology base so 

necessary to maintain U.S. leadership in 

aeronautics. 

NASA’s program is derived from technological 

disciplines, and spans the flight spectrum from 

hovering to hypersonic aircraft. Wind tunnels, 

supercomputers, simulators, and experimental 

flight vehicles are examples of research tools 

NASA uses to meet today’s challenges and to 

design tomorrow’s aircraft. In both disciplinary 

research and technology and systems research, 

NASA strongly supports military and civil aircraft 

technologies. 

Disciplinary R&T 

NASA’s disciplinary aeronautical research activities provide the technological base for new and 

innovative ideas necessary for future advances. 

The research seeks to improve understanding of 

basic physical phenomena and to develop new concepts in fluid and thermal physics, materials and 

structures, propulsion, controls and guidance, 

human factors, and information sciences. 

Fluid and Thermal Physics. The aerodynamics 

program provides the computational methods and 

experimental data base required to develop advanced aerodynamic concepts and configurations 

for future civil and military aircraft. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is emerging as an 

essential and powerful tool for improved understanding of both external (aircraft) and internal 

(propulsion system) flow physics. The Numerical 

Aerodynamic Simulation System (NAS), which will 

provide the most advanced computational systems 

in the world for solution of CFD problems, is under 

development at NASA’s Ames Research Center. 

The NAS system configuration was checked out 

last year using a Gray XMP supercomputer. The 

system’s Gray 2 supercomputer has been delivered 

and is being installed with plans for the initial 

operating configuration in 1986. The extended 

operating capability will be in place in 1987. In addition to its important advantages in aircraft 

design, NAS will further benefit U.S. science and 

industry as a national facility for research in other 

areas such as non-aerospace structures, materials, 

weather, and chemistry. 

The flow of fluid through turbomachines 

presents another tough challenge for CFD, and 

understanding this flow is essential for optimizing 

turbomachinery design. Computer codes with 

computer-generated imagery for airflow around 

internal airfoils were developed to illustrate and 

47 
Computational Fluid Dynamics - On external flow applications, 

NASA has computed the flow around the F-16 wing, and is using the results as a reference bench mark for code verification. 

facilitate an understanding of complex flow 

physics. 

Reducing the viscous drag caused by skin friction 

is a key objective in aerodynamic research, since it 

accounts for about half of the total drag of an aircraft. Laminar flow control is one technique used 

to reduce drag. It is a means of controlling the 

layer of air next to the skin of an airplane, keeping 

it smooth (laminar). NASA flight tests have begun 

with a Jetstar aircraft in airline-type service to investigate the effectiveness, practicality, and 

reliability of a laminar flow control technique. This 

technique employs suction near the wing leading 

edge to maintain laminar flow over much of the 

wing. The system has operated satisfactorily under 

varying flight conditions. 

A new NASA technique uses liquid crystal 

coatings to determine if laminar flow exists over 

an airfoil for both wind tunnel and flight tests. The 

technique overcomes limitations of previous 

techniques, providing reversible, instantaneous (in 

real time) visualization of boundary layer transition throughout virtually the complete altitude and 

speed range of subsonic aircraft. This technique 

also has application to supersonic laminar flow. 

Materials and Structures. Research in these 

areas provides the foundation for advances in new 

and improved materials, structural concepts, and 

analytical methods. NASA has conducted considerable research in secondary structures made of 

composite materials that are generally lighter, yet 

stronger, than metals. In June 1985, an Air Force 

KC-10 aircraft was flown with a NASA-developed 

vertical stabilizer designed and fabricated with 

graphitelepoxy composites. FAA certification of 

this component is expected in 1986, which will be a 

Model of a scramjet that has been tested in a wind tunnel at 

NASA’s Langley Research Center. 

successful conclusion for the NASA Transport 

Composite Technology program. 

Concepts and advanced analytical technologies 

for lightweight structures are key areas for transatmospheric and supersonic cruise aircraft. One 

promising concept under investigation is the use of 

load-carrying honeycomb panels of high-temperature superalloys. During the past year, a 20-panel 

array of superalloy honeycomb material was 

tested, under hypersonic conditions, at NASA’s 

Langley Research Center’s High Temperature 

Tunnel. Concurrent with this test, a comprehensive analysis of fluid flow over the panel accurately 

predicted vortex-induced and impingement-heating effects leading to local hot spots and thermal 

bowing. A complex, curved test panel of superalloy 

honeycomb has been fabricated and will be tested. 

Propulsion. Current research encompasses a 

wide range of technologies that promise more effective propulsion research tools, engine components, and systems capabilities. Consistent with 

its goal to develop transatmospheric capability, 

NASA has an active program in propulsion 

systems for hypersonic cruise. Self-acceleration of 

the aircraft from takeoff to hypersonic cruise 

speeds requires the use of dual or hybrid engines. 

One dual engine concept studied is the overlunder 

engine installation. In this concept, a turbojet is 

used for takeoff and acceleration to supersonic 

speed and then a scramjet begins operation. As the 

performance of the turbojet decreases with higher 

flight speed, the performance of the scramjet increases. Internal contours of an efficient, variable 

geometry inlet capable of partitioning the incoming air between the two engines have been designed. Wind tunnel tests have verified that a 

scramjet can produce sufficient net thrust to sustain a large vehicle at hypersonic speeds. 

48 
Small turbine engines are very important to 

many ground applications, and to many types of 

aircraft, including general aviation, commuters, 

helicopters, and cruise missiles. Current efficiencies of small engines are 8 to 10 percent less than 

those of large engines, Axial flow compressors of 

the types used in large gas turbines exhibit sizable 

efficiency losses at smaller sizes. These losses can 

be reduced by substituting centrifugal compressors. However, centrifugal compressor passages involve much more complex phenomena. In 

1985, centrifugal compressors were evaluated 

analytically and experimentally to determine the 

effects of scale on compressor performance. The 

results indicate that centrifugal compressors can 

be designed and built to approach the excellence of 

the Energy Efficient Engine axial flow compressor. 

Propulsion instrumentation is an important 

enabling technology for fundamental propulsion 

research. An advanced optical measurement 

system was demonstrated that makes possible the 

non-instrusive measurement of turbomachinery 

flow fields for an operating engine. Through the 

understanding of turbomachinery secondary flow 

fields in small passages, advanced analytical flow 

codes can be developed, and validated for full 

engine operation. 

Controls and Guidance. Research over the past 

several years has built a strong technology base for 

flight controls employing advanced digital electronics, as opposed to mechanical systems, and for 

systems of integrated flight and propulsion controls that offer greater aircraft efficiency, effectiveness, and safety. As part of its Advanced 

Transport Operating Systems, NASA flight tested 

a total energy-control system concept on its 

Transport System Research Vehicle B-737 aircraft. The system incorporated a full-time autothrottle which controlled the total energy of the 

aircraft and used the elevator to distribute the 

energy between speed and flight path. The system 

has significantly reduced throttle activity and may 

find early application in new or derivative US. 

transport aircraft. 

Future aircraft with highly sophisticated 

systems will have failure modes that will make it 

difficult for the pilot to recognize and take corrective action. Such failures may lead to unanticipated 

sequences of events from which the pilot cannot 

recover intuitively. Controls that can restructure 

themselves would enable a system to detect and 

identify potential catastrophic failures in flight and 

to reconfigure the aircraft system, allowing continuation of safe flight. The benefits of the concept 

were demonstrated using NASA's B-737 aircraft 

simulator. In simulation, the elevator of the aircraft was locked in a failure position, and the aircraft control system was restructured to accommodate this failure. The simulation showed that in 

the presence of this failure, as well as in wind 

shear, the B-737 could have continued safe flight 

and made a safe landing. 

Human Factors. As automated features have 

been introduced into modern cockpits, the role of 

the pilot has changed from that of aircraft attitude 

controller to cockpit systems manager. The ManVehicle Systems Research Facility, a high fidelity 

simulator facility, has become fully operational and 

is used to study pilot supervisory control of aircraft 

automation, interactions between the crew and advanced computers, human-matched displays, and 

measures of cognitive workload. Last year, the 

simulator was used to evaluate side-arm controllers and wind shear simulation models. 

As part of their flying tasks in highly automated 

aircraft, pilots must operate onboard computers 

which can be dangerously distracting. For this 

reason, computer scientists and cognitive 

psychologists conducted a study to improve the 

design of automation interfaces. The objectives 

were to reduce training time and to increase the 

speed and accuracy of accessing vital information. 

Results indicated that performance objectives 

could be achieved by matching the access paths in 

the computers to those preferred by pilots. The 

methodology developed for this study will be applied to cockpit-design complexities that have eluded quantitative analysis in the past. 

Information Sciences. Scientific computers today 

are able to process complex algorithms, but setting 

up an algorithm is often cumbersome. The diverse 

hardware and software tools available for solving 

scientific problems are typically hard to use and 

poorly coordinated. To overcome this difficulty, 

the Research Institute for Advanced Computer 

Science at NASA's Ames Research Center has 

brought together computer scientists and 

disciplinary scientists to develop a unified, highlevel interface for diverse and complex computing 

resources. This has resulted in a large collection of 

scientific processing power. Further applications 

of networking graphics and supercomputers will 

advance these efforts and raise the productivity of 

scientific computer users. 

Systems Research 

NASA's systems research and technology programs focus on the integration of various aeronautical disciplines. Results of disciplinary 

research provide an understanding of interactions 

among the components of aircraft systems. Work 

during 1985 was directed at powered lift, advanced 

turboprops, and rotorcraft technology. 

49 
Kingdom has continued to make progress in defining a broad cooperative program directed at advanced STOVL technology. Four promising conceptual approaches have been identified for further 

investigation. To guide and govern the program, a 

draft Memorandum of Understanding has been approved by the Department of State for NASA and 

the Department of Defense to enter into with the 

Ministry of Defense of the United Kingdom. 

Advanced Turboprop Program. Despite moderation of jet fuel prices in recent years, fuel costs remain a pressing problem for the airline industry 

and operators of business jets. Today, fuel accounts for more than 30 percent of total operating 

costs of airlines. There is much uncertainty as to 

whether there will be other price escalations, such 

as those experienced in the oil crises of the 1970’s. 

Thus, the interest in increasing the advanced turbinelpropeller engine, or turboprop program, 

which offers the potential for a 30-percent reduction in aircraft fuel consumption. 

Through large-scale ground and flight testing, 

model scaling factors for critical technologies are 

being developed so research can be conducted using small-size models. A large-scale (9-foot 

diameter) single-rotation propeller has been 

mound tested. The aerodynamic results were close 

A 9-foot diameter advanced turboprop. 

Also successfully ground tested was the unducted fan concept, which offers the excellent fuel 

economy advantage of a turboprop but does not require a high-power gearbox. Results obtained show 

that the fuel consumption was slightly better than 

predicted. 

Rotorcraft Technology. A principal objective of 

NASA’s rotorcraft research is reduction of noise 

and vibration. In a series of tests, a helicopter with 

a liquid inertial vibration-absorption system 

demonstrated low vibration levels in flight. Also, a 

new analysis of coupled rotor/fuselage behavior 

has indicated significant potential for vibration 

reduction. These activities are being conducted in a 

special cooperative program involving NASA and 

U.S. helicopter manufacturers. 

In another cooperative program with the rotorcraft industry, acoustic research shows promise of 

predicting accurately the high-speed impulsive 

noise and blade-vortex interaction noise of rotors. 

The research also indicates ways of alleviating or 

avoiding these predominant noise sources. U.S. industry has received the first release of a comprehensive noise prediction code. 

to prediction, thus satisfying ground testing requirements to permit flight evaluation of the structural and aerodynamic characteristics of the propeller in 1986. 

Military Support 

NASA conducts numerous joint programs with 

the Department of Defense to maintain the con50 
tinued superiority of U.S. military aviation. These 

programs include both rotorcraft and highperformance aircraft. 

Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW). The MAW program demonstrates use of variable smooth camber 

(fore to aft curvature) wing technology to provide 

dramatic improvements in aircraft payload, range, 

maneuverability, fuel efficiency, and handling 

qualities. The wing, covered by a flexible composite 

material, has a computerized system of sensors, 

controls, and internal hydraulic actuators that can 

change its contour. Flight testing began in 1985 on 

an F-111 aircraft. Tests to validate the performance benefits, including a potential range improvement of 25 percent, will be completed in 1986. 

F-15 Highly Integrated Digital Engine Control 

(HiDEC). HiDEC is a joint NASAlAir Forcelindustry flight research experiment to develop 

technology for beneficial interaction of engine and 

flight controls. Flight research continued during 

1985 on an F-15 aircraft modified for digital electronic flight and engine control, and is expected to 

be completed in 1987. The control technology involved allows the automatic adjustment of engine 

operating parameters, based on flight conditions. 

Compared to the performance of a standard F-15, 

the modified aircraft is expected to double the excess supersonic thrust. 

Oblique Wing Research Airplane. This joint 

NASAlNavy activity consists of the design, 

fabrication, and flight research testing of an oblique wing on an existing aircraft during transonic 

and supersonic flight conditions. The oblique wing, 

conceptualized over forty years ago by R. T. Jones 

of NASA, pivots in flight to form oblique angles 

with the airplane’s fuselage. During takeoff and 

low-speed operation, such a wing would be at right 

angles to the fuselage or “straight.” At higher 

speeds, it would swing around a pivot so that the 

leading edge on one side would be swept forward, 

and the other would be swept aft encountering less 

drag. This concept offers great aerodynamic efficiency at both high and low speeds. In 1985, a 

preliminary design contract was awarded to 

establish the basis for final design, fabrication, and 

installation of the oblique wing, and its associated 

systems, on the NASA F-8 Digital Fly-By-Wire aircraft. The flight research testing is planned for 

1989. 

X-29A Forward-Swept Wing Flight Dernonstrator. In March, NASA began the flight research 

program of the highly advanced X-29 aircraft at 

Ames Research Center’s Dryden Flight Facility. 

The X-29A features a unique forward-swept wing, 

made of composite materials, which offers weight 

reduction up to 20 percent compared to the weight 

of conventional aft-swept wings. In addition, the 

forward “canard” wings are computer adjusted 40 

X-29A Forward-Swept Wing aircraft. 

times a second to improve flight efficiency and aircraft agility. Flight test results have agreed with 

predictions. The X-29A aircraft and its various 

systems have demonstrated high reliability during 

the initial flight phase. 

RSRAIX- Wing Rotor Flight Investigation. At the 

request of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA is managing and supporting a 

program to develop and flight test the X-wing 

rotor concept of the NASAlArmy Rotor Systems 

Research Aircraft (RSRA). The X-wing rotor has 

four extremely stiff blades that can be transformed 

in flight into an X-shaped fixed wing. For takeoff 

and landing, hovering, and low speeds, the rotor 

operates in the spinning mode as a helicopter 

rotary wing. At a speed of about 200 miles per 

hour, the rotor is stopped and locked in place, providing fixed-wing lift for much higher speeds. In 

1985, components of the X-wing rotor system were 

fabricated, tested, and assembled on a propulsion 

system test bed (PSTB) to evaluate system 

characteristics. The system has performed as 

designed in PSTB testing. A prototype digital flyby-wire flight control computer has been built and 

is now being tested. Supporting research and 

technology conducted by NASA includes wind tunnel evaluations, piloted simulation, and technical 

guidance for the X-wing rotor. In 1986, RSRA/Xwing activities will focus on completion of the rotor 

system assembly, propulsion system tests, and 

preparation for flight testing. 

51 
The X-Wing Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). 

Convertible Engine. The convertible engine 

allows a gas turbine engine’s output to be in the 

form of either shaft power or fan power. The transition from one to the other can be made in a continuous manner during engine operation. A test of 

the transient conversion requirement for an 

X-wing configuration vehicle has been completed. 

The results indicate that the propulsion technology 

for efficient conversion between shaft power and 

fan power in a military X-wing configuration has 

been established. Potential applications of this 

technology include the tilt fan and folded tilt rotor 

concepts. 

Helicopter Air Combat Simulation. NASA’s Vertical Motion Simulator (VNIS) has been instrumental in helping the Army define handling qualities 

and flight characteristics of helicopters conducting 

low level air combat. The VMS allows a flexibility 

and safety factor that cannot be achieved in actual 

flight tests. The results will allow development of 

vehicle and system design specifications. 

Safety in Air Transportation 

NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) closely coordinate research activities in 

order to meet the continuing challenge of providing a safer air transportation system for the Nation’s growing number of air travelers. 

Aircrafl Icing. NASA is engaged in laboratory 

and flight investigations of icing on fixed-wing and 

rotary-wing aircraft. Icing can cause increased aircraft drag, reduced lift, stall, loss of engine power, 

and other hazards. The principal objective of icing 

research is to find solutions to aircraft icing problems. The research is focused on developing computer codes and methods for predicting ice accretion and its effect on unprotected surfaces; ice protection systems that minimize weight and power 

consumption; instrumentation for detecting and 

measuring ice accretion and icing cloud properties; 

and new instrumentation for detecting changes in 

aircraft performance due to icing and for assessing 

the icing threat in real time. In June 1985, NASA’s 

Lewis Research Center conducted a symposium 

for industry on an Electro-Impulse Deicing System 

which holds promise as an effective, lightweight, 

low-power ice protection system for many 

aeronautical applications. 

Wind Shear. The emphasis of research on wind 

shear, which is a sudden shift in wind velocity and 

direction often associated with severe storms, is on 

characterizing the condition and surviving it. The 

“microburst”, the most violent form of wind shear, 

has been identified as the probable cause of many 

aircraft accidents. Also, in wind shear research, 

computational fluid dynamics codes are used to 

transform wind shear data into useful flight 

simulator models. The wind shear models have 

been incorporated into the Advanced Transport 

Operating System simulator. In addition, research 

has been conducted to evaluate an optimal 

automatic flight control system for penetrating 

regions of severe weather. Results indicate that 

use of the new control system design is much more 

effective in a severe wind shear and gust environment than use of the standard B-737 autoland 

system. The glideslope, sltitude, and airspeed control is much tighter, and requires less elevator and 

throttle activity than does the conventional 

autoland system. Flight tests of this optimal control system, using NASA’s B-737 aircraft, are 

planned for 1986. 

Aviation Safety Reporting System. NASA continues to manage the Aviation Safety Reporting 

System (ASRS) for the FAA. Studies of the ASRS 

database in 1985 found significant increases in 

automation induced crew errors and runway transgressions. The studies also have shown that crews 

who have performed together for longer periods of 

time, even though they may be fatigued, are more 

productive and make fewer errors than crews who 

have just started working together. 

Control Impact Demonstration. On December 1, 1984, NASA and the FAA jointly conducted 

a control impact demonstration with a B-720 aircraft. The purpose was to demonstrate and 

validate technology that would improve passenger 

survivability in crashes of transport aircraft. A fully instrumented, remotely piloted Boeing 720 aircraft was flown into the ground to obtain structural impact data and to assess the performance of 

an anti-misting fuel additive. High quality structural data obtained during the impact test are being used by the FAA in decisions for rulemaking 

and by NASA to validate structural impact prediction models. 

52 
Department of Defense 

Space and space transportation systems have 

high priority in the Department of Defense (DOD), 

and continue to play a major role in the security of 

the United States and its allies. To complement the 

Space Shuttle, DOD is in the process of acquiring 

Complementary Expendable Launch Vehicles. In 

1985, preparations continued for the first launch, 

scheduled for mid 1986, of the Space Shuttle from 

the West Coast Shuttle launch and landing 

facilities at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. 

In 1985, efforts continued to increase the survivability, autonomy, and reliability of satellite 

supporting systems crucial to the deterrence and 

containment of hostilities. The Global Positioning 

System expanded to seven satellites; and the 

precise geodetic positions provided to military and 

civilian users during tests of the System exceeded 

operational requirements. 

The Air Force Space Command manages and 

operates the space assets of the Air Force. Since 

1982, it has been the field agency responsible for 

day-to-day control of Air Force satellites, and for 

ensuring that they provide support to operational 

commanders. In addition, it functions as an interface between research and development activities 

and space system users; and it integrates longrange space planning, doctrine, and operational requirements. 

In 1983 the Strategic Defense Initiative began. 

After completion in the 1990’s of the necessary major research, a decision will be made on possible 

deployment of the resulting defensive systems. 

In September 1985, the Secretary of Defense 

established the U.S. Space Command, located in 

Colorado Springs, Colorado. This unified command, composed of the Air Force and Naval Space 

Commands and an Army element, provides an 

organizational structure that will centralize 

responsibilities to make more effective use of space 

systems. 

In December 1985, the Army Space Initiatives 

Study (ASIS) Group completed and delivered its 

report to the Army Space Council. The Group 

developed an operational concept for Army space 

activities and an Army Space Master Plan, including recommendations for space-related personnel management issues, an investment 

strategy, and a management plan with an 

organizational proposal. It recommended 53 individual initiatives consisting of various investment opportunities, and contains detailed recommendations regarding training and management 

of personnel involved in space activities. Finally, 

the Group recommended an organizational plan to 

ensure Army participation in the U.S. Space Command, and to provide a focus on space in Army 

staff activities, and within the Training and Doctrine and Army Materiel Commands. The Space 

Council referred the ASIS report to the Army 

Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations and Plans, for 

formal staffing. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

MILSA TCOM. Military Satellite Communications is a system that will provide communication 

linkages between decision makers and deployed 

forces worldwide. By coordinating the capabilities 

of specialized satellites and ground terminals, it 

can provide reliable and survivable communications to strategic and tactical forces over the full 

range of conflict and national emergencies. During 

1985, mil; tary satellite communications continued 

to depend primarily on the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), the Fleet Satellite 

Communications System (FLTSATCOM), and 

selected commercial Satellite Communications 

(SATCOM) circuits. The strategic and tactical 

nuclear-capable forces also were served by the Air 

Force Satellite Communications System (AFSATCOM), which uses transponder packages on 

FLTSATCOM, the Satellite Data Systems, and 

other host satellites. In the future, strategic and 

tactical satellite communications will depend on 

DSCS, Milstar, and ultra high frequency satellite 

systems. 

Defense Satellite Communications Systems. The 

DSCS provides super high frequency satellite communications for secure voice and high data rate 

transmissions to support both defense and 

diplomatic users. Currently operating worldwide 

53 
with three DSCS Phase I1 and one DSCS Phase I11 

communications satellites in geostationary orbit, it 

supports forces for long-haul, moderate-to-high 

data rate communications. 

The ground terminals of DSCS continue to be improved in capability and survivability. Added in 

1985, were 20 medium-sized ANIGSC-39 terminals; 24 jam resistant, secure communications 

terminals; and 39 improved AN/GSC-52 terminals, 

which are more automated in their operation. Also, 

4 gateway terminals, which permit communications between strategic and tactical users; and 2 

Satellite Configuration Control Elements were 

added. 

Between 1985 and 1986, selected DSCS control 

facilities will receive an operations support system 

that provides an automated means of allocating 

service to competing users. During 1985, four 

ANIMSQ-114 terminals approved for operational 

use with the DSCS I11 control subsystem were accepted and deployed for tactical use, and final acceptance testing was initiated on the AN/TSC-85A 

multi-channel and ANITSC-93A single-channel 

tactical terminals. 

Other procurements are planned to occur by 

1987, predicated on the need for a more efficient 

semi-automated system control. Included are Frequency Division Multiple Access Control Subsystems, which monitor network terminal performance and relay information to major control 

terminals; Smart Multi-Circuit Terminals; and the 

Ground Mobile Forces Control Link. These components in the DSCS operations control system 

will provide an enhanced capability to monitor, 

control and reconfigure communications vital to 

national security. 

Milstar. The Milstar communications satellite 

system will provide worldwide jam-resistant, survivable and enduring voice communications for the 

National Command Authorities. As a crucial part 

of the President's strategic modernization program, the system has been given high priority. In 

November 1985, preliminary design review of a 

spacecraft and satellite control segment was completed, along with payload and interface testing. 

The Air Force Space Command developed plans 

for deployment of the satellite control segment, 

which will allow spacecraft station keeping and 

maintenance operations during wartime. The Navy 

Joint Terminal Program office is responsible for 

overall management of the development of terminals to support the National Command 

Authorities, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and general terminal requirements of the service branches. The 

Air Force is responsible for airborne and some 

strategic ground terminals, and the Navy and 

Army for shipboard and ground terminals, respectively. In July 1985, the Navy demonstrated two 

competing prototype terminal designs using a 

Fleet Satellite extremely high frequency package, 

It plans full-scale development in 1986. Advanced 

development of the Army's Single Channel Objective Tactical Terminal (SCOTT) has been completed. SCOTT will operate in the extremely high 

frequency band and will provide survivable communications in wartime. In December 1985, an 

engineering development contract was awarded 

that will provide 15 terminals for testing in 1988; 

initial production is also expected in 1988. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. This 

system provides worldwide command and control 

for tactical and strategic forces of all U.S. military 

services. Ultra High Frequency (UHF) SATCOM, 

a segment of FLTSATCOM, is the backbone 

system for users communicating beyond line of 

sight, especially Navy users. It provides coverage 

worldwide from 70" north to 70" south, serving as 

a crisis and contingency system that will complement other satellite communications well into the 

21st Century. It includes ground, ship, aircraft, 

and portable terminals; space segments; and control terminals. To date, four FLTSAT's and three 

Leased Satellites (LEASAT's) have been launched 

and are now operating in orbit. Another LEASAT 

and additional FLTSAT's will be launched between 

1986 and 1988. When all LEASAT's become operational, the space segment will consist of four 

FLTSAT/LEASAT pairs. In 1991, a UHF satellite 

will replenish existing FLTSAT/LEASAT pairs in 

order to maintain vital command and control 

linkages to military forces. 

Army Satellite Communications. The Army continues to develop and expand the worldwide 

Defense Satellite Communications System, 

FLTSAT/AFSAT, and Milstar satellite communications systems to satisfy strategic and tactical requirements. Specific responsibilities include 

development, procurement, and life cycle support 

of ground terminals and support systems. 

Strategic Satellite Communications. In 1985, the 

Army spent considerable time and effort preparing 

the ground subsystem of the DSCS for increased 

capacity, reliability and survivability. Two new 

satellite configuration control elements were installed to support the operation of DSCS I11 

satellites now being tested. Also, to enhance 

strategic terminal operations, a number of new 

digital communications subsystems were installed. 

Tactical Satellite Communications. In 1985, use 

of satellite communications by ground mobile 

forces increased. Installation of the Multichannel 

Initial System's ANITSC-85A and ANITSC-93A 

terminals started in Korea. These terminals 

operate in the super high frequency band and use 

satellites from the DSCS; 200 terminals will be 

deployed worldwide within the next two years. In 

54 
addition, production began on the Anti-Jam and 

Control Modem, which is a product improvement 

program to provide a jam resistant communications capability. The modifications provide more 

survivable communications, and more effective use 

of scarce satellite communications resources. Also, 

the ANIPSC-3 and ANNSC-7 manpack and vehicular mounted UHF tactical satellite terminals were 

installed. These terminals provide a unique singlechannel communications capability for Army 

Ranger and Special Forces. 

Navigation and Geodesy 

Global Positioning System (GPS). In October 

1985, the last developmental GPS Satellite, 

Navstar 11, was launched. Currently, seven GPS 

developmental satellites are performing excellently. Procurement of operational satellites was in its 

fourth year under a multi-year, 28 spacecraft, contract. The first operational launch is scheduled for 

1987, with full operational capability planned for 

1988. 

Development of GPS receivers continued with 

selection of a contractor to produce user equipment. Test results obtained from host vehicles such 

as the F-16, B-52, UH-60, submarines, aircraft carriers and manpacks indicate that overall navigation performance meets or exceeds requirements. 

However, reliability and maintainability are lower 

than expected. The services will accept limited production, pending corrections for reliability and 

maintainability. In addition, the Defense Mapping 

Agency conducted acceptance tests of GPS 

geodetic receivers phased into operation in 1985, 

and will continue the tests in 1986. The ground 

control center currently located at Vandenberg Air 

Force Base, California, will be transferred in 1986 

to the Consolidated Space Operations Center at 

Falcon Air Force Station, Colorado. 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite. In March, the 

Navy’s geodetic and geophysical satellite 

(GEOSAT) was launched. Its mission is to determine a global marine geoid by measuring small 

variations in the height of the ocean surface. With 

the completion of geoid measurements, the 

satellite will be repositioned into a repeat orbit to 

optimize oceanographic measurements of wave 

height and surface wind speed and to locate ocean 

fronts and eddies. 

Meteorology and Oceanography 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP). DMSP completed another year of providing critically important, secure, high-quality 

meteorological data to DOD strategic and tactical 

forces around the world. The multiyear procurement of four satellites initiated in 1983 continues 

on schedule, with a projected cost savings of $58.2 

million. 

Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System (N-Ross). 

The N-ROSS satellite is designed to measure ocean 

surface winds, sea surface temperatures, ocean 

fronts and eddies, polar ice conditions, atmospheric water vapor and significant wave 

heights. Its sensor derives its heritage from the 

SEASAT, NIMBUS, GEOSAT, and the National 

Oceanic Satellite System (NOSS) satellite projects. 

The scatterometer sensor, to study ocean surface 

winds, will be built under NASA’s direction. The 

Air Force will manage launch, command and control functions; and the Navy will process N-ROSS 

data at the Fleet Numerical Oceanic Center, 

Monterey, California. The National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration will distribute the 

data to federal agencies, private industry, and the 

academic community. Launch of the satellite is 

scheduled for September 1990. 

Surveillance and Warning 

Early warning satellites, complemented by 

ground-based radars and sensors, warn of potential ballistic missile attacks. Surveillance techniques that will allow detection of cruise missiles 

are under study. Included in the studies is the 

feasibility of detecting and tracking cruise missiles 

from space platforms. The Air Force has initiated 

technology assessments of cruise missile flights 

against low-contrast Earth backgrounds. Its Teal 

Ruby program will test infrared detection of airbreathing vehicles by an orbiting platform, and will 

provide data on the feasibility of various 

surveillance techniques. These data are vital for 

development of a space-based, wide-area 

surveillance system. In 1985, the Teal Ruby flight 

sensor completed radiometric and thermal vacuum 

testing, and was modified to allow retrieval by the 

Space Shuttle. 

Antisatellite (ASAT) Program. The Space 

Defense program continued to develop a lowaltitude, miniature-vehicle ASAT system. The 

primary purposes of an ASAT capability are to 

deter threats to space systems belonging to the 

U.S. and its allies, and to deny use by an adversary 

of space-based systems that provide support to 

hostile military forces. ASAT’s will be launched 

from F-15 aircraft. In September 1985, the first intercept test against an object in space was conducted. 

Strategic Defense Initiative. The Strategic 

Defense Initiative Organization is responsible for 

directing and coordinating programs of the Army, 

Navy, Air Force, Defense Nuclear Agency, and 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency that 

study defenses against attack by ballistic missiles. 

55 
The goal of the Organization is to assess the 

feasbility of key technologies so that a determination can be made in the 1990’s on producing and 

deploying defense systems. Research is divided 

into five major elements: 

technologies for surveillance, acquisition, 

tracking, and kill assessment of ballistic 

missiles or their components during their 

boost, mid-course, and terminal trajectory 

phases 

consolidation of research on directed-energy 

weapons such as space and ground based 

lasers, X-ray lasers, and particle beams 

0 research on kinetic energy weapons to 

destroy, by direct impact, ballistic missiles or 

their components (In 1985, the Army demonstrated use of this technology using nonnuclear techniques.) 

systems analydbattle management studies 

to determine effective structures for command and control elements of a defensive 

system 

research on survivability, lethality, and key 

technologies focusing on the survivability of 

defensive systems, the lethal capability 

against ballistic missiles, problems of electrical power in space, and launch vehicle requirements. 

The results will permit future decision makers to 

make informed choices on whether to develop and 

deploy defenses against the ballistic missile threat 

to the United States and its allies. 

U.S. Army Strategic Defense Command 

(USASDC). In July 1985, the Army Ballistic Missile 

Defense Organization was redesignated USASDC. 

It conducts a continuing research program involving the above five program elements of strategic 

missile defense. Its goal is to build a strong 

technological foundation from which a wide range 

of options for strategic defense can be developed. 

The technology for terminal systems to defend 

strategic assets has been developed, and contracts 

have been awarded for the Terminal Imaging 

Radar and Airborne Optical Adjunct. In 1986, a 

contract will be awarded for the High Endoatmospheric Defense Interceptor. Technologies to support longer-range intercepts, while not as mature, 

are rapidly approaching the stage where new 

system concepts such as the Exoatmospheric Reentry Vehicle Interceptor System, Free Electron 

Laser, and Neutral Particle Beam may be 

demonstrated soon. Future efforts will focus on 

refining previous achievements, developing proofof-principle technologies and conducting validation 

experiments. 

Space Transportation 

Future Space Transportation. DOD continues to 

participate in joint studies with NASA on next 

generation space transportation requirements, architecture and technology. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs). In 1985, 

DOD launched two Titan 34D and two Atlas E 

vehicles. In addition, two Scout vehicles were 

launched for DOD by NASA. In support of the 

President’s national policy for assured access to 

space, DOD continued activities that will lead to 

the acquisition and launch of 10 Complementary 

ELV’s (CELV’s) between 1988 and 1992. They will 

be used as a complement to the Space Shuttle, and 

will be capable of boosting Shuttle-class, national 

security payloads into geosynchronous orbit. 

In 1985, deactivation and storage of the 56 existing Titan I1 missiles continued, with 32 of them 

now in storage at Norton Air Force Base, California. Planning continued for converting Titan 11’s to 

ELV’s; and a request for proposal, with a program 

start date in 1986, has been released. 

Space Shuttle. The Department of Defense and 

NASA have worked together on the Nation’s 

Space Transportation System. NASA has development and operational responsibilities for the Space 

Shuttle, including the East Coast Shuttle launch 

and landing facilities at Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida, and the Mission Control Center at 

Johnson Space Center, Texas. DOD’s responsibilities for the Shuttle include development of the 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), one of the upper 

stages used to boost spacecraft into geosynchronous orbit, and operation of the West Coast 

Shuttle launch and landing facilities at 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. Modifications of NASA’s facilities and equipment for 

classified operations at Johnson and Kennedy 

Space Centers and Marshall and Goddard Space 

Flight Centers are being funded by the Air Force. 

Construction of major facilities at Vandenberg is 

essentially complete, and installation of support 

equipment is well underway. Vandenberg will 

enable the Shuttle to launch satellites into polar orbit, a capability not achievable from Kennedy 

Space Center. 

Upper Stage Programs. The Space Shuttle requires upper stages to boost payloads from low 

Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit (GEO). They 

include the commercial Payload Assist Modules, 

PAM-D and PAM-A, which can carry 450 to 1,400 

kilograms to GEO; the Air Force IUS, which can 

boost 2,300 kilograms to GEO; and the joint 

NASA-Air Force Centaur which will be able to 

transport 4,500 kilograms to GEO. The IUS made 

two successful flights in 1985. 

56 
Advanced Spacecraft Technology. In 1985, the 

Air Force continued work on its advanced spacecraft technology program. The program’s primary 

objective is to increase satellite survivability, 

autonomy, performance reliability, and lifetime. 

The secondary objective is to use lighter, less complex, and more economical satellites than exist currently. The program focuses on computers, electronics, and power, and on technology planning. In 

1985, the satellite autonomy project was completed, and a program to develop technology for 

space-qualified Very High Speed Integrated Circuits was started. Continued was development of 

microelectronics that are more capable and 

hardened. In addition, development was initiated 

of a high-efficiency solar panel and a high-density, 

space-qualified battery to support satellite operations. 

Space Test Program. In 1985, the Space Test 

Program (STP) provided space flights for 17 experiments, including five reflights. In addition, six 

STP satellites remained in orbit where they are 

collecting data to use in the design of future DOD 

space systems. Fourteen of the 17 experiments 

were flight-deck quick response payloads for 

oceanographic, meteorological, and radiation 

measurements, as well as laser tracking and biotechnology. The remaining three were flown in 

NASA Get-Awav Swcial canisters in the Shuttle’s 

payload bay. f’hLy included space 

measurements and deployment of the 

Orbiting Relay Satellite. 

ultraviolet 

Global Low 

Aeronautical Activities 

Fixed- Wing Programs 

Bomber Development (B-1B). In June 1985, the 

first operational B-1B aircraft were delivered to 

the Strategic Air Command. The B-1B’s operational capabilities were tested at Dyess Air Force 

Base, near Abilene, Texas, and at Edwards Air 

Force Base, California. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). The ATF program is developing the next-generation Air Force 

fighter to counter the Soviet threat in the late 

1990’s and beyond. Improving on the design of the 

F-15, the ATF will perform counterair operations 

in enemy airspace with an effective “first-look, 

first-kill” capability. It will incorporate both 

superior performance and survivability features, 

as well as improved reliability and maintainability. 

Its improved capabilities will be made possible by 

significant technological advances in the areas of 

signature reduction, aerodynamic design, flight 

controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, signal and 

information processors, and integrated avionics. It 

will reach an initial operational capability in 1995. 

In August 1985, the ATF program completed an 

Air Force Systems Acquisition Review Council 

milestone. A request for proposal was released in 

October for the Demonstration/Validation phase. 

Contractor proposals were requested by February 

1986, with a source selection scheduled for 

mid-1986. The DemonstrationlValidation phase is 

intended to reduce technical risks for full-scale 

development in 1989, and to develop preliminary 

designs and tradeoffs to meet affordable goals. 

Other accomplishments in 1985 included development and demonstration of avionics processors 

and computers, and component testing on the 

Joint Advanced Fighter Engine, the technology 

demonstrator leading to the ATF engine. 

C-5. In 1985, wing modifications were completed 

on 50 C-5A aircraft. Modification of the entire fleet 

of 77 aircraft is expected to be completed by July 

1987. It will allow the C-5A to attain full mission 

capability and will extend aircraft service life by 

30,000 flight hours. The production program for 50 

C-5B’s will use a wing of the same basic design. 

The program is on schedule, with the first aircraft 

delivered in December 1985. Both the C-5A and 

C-5B are expected to operate well into the next 

century. 

C-17’. The C-17 transport aircraft will provide the 

minimum intertheater airlift requirements 

specified in a study mandated by Congress. The 

aircraft will replace the capability lost from retiring C-130’s and some C-141’s. Full-scale development efforts will continue through 1986, leading to 

production in 1988, and an initial operational 

capability in 1992. 

T-45TS. The Secretary of Defense authorized 

development of a fully integrated naval aviator 

training system which includes aircraft, simulator, 

and related equipment. The T-45TS replaces the 

T-2C, intermediate, and TA-4J, advanced, jet 

training aircraft. It is a carrier-capable derivative 

of the British Aerospace Hawk aircraft. First 

flight of the aircraft is scheduled for 1987; initial 

operational capability is planned for 1990; and production of 300 aircraft, 32 simulators, and 

associated training equipment will continue 

through 1995. 

Cruise Missile Programs 

Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The 

ALCM is a long-range, subsonic missile designed 

for deployment from the B-52G and H. An inertial 

navigation system guides the missile to the target. 

The system is updated after launch by terrain correlation matching. A total of 1,715 missiles will be 

delivered to the Strategic Air Command by Oc57 
tober 1986. A B-52G carries 12 ALCM’s on two external pylons, and retains the capability of carrying short range attack missiles and gravity 

weapons internally. Future plans include loading 

cruise missiles externally and internally on 

B-52H1s, for a total of 20 missiles per aircraft. The 

B-1B will also be capable of carrying cruise 

missiles. ALCM missiles are deployed at five B-52 

bases, with deployment underway at two additional bases. 

Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). Air 

Force deployment and testing of GLCM’s continue 

on schedule. Initial operational capabilities were 

established at Greenham Common, United 

Kingdom in December 1983; Comiso, Italy in 

March 1984; and Florennes, Belgium in March 

1985. In June 1984, Follow-on Operational Test 

and Evaluation (FOT&E) Phase I was completed, 

demonstrating that the GLCM weapons system 

can perform its mission effectively. In July 1984, 

FOT&E Phase I1 was initiated and will continue to 

gather data from ground, communication and 

flight testing through June 1986. 

Helicopter Programs 

AH-64 Apache Advanced Attack Helicopter. In 

December 1985, the 59th AH-64 Apache helicopter 

was delivered to the Army, marking completion of 

the second production contract. The Army procured a total of 309 aircraft out of the 675 programmed, and deployment to all Training and Doctrine stations is nearly complete. In April 1986, the 

first unit will begin training at Ford Hood, Texas. 

CH-47 Modernization. The modernized mediumlift helicopter, the CH-47D, provides responsive 

movement of ammunition, repair parts, troops and 

vehicles. The CH-47’s outdated technology and age 

dictated modernization in order to maintain Army 

medium-lift capability. The CH-47D provides 

substantial improvements in reliability, maintainability, flight safety and survivability. In April 

1985, the Army awarded a multiyear contract to 

modernize 240 CH-47A, B, and C aircraft to the D 

configuration. A proposed second multiyear contract from 1990 to 1993 would complete a program 

total of 468 CH-47D’s. 

UH-SOA Black Hawk. The Black Hawk is the 

helicopter the Army needs to implement the airmobility doctrine of land forces in the 1980’s and 

1990’s. This aircraft provides the combat support 

and combat service required to sustain ground 

forces engaged in land warfare. By November 

1985, the Army had accepted 700 Black Hawk 

helicopters for high priority units in the United 

States, Europe, Panama, and Korea. In 1986, 

deliveries will continue to active units in the 

United States, Europe, and Japan, and to the National Guard and Army Reserve. The Black Hawk 

58 

provides improved capability to carry a combatequipped squad of 11 men, or comparable cargo, in 

adverse weather, day or night. 

HH-SOA Night Hawk. The Air Force completed 

HH-GOA airframe flight tests, and modified test 

aircraft with avionics required to perform combat 

search and rescue missions. In July 1985, integration of avionics was completed for low-level 

navigation at night and under the weather, and a 

one-year flight test program began. Although 

modernization of combat rescue capabilities is badly needed, the HH-GOA program was canceled due 

to budget constraints. Reinstatement must be 

evaluated against overall Air Force priorities. 

VISTOL Programs 

V-22 Osprey (Formerly JVX). The Osprey is 

designed to provide the Marine Corps, Navy, Air 

Force and Army with a multi-mission Verticallshort Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) 

capability for the 1990’s and beyond. It will satisfy 

operational requirements such as Marine Corps 

assault vertical lift, Navy combat search and 

rescue, Air Force special operations, and Army 

medium cargo assault lift. In April 1983, the 

Preliminary Design Phase began; in 1986, a decision leading to full-scale development is expected. 

Powered model, aeroelasticity, and large-scale 

rotor performance tests were completed. Results 

of these tests will lead to detail design of the 

Ground Test Vehicle, which is critical to a first 

flight, expected in 1988. 

Aeronautical Research and Development 

X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator. The 

X-29, the first X-series aircraft in over a decade, 

has completed its first year of flight testing. This 

innovative program demonstrates advanced highrisk, high-payoff technologies for future consideration. Exploitation of these technologies will improve future fighter aircraft performance, and will 

reduce the time, risk, and cost of future development. It is a joint DARPAlNASAlAir Force program that expands significantly the existing data 

bases for advanced composite research, 

aerodynamic and structural analytical design 

methods, design techniques of digital flight control 

systems, systems integration, and test and evaluation capabilities. The flight testing is being conducted by a joint governmentlindustry team at 

NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base, California. By November 

1985, 21 flights had been flown and test results 

met or exceeded predictions in all technical areas. 

The first X-29 produced will continue to gather 

research data, and strong emphasis will be placed 

both on the rapid transfer of test results to cor- 
porate and government users through the DARPA 

X-29 Future Applications Committee, and to 

validation of advanced aeronautical concepts. A 

second aircraft has been built, and the Air Force 

intends to use it to conduct a high angle-of-attack 

testing program, in cooperation with DARPA and 

NASA. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

(AFTI). In 1985, an infrared sensing and tracking 

system was installed in the AFTI test aircraft at 

Edwards Air Force Base. The fully integrated 

system provides highly accurate, maneuvering attack against ground targets from very low 

altitudes, and improved air-to-air effectiveness. 

Technologies in the AFTI program will be used to 

improve the performance of future aircraft such as 

the Advanced Tactical Fighter. 

Hypersonic CruiselTransatmospheric Vehicle. 

DARPA, and the Air Force, Navy, Strategic 

Defense Initiative Organization, and NASA are investigating technology for a liquid-hydrogen 

fueled, airbreathing ramjetlscramjet andlor 

rocket-propelled vehicle capable of operating at 

hypersonic speeds. This technology would allow a 

horizontal takeoff aircraft to cruise at Mach 6 to 12 

above 100,000 feet in the atmosphere or into space 

as a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle. 

The goal of this research is iiproof-of-concept” 

tests of a hypersonic propulsion system capable of 

operating efficiently at speeds from take-off to orbit. Technologies, such as those for advanced 

materials, actively cooled structures, lightweight 

tank and enginelairframe integration concepts, 

needed to usher in a new generation of airbreathing, hypersonic, transatmospheric vehicles, 

also will be pursued. 

X- Wing. The X-wing combines the vertical lift efficiency of a helicopter with the speed, range, and 

altitude performance of a transonic, fixed-wing aircraft. For lift and control, it operates as a rigid 

rotor helicopter that uses circulation control instead of blade pitching. When in forward flight 

aloft, the X-wing converts to a fixed-wing configuration. When the rotor is stopped and the fixed 

blades are swept both forward and aft, the aircraft 

is capable of transonic speeds. At its Critical 

Design Review in 1985, the Joint DARPNNASA 

X-wing program passed a major milestone. The 

major X-wing components approved were the 

56-foot-diameter rotor and bearingless hub, the 

pneumatic valving system for blade cyclic liftcontrol, a high-torque clutch and brake, and a 

highly advanced digital fly-by-wire control system, 

that provides active rotor stabilization and highharmonic vibration suppression. Also in 1985, the 

full-scale rotor system, with all drive components, 

was fabricated; and initial subsystem testing was 

initiated. The flight-control computer began initial 

check-out in a full-vehicle simulation laboratory, 

which included all flight hardware. In 1986, all the 

full-scale components will be integrated into a Propulsion System Test-Bed which will allow dynamic 

validation of the components and the flight-control 

system. 

Rotorcraft System Integration Simulator (RSIS). 

RSIS is a joint ArmylNASA demonstration and 

validation program that will provide vital information for helicopter development through simulation 

of rotorcraft flight dynamics, as well as solutions 

to many of the problems associated with developing new or improving old aircraft. The problems include systems integration, the effectiveness of 

weapons systems on rotorcraft and flying qualities. 

As part of the RSIS program, which will end in 

1986, the Army will develop software for potential 

use in all flight training simulators. 

Light Helicopter Family (LHX). The Advanced 

Rotorcraft Technology Integration program supports full-scale development of a family of Light 

Helicopters, with deployment expected in late 

1986. The goal of the program is to develop both 

the system specifications for an Advanced Integrated1Automated Cockpit and the associated 

electronic architecture for LHX development. The 

practicality of a single crew member concept will 

also be considered in this program. Previous 

research efforts have shown that an integrated and 

automated cockpit, and associated electronic architecture, could provide the LHX and existing 

helicopters with improved characteristics. Some of 

them are improved communications and weapon 

system management, more accurate navigation, 

better target acquisition, and reduced pilot 

workload. 

Microwave Landing System (MLS). In 1985, the 

Air Force prepared a request for proposal to acquire mobile MLS equipment and commercial MLS 

avionics. In addition, DOD continued to work 

closely with the FAA on fixed base MLS acquisitions which are planned for 1987. A second FAA 

competitive multiyear contract will be awarded in 

September 1987 for 700 systems, approximately 

200 of which will be for DOD. Participation continued in the National MLS and the Tri-Service 

Tactical MLS. In 1985, under an FAA contract for 

the aviation training center at Ft. Rucker, 

Alabama, the Army procured two National MLS 

systems for delivery in 1988. The system will allow 

the Army to continue operating in the civilian and 

NATO aeronautical structures. 

Avionics. Tri-service efforts continued with the 

Digital Audio Distribution System which uses 

state-of-the-art voice-digitization and noisereduction techniques to distribute audio and data 

signals throughout aircraft. Also, the Navy joined 

the Air ForcelArmy Integrated Communications, 

59 
Navigation, Identification Avionics program. This 

program will consolidate aircraft radio signals into 

an integrated unit through the use of digital 

avionics that are resistant to jamming and interception. In 1985, efforts continued on programs 

to improve electronics that reduce pilot workloads 

and enhance combat effectiveness. The new 

technologies used will result in significant space 

and weight savings. 

Army Aeronautical Technology Research. The 

purpose of this program is to increase operational 

effectiveness of helicopters, reduce life cycle costs, 

and improve systems integration analysis, and 

flight simulation capabilities. The program includes research in the areas of aerodynamics, 

structures, propulsion, reliability, maintainability; 

safety and survivability, subsystems, mission support, flight simulation, and man-machine integration. In 1985, research projects undertaken were: 

evaluation of concepts for protecting helicopters against nuclear, biological and 

chemical agents 

flight testing of the icing severity-level indicator system 

development of analytical and testing techniques to determine crack growth in composites damaged in combat, through 

maintenance or accidents, or during manufacture 

assessment of aircraft subsystems to determine which potentially could be used in advanced optical concepts for flight control 

systems 

development of computer voice recognition 

and generation for new radar warning 

receivers 

development of preliminary test plans, and 

construction of an advanced main rotor for 

testing in a Dutch wind tunnel, unique in its 

capabilities for fidelity measurements. 

Advanced Composite Airframe Program (ACAP). 

ACAP is a demonstration program involving 

design, fabrication, and testing of advanced composite materials for rotorcraft and secondary airframe structures. The program developed a Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) capability that significantly 

reduces the time for design and analysis. ACAP 

designs fulfill the most complete military requirements ever attempted for rotorcraft airframes, including requirements for crashworthiness, ballistic tolerance, and radar cross section 

reduction. Application of composite materials to 

rotorcraft structures will reduce airframe acquisition costs by 17 percent and weight by 22 percent. 

In addition, composite materials will reduce the 

need for repair and maintenance. In 1986, analysis 

60 

of all laboratory and flight test data will be completed. The results will enhance the composite 

technology data base and its application to future 

rotorcraft systems. 

Advanced Digital-Optical Control System and 

Flight Demonstrator Program. The program goal 

is to provide technology for engineering development of a battlefield-compatible flight-control 

system. By improving the ability to handle aircraft 

and decreasing pilot workload, this system will 

enhance the mission capabilities of aircraft. 

Specific objectives of the program are to: 

demonstrate the feasibility of providing 

digital-optical controls for helicopters with 

performance equal to that of mechanical flight 

control systems 

provide supporting data for future production 

of digital-optical flight control systems 

provide guidelines for handling qualities and 

control characteristics for digital-optical 

flight-control systems. Application of this 

technology will provide such benefits to nextgeneration Army aircraft as improved handling and flight safety, and reduced 

maintenance requirements, weight, cost and 

vulnerability to lightning, electromagnetic 

energy and nuclear radiation. In November 

1985, flight testing began. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV). The Army is 

developing RPV's which, among other things, will 

satisfy needs for reconnaissance, target acquisition and electronic warfare. The Aquila Target Acquisition/Designation and Aerial Reconnaissance 

System is under development, with Operational 

Test I1 scheduled for September 1986. In accordance with a Congressional directive, and with 

guidance provided by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and 

the RPV Joint Requirements Management Board, 

a joint program will be established by the Army 

and Navy to evaluate off-the-shelf air vehicles and 

payloads. 

Space and Aeronautics Support 

Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC). 

CSOC consists of a Satellite Operations Complex 

(SOC) and a Shuttle Operations and Planning Complex (SOPC). The SOC will share the satellite control workload with the Satellite Test Center (STC), 

while the SOPC will provide facilities for secure 

flight planning and flight operations for military 

Space Shuttle missions. Besides augmenting present control capabilities, CSOC will strengthen U.S. 

space posture by eliminating vulnerabilities in 

satellite control at the STC and the Johnson Space 

Center during Space Shuttle missions. 
CSOC will be activated on a schedule consistent 

with the need for facilities and communications for 

the Global Positioning System Master Control Station. In 1985, construction of CSOC’s buildings at 

Colorado Springs, Colorado, was nearing completion, and a physical security systems contract was 

awarded. A Satellite Mission Control Center will 

be activated in 1987, followed by a second Center 

in 1988. In 1989, SOPC will provide limited Shuttle 

flight planning; and in 1992, limited Shuttle flight 

control will begin. 

Air Force Satellite Control Facility. In 1985, the 

Air Force Test Center at Sunnyvale, California, 

supported 55 DOD and NATO satellites in orbit. 

Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). 

ESMC, at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, provides developmental and operational launch services for the Army’s Pershing I and I1 missiles, the 

Navy’s Poseidon and Trident missiles, and the Air 

Force’s short-range attack missiles. It also supplies 

launch and support services for NASA and DOD 

satellites, and continuous tracking of space objects. In 1985, ESMC supported 27 ballistic missile 

tests. 17 major space test operations, and 9 Space 1- 

Shuttle launches. 

Western SDace and Missile Center (WSMC). 

WSMC, at Vkdenberg Air Force Base, California, 

provides developmental and operational launch 

services for the Air Force’s Minuteman and 

Peacekeeper missiles, space vehicles of NASA and 

DOD requiring polar orbits, and tracking and data 

acquisition support for aeronautical tests of the 

B-1B and cruise missiles. In 1985, WSMC supported 8 major space tests, 18 ballistic missile 

launches, including 4 launches of Peacekeeper. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). In 1985, 

support of aeronautics and space programs of DOD 

and NASA continued at WSMR, New Mexico. 

Launch, flight, and recovery services included 

ground and flight safety, range surveillance, command and control activities, and associated data 

acquisition and analysis. Space Shuttle activities 

were post-qualification tests on the orbital 

maneuvering system and the forward and aft reaction control systems, operation of the ground terminal of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

system, and Shuttle flight and landing support. 

Other activities included upper atmospheric soundings using rockets and balloons, and a variety of 

astronomical test programs. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). Located in the 

Republic of the Marshall Islands, KMR is the major 

range for testing defensive and strategic offensive 

missiles. In 1985, operational tests were conducted 

on Minuteman missiles and developmental tests 

were conducted on Peacekeeper missiles. 

RANDIArroyo Center. The RANDlArroyo Center surveys space technologies to fulfill needs of 

the Army, and supports the Army Space Initiative 

Study. It provided an independent assessment of 

the Army’s role in space through its report entitled 

“Army Exploitation of Space.” 

Armament Division (AD). The AD, at Eglin Air 

Force Base, Florida, conducts research, engineering development, test evaluation and initial acquisition of Air Force non-nuclear munitions. It 

operates 43 aircraft, and uses 50 instrumented test 

ranges covering 724 square miles of land, and 

86,500 square miles of water, extending nearly 240 

miles south into the Gulf of Mexico. AD has tested 

the Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile, 

the Airborne Self Protection Jammer, and the 

French Durandal runway cratering munition. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC). The AEDC, located at Tullahoma, Tennessee, conducts engineering development tests 

for both. government and commercial users. In 

1985, it supported projects and programs such as 

Peacekeeper, Space Shuttle, Small Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Trident 11, Strategic Defense 

Initiative, and Short Takeoff and Landing fighter 

technology. 

Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC). AFFTC, 

at Edwards Air Force Base, California, is an ideal 

test area with a large air space, dry lake beds, 

isolation, and highly instrumented ranges. This 

unique facility provides support for many users, including NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Facility, 

the Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity, 

and the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory. 

In 1985, the Center supported space, tactical, and 

strategic systems and activities such as the Space 

Shuttle, B-lB, F-15, F-16, F-16XL, F-20, X-29, 

B-52 avionics modifications, antisatellite weapons, 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration, and air 

and ground-launched cruise missiles. 

4950th Test Wing. The 4950th Test Wing, based 

at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, tests 

military systems, subsystems, and components for 

the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC). In 1985, 

the 4950th Test Wing continued support of AFSC 

test and modification programs, and of the Advanced Range-Instrumentation Aircraft, which 

serves key telemetry, data processing, and command and control functions during aeronautical 

flight testing and space missions. 

6585th Test Group. The 6585th Test Group is 

located at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, 

and is responsible for operation of the Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility, the Radar Target 

Scatter Facility, and the High Speed Test Track. 

These facilities support inertial navigation system 

testing, high-speed, high-acceleration sled track 

simulations, and antenna and radar cross-section 

measurements. In 1985, programs supported were 

the B-lB, Trident, Advanced Medium Range Air61 

169-254 0 - 86 - 3 
to-Air Missiles, and Crew Escape Systems 

Technology. The Test Group is also the airspace 

manager for the White Sands Missile Range. 

Relations with NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) is the major forum for reviewing, 

discussing and coordinating policies and programs 

of mutual interest to DOD and NASA. It is cochaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for 

Research and Engineering and the Deputy Administrator of NASA. Interagency coordination 

takes place through AACB panels on Aeronautics, 

Manned Space Flight and Launch Vehicles, Space 

Flight Ground Environment, Space Research and 

Technology, and Unmanned Spacecraft. Under 

direction of the AACB, a NASAlDOD Space 

Transportation System Master Plan was 

developed. Published in March 1985, it defines the 

base-line Space Transportation System (STS), and 

its present, planned, and projected operational 

capabilities; defines STS operating structure for 

NASA and DOD; assesses programs, and 

capabilities; and identifies system shortfalls. 

62 
Department of Commerce 

Department of Commerce agencies participating 

in the Nation’s aeronautics and space program during 1985 were the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Bureau of 

Standards, and National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration conducts research and gathers data 

about the oceans, atmosphere, space, and Sun, and 

applies this knowledge to products and services 

that benefit all Americans. It operates the Nation’s 

civil environmental satellite systems, using their 

data to assess the effect of natural factors and 

human activities on global food and fuel supplies 

and on environmental quality. It observes and 

forecasts weather conditions, provides warnings of 

severe weather, and assists communitypreparedness programs for weather-related 

disasters; prepares charts and coastal maps for 

geodetic research; and improves utilization and 

conservation of marine life. 

The National Bureau of Standards maintains and 

develops national standards of measurement and 

provides government, industry, and academia with 

the measurement services and fundamental 

physical, chemical, and engineering data to achieve 

national goals. It supports space systems, atmospheric and space research, and aeronautical 

programs. 

The National Telecommunications and Information Administration is the principal telecommunications policy advisor to the President. It 

develops and coordinates Executive branch policy 

in telecommunications and information, manages 

the radio spectrum assigned for federal use, provides technical support to international telecommunications conference activities, and provides 

technical assistance in telecommunications matters to other federal agencies. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. During 1985, the Nation’s primary operational polar weather satellites 

were NOAA 8 and 9, orbiting the Earth about the 

poles in Sunsynchronous orbits and providing environmental observations of the entire Earth four 

times each day. NOAA 8 crosses the equator 

southward at 7:30 a.m. local time, and NOAA 9 

Northward at 2:OO p.m. These satellites carry four 

primary instruments: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, the TIROS Operational Vertical 

Sounder, the Argos Data-Collection and PlatformLocation System, and the Space Environment 

Monitor. 

NOAA 8 and NOAA 9 are the first and second in 

a series of new Advanced TIROS-N spacecraft and 

carry additional instruments for Search and 

Rescue. NOAA-8 failed on June 12, 1984, and was 

reactivated on May 10, 1985. NOAA 6 filled in for 

NOAA 8 and was able to support most of the 

primary mission requirements. NOAA 8 tumbled 

again on October 30, 1985, and was recovered and 

reactivated on December 5, 1985. It will be replaced after the launch of NOAA G in June 1986. 

NOM 9. This satellite, NOAA F before its 

launch on December 12, 1984, fulfills the primary 

National Weather Service requirement for data to 

support the limited fine-mesh model used to 

predict weather for the continental United States. 

It carries a 3-instrument array of sensors furnished by NASA for measurement of Earth radiation budget factors, including backscatter to space 

of solar ultraviolet light and Earth-radiated thermal (infrared) radiation. These instruments on the 

NOAA F spacecraft work in concert with instruments on NASA’s Earth Radiation Budget 

Satellite. 

Geostationary Satellites. The GOES 6 satellite of 

NOMS Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system provided imaging and 

sounding data during 1985. It was placed at 98” 

west for the summer/fall hurricane season and 

then at 108” west for maximum coverage of winter 

weather coming off the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of 

Alaska. The next launches of GOES spacecraft are 

scheduled for 1986. 

NASA, acting for NOAA, has contracted for 

satellites of the “GOES-Next” series (GOES I-M) 

planned for flight during the 1990’s. The request 

63 
for proposal was released June 29, 1984 and Ford 

Aerospace and Communications Corporation was 

selected to build the satellites of this series. The 

contract was awarded in October 1985. Sounder 

and imager instruments will be built by ITT. 

Commercialization of Land Satellites (Landsats). 

In accordance with P.L. 98-365, a Landsat commercialization contract was negotiated with the 

successful bidder, the Earth Observation Satellite 

Company (EOSAT). The contract between the 

United States and EOSAT was signed on 

September 27, 1985. EOSAT has assumed day-today management and operational responsibility for 

Landsat 4 and Landsat 5 spacecraft through 

February 1987, and for the design, acquisition, 

launch, and operation of the follow-on Landsat 6 

and Landsat 7 spacecraft and ground systems 

through 1994. The Landsat system currently consists of two Earth-orbiting satellites (Landsats 4 

and 5) and a command, control, and data processing facility located at the Goddard Space Flight 

Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Data distribution, 

archiving, and additional processing facilities are 

provided by the Depatment of Interior’s Earth 

Resources Observation System (EROS) Data 

Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. 

Landsats 4 and 5 carry identical Earth-observing 

sensors. The Multispectral Scanner (MSS) 

measures reflected or emitted energy in four visible and near-infrared spectral bands and provides 

80-meter spatial resolution. The Thematic Mapper 

(TM) operates in seven spectral bands with 

30-meter spatial resolution in six bands and 

120-meter resolution in a thermal band. While 

Landsat 4 is capable of supporting only the MSS 

portion of its mission, Landsat 5 is supporting full 

mission requiremelrts for both MSS and TM. 

Satellite Data Services 

The GOES Data Collection System (DCS) relays 

environmental data in realtime from remotely 

located Data Collection Platforms (DCP’s). The 

DCS ground system is physically limited to 5,000 

Platform Data Files (PDF’s) in its data base. To expand the capability of the system, an off-line data 

base was created which contains all PDF% assigned to the DCS. Periodically, inactive PDF’s are 

removed from the on-line system to prevent 

reaching the saturation number of 5,000. There are 

6,223 DCP’s assigned to the GOES DCS, of which 

4,990 are contained in the on-line system and 3,400 

are active. The DCS had an increase of 1,256 DCP 

assignments during 1985. Data are distributed to 

68 national and 28 international users, and there 

are 29 passive, direct-readout stations (42 U.S. and 

5 non-U.S.). The GOES DCS reliability was 99 percent for the year. 

64 

A GOES DCS Users Catalog was completed and 

disseminated in 1985. It contains DCP location, 

data collected, user identification, and address of 

all DCP’s operating in the system. 

WEFAX. The Weather Facsimile service continues to use three GOES spacecraft to broadcast 

satellite imagery, meteorological analyses and 

prognoses, operational messages, and ephemeris 

bulletins. The number of known users totals 205 

(100 U.S. and 105 non-U.S.). In 1985, broadcast 

schedules were changed so that 560 products are 

broadcast each day. 

GOES VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) 

Assessment. During the spring of 1985, GOES VAS 

data covering the central United States were used 

by the National Severe Storms Forecast Center to 

improve techniques for forecasting severe 

weather. The VAS data products evaluated for the 

Center included temperature and moisture profiles, stability indices, and several image products. 

Data were made available four times a day from 

March through October. In June 1985, coverage by 

VAS was modified to support operations at the National Hurricane Center. Throughout the hurricane season, VAS data were used to monitor the 

development, strength, and movement of tropical 

storms in the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, 

and the Caribbean Sea. 

Geophysical Data Bases. The National Geophysical Data Center archives, publishes, and 

analyzes various geophysical data bases that include space environment and cryospheric data 

recorded by NOAA satellites and some NASA and 

DOD satellites. Satellite data archives that expanded during 1985 include those from the GOES 

Space Environment Monitor, the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) electron 

and ion detector, the DMSP nighttime auroral imager, and DMSP visual and infrared images of 

clouds, snow, and ice illuminated by sunlight or 

moonlight. To support NASA’s International SunEarth Explorer-3 and Dynamics Explorer programs, analysis was undertaken of ground-based 

records of magnetic variations. 

Cryospheric Data Management System. The National Snow and Ice Data Center started a 

Cryospheric Data Management System to process, 

archive, and distribute passive microwave data 

recorded by DMSP satellites. Satellite launch is expected in mid 1986. 

Satellite Anomaly Data Base. The SolarTerrestrial Physics Division of NOAA constructed 

a data base to document the relationship between 

solar activity, space environment changes, and 

consequent problems with operation of geostationary and polar orbiting satellites. The current 

data base contains dates, times, and anomaly information from geostationary satellites operated by 
U.S. industry, NOAA, NASA, Japan, India, and 

the European Space Agency, with contributions 

anticipated from Canada, Australia, and the 

Department of Defense. This data base will be 

merged with space environment data and will be 

expanded to include data on polar-orbiting satellite 

anomalies. A highly successful workshop was convened in Boulder, Colorado, in October 1985 to 

discuss the engineering and scientific aspects of 

these problems. 

Program for Regional Observing and Forecasting 

Services. In cooperation with the National Center 

for Atmospheric Research, this NOAA program 

established a GOES direct-readout ground station 

in Boulder, Colorado, in 1981. The program 

developed and tested various techniques to combine satellite, radar, surface meteorological network, and ground-based sounding data to produce 

improved short-term (0 to 12 hours) and real-time, 

local-scale forecasts for severe storms and flash 

floods. During the summer of 1985, it ingested, 

processed, and displayed real-time, rapid-scan 

VISSR data, VAS data products, and VAS processed soundings on a work station that also 

displayed real-time Doppler radar imagery. 

Forecasts prepared from combined data sets will 

lead to exciting future applications of these advanced sensors in mesoscale diagnosis and 

forecasting. This program is now developing more 

quantitative VAS products to be used in future 

testing and operations. A major modification of the 

satellite ground station will occur in 1986, when 

digital satellite data will be distributed in a new 

data format. Currently, the program is adapting 

the satellite ingest and product generation tasks 

for integration into the Operational Weather 

Education and Research (POWER) environment. 

This will provide users of the POWER system 

direct access to real-time geostationary 

meteorological satellite data. 

Domestic Training. NOAA is committed to providing training on applications of satellite sensing. 

In coordination with the National Weather Service, the Department of Defense, and other satellite 

data users, NOAA provided training to more than 

700 scientists and weather forecasters, and briefed 

almost 350 others, during 1985. Topics covered included basic and advanced imagery interpretation 

(still photo and imagery in motion), heavy rainfall 

estimation, tropical cyclone analysis, and severe 

storm, aviation, oceanic, and moisture-channel applications. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Space Shuttle Support. Imagery and digital data 

from NOAA polar satellites continue to be used by 

the Space Shuttle Earth Observations Project at 

NASA’s Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. 

High-resolution satellite imagery is used in 

preflight briefings for Shuttle crews and during 

the missions to plan orbit-by-orbit Earth observation activity. For example, agricultural fires in 

Brazil, a volcanic eruption in the Marianas Islands, 

and upwelling off the coast of northwestern 

Australia were detected by Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) imagery and 

reported to the crew, who subsequently 

documented the events with photographs. Polar 

satellite data and shuttle photography are used to 

assess environmental trends and phenomena such 

as changes in coastlines, drought-stricken areas, 

and locations of ocean currents. 

Color-Coded Global Vegetation Index Product. 

The NOAA global vegetation index product can 

now be produced in a color-coded format. The 

product has the following interactively derived 

features: five shades of green for vegetation, one 

shade of blue for water, and one shade of brown for 

nonvegetated areas; geopolitical boundaries; mask 

for water areas; vegetation-index color bar and 

values; and descriptive annotation. This new product is derived from data collected by NOAA polarorbiting satellites and gives a more “natural” 

presentation of the global vegetation state. 

Global Fire Product. An experimental product 

has been created that shows global fire activity. 

The product is based on data from the AVHRR 

3.8-micrometer channel aboard the NOAA polarorbiting satellites. This channel is sensitive to hightemperature targets such as fires. The experimental global fire product depicts the fire activity as 

white “hot” spots displayed on polar stereographic 

projections of the Northern and Southern 

Hemispheres. Examples of the product for the late 

Northern Hemisphere summer showed fire activity 

in Africa, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Siberia, and 

the United States. 

3-Dimensional Images. NOAA meteorologists 

have developed a program to remap GOES infrared images to the perspective of a viewer at 

another location. Remapping an image of a hurricane to the perspective of an observer near the 

storm produces a dramatic 3-dimensional effect. 

These “3-D’ images can be displayed in sequences 

that resemble films of the storm taken from a 

plane. 

Rainfall. The Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer 

used by meteorologists to generate satellite derived precipitation estimates has been improved 

for use in connection with a tropical storm activity. 

During the fall of 1985, NOAA meteorologists produced precipitation estimates for Hurricanes Bob, 

Danny, Elena, and Gloria. A rainfall potential of 8 

to 10 inches over eastern North Carolina and 

Virginia estimated from Gloria was indeed ex65 
perienced, and rainfall of over 16 inches was 

estimated for Tropical Storm Isabel1 as it passed 

over Puerto Rico. During the year, the satellite 

precipitation-estimating operation expanded to 

worldwide coverage. NOAA meteorologists 

generated rainfall potentials for the tropical 

cyclone that caused many deaths and much 

destruction in Bangladesh. Also, the precipitation 

estimate messages formerly sent to the forecast offices via the National Weather Services Automation of Field Operations and Services system were 

changed to an area-alert proximity-alarm system. 

Now all nearby weather offices can receive 

estimates within their area of interest. 

Input for National Meteorological Center (NMC) 

Models. Two new inputs or procedures were 

adopted for the NMC models, one relating to winds 

and one to moisture. A low-and high-level winds 

production run at 06002 for the NMC models has 

been added, completing the 6-hourly cycle of 

satellite winds products for NMC model runs. This 

new data set will allow NMC to test and evaluate a 

new numerical forecast model. 

The Satellite Moisture Analysis has been upgraded from pencil and paper procedures to an interactive system. Real-time infrared digital data from 

GOES are analyzed for moisture content at 

specific grid points. NOAA meteorologists are able 

to generate moisture profiles interactively over 

data-sparse areas for input to the numerical 

forecast models. 

Food Shortage Alerts. The NOAA crop monitoring system is now operational over the African 

Sahel. Data from the NOAA-7 satellite and other 

data sources are combined to produce quantitative 

crop-status reports on a regular basis for use by 

USAID missions in the affected countries. 

Transfer of the satellite technology has begun in 

Asia, where regular crop assessments are already 

being produced “in country” from meteorological 

data. Five scientists from two Southeast Asia 

countries have been trained in the use of satelliteacquired data, and image processing equipment is 

now available in Thailand. 

Marine Assessment Application of Satellite Data. 

The application of remote sensing to marine 

assessment has been expanded to foreign countries. Studies are being conducted in the Philippine 

area and in the eastern Pacific off the coast of Peru 

and Ecuador. AVHRR data from NOAA-N satellites are being analyzed relative to fishery 

resources. A pilot project for Western Africa was 

initiated to apply remote sensing data to the 

management of fisheries. 

Precipitation. Work is continuing on refinement 

of techniques for using data from operational 

satellites to estimate precipitation. For example, 

using GOES imagery, a study was completed of the 

characteristics of flash floods in the western 

United States; and, in an attempt to streamline the 

present method, the convective precipitation 

estimation technique has been automated. 

AgRISTARS. NOAA participated in the development and operational demonstration of interactive, satellite-derived, precipitation estimation 

techniques for monitoring rainfall over such 

significant crop-growing regions of the world as 

the United States, the U.S.S.R., and South Africa. 

Satellite Moisture Profiles. An evaluation was 

completed of relative humidity and mixing ratio 

profiles determined by two different satellite 

methods. One method uses GOES cloud imagery to 

describe vertical moisture profiles. The second 

method, TOVS, uses a 15-channel algorithm 

developed for use with data from polar orbiting 

satellites. Although the accuracies of both methods 

are inferior to those of moisture profiles obtained 

from surface-launched rawinsondes, the methods 

provide useful input into forecast models whose domain includes large oceanic areas. An advantage of 

the TOVS method is that it is fully automated and 

can be applied globally; however, an accompanying 

disadvantage is that moisture determinations can 

only be made in clear and partly cloudy areas. 

Turbulence. A study of atmospheric turbulence 

showed that, in addition to the signatures turbulence displays in visible and infrared satellite imagery, turbulence can be indicated by the 

6.7-micrometer water vapor channel of the GOES 

satellite. Examination of 100 cases in which there 

was an increase in the 6.7-micrometer channel 

brightness temperature (darker gray scale) as a 

function of time showed that over 80 percent of 

these cases had reports of moderate to severe turbulence with them. Thus, the water vapor channel 

can also be useful in diagnosing areas of probable 

turbulence for commercial and military jets. 

Fisheries. Marine scientists in the Northeast 

Fisheries Center employed data from the Advanced High Resolution Radiometer of the NOAA 

polar-orbiting satellite to determine the location of 

thermal fronts in the ocean off the northeastern 

U.S. coast. Variations in the frontal positions were 

compared with sightings of beaked whales, and 

strong correlation was found between the whale 

sightings and an oceanic feature called the 

shelflslope water front. These results were similar 

to those from a Center study showing greater 

abundance of short-finned squid in the proximity of 

the shelf/slope water front, thereby demonstrating 

the utility of remotely sensed thermal data in 

determination of the non-random distribution of 

beaked whales with respect to a presumed prey 

species (squid). 

Through the Northeast Area Remote Sensing 

System (NEARSS) Association, the Northeast 

66 
Fisheries Center has joined a regional community 

of federal, academic, and private research institutions to improve the timely acquisition and 

availability of satellite remote sensing data, and to 

promote synergistic use of regional resources and 

expertise in developing research applications of 

remotely sensed data. The Association had 

established a regional telecommunications network for distribution of digital satellite data and 

products among participating organizations. Individual investigators access the data over the network using a relatively inexpensive NEARSS terminal, or compatible computer, which can also be 

used as an independent work station for analyses 

of the data. The hub of the NEARSS network is 

the Oceanographic Remote Sensing Laboratory at 

the University of Rhode Island, where digital 

satellite data are processed and archived for 

dissemination over the NEARSS network. The 

Laboratory is a cooperative development effort involving the University of Rhode Island and the 

Northeast Fisheries Center. 

The Northeast Fisheries Center and the Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory of the Department of 

Energy continued working together on the first 

phase of the Coastal Habitat Assessment Research 

and Mensuration program. The first phase of this 

program is to inventory coastal and estuarine 

wetland degradation from North Carolina to 

Maine. Its objective is to develop a standardized 

protocol for comparing scenes from different 

geographic areas at different times and to validate 

the protocol with ground truth information. 

The National Marine Mammal Laboratory used 

satellite imagery together with satellite-based ice 

forecasts from the National Weather Service to set 

up sampling plans and vessels transects for two 

separate research programs. They are a 

cooperative U.S.-U.S.S.R. walrus and ice seal 

study, and a bowhead whale study in the western 

Beaufort Sea. 

Other Uses of Satellites 

International Activities 

Coordination of Geostationary Meteorological 

Satellites. In May 1985, a group of representatives 

from the European Space Agency, Japan, the 

U.S.S.R., India, the World Meteorological 

Organization, and the United States met in Tokyo, 

Japan. Highlights of the meeting included determining an acceptable method for assigning data 

collection system resources to support new programs such as the Automated Shipboard 

Aerological Program. 

ARGOS. The ARGOS Data Collection and Location System (DCLS), provided by France, operates 

on the present NOAA polar-orbiting spacecraft. Of 

more than 750 active platforms operated by 

organizations from 17 countries, 70 percent require location calculations and 10 percent 

disseminate data via the Global Telecommunications System. Fourteen countries, including the 

United States, participated as members of the 

1985 joint tariff agreement to use ARGOS DCLS 

during 1986. This agreement provides reduced 

data processing costs for all participants. 

United States-Spain Joint Committee for Scientific and Technical Cooperation. A group of about 

15 scientists, including six from NOAA, participated in a joint United States-Spain Workshop, 

held in the Canary Islands on September 18-26, 

1985. The purpose of the workshop was to document Spanish pelagic fisheries resources of the 

Canary Islands and northwest Africa, and to 

review state-of-the-art remote sensing systems 

and products, that might be of economic benefit 

and importance to applied fisheries research. 

Tuna, sardine, and cephalopod (octopus, squid) 

pelagic fisheries were discussed. Results of the 

workshop will be published in a 3-year plan entitled, “Canary Island Based Fisheries and Remote 

Sensing Applications,” to be prepared under the 

direction of the United States-Spain Joint Committee for Science and Technological Cooperation. 

Training for Foreigners. NOAA conducts training internally and participates in external training 

seminars and workshops in order to improve the 

quality and exchange of satellite data and to contribute to cooperative research activities. During 

1985, 14 foreign nationals from eight countries 

were trained in such areas as applications of 

meteorological satellite data, management of 

oceanographic and climatological data, and agroclimatic impact assessments. In addition, NOAA 

specialists lectured at and supported international 

workshops in the United Nations and the World 

Meteorological Organization on topics such as 

satellite-data applications, precipitation estimation, and climate data management and user services. 

International Radio Regulations. In 1985, 

several meetings took place under the aegis of the 

International Telecommunication Union concerning the International Radio Consultative Committee’s development of technical recommendations 

for space communications. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA) participated in all these activities. 

World Radio Conference on Space Communications. The prominent issues of the space conference were to guarantee equitable access to the 

geostationary satellite orbit and to incorporate 

results of the Region 2 Broadcasting Satellite Conference held in 1983 into the Radio Regulations. 

67 
During 1985, NTIA led government agencies in 

preparations for the two-part 1985 and 1988 World 

Adminstrative Radio Conference for space services (Space WARC). NTIA coordinated the 

development of proposed positions and strategies 

of the executive branch agencies for use in subsequent Space WARC negotiations, and played a key 

role in the first session of the conference, conducted during August and September 1985. 

NTIA also expanded the capabilities of its 

computer-based model for analyzing orbit and 

spectrum use, the Geostationary Satellite Orbit 

Anaysis Program, to include modeling uplink 

power levels for Earth stations of the same network, modeling multiple antennas for each 

satellite, modeling multiple antennas for each 

Earth station, improving the user-friendliness of 

input data requirements, and improving output 

data reports. This, and other NTIA-developed 

automated models, were useful before and during 

the Space WARC to analyze various orbit and 

spectrum sharing scenarios. 

The principal objective of the United States in 

this area is to avoid acceptance by the Conference 

of any form of rigid a priori planning of space services and associated frequency bands. An objective 

of equal importance is for the United States to 

maintain maximum flexibility in operating its present space communications systems and in developing its future space systems. Many developing nations prefer some sort of a priori planning, such as 

the firm allotment of spectrum space, even if it is 

not needed immediately. They perceive that the 

geostationary satellite orbit resource will soon be 

allocated to such a degree that their opportunity to 

use it in the future will be pre-empted. The U.S. 

view is that continuing advancements in technological development will be sufficient to offset the increase in demand, thus preventing actual saturation of the resource, and that only a flexible approach to satellite development and implementation can stimulate the necessary technological advances. 

The Conference concluded that equitable access 

could be addressed with a dual planning approach 

that would entail an allotment plan and improved 

procedures and would apply only to fixed satellite 

service in specified bands. Unplanned bands and 

services would use the present procedure. The 

allotment plan was adopted for use in the “expansion bands” at 4/6 GHz and 11 to 12/14 GHz. These 

bands are not presently used by the U.S. for fixedsatellite services. The improved procedures, which 

include multilateral planning, were adopted for the 

conventional portions of those bands. Further, the 

first session of the Conference considered the provisions in the 1983 plan on broadcast satellites 

from the Region 2 Regional Administrative Radio 

68 

Conference. After much debate, the Conference 

adopted and incorporated those provisions into appendixes 30 and 30A of the Radio Regulations. 

Because of the deadlock caused by the continuing 

insistence of certain Administrations on a priori 

planning in all frequency bands allocated to fixed 

satellite service, much work remains to be done in 

the intersessional period or at the second session in 

1988. The United States must pay close attention 

to these activities to ensure that a sound basis exists for the decisions of the second session. 

COMSAT Corporation. In cooperation with the 

Department of State and the Federal Communications Commission, NTIA monitors the activities of 

the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) in COMSAT’s capacity as the U.S. signatory 

to the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) and the International 

Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). In 

November 1984, the President determined that international communications satellite systems 

separate from INTELSAT were required in the national interest, subject to certain limitations. These 

satellite systems are limited to customized services 

with long-term lease or sale of space-segment 

capacity for data, video, and other communications 

that are not interconnected to public switchedmessages networks. These limitations ensure that 

there will be no significant economic harm to INTELSAT, while providing more customer options 

and a more efficient market for customized services. 

NTIA, working with the State Department, 

issued in February 1985 a Senior Interagency 

Group White Paper detailing Executive branch 

policy. The Paper was transmitted to the Federal 

Communications Commission, along with recommendations that would restrict the systems so as to 

satisfy U.S. international obligations. The recommended restrictions require applicant systems to 

conclude operating agreements with one or more 

foreign correspondents and to complete consultation requirements with INTELSAT before the 

FCC will grant final authorization. NTIA will 

monitor the consultations with the INTELSAT 

Board of Governors and Assembly of Parties called 

for under Article XIV(d) of the INTELSAT Agreement. 

Geodesy 

IRIS Earth Orientation Monitoring Service. 

NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey (NGS) continued to operate the two POLARIS (Polar-motion 

Analysis by Radio Interferometric Surveying) 

Very Long Baseline Interferometric (VLBI) observatories and to serve as the operational center for 

the International Radio Interferometric Surveying 
(IRIS) Earth Orientation Monitoring Service 

(EOMS) throughout 1985. IRIS EOMS produced, 

at 5 day intervals, polar motion values with accuracies of 1 to 2 milliseconds of arc and Universal 

Time from 0.05 to 0.10 milliseconds. In addition, 

beginning in April, a special series of daily observations produced Universal Time values accurate to 

0.01 milliseconds. The IRIS EOMS now produces 

an Earth-orientation time series that is the most 

accurate, and has the highest temporal resolution 

and the lowest operating cost of all the services in 

operation, and that will play a central role in the 

new international service planned to replace the 

Bureau International de l’Heure and International 

Polar Motion Service, beginning January 1988. 

The joint special study group of the International 

Astronomical Union and International Union of 

Geodesy and Geophysics, charged with planning 

the new service, recommended that the new Conventional Celestial Reference System be defined by 

an appropriate catalog of radio sources, rather 

than by the stars. 

Errors in the current nutation series, revealed 

by IRIS VLBI observations suggest that Earth’s 

core is slightly more elliptical than the value 

calculated assuming hydrostatic equilibrium; 

namely, that it is flattened by approximately 0.5 

kilometers more than expected. The North 

America-Europe baseline lengths estimated from 

IRIS observations are increasing 1 to 2 centimeters per year, which is consistent with the expected relative motions of the tectonic plates. 

Dynamic Global Positioning System (GPS). The 

National Geodetic Survey (NGS) has begun 

development of dynamic GPS techniques able to attain geodetic quality (10-cm) positioning of moving 

instrument platforms, including ground vehicles, 

ships, and aircraft. The first successful test of the 

dynamic phase-differencing technique, using 

TI-4100 GPS receivers, was conducted jointly with 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in August 1985. 

An airplane carrying a GPS receiver and a laser 

altimeter flew over Chincoteague Bay. The GPS 

and laser altimeter height profiles obtained agreed 

with an RMS difference of only about 10 cm. Additional flights are planned to test the use of dynamic 

GPS positioning for photogrammetric mapping 

operations. 

Satellite Altimetry. The launch of the U.S. Navy 

altimeter satellite, GEOSAT, in March 1985 

ushered in a new era for geodesy and physical 

oceanography. Satellite altimetry has been shown 

to be one of the most versatile and useful techniques for ocean remote sensing and is considered 

to be a critical part of global oceanographic 

research programs. By measuring the shape of the 

ocean surface, an altimeter provides information 

on the geoid, circulation, and sea level variability 

that cannot be obtained any other way. GEOSAT 

represents the first altimeter satellite since the abbreviated SEASAT mission in 1978, and the only 

such satellite during this decade. 

Because the GEOSAT data are classified, NGS 

has established a dedicated processing facility at 

the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, 

where raw data are downlinked and archived. 

Here, the altimeter profiles are analyzed to produce unclassified information available to the 

oceanographic research community. Anticipated 

products are time series of sea level in the 

equatorial Pacific, global mesoscale eddy statistics, 

improved tide models, surface circulation in 

regions such as the Gulf of Mexico, and 

measurements of wind speed and wave height. 

These products will contribute significantly to 

established national science programs. An example 

is the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere project, a 

10-year experiment to investigate relationships 

between the equatorial oceans and global climate 

anomalies. Operations at the NGS GEOSAT facility began in September 1985, and will continue 

throughout the lifetime of the satellite, possibly as 

long as three years. 

Photogrammetry 

Large Format Camera (LFC). LFC, a state-ofthe-art mapping camera, performed flawlessly on 

its first flight aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger 

from October 6 through 12, 1984. NOAA scientists 

directed the daily photographic coverage and 

manned the Payload Operations Control Center. 

Over 2,300 photographs, each 9 x 18 inches, were 

obtained for a portion of over 250 international investigator sites requested for coverage. Special 

stereophotography collected for NOAA included 

U.S. coastal regions, oblique photography of Hurricane Josephine, and night photography of lightning and urban areas. Experiments, including 

aerotriangulation, map compilation, and a variety 

of remote sensing applications, are now being conducted within the U.S. scientific community and 

several other nations. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

First Space-Made Product Sold. The first sales of 

a product manufactured in space were announced 

on July 17, 1985, by the Commerce Department’s 

National Bureau of Standards (NBS). Billions of 

tiny polystyrene spheres made aboard a NASA 

Space Shuttle flight are being offered as an NBS 

standard reference material. They will be used to 

improve microscopic measurements made in electronics, medicine, and other areas of high 

technology. 

69 
The spheres, each of which is 10 micrometers 

(1/2,50Oth of an inch) in diameter, were produced 

aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger, using a 

chemical process developed for NASA by Lehigh 

University. When produced in a low-gravity environment, the polystyrene spheres grow uniformly in size and shape. The spheres will be an important measurement reference material for producers of finely ground powder products such as 

paint pigments, inks, toners, chemicals, and other 

powdered material like flour and cosmetics, as well 

as for technologists who monitor environmental 

particulate pollution from industrial and chemical 

plants. The spheres will also be useful to medical 

researchers who calibrate instruments to count 

blood cells and measure their shape, and to medical 

personnel who perform a wide variety of 

diagnostic measurements. Morever, the spheres 

can be used by manufacturers for reference purposes in producing and distributing secondary 

measurement standards. 

Network Protocols. The National Bureau of Standards is working with COMSAT in a research project to test and evaluate the performance of computer network protocols over satellite networks. 

Results of this collaborative research are helping 

to advance development of network products that 

implement Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 

and enable different manufacturers’ products to be 

interconnected using a variety of communications 

methods. Data collected and analyzed in a series of 

NBSKOMSAT experiments showed that technical 

modifications to one OS1 standard would result in 

more efficient data transmissions. Voluntary 

standards groups developing the OS1 standards 

have adopted these modifications. A second series 

of experiments is testing additional methods to 

achieve better performance and reduce delays in 

data transmission when network protocols are 

used in the satellite environment. 

Properties of Heavy LiyR Balloons. This project is 

sponsored by the Balloon Projects Branch of 

NASA. It is part of a continuing investigation by 

NASA to determine the cause of failure of heliumfilled heavy-lift balloons in which the helium is contained by low-density polyethylene film. These 

balloons are used to lift instrument payloads of up 

to 5,000 pounds to altitudes of over 120,000 feet 

for various statospheric and astrophysical research 

projects. Since 1980, there have been increased incidences of catastrophic failures during ascent at 

40,000 foot to 60,000 foot altitudes where the ambient temperature is about - 700” C. Among the 

possible causes of failure are changes in the 

mechanical properties of the films used in the 

balloons’ construction. At NASA’s request, NBS 

scientists have investigated various aspects of the 

molecular structure, morphology, and mechanical 

properties of several types of polyethylene films 

used before and since 1980. NASA is using the 

results as a basis for establishing new acceptance 

criteria for films to be used in construction of 

future balloons. 

Fiber Reinforced Composites. NASA’s Langley 

Research Center, the University of Illinois, and 

several manufacturers of composites are cooperating with NBS to study the basic failure 

mechanisms in composites and to develop tests 

that measure the resistance of composites to crack 

growth. Results indicate that a major weakness in 

many thermoplastic composites is that poor fiberpolymer bonding, significantly reduces the composites’ resistance to crack growth. Another activity in this cooperative project was refinement of the 

general correlation between polymer toughness 

and composite fracture energy established earlier 

in the project. The data from the activities provide 

valuable guidelines for designing and fabricating 

new materials. 

Space Station Robotics. NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center plays a major role in the Space Station project. This role includes analyses, definition, 

and development of customer servicing equipment 

for the Station. Customer servicing functions will 

consist of in-orbit recovery, repair, maintenance, 

assembly, resupply, checkout, and upgrade of 

customer hardware such as satellites, platforms, 

attached payloads, and customer equipment in or 

on the Space Station. Many of these services will 

be performed robotically. NBS is currently funded 

by NASA to develop a model of general rules and 

methodologies for evaluation of robotic techniques 

to support these servicing activities. NBS will also 

perform “proof of concept” robotic experiments 

and supply the resulting engineering data to 

NASA. 

Spectrometer Calibration. NBS performed extensive calibration work for NASA with the Space 

Telescope Optical Simulator (STOS), which was 

designed and constructed by the Martin Marietta 

Aerospace Company. Devised to calibrate the 

Faint Object Spectrograph, an instrument on the 

Hubble Space Telescope, STOS provides optical 

emissions which simulate expected observations by 

the orbiting telescope. 

Besided providing the above measurement services and standards, NBS calibrated 11 transfer 

standard photodiode detectors for space science 

groups in the past year to establish a radiometric 

base for their measurement programs. In addition, 

the NBS-SURF spectrometer calibration facility 

was used for a total of 36 weeks by various teams 

of space scientists engaged in high-accuracy solar, 

stellar, and atmospheric studies. 

Oxom Concentration Measurement. A new NBS 

high-accuracy ultraviolet, dual-beam ozone 

70 
photometer has been installed at NASA as the national ozone standard. The instrument is used 

routinely to calibrate ozone monitoring instruments throughout the stratospheric ozone 

observation programs of NOAA and NASA. 

Stellar Spectroscopy. NBS scientists are pursuing a major program to measure surface magnetic 

fields on stars cooler than the Sun. They have 

recently detected for the first time the presence of 

strong magnetic fields on the surface of a flare 

star, Ad Leonis. Using observations made by the 

4-meter Fourier Transform Spectrometer located 

at Kitt Peak National Observatory near Tucson, 

they detected the presence of magnetic fields with 

an average strength of 3,800 gauss in active 

regions outside dark spots. This value of the field 

strength is interesting because the resulting 

pressure of the magnetic field equals the gas 

pressure at the deepest layers of the star that are 

visible optically. These findings should aid in 

understanding stellar activity such as flares, spots, 

and hot coronae on some stars. 

Antarctic Studies. The results of research on the 

application of AVHRR data for the study of 

katabatic winds (descending motion causing a 

change in atmospheric pressure) in Antarctica 

show that the satellite data can supply much information on the temperature changes that occur during this meteorological phenomenon. The accompanying image is an example of what an event 

looks like in the satellite data and illustrates the 

temperature changes that accompany warming of 

air as it flows from higher to lower elevation. 

Temperature increases were found to range from 

20 to 30°K above the ambient temperatures. 

Mesoscale and Severe Storms. NOAA continues 

its support of severe storm studies by Dr. Fujita at 

the Unversity of Chicago. Emphasis is now on 

microbursts- the small scale convective 

downdrafts that can produce strong horizontal 

wind shear so hazardous for aircraft during 

takeoffs and landings. Although the phenomenon 

has been identified and described by Fujita, the 

main problem is inability to detect this shear 

remotely, let alone to anticipate its occurrence. A 

study is under way to investigate meteorological 

events leading to the Dallas microburst in August 

1985 in which Delta Air Lines flight 191 crashed, 

killing 125 persons. During the summer of 1986, a 

field project will seek information on microbursts 

in very wet environments. 

Sea Ice. Infrared images from NOAA polarorbiting satellites were used to map sea ice conditions in the eastern Bering Sea and Bering Strait 

during cloud-free periods in the winter of 1985, as 

part of the Arctic Polynya Experiment. This work 

was funded jointly by the Office of Naval Research, 

Atlantic Richfield, and NOAA. The satellite imImage from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) on NOAA meteorological satellite showing 

temperature changes in Antarctica due to katabatic process. 

ages were used in conjunction with drifting 

satellite-transmitting buoys to investigate 

mesoscale strain of pack ice floes as they are 

pushed by wind and current around headlands and 

islands. Eventually the results will be incorporated 

into sea ice forecasting models to aid marine 

transportation in icy waters. 

Solar Wind-Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Coupling. 

In cooperation with and support of DOD, industry, 

and the international scientific community, 

NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Center has embarked on a program to improve the Nation’s ability to forecast and specify the near-Earth space environment. A new, mid-and high-latitude model of 

the ionosphere was developed. Initial correlation 

studies of the solar winds variability with specific 

ionospheric currents and fields in the polar regions 

show promising results. Discussions incorporating 

solar atmospheric models, solar wind models, and 

thermospheric, neutral atmospheric models have 

been conducted with scientists from DOD, NOAA, 

and the National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR). 

Solar Storms. An operational “shock wave” 

algorithm was developed by NOAA in which realtime observations of radio bursts from solar flares, 

as detected by the USAF Radio Solar Telescope 

Network, are used to calculate the time of arrival 

on Earth of the shock wave created by the flare. 

Impact of the shock wave on the Earth‘s 

magnetosphere can initiate a geomagnetic storm 

when the dynamic pressure of the solar wind, and 

the polarity of the interplanetary magnetic field 

are appropriate. 

Aeronautical Programs 

New Products for the National Airspace System 

(NAS). In response to requirements of the Federal 

71 
Aviation Administration, NOAA continued to produce aeronautical charts and related products for 

navigation in, and control of, the US. NAS. To 

support this effort, the National Ocean Service 

developed new aeronautical prototype products 

during 1985. A Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flyway 

Planning Chart was developed and distributed to 

assist VFR aircraft in arriving, departing, and 

transiting congested terminal areas throughout 

the United States. Also designed and distributed to 

the public for evaluation were a prototype chart for 

use in high-altitude flight under the Instrument 

Flight Rules and Radio Navigation charts for use 

in area navigation. The results of the evaluation 

were favorable and may lead to a redesign of all Instrument Flight Rules en route charts. 

72 
Department of Energy 

For nearly 30 years, the Department of Energy 

(DOE) and its predecessor organizations have supported the design of advanced nuclear systems for 

generating power in space. This effort has resulted 

in the development and delivery of a number of 

radioisotope thermoelectric power systems that 

have proved to be safe and highly reliable. They are 

the SNAP-SA, SNAP-SA, SNAP-19, and 

SNAP-27, members of the Systems for Nuclear 

Auxiliary Power series; MultiHundred Watt 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (MHWRTG); and the High Performance Generator (HPG) 

Mod-3 RTG. These systems are essential for the 

success of NASA and DOD space missions and 

other special applications. Specifically, they have 

provided electrical energy for NASA's Pioneer, 

Viking, and Voyager missions, as well as earlier 

Earth orbital and lunar missions. Moreover, newly 

designed General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) 

RTG's have been developed and produced as essential power systems for the Galileo and Ulysses 

spacecraft. Space power systems providing electrical energy far surpassing the practical range of 

RTG's, spanning 1 to 100-plus kilowatts, are also in 

initial stages of development. Together with the 

advanced modular RTG, these radioisotopic or 

reactor-powered systems are directed toward 

NASA and DOD mission requirements for the 

1990's. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Two types of nuclear systems have been used to 

generate electricity for spacecraft. First is the 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG), the 

nuclear power source used most often by the 

United States. It is a static device which converts 

the heat from decaying radioisotope plutonium-238 

directly into electricity by means of the Seebeck effect in thermocouples. Thus, there are only two 

functional parts of an RTG: a heat source and a 

thermoelectric converter. The second type of 

system which can be used on spacecraft to 

generate electricity is the nuclear reactor. Like 

RTG's, reactor power plants are basically heat 

engines that convert heat from the fissioning of 

radioactive materials, uranium-235 in this case, into electricity through either static (thermoelectric 

element) or dynamic (rotary shaft) subsystems. 

DOE'S program in 1985 consisted of two major 

projects: the static outerplanetary RTG project, including production and testing of RTGs for 

NASA's Galileo spacecraft mission to Jupiter and 

the Ulysses (formerly International Solar Polar 

Mission) spacecraft mission to study the Sun; and 

the SP-100 space reactor technology program. 

Figure 1 depicts the GPHS-RTG. Figure 2 is an 

enlargement of the GPHS-RTG silicon-germanium 

unicouple. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

The Atomic Energy Commission, predecessor to 

the Department of Energy, began developing RTG 

power systems in 1956. Since 1961, the United 

States has used 34 RTGs as electrical power supply systems in 19 space systems, including navigation and communication satellites launched by 

DOD, and scientific spacecraft launched by NASA. 

These RTG's encompass six advanced design concepts spanning beginning-of-mission power levels 

ranging from 2.7 to 159.2 watts of electricity. 

Throughout this period, the efficiencies of thermoelectric elements have improved substantially. 

All the RTG's from SNAP-SA to the MHW exceeded their design requirements by providing 

power beyond their planned lifetimes. RTG's have 

proved to be rugged, dependable power supplies, 

independent of the external environment. In order 

to optimize power density and safety, DOE is continuing to support studies on RTG design, heat 

source materials, and thermoelectric materials. 

In 1985, assembly and space acceptance testing 

were completed for four GPHS-RTG's to be used 

on the Galileo and Ulysses missions. The testing 

covered vibration, thermal vacuum performance, 

mass properties, magnetics, and radiation dose 

rate measurements. The 55.5 kilogram GPHSRTG, using advanced silicon-germanium thermoelectrics technology to convert heat to electrical 

energy, is designed to provide a minimum of 285 

watts of electricity with a fuel loading of 4410 thermal watts. Life testing of the GPHS-RTG qualifica73 
Figure 1. The General-Purpose Heat Source xadioisotope 

Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-RTG). 

tion unit under simulated space conditions continued throughout 1985. This testing 

demonstrated that the GPHS-RTG will exceed 

NASA’s requirements. Assembly of 134 

lightweight radioisotope heater units also was 

completed in 1985. Generating approximately one 

watt each, these units are required to keep sensitive instruments warm on the Galileo spacecraft. 

Safety efforts included completion of three safety verification tests of full-up GPHS fueled 

modules used to power GPHS-RTGs. In addition, 

impact tests of full-up fueled modules were conducted, as well as explosion overpressure tests of 

simulant-fueled modules and RTG components required for the final safety analysis reports of the 

Galileo and Ulysses missions. Reports for GPHSRTG’s and the lightweight radioisotope heater 

units were completed and published in 1985. 

The SP-100 Space Reactor Program 

The SP-100 Program was initiated in 1983 as a 

cooperative effort among DOE, DOD, and NASA. 

Its purpose is to develop and demonstrate 

technology for space reactor power systems that 

will enhance a wide variety of emerging civilian 

and military missions whose requirements cannot 

be met by power sources in the current generation. 

The three phases of the SP-100 Program are 

assessment and advancement of technology, 

engineering system development and testing on 

the ground, and flight qualification. The first phase 

of the program, completed in 1985, focused on 

technology for space nuclear reactors in the power 

range of tens of kilowatts to 1,000 kWe (1 MWe). 

On August 1,1985, during the second phase of the 

program, the fast-reactor thermoelectric powerconversion concept was selected for further 

engineering development and demonstration 

testing on the ground, at a power level of 300 kWe. 

Figure 3 depicts a reactor thermoelectric concept. 

74 

Figure 2. The GPHS-RTG Silicon Germanium Unicouple. 

During 1985, important technical objectives 

related to the power system concept selected for 

the SP-100 were achieved. Fabrication technologies for the refractory metals and advanced 

fuel of the selected concept were used; irradiation 

testing of high-temperature refractory metals and 

fuel cladding was conducted with encouraging 

results; all major safety issues were identified and 

analyzed; and safety guidelines were established to 

ensure protection of the public and the environment under both normal and accident conditions. 

In October, a Memorandum of Agreement 

among DOE, DOD, and NASA formally initiated 

Phase I1 of the SP-100 Program. Phase I1 differs 

from Phase I organizationally in that each participating agency is responsible for a specific element of the program instead of sharing responsibilities of all elements. Flight demonstration of a 

300-kWe nuclear-electric power system scheduled 

for the early 1990’s as the reference mission for 

SP-100 will help focus the Phase I1 efforts. 

Through the Air Force, DOD will coordinate the 

overall direction of the program, analyze the 

SP-100 military mission and define the military requirements. DOE will develop and test the ground 

engineering system, and NASA will develop 

SP-100 non-nuclear technology and analyze and 

define the requirements for civil uses of the 

SP-100. 

As part of its responsibility for developing the 

ground engineering system, DOE will manage the 

designing of a reference space reactor power 

system consistent with the concept selection of 

August 1, 1985. Included will be assembly, performance, and safety testing at a DOE site. The 

initial DOE Phase I1 efforts have concentrated on 

selecting the system developer and the test site. 

The system developer, to be selected in mid 1986, 

will design and build the power system and direct 

the test program. 

Plans were initiated in 1985 for increasing the 

capacity of the space reactor beyond the 1 MWe 
OEPLOVED MMATOl ,ANEL Nuclear Test Detection 

flXEOuDuTOR 1 - ruu 

I I SbUELO 

. 

FLEXIBLE HEA1 

?WE COUPLER 

THERMOELECTRIC 

POWER CONVERSION I.s€LYaLI 

nul TRANWO~T LWP 

Figure 3. Thermoelectric concept. 

power level into the multimegawatt power range 

for both continuous and pulsed power applications. 

Power system concepts were identified and will be 

evaluated in 1986 before selection of the concepts 

to be developed and tested. The development of 

space reactor power systems in the multimegawatt 

power range will require significant advances and 

breakthroughs in several technological areas. 

The national capability to detect and monitor 

nuclear testing, both inside and outside Earth’s atmosphere, is being supported by DOE through the 

design, development, and production of spaceborne nuclear detection systems. A variety of 

satellite-based optical and radiation detectors provided by DOE will permit worldwide surveillance 

of nuclear testing and will verify whether tests 

comply with the Limited Test Ban and Nonproliferation Treaties. Nuclear detection systems supplied by DOE are flown as secondary payloads 

aboard DOD and NASA spacecraft. 

The DOE national laboratories are responsible 

for designing, fabricating, and testing detector instrumentation consisting of sensing elements, the 

elements’ electronic circuitry, and downlink 

telemetry logic. The objective of this instrumentation work is to continue improvements in sensitivity, coverage, and data processing techniques to 

enable the detection systems to better distinguish 

nuclear events from background signals, prevent 

false alarms, and detect unusual events. In 1985, 

DOE also continued its program to improve radiation hardening for its spaceborne detector 

systems. 

75 
Department of the Interior 

As caretaker for more than two million square 

kilometers of public lands, the US. Department of 

the Interior is responsible for managing, conserving, and developing natural resources on this element of the national domain. The Department frequently relies on data acquired by remote sensing 

devices for inventorying, managing, and monitoring these vast, often inaccessible lands. Bureaus 

and agencies of the Department participating in 

remote sensing studies during 1985 included the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, 

National Park Service, and US. Geological 

Survey. 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition 

and Processing 

The Earth Resources Observation System 

(EROS) Data Center of the US. Geological Survey 

(USGS) continued to process, archive, and 

distribute Landsat data to users for the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 

During 1985, 42,000 Landsat Thematic Mapper 

(TM) and Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images 

were added to the archive, bringing the total to 

660,000 images. Approximately 46,000 film and 

digital products were generated and distributed to 

users worldwide. The EROS Data Center completed initial modifications required to support the 

transition of Landsat operations and data 

marketing and sales to the commercial Earth 

Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT). This 

transition began when a contract was signed between EOSAT and the Department of Commerce 

on September 27, 1985. 

Contracting for photography for the National 

High-Altitude Photography Program (NHAP) was 

completed in 1985 at an overall cost of $18.9 

million, covering the years 1980 through 1985. The 

initial phase (NHAP I) was begun in 1980 by participating federal agencies for the purpose of acquiring 1:80,000-scale black and white and 

1:58,000-scale color-infrared photographs of the 

conterminous United States during the nongrowing (leaf-off) season. The acquisition of 

photographs was contracted to commercial aerial 

survey firms. Photographs covering about 

2,700,000 square miles, or about 87 percent of the 

conterminous United States, have been acquired 

and are available from USGS and the US. Department of Agriculture for distribution to public and 

private users. It is anticipated that all 

photographic acquisition for NHAP I will be completed by the end of 1986. 

The second major phase (NHAP 11) began in 

1985 as a 5-year plan to acquire the same types of 

photographs of the conterminous United States, 

but with two differences from NHAP I: imaging is 

to occur during the growing (leaf-on) season instead of the nongrowing season, and the work 

units to be contracted for are complete states 

rather than l-degree blocks. 

The USGS Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

(SLAR) program continued in 1985. The program 

began in 1980 with the Congressional mandate to 

acquire SLAR images for topographic and 

geological mapping and geological resource 

surveys in promising areas. During 1985, a contract was awarded to acquire data on approximately 208,000 square miles in the conterminous United 

States. SLAR data for more than 735,000 square 

miles in the conterminous United States and 

Alaska have been acquired, or contracted for acquisition, from 1980 through 1985. Data are available as image strips, 1" by 2' mosaics, and, for 

selected areas, computer-compatible tapes. Acquisition areas are selected on the basis of recommendations by State geologists, private industry, 

and USGS scientists. 

One of the primary cartographic applications of 

SLAR data is in the preparation of image maps of 

persistently cloud-covered areas, such as Alaska, 

where conventional aerial photographs are very 

difficult to obtain. A set of 1:250,000-scale radarimage products was prepared by USGS in 1985 of 

the Ugashik, Alaska, quadrangle to provide comparative images from both real, and syntheticaperture SLAR systems. 

In 1985, USGS published an experimental printing of a combined geologic map and radar image of 

northeastern West Virginia for use in evaluating 

the use of radar images in geologic and hazards 

mapping in the folded and thrust-faulted valley and 

77 
ridge portions of the Appalachian Mountains. This 

combination of geologic data and high-resolution 

radar images of intensely folded and faulted terrain provides a unique map base for correlating 

similar geologic structures and identifying 

anomalous geologic trends. 

Digital Data Processing 

Software Development 

The USGS is cooperating with NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center to develop the Land Analysis 

System (LAS) software package. LAS contains 

comprehensive image processing and geographic 

information system software, for processing both 

raster and vector data. A major objective of the 

LAS project is to develop transportable software 

that can be used on a variety of computers, including a combination of a minicomputer and 

microcomputer work stations, to take advantage 

of distributed processing technology. Major software programs were released in 1985, including 

applications software, enhanced catalog manager 

functions, and improved raster display management software. A limited effort is now underway 

to install selected software components in an 

operating system known as UNIX. 

During 1985, the National Park Services (NPS), 

in cooperation with NASA’s National Space 

Technology Laboratories and the USGS, continued 

to convert the Earth Resources Laboratory Applications Software (ELAS) to the UNIX operating 

system. The NPS and several other Federal and 

non-Federal agencies use ELAS to process and 

classify multispectral data from either satellite or 

aircraft platforms. This. software conversion will 

enable NPS and other users to run ELAS on lowcost computer hardware configurations, including 

graphics work stations. 

Image Processing Workstations 

The Remote Information Processing System 

(RIPS) developed by the USGS is now operational 

as a work station for demonstration and training, 

and for use in small-scale applications of image 

processing and spatial-data handling. The baseline 

software system was modified in 1985 to provide 

additional capabilities, but existing hardware configurations will undergo only limited new development. Development of a comprehensive image 

processing work station will continue, however, 

under the LAS effort. 

The second RIPS Users Conference was held in 

1985. Users from private industry, universities, 

and State and Federal agencies met to exchange 

information on the applications of RIPS and to 

78 

Portion of a USGS Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) image 

covering part of the Mojave Desert west of Blythe, California. 

Prominent features include Interstate Highway 10 (bottom) and 

several mountain ranges, including the McCoy Mountains 

(right). Note the drainage pattern detail in the alluvial valleys 

between the mountain ranges. 

define the products, services, hardware, and software needed to support low-cost microprocessor 

work stations that can process, analyze, and 

display remotely sensed and other types of spatial 

data. 

Remote Sensing Applications 

Renewable Resources 

In 1985, the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) expanded its use of aerial and satellite remote sens- 
ing to accomplish its mission goals. For example, 

an intensive environmental inventory was undertaken of an 1,800-square mile area which may be 

affected by the Garrison Diversion Unit of the 

Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Project of North 

Dakota. Data interpreted from large-scale, colorinfrared aerial photographs were entered into a 

digital geographic data base for statistical analysis 

and display. This activity will continue into 1986 

and beyond. In another application, airborne video 

infrared images and Landsat TM images were used 

to update information on irrigated lands in the 

Newlands Project in Nevada. Information about 

changes in irrigated land use were entered into the 

geographic data base. Enlarged to 1:24,000 scale, 

Landsat TM data were also used to verify irrigation activity and inventory crop type. 

The USGS Interim Land-Cover Mapping Project 

in Alaska resulted in production of six land-cover 

maps, corresponding to the Arctic, Dillingham, 

Fairbanks, Valdez, Mount Michelson, and Meade 

River 1:250,000-scale quadrangles. Landsat MSS 

data were combined with digital elevation data and 

field observations to produce the land-cover maps. 

Statistical summaries of land-cover types, which 

include percentage covered by class and total acres 

and hectares for both township and quadrangle, 

have been produced for each quadrangle. 

NOAA’s digital Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (AVHRR) data are used for mapping 

fire fuels in the Bureau of Land Management’s 

(BLM) Initial Attack Management System. This 

system is designed to detect wildlife outbreaks and 

predict fire spread characteristics. Mapping was 

completed for California and Nevada during 1985. 

The procedures for mapping fire-fuel types using 

digital classification of AVHRR data are now considered operational. Sections of nine other western 

States remain to be mapped. 

In a cooperative project between the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) and USGS, Landsat TM colorcomposite images were evaluated as a source of information for assessing reservation resources. 

Landsat TM data were acquired to determine the 

best band combinations for color compositing and 

for manual interpretation at 1:100,000 scale. 

Training workshops were conducted at the Warm 

Springs and Yakima Reservations in 1985 to 

familiarize agency and reservation staff with the 

project and the potential uses of TM data. Specific 

inventorying and monitoring activities have been 

identified for which TM data are applicable. 

Strategies for using TM data have been defined 

and evaluated with regard to accuracy and 

timeliness of the interpretation, and a set of 

guidelines has been prepared to describe TM data 

acquisition, resource monitoring, and assessment 

procedures. 

The BIA, USGS, and Michigan Technological 

University are analyzing Landsat TM data for 

detecting changes in forest stands, wetlands, and 

urbanization parameters in several study sites on 

the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. These data are 

being evaluated using a geographic information 

system to show changes caused by management 

activities. Results will demonstrate the extent to 

which Landsat TM data can be used to inventory 

natural resources for forest, range, and wetlands 

management. 

In 1985, the NPS used Landsat TM data in combination with arc-second digital elevation data to 

develop digital data bases for 13 National Parks in 

Alaska. When completed, these digital data bases 

will be used in fire management, vegetation mapping and management, and many other resource 

management and planning applications in the 

Alaska parks. 

For proper management of its forest lands, the 

U.S. Forest Service (USFS) must inventory timber 

types and volumes, usually with extensive field 

work. Through a cooperative USGS-USFS project, 

a new approach based upon Landsat MSS data and 

digital elevation data has been applied to inventory 

timber in the 2,200-square-mile Sierra National 

Forest of California. Forest types and densities 

were mapped to derive standing timber volume 

and basal area measurements. Twenty-five forest 

classes were mapped using Landsat MSS data 

stratified with digital elevation data. Seventy plot 

sites were selected randomly for field measurements to derive the volume of standing timber per 

acre. This information, coupled with acreage summaries by stratified class, will provide an accurate 

estimate of timber volume in the National Forest. 

New applications involving NOAA AVHRR data 

have been developed in cooperation with the BLM, 

BIA, and the Nebraska Forest Service. The 

AVHRR . data are integrated into a multi-layer 

digital data base and are used to capture timeseries spectral change. Time-series analysis of 

AVHRR data for southwestern U.S. rangelands 

shows that biomass production and growth stage 

can be monitored. Biomass monitoring provides 

the range manager a method to assess growth and 

use, and the fire manager a method to monitor the 

onset of vegetation senescence (browning of the 

vegetation), when the probability of fire ignition increases. Research on methods to relate AVHRR 

data to actual fire occurrences is being conducted 

for the State of Nebraska. AVHRR data for 

Nebraska test sites for the 1981 and 1984 growing 

seasons have been compared with corresponding 

ground data to determine the herbaceous vegetation fuel condition, which is used in computing a 

fire-danger rating for the State. 

79 
Soils Mapping 

In a cooperative project involving the BLM, the 

Soil Conservation Service, and the USGS, digital 

elevation and Landsat MSS data have been combined to test the concept of using alternative data 

sources for soils mapping. Digital data summaries 

of elevation category, steepness of slope, direction 

of slope, and greenness and brightness of vegetation are used with field observations to complete 

soil surveys of test areas in Nevada. Data are 

merged and analyzed to produce a soil pre-map of 

the project area showing terrain, landform, soils, 

and spectral data attributes. 

Hydrology 

Scientists at BOR are studying water quality using Landsat MSS and TM data and multispectral 

images acquired by aircraft. Monitoring has been 

completed on Blue Mesa Reservoir in Colorado, 

Lake Havasu and Lake Pleasant in Arizona, and 

Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Wyoming. Data from 

airborne multispectral scanners have been used to 

help define water seepage problems through and 

around the embankments of Deer Flat Dam in 

Idaho. The analysis helped field engineers to locate 

and identify some previously unknown seepage 

areas. In another project, high-resolution thermalinfrared images were used to observe nighttime 

roosting habits of Sand Hill Cranes on the Platte 

River in Nebraska. The technique provided data 

for studies on roosting preferences and an inventory of the number of birds at the site. 

Data from the NOAA Electronically Scanned 

Microwave Radiometer are used in a USGS 

research project to map the water equivalent of 

snow in the Upper Colorado Basin. The project is 

designed to develop methods to predict water 

runoff that will assist in flood prevention and 

management. Five years of data are being cor-. 

related with ground measurements of snow pack 

and water runoff. Data from the winter of 1984-85 

are being used to guide sampling teams in the field. 

Geology 

Geologic Mapping and Analysis. Based on five 

years of research and applications experience with 

a commercial non-imaging airborne spectrometer, 

an analytical approach based upon physical properties has been developed by the USGS and used to 

map and identify clay and carbonate minerals in a 

large mineralized area in Nevada. Data from 

NASA’s experimental Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS) are being analyzed in an effort to 

find similar applications. The AIS is the first of a 

new generation of imaging devices with 

lo-nanometer spectral resolution, and as many as 

128 spectral channels. The increased spectral 

resolution should assist significantly in identifying 

a large number of minerals. Current research is 

concentrated on development of a method of 

analysis that will handle large volumes of data 

more effectively. 

The USGS is evaluating the utility of data from 

Landsat’s TM and NASA’s Thermal Infrared 

Multispectral Scanner for locating disseminated 

gold deposits. These deposits are a prime exploration target for the mining industry in the United 

States. Current studies are focused on defining the 

physical properties of the deposits and on developing image-processing techniques to take advantage 

of the physical properties. A rare ammoniafeldspar, buddingtonite, has been identified at 

several of the known deposits. The ammonia in the 

feldspar produces distinct spectral characteristics 

that can be identified with NASA’s AIS. Thus, the 

potential exists to use available data to distinguish 

a unique characteristic of disseminated gold 

deposits. 

The USGS applied Landsat TM data as a basic 

geologic mapping tool to map and identify 

hydrothermally altered rocks in a sparsely 

vegetated heterogeneous geologic setting in the 

Drum Mountain, Utah; BLM Wilderness Study 

area in Nevada, and the San Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona for BIA. Also, a small project was 

demonstrated for the government of Morocco. 

Concurrent Landsat TM and MSS data were 

geometrically corrected and digitally enhanced to 

generate products for field use and comparative 

application. Color-ratio-composite images of TM 

data were shown to be the most useful digital 

enhancements for distinguishing rock types 

dominated by calc-silicate minerals, gypsum, carbonates, and certain clay minerals. Comparison of 

enhanced TM and MSS images of other semiarid 

areas verified the significant contribution of TM 

data in mapping hydrothermal alteration and other 

lithologic variation. 

Mine Development and Safety Monitoring. The 

Bureau of Mines (BOM) has demonstrated that 

digital Landsat data are effective in delineating 

geological structures, such as faults or sand channels, that cause ground control problems in 

underground mines. These geological structures 

are generally expressed on the ground surface as 

linear features defined by vegetation and 

topographic variations. Such features, called 

lineaments, are mapped and correlated with 

ground conditions in underground mines, producing a map that shows potential hazards in advance 

of future mining. Lineaments are determined from 

computer analysis of digital Landsat data. To expedite cross-checking of the relationship between 

plotted lineaments and ground control problems 

80 
encountered in mines during routine operations, a 

computerized telecommunications process 

transmits information on mining status between 

individual mines and BOMs Denver Research 

Center. This interactive computer process for data 

analysis is being evaluated at selected coal mines. 

Preliminary results indicate that geologic 

lineaments closely coincide with roof-fall areas, 

especially where the lineaments intersect boundaries of sandstone channels at the mine horizon. 

Geologic Studies in Antarctica. Digital mosaics 

of Landsat MSS images are specially processed to 

provide polar researchers with accurate synoptic 

views of land and ice features in selected regions of 

Antarctica. Spectral signatures and spectral ratios 

of soil and rock are sufficiently different from 

those of snow and ice to permit the preparation of 

maps showing rock-type classifications and detailed locations of rocky islands known as 

nunataks. Others maps show the location of blue 

ice, which contains most of the meteorites found in 

Antarctica. 

Planetary Studies. NASA's Voyager spacecraft, 

launched in August and September of 1977, 

returned several thousand pictures of Jupiter, 

Saturn, and their satellites. Over 300 of these pictures form the basis of a geologic mapping program of three of Jupiter's satellites - Ganymede, 

Io, and Europa. The program, organized and 

managed by the USGS, includes mapping of 18 

quadrangles by more than 40 investigators from 

various universities, research institutes, and 

government offices in the United States, England, 

Germany, and Italy. The mapping is generally 

done at a scale of 1:5,000,000 except for Io, where 

three maps are being produced at two scales, 

1:1,000,000 and 1:2,000,000. During 1985, USGS 

scientists studying Io have shown, through computer simulation of basaltic volcanic eruptions, 

that temperatures of the eruptions on Io are 

similar to temperatures from sustained eruptions 

of basaltic lava flows on Earth. Many of the 

volcanic features on Io have previously been interpreted in terms of sulphur volcanism. Models based 

on basaltic lava flows, which are most common 

here on Earth, are now thought to better 

characterize volcanism on Io. 

A new 1:15,000,000-scale geologic map of Mars 

is in the final stages of publication by the USGS. 

The map is divided into three sections, one for each 

of the western equatorial, eastern equatorial, and 

polar regions. The map, based on high-quality, 

high-resolution Viking images, shows greater 

detail than does the previously published 

1:25,000,000-scale geologic map. It contains new 

geologic and stratigraphic information resulting 

from detailed studies of Martian geology by many 

investigators, and redefines and subdivides the 

previous chronostratigraphic system of Mars. It 

was jointly produced by USGS and university 

scientists in the United States and England. 

Cartography 

Satellite Image Mapping. The USGS has concentrated its image mapping production work for 1985 

on refining procedures and specifications in order 

to develop a standard production system for image 

maps. Projects completed during the year used image data acquired by satellites using various types 

of sensors. Research which started with Landsat 

MSS and TM data continued this year with the addition of NOAA AVHRR data. A procedure was 

developed and tested to make 1:100,000 MSS 

color-infrared image mosaics of standard 

1:1,000,000 quadrangles that meet national mapping standards. AVHRR images provide 

l-kilometer resolution data, which can be used for 

large-area, small-scale products. An experimental 

image mosaic of the western United States was 

prepared at 1:4,000,000 scale by digitally mosaicking five AVHRR scenes. During 1985, digital image processing was completed for image maps 

from Landsat TM data at 1:100,000 scale for four 

standard 1" by 30' quadrangles (Pahute Mesa and 

Cactus Flats, Nevada; and Kansas City and Olathe, 

Kansas); and from Landsat MSS data at 1:250,000 

scale for four standard 1" by 2" quadrangles 

(Mariposa, California; Goldfield, Nevada; Roanoke, 

Virginia; and Denali National Park, Alaska). These 

maps will be published in 1986. 

Research in 1985 implemented software for 

spatial filtering of image map products, compared 

cubic convolution interpolation with least squares 

restoration to resample Landsat images, improved 

digital processing to remove detector striping, and 

improved the color and contrast relationship between a digital display and the output product 

through color calibration research. In addition, 

geometric rectification studies improved the correction of relief displacements and increased the 

accuracy of ground-control-point selection through 

the use of video-map and image-overlay techniques. 

Sonar Image Mapping. Over the past five years, 

the USGS and the British Institute of Oceanographic Sciences (10s) have cooperated in a program to collect, process, and analyze sonar images 

of the ocean bottom. Side-scan sonar images have 

been collected by the GLORIA (Geological Long 

Range Inclined Asdic) system, which was designed, built, and is operated by 10s. GLORIA was 

first used in 1979 to collect analog sonar images for 

selected areas along the U.S. Atlantic coast. In 

1982 the USGS and 10s collected GLORIA image 

data in the Gulf of Mexico, including digital data on 

81 
Enhanced sidescan sonar image acquired by the Geological 

Long Range Inclined Asdic (GLORIA) system of the Taney seamounts (submarine mountains). These seamounts (light-toned 

features) rise approximately 2,000 meters above the Pacific 

Ocean floor 280 kilometers southwest of San Francisco, and 

many contain calderas in their summits. 

computer-compatible tapes. In 1984, GLORIA was 

used to collect sonar image data covering part of 

the newly declared Exclusive Economic Zone 

(EEZ) off the U.S. West Coast. Due to the increased volume of data collected and the high 

interest in the EEZ, software to process GLORIA 

digital data was refined, expanded, and made 

operational on the USGS Mini Image Processing 

System. Geologists have studied processed 

GLORIA data of the West Coast EEZ area to 

determine the value of a reconnaissance view of 

the ocean floor. So far, they have discovered over 

50 submarine volcanoes, large landslides, fault 

scarps, and extensive meandering channels that 

were previously unknown. Data are being processed to generate 33 2" by 2" image mosaics of the 

West Coast data. 

New data were collected during 1985 for most of 

the Gulf of Mexico and the extreme southern portion of the Atlantic Coast. Work also continues to 

process bathymetric and magnetic data recorded 

on navigation tapes. These data will be processed 

using surface-display software to create images 

that will be overlaid on the digital sonar image 

data. 

82 

Aerial Profiling of Terrain System. After successfully completing several map-testing and 

point-positioning projects, USGS has declared the 

Aerial Profiling of Terrain System (APTS) operational. As a precision airborne surveying system 

able to measure elevation profiles accurately, 

APTS is now undergoing a series of applications 

tests to determine its effectiveness and to optimize 

its performance. 

In its first operational test, APTS is being used 

to help the State of Utah design a water drainage 

system to control the water level of the Great Salt 

Lake by diverting excess water to form a new lake 

30 miles to the west. Accurate elevation profiles 

are needed to determine the potential shoreline, 

depth, and volume of the new lake, as well as 

where dikes will be required. In 1985, APTS completed 16 profiling missions over the Great Salt 

Lake Desert, obtaining 1,200 linear miles of profile 

data covering 1,400 square miles. This was a 

challenging project because of the hot, dry environmental conditions, and the large area 

surveyed. The profile data have been processed 

and final data have been provided to the State of 

Utah. 

International Activity 

The USGS conducted two international remote 

sensing workshops in 1985. One workshop, held at 

the EROS Data Center for 29 scientists from 18 

countries, covered applications of Landsat data to 

geologic, hydrologic, and other resource assessment problems. Another, a three-week remote 

sensing workshop, was held in Beijing, People's 

Republic of China. Chinese scientists from the National Bureau of Surveying and Mapping received 

training from the USGS in the principles of remote 

sensing and applications of digital image processing techniques to resource monitoring and mapping. 

In continuation of a cooperative agreement, 

BOR scientists visited Spain in 1985 to train 

Spanish scientists to use digital Landsat data 

analysis techniques in monitoring the quality of 

reservoir water. Subsequently, the Spanish scientists completed analyses of several reservoirs and 

have sent their results and data to BOR for 

verification. BOR scientists also used Landsat and 

AVHRR data in completing a pilot study to 

monitor snow-covered areas of the High Atlas 

Mountains of Morocco. This work, a part of the 

Moroccan Winter Snowpack Augmentation Project, will be continued for another four winter 

seasons. 

A cooperative project between USGS and Spain 

to evaluate remote sensing techniques for augmenting conventional mineral exploration 
methods found that Landsat TM data are particularly useful in the search for tin, tungsten, and 

uranium deposits in West-Central Spain. 

At the request of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 

USGS prepared and printed color Landsat MSS 

image maps at 1:500,000 scale for that country’s 

Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. The 

USGS 1:250,000-scale Landsat image base maps 

that were used for the Saudi geologic maps also 

now serve as the base maps for a new series of soil 

maps of Saudi Arabia. A geographic map of the 

Arabian peninsula at 1:2,000,000 scale also has 

been published and, for its scale, is one of the most 

accurate and up-to-date maps of the Kingdom. Image maps of the Arabian Peninsula using NOAAAVHRR data, were prepared, and thermal inertia 

images of the Peninsula were made, which define 

previously unrecognized structural features of the 

Peninsula. 

At the request of the U.S Agency for International Development and the Government of Sudan, 

USGS trained Sudanese scientists to preare Landsat image maps, and printed Landsat MSS color 

image maps of the drought-stricken Darfur and 

Kordofan areas. 

83 
Department of Agriculture 

During 1985, the US. Department of Agriculture (USDA) continued to develop and improve 

remotely sensed data from space platforms for use 

in research and operational programs. 

A significant milestone was reached with the 

conclusion of the AgRISTARS (Agriculture and 

Resources Inventory Surveys Through Aerospace 

Remote Sensing) program on September 30, 1985. 

The 6-year, multi-agency program was established 

in 1980 as a cooperative research effort of USDA, 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Commerce, and the 

Department of the Interior. The Agency for International Development acted as an observer, anticipating possible applications of research results 

in underdeveloped countries. 

The goal of the AgRISTARS program was to 

determine the feasibility of integrating aerospace 

remote sensing technology into existing or future 

USDA information systems. From the beginning, 

research focused on information requirements that 

were of primary concern to USDA, such as early 

warning of changing conditions in agriculture, 

crop production forecasts, land use and productivity, asssessments of renewable resources, conservation practices, and pollution detection. The program was organized into eight project areas and 

structured around the priority information requirements. A balanced approach was a major factor in the progress made in the areas of research, 

development, testing, and evaluation. The 

AgRISTARS program benefited significantly from 

the unique experience and expertise of the participating agencies. 

Each of the projects contributed substantially to 

advances in practical applications of aerospace 

remote sensing. For example, research implemented in the Early Warning and Crop Condition Assessment project provided improved 

methods to detect stress in crops and vegetation, 

and, in conjunction with meteorological data, to 

provide timely indications of near-term future crop 

conditions over foreign production areas. 

The Crop Production Forecasting project improved analytical techniques for spectral identification of wheat and was used for identifying 

corn and soybeans. In this instance, analytical 

Interior view of the Remote Sensing Center of USDAs Foreign 

Agricultural Service where data from the AgRISTARS program are analyzed to assess crop conditions in major 

agricultural regions of the world. 

techniques were made more efficient and less labor 

intensive than previous visual interpretation 

methods. 

Measuring plant and environmental characteristics played a critical role in crop production forecasting and estimating research. Crop yield models 

were developed for corn, soybeans, wheat, and 

barley, as well as a new method for using data from 

the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

instrument on meteorological satellites to estimate 

the amount of solar radiation on the Earth's surface. Related research in soil moisture emphasized 

development, testing, and evaluation of techniques 

to gather soil moisture data remotely and with 

ground-based instrumentation. Microwave sensing 

devices were used in many of the soil moisture experiments. 

Land-cover inventories, land-use change 

estimates, and improvement of crop acreage projections were central concerns in the Domestic 

Crops and Land Cover Research project. Similar 

research, the Renewal Resources Inventory, included improved methods to collect, display, and 

use resource information for forest management 

and planning; to evaluate Landsat technology to 

85 
support multi-resource inventories and forest planning; and to demonstrate an ability to monitor, 

classify, and measure disturbances and changes in 

forest and rangelands. 

The conservation assessment portion of the Conservation and Pollution project focused on applications in the inventory of conservation practices, 

use of hydrologic models to estimate water runoff, 

and efforts to determine the physical characteristics of snow packs. The pollution segment of the 

project studied conservation practices through use 

of remote sensing techniques to quantitatively 

assess sediment runoff, gaseous and particulate air 

pollutants, and the impact of pollutants on 

agricultural and forestry resources. 

A major test of the feasibility of using remote 

sensing for the 1987 National Resource Inventory 

(NRI) proceeded in parallel with the AgRISTARS 

project during its last two years, and drew upon its 

research results. The NRI is mandated by the 

Resource Conservation Act and is to be conducted 

by USDA’s Soil Conservation Service every five 

years; extensive use of remotely sensed data could 

markedly reduce expenditures for the inventory. 

This feasibility test, using Oklahoma, was known 

as the Remote Sensing Pilot project. In addition to 

aerial photography of several types, digital data 

from the Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer, and Landsat’s Multispectral Scanner, 

and Thematic Mapper instruments were tested. 

Based on initial results of the tests, it is expected 

that the next National Resources Inventory will 

make extensive use of remotely sensed data. 

The conclusion of the AgRISTARS program 

does not signify a diminishing remote sensing 

research effort in USDA. On the contrary, 

research will proceed at about the same funding 

level as under AgRISTARS. USDA’s Agricultural 

Research Service (ARS) will continue investigating 

the potential for remote sensing as a data source. 

In 1985, ARS established a Remote Sensing 

Research Laboratory under a newly formed 

Agricultural Systems Research Institute to test 

use of remotely sensed data in all areas of concern 

to the Department. The Remote Sensing Research 

Laboratory is located at the Beltsville Agricultural 

Research Center near Washington, D.C., and is expected to play an important role in developing 

practical and useful applications. 

86 
Federal Communications Commission 

During 1985, international and domestic communications networks continued to expand into 

new services. The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) upgraded its global service with launches of the loth, 11th 

and 12th satellites of the INTELSAT V series. 

Those satellites increased to 14 the number of 

satellites available to INTELSAT’s global service. 

There are 25 domestic communications satellites 

currently in service, and an additional 20 are 

authorized by the Commission for construction and 

launch. The International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARS AT) has a lease agreement 

with INTELSAT to provide maritime communications services using the V series INTELSAT 

satellites in the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions. 

Satellite communications in the Atlantic Ocean 

region are provided by two Marecs satellites leased 

from Aerospatiale and one Marisat satellite 

in the Pacific Ocean region leased from Comsat 

General. INMARSAT has executed a contract with 

British Aerospace to provide three secondgeneration spacecraft with a service date in 1988. 

The contract included an option for nine additional 

satellites. Four new commercial satellite systems 

have been authorized for international services in 

the Atlantic Ocean region. Conditional authorizations have been granted to five companies to 

establish international satellite systems separate 

from INTELSAT. New technology is developing 

additional use for satellite delivered communications, such as mobile satellite and radio determination satellite systems. A radio determination 

satellite is one that allows a subscriber to use a 

transmitted signal to determine his geographic 

position. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSA T 

At the beginning of 1985, the INTELSAT global 

communications system consisted of three INTELSAT IVA, and eleven INTELSAT V 

satellites. During 1985 the operational satellites 

were reconfigured in operational zones as follows: 

six V’s and one IVA in the Atlantic Ocean Region: 

The next-generation INTELSAT VI communications satellite, 

nearly 39 feet tall. 

three V’s in the Indian Ocean; and two IVA’s and 

two V’s in the Pacific Ocean Region. Three of the 

IVA satellites have exceeded estimated maneuver 

life. 

The Commission approved 22 new Earth station 

facilities to access the INTELSAT system in the 

Atlantic Ocean Region for INTELSAT (digital) 

Business System. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

In 1985, the Commission authorized the construction and launch of 20 additional domestic 

fixed-satellites which will provide communication 

services through the end of this century. In addi87 
tion to increasing substantially the available 

satellite capacity, this action will provide the opportunity for implementation of various innovative 

techniques and services. Several new entrants to 

the satellite industry were awarded licenses in this 

authorization proceeding, including Ford Aerospace Satellite Services Corporation, Martin 

Marietta Communications Servies Inc., and 

Federal Express Corporation. To accommodate 

these new satellites, the Commission relied on its 

1983 decision to reduce orbital spacings and 

assigned locations in the geostationary orbit with 

2-degree separations in both the 416-GHz and 

12114-GHz bands. Currently, there are 25 launched 

and operational fixed-satellites with 16 in the 

416-GHz band, six in the 12114-GHz band and three 

operating in both bands. Five satellites launched in 

the 1970’s have been retired and are being replaced 

by satellites with higher efficiency. 

In acting on the 85 applications before it, the 

Commission established rules for future applications which will ensure that satellites are promptly 

constructed and launched after authorization. An 

applicant must have the financial ability to construct and operate a satellite system and 

demonstrate that its proposals will be promptly implemented to provide services to the public. 

The Commission’s Advisory Committee on 2” 

Spacing was established in 1985 to elicit suggestions by industry representatives on the most efficient and economical methods to accommodate 

satellite operations under reduced spacing conditions. This committee is divided into working 

groups to consider issues relating to Earth stations, space stations, and coordination. One report, 

including the report’s recommendations, has been 

adopted by the committee and more reports are anticipated in 1986. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

National and international efforts to establish a 

future global maritime distress and safety system 

are continuing. The International Maritime 

Organization (IMO) is developing the system which 

will use terrestrial techniques as well as satellite 

emergency position indicating radio beacons 

(satellite EPIRB’s) to provide initial distress alerting information from ships to rescue coordination 

centers. While present plans envisage satellite 

EPIRB’s operating through INMARSAT (geostationary orbit) and COSPASlSARSAT (polar orbit) 

satellites, the IMO Maritime Safety Committee 

will make a final decision on this issue in 1986. The 

maritime distress and safety system is expected to 

be fully operational in 1996. 

Study Group 8 of the International Radio Consultative Committee has adopted recommended 

technical characteristics for EPIRB’s carried by 

polar orbiting and geostationary orbiting 

satellites. A demonstration and evaluation phase 

of the polar orbiting COSPASBARSAT system, 

with signals transmitted via U.S. GOES satellites, 

will begin in 1986. Coordinated trials of EPIRB’s 

on satellites of the INMARSAT geostationary 

system will be carried out during 1986. 

Currently, INMARSAT is leasing three operational and three in-orbit spare satellites to serve 

the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean regions. 

Second-generation satellites, the first of which is 

expected to become operational in mid-1988, are 

being built under INMARSAT specifications, and 

will have a capacity about triple that of the present 

leased satellites. INMARSAT currently serves 

about 4,000 vessels through its 44 member-country 

organization. Thirteen coast stations in ten countries are in operation, with five more expected in 

1986. 

Aeronautical Satellite Service 

The International Conference on the Establishment of an International Maritime Satellite 

System, London, 1975-1976, adopted Recommendation 4 relating to the use of INMARSAT 

satellites for multiple purposes, providing both a 

maritime mobile capability and an aeronautical 

mobile capability. The International Civil Aviation 

Organization (ICAO) has approached INMARSAT 

to investigate the possible use of INMARSAT 

satellites to satisfy aeronautical requirements. 

Three satellites of INMARS AT’S second generation, the first of which is under construction, will 

have the capability to operate in a small portion (1 

MHz) of the aeronautical mobile-satellite band. The 

Fourth INMARS AT Assembly of Parties, London, 

October 1985, amended the INMARSAT Convention to allow INMARSAT to offer services via 

satellite to the aeronautical community on a competitive, non-obligatory basis. The amendments 

will take effect 120 days after two-thirds of 

member countries representing two-thirds of the 

total INMARS AT investment shares have filed 

notices of acceptance with the depository. The 

ICAO Special Council Committee on Future Air 

Navigation Systems continued to meet in 1985. It 

is addressing future air navigation systems, including the use of satellites for a coordinated 

development program in civil aviation. 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service (DBS) 

3f eight “first-round” DBS companies granted 

permits in 1983 to construct Direct Broadcast 

Satellites, three are progressing in the construction of their authorized satellites. These three permittees will use 200 to 230-watt traveling wave 

88 
tube amplifiers (TWTA’s) in conjunction with 

various half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam configurations to provide service across the continental United States. Modifications granted in 

September 1985 will allow two of these companies 

to increase transponder capability from six channels to eight channels per satellite. Projected completion of satellite construction varies for each 

company from late 1986 through 1987. These permittees are required to have their satellite systems 

in operation by the last quarter of 1988. 

Additionally, of six “second-round” applicants 

granted conditional permits in late 1984 and early 

1985, one has demonstrated “due diligence” in construction of its satellite system and has been 

awarded channels, orbital position, and launch 

authority. In contrast to the three “first-round” 

companies, this system will use two 16-channel 

satellites equipped with 100-watt TWTA’s to provide DBS service. Advances in antenna and 

receiver technology were cited in support of selecting mid-power transponders for this system. Commencement of DBS operations for this company is 

scheduled for mid-1989. 

In September 1985, conditional construction permits for new DBS systems were issued to three 

“third-round” DBS applicants. Upon fulfillment of 

the “due diligence” requirement, these permittees 

will be entitled to assignment of specific orbital 

positions and channels. A “fourth-round” of DBS 

applications is currently pending. 

New Satellite Services 

New technology is developing to provide additional uses for satellite delivered communications. 

Increased capacity in the 12114-GHz band allows 

the development of services using much smaller 

antennas than feasible in the 4/6-GHz band. This 

has prompted several applications for large private 

networks of small Earth stations to provide communications services between various business 

locations. These applications request streamlined 

licensing procedures which will enable such networks to be constructed more expeditiously and 

economically. 

In addition, on July 12, 1984, in response to a 

petition from Geostar Corporation, the Commission issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in 

General Docket No. 85-689, that proposes to implement a radio determination satellite system 

domestically which would allow subscribers to 

determine latitude, longitude, and altitude, and to 

exchange brief coded messages using inexpensive 

hand-held transceivers. In July, 1985, the Commission allocated frequencies in the 1610 to 

1626.5-MHz, 2483.5 to 2500-MHz and 5117 to 

5183-MHz bands for radio determination satellite 

service. 

On January 28, 1985, in response to a petition 

from NASA, the Commission issued a Notice of 

Proposed Rulemaking in General Docket No. 

84-1234, that proposes to allocate spectrum for a 

mobile satellite service, to establish technical and 

regulatory guidelines for the service, and to 

authorize a licensee. The service envisioned by 

NASA would provide mobile telephone service in 

rural areas, long-range vehicle dispatch functions, 

data transmission and data collection, vehicle position determination, message distribution (paging) 

and emergency communications. Since the release 

of the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, the Commission has received voluminous comments concerning the issues raised in the rulemaking. The 

Commission also received a dozen applications 

from entities proposing to establish mobile satellite 

systems. Final comments on these applications 

were scheduled for evaluation in October. 

In the international satellite communications 

area, the Commission released its policy statement 

in CC Docket No. 84-1299 establishing the 

regulatory policies that will be used to consider applications for satellite systems providing international communication services independent of INTELSAT. The Commission found that separate international systems proposed by the Administration will provide substantial benefits to international telecommunications users without causing 

significant economic harm to INTELSAT. Finding 

that their applications met its legal, technical, and 

initial financial qualifications and public interest 

considerations, the Commission granted conditional authority to establish separate satellite 

systems to Orion Satellite Corporation, International Satellite, Inc., RCA American Communications, Inc., Pan American Satellite Corporation, 

and Cygnus Satellite Corporation. 

International Conference Activities 

The Commission’s delegation participated in the 

Space World Administrative Radio Conference 

(Space WARC) held in Geneva, Switzerland. The 

first session was held in August and September, 

1985, and the second session will be held in 1988. 

The objective of the conference is to guarantee all 

countries equitable access to the geostationary 

satellite orbit and to the frequency bands allocated 

to space services. The Commission’s Advisory 

Committee for Space WARC brought several participants into the preparations, including the 

private sector, which was well represented. After 

six weeks of difficult negotiations in Geneva, much 

remains to be done to prepare for the second ses89 
sion. Preparations by the Commission and other of on-going domestic activities in the radio deterfederal agencies has already begun, and the mination and land mobile satellite areas will have 

rechartered Advisory Committee will be providing an effect on the U.S. proposals to be developed for 

private sector participation once again. A number that session. 

90 
Department of Transportation 

Under the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as 

amended, the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) - the aviation component of the Department 

of Transportation -is responsible for both 

regulating and fostering civil aviation. It regulates 

airport safety, promotes aviation security, controls 

the national airspace to ensure its safe and efficient use, operates a common system of air navigation and air traffic control for the benefit of civil 

and military aviation, and ensures that civil aviation poses as little risk to the environment as possible. Research, development and engineering programs on aviation safety, air navigation and air 

traffic control, and the environment are conducted 

jointly with FAA contractors, and with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the 

Department of Defense, the Department of Commerce, other agencies and organizations. 

Under a new federal law and an Executive 

Order, the Department of Transportation is also 

responsible for regulating and promoting a commercial expendable launch vehicle industry. The 

Department’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation was established to regulate, license and 

coordinate responsibilities for the industry, and to 

promote commercial space transportation in 

foreign and domestic markets. 

Aviation Safety 

Fire Safety Research 

During 1985, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) continued to assess the results of the 

Controlled Impact Demonstration, in which a 

remotely controlled Boeing 720 was flown into a 

prepared impact area. Conducted on December 1, 

1984, this demonstration provided data on the effectiveness of antimisting kerosene (AMK), and on 

the behavior of various aircraft components and 

equipment under the stress of a survivable accident. The post-crash fire, larger than anticipated, 

raised questions about the effectiveness of AMK. 

In the light of that outcome, and of technical issues 

not yet solved, the Administrator of FAA concluded that the AMK concept is not practical for dayto-day airline operations in the foreseeable future. 

Therefore, he decided not to issue a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) requiring the use of 

AMK fuel. 

The entire issue of aviation fuel safety research 

was explored in a 3-day workshop held under FAA 

sponsorship in October 1985 and attended by over 

90 participants, from the United States and 

foreign governments, including trade associations, 

fuel companies, airlines, and manufacturers of airframes and engines. 

FAA continued to use the rule-making process to 

enhance fire safety. In March 1985, the agency 

issued a final rule requiring air carriers to install 

fire extinguishers and smoke detectors in the 

galleys and lavatories of their large passengercarrying aircraft. The smoke detector system will 

provide a fire warning to the cockpit or passengercabin crew. The rule also requires that each 

lavatory trash receptable be equipped with a fire 

extinguisher that discharges automatically if a fire 

occurs in the receptacle. In addition, the rule provides for increasing the number of hand-held fire 

extinguishers located in the cabins of aircraft 

capable of seating more than 60 passengers. At 

least two of these must contain Halon 1211 as the 

extinguishing agent. 

In April 1985, FAA issued an NPRM that will require a more stringent fire test for interior 

material used in the ceilings, walls, and partitions 

of aircraft cabins. The use of improved fire resistant material will further delay the onset of 

“flashover,” the point where trapped vapors near 

the cabin ceiling ignite, spread fire, use oxygen and 

prevent the possibility of survival. This material 

also will increase the time for passenger evacuation in the event of an in-flight or post-crash fire. 

Finally, in October, FAA issued an NPRM to update several standards in the airport certification 

regulation (Federal Aviation Regulations Part 

139), including those for firefighting equipment 

and aircraft fueling. 

91 
Aviation Security Research 

Under Executive direction, FAA accelerated and 

expanded its efforts to develop improved systems 

for detecting explosives and weapons concealed on 

passengers, in baggage, and in cargo. The agency 

continued to emphasize new approaches to detection, soliciting industry and academia, through 

more than 120 bid packages that outlined its explosive detection needs. Five proposed new 

technologies resulting from this solicitation have 

been funded for a preliminary feasibility study. 

Fast neutron inelastic scattering, a new technique for identifying elements of which explosives 

are composed, continues to show promise. The concept’s feasibility was demonstrated in the spring of 

1985, and Phase I1 of the project is proceeding. 

One experimental detection system employs 

thermal neutron activation, a technique in which 

bombardment by neutrons triggers a reaction that 

permits identification of the target material. In 

previous years, this system was tested at Pittsburgh, Boston and Chicago airports, and showed 

promise of detecting explosives in checked baggage and air cargo. In the spring of 1985, tests using a prototype system were conducted at the 

Philadelphia airport. More than two thousand 

pieces of baggage were screened, with an explosive 

detection probability exceeding target levels, and a 

false alarm frequency approaching target values. 

FAA is in the process of streamlining the hardware and software to produce an economically 

viable system. 

Cooperating with several other agencies in recent years, FAA has undertaken extensive 

research to develop a device that would routinely 

detect vapors of an explosive carried by an individual. The research centers around efforts to 

collect, concentrate, and detect explosive vapor 

from a passenger. Several approaches to the detection of explosive vapor are being pursued under 

new technology. In particular, FAA has accelerated its work on chemiluminescence, a promising prototype technique. 

As a complement to its current bulk and vapor 

explosive detection projects, FAA is continuing a 

joint effort with industry to investigate methods to 

make explosive devices more difficult to conceal. 

Airport Pavement Research 

FAA is pressing forward its efforts to establish a 

Pavement Maintenance Management System 

(PMMS). To this end, FAA maintains its sponsorship of a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers study of 

PMMS. The system is based on the automation of 

records and analysis, and will provide managers 

with timely data that will allow them to select the 

most appropriate strategies to maintain and 

rehabilitate pavement. 

With the assistance of the U.S. Army Cold 

Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 

the agency is also pursuing its study of special 

problems of pavements in cold climates. The objective is to improve pavement resistance to the 

harmful effects of severe weather conditions. 

Through private sector contracts, FAA has funded research to develop materials criteria and improve construction techniques to enhance the 

durability of pavements. The criteria provide for 

the effective use of geotextiles to inhibit pavement 

cracking, thereby reducing maintenance costs. 

FAA also has provided guidelines for contract fee 

adjustments based on the quality of materials used 

in airport pavement construction. This effort will 

continue and will include all material specifications 

that have significant influence over the cost of constructing, rehabilitating, and repairing pavements. 

Research to identify inexpensive additives to 

strengthen weak soils in place has begun, and is 

designed to obviate the high transportation costs 

for importing material. 

FAA continued a project initiated in late 1984 to 

determine the feasibility of developing aircraft arresting systems based on the use of soft ground at 

the ends of runways. Under study are various 

materials for use as soft ground, and the length of 

soft ground that aircraft need for safe deceleration. If the use of soft ground proves workable, 

FAA plans to issue a standard to assist airports in 

providing this safety feature. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

FAA evaluted newly developed runway lighting 

systems using tritium-powered, self-contained 

radioluminescent lights. Such systems require no 

external power source. A preliminary evaluation 

was conducted of a system that consists of runway 

edge lighting units, threshold lighting units, an airport identification beacon, and a lighted wind 

direction indicator. The results showed that the 

system provided satisfactory visual cues under 

favorable climatic conditions. Additional testing in 

adverse weather conditions is in progress. If 

positive results are obtained, the lighting system 

would be used for airports in remote areas where 

power sources are unreliable or non-existent. The 

system is a potential contributor to air transportation safety in such areas. 

The agency also conducted research on a simple 

and inexpensive way to improve safety at airports, 

especially during low visibility conditions. The 

method uses color coding of taxiway centerline 

lights and taxiway edge lights. The codes identify 

areas where taxiing aircraft should not stop 

92 
because of potential interference with aircraft exiting runways, or with the electronic signals of landing systems. The concept is undergoing evaluation 

at an operational civil airport. 

Aviation Weather 

During 1985, FAA conducted technical and 

operational investigations using a Doppler 

weather-radar support facility at Olive Branch, 

Mississippi, approximately twelve miles southeast 

of Memphis International Airport. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratory 

carried out operations with the facility, which uses 

an S-band (Airport Surveillance Radar) ASR-8 

transmitterheceiver with Doppler processing 

capability added by Lincoln Laboratory. The facility’s other principal weather measurement-sensors 

included a 30-unit network of reporting stations, 

the Memphis Airport’s Low Level Wind Shear 

Alert System, and the University of North 

Dakota’s C-Band Doppler weather radar. The 

facility also received data from the National 

Weather Service’s WSR-57 radar at Memphis and 

aircraft tracking data from the Memphis Air Route 

Traffic Control Center. The University of North 

Dakota operated instrumented test aircraft in support of the facility. 

The primary objectives of the Doppler weather 

radar program are to: 

resolve the principal uncertainties in 

algorithms (computer processing procedures) 

for detecting and displaying en route and terminal hazardous weather 

obtain from system users feedback on the 

usefulness of proposed data products for improving safety and efficiency 

investigate issues involving the interface between Doppler weather radar and the Central 

Weather Processor (CWP) 

provide a data base for FAA specifications for 

interfaces between the terminal Doppler 

weather radar and the CWPlNext Generation 

Weather Radar. 

During the 1985 operational investigations, the 

test-bed radar was operated in the following 

modes: 

as a Doppler weather radar to detect low 

altitude wind shear at air terminals 

as a network sensor known as NEXRAD, with 

principal focus on products of particular interest to FAA, such as data on turbulence and 

layered reflectivity 

for scientific data acquisition characterized by 

scientist-controlled scan patterns, as in the 

Joint Airport Weather Studies and Northern 

Illinois Meteorological Research on Downbursts projects. 

The Memphis-Olive Branch test site operated 

through the storm season at the end of November, 

with continued primary interest in developing 

algorithms and evaluating scanning strategies. 

Action on the issue of wind shear training for 

pilots was encouraged in a report by the National 

Research Council entitled “Low Altitude Wind 

Shear and Its Hazard to Aviation.” The Council 

found that “the education and training of most 

pilots with respect to wind shear and its hazards 

are inadequate and that the risk posed by wind 

shear can be reduced very soon by an education 

campaign directed at all classes of pilots.” Spurred 

by this strong statement, Boeing Aircraft 

developed a joint proposal with McDonnellDouglas, Lockheed, United Airlines, and Dr. John 

McCarthy, a consulting meteorologist. Boeing and 

its associates proposed to FAA a comprehensive 

program to develop an authoritative wind shear 

training aid. The proposed effort will take an 

industry-wide approach. Its results will be provided to FAA for final distribution as an authoritative 

basis for implementing individual training programs and syllabi. Procurement action was initiated in 1985. 

FAA commissioned the Interim Voice Response 

System in 1985. This system permits pilots in the 

continental United States to retrieve weather information by telephone directly from an automated 

data base. Sixteen systems, using a combination of 

local and foreign telephone exchange-circuits, are 

located throughout the country. They provide service to 25 major population centers. Pilots receive 

surface observations, terminal forecasts, grid 

winds, transcribed weather broadcasts, convective 

Significant Meteorological Information, and 

severe weather forecast alerts. This interim 

system will help meet the demand for service while 

the Flight Service Automation System Program is 

being implemented. 

Installation of LLWAS, the Low Level Wind 

Shear Alert System mentioned previously, continued during 1985. LLWAS provides pilots and 

controllers with information on wind shear that 

could cause unsafe landing or departure conditions. The system processes with computer 

algorithms that compare wind speed and direction 

from sensors on the airport periphery with wind 

data for the airport’s center. When the system produces an alarm, air traffic controllers provide wind 

shear advisories to all departing and arriving aircraft. Initially, systems were installed at major airports that experience a high incidence of 

thunderstorms and the attendant gust fronts. The 

installation of 21 additional systems during 1985 

brings the total number of airports with LLWAS 

to 80, and a total of 110 airports will be equipped 

with the system by mid 1986. Concurrently, the 

93 

169-254 0 - 86 - 4 
The FAA has been developing modifications to the Low Level 

Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) so that it will encompass 

more localized microburst phenomena. This sensor is off the end 

of the runway at Atlanta International Airport. 

LLWAS at Denver’s Stapleton Airport and New 

Orleans’ Moisant Airport were expanded to incorporate additional periphery sensors. Evaluation 

and testing are continuing at both airports, with 

the objective of investigating the expanded 

systems’ ability to detect wind shears generated by 

microbursts. 

Another 1985 project involved the establishment 

of an Aviation Weather Forecasting Task Force 

comprised of highly qualified individuals from 

organizations independent of FAA and the National Weather Service. The members are research 

scientists, research meteorologists, and engineers. 

Their charter is to study the current system, procedures, and products; identify problem areas; and 

recommend improvements that could be made in 

the near term (18 to 36 months) without major 

capital investments. A final report of this activity 

is scheduled for release in early 1986. 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

National Airspace System Plan 

The National Airspace System (NAS) Plan is a 

technological blueprint first issued in December 

1981 and updated on an annual basis. It outlines 

means for increasing safety, capacity, productivity, and economy in the operation of the Nation’s air 

traffic control and air navigation system through 

capital investments. The increases will be achieved 

through higher levels of automation, facility consolidation, and use of new telecommunications 

technology. FAA continues to implement components of the NAS Plan as described in the 

subsections that follow. 

VORTAC Replacement Program. VORTAC is an 

acronym for very high frequency omnidirectional 

range with tactical air navigation equipment. The 

second-generation VORTAC program has replaced 

existing units with solid state equipment capable of 

remote monitoring and control. Wilcox Electronics 

and International Telephone and Telegraph have 

provided 950 second-generation navigational aids 

and have installed 800. The remaining 150 units 

are being installed by FAA technicians. These new 

navigational aids are the first FAA systems to 

have a Remote Maintenance Monitoring (RMM) 

feature. This innovation enables technicians to perform a ground check in less than five minutes from 

a remote telephone. With RMM, site visits are required only trimonthly instead of weekly. The 

reduction in site visits has resulted in increased 

maintenance productivity. 

Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE). 

ASDE units provide tower controllers with a radar 

display of the locations of surface traffic for use in 

controlling the movement of aircraft and other 

vehicles within the airport area. The new solidstate ASDE-3 equipment will have a greater 

capability to penetrate heavy precipitation and 

present a clearer, sharper radar picture under all 

lighting conditions than did the ASDE-2. Norden 

Systems of Melville, New York was awarded a 

$55.6 million contract in 1985 for seventeen 

ASDE-3 units, with options for thirteen more. 

Deliveries are scheduled to begin in March 1988. 

Microwave Landing System (MLS). MLS is the 

precision landing system endorsed by the International Civil Aviation Organization as the worldwide 

standard replacement for the present Instrument 

Landing System (ILS). MLS overcomes many of 

the technical and operational limitations inherent 

in ILS. In many locations it will give air traffic control the ability to eliminate traffic flow conflicts, 

allowing virtually independent operations at adjacent airports. Unlike ILS, the MLS system will 

allow multiple precision approach paths. This will 

provided added flexibility to overcome terrain 

restrictions and avoid heavily populated areas. The 

MLS signal is also less sensitive to weather, terrain, and structures around the airport, which 

makes the system more dependable and easier to 

site. 

The NAS plan calls for installation of 1,250 MLS 

systems. User evaluation programs were launched 

94 
design and award an acquisition contract in 

January 1988. 

Aeromedical Research 

At the FAA Technical Center, a magnetic tape is fed into the new Host Computer System-an important element of the continuing modernization of air traffic control. 

with the commissioning of the MLS at Richmond, 

Virginia, in September 1985. These evaluation programs will assist in avionics certification and will 

demonstrate to the user community the benefits of 

MLS. The MLS implementation contract awarded 

in January 1984 schedules initial implementation 

for late 1986. The contractor successfully completed the design review in 1985. 

Advanced Automation Program. The current Advanced Automation program, initiated in 1982, is 

central to the modernization of en route and terminal air traffic control (ATC) functions. It is 

directly related to a number of other NAS Plan 

programs, and provides increased computer 

capacity to perform new ATC functions that will be 

required during the 1990’s and beyond. The program is composed of two major elements, the Host 

Computer System and the Advanced Automation 

System (AAS). After a design competition between International Business Machines (IBM) and 

Sperry, an acquisition contract for the Host Computer System was awarded to IBM on July 26, 

1985. The contract involves replacement of the 

present IMB 9020 computers in twenty Air Route 

Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC’s) and their support facilities. The first system commissioning at 

an ARTCC is scheduled for November 1986, and 

the last for December 1987. Meanwhile, AAS 

development is proceeding under two competitive 

design contracts, totaling nearly $247 million, 

awarded to IBM and Hughes Aircraft in August 

1984. FAA is expected to select a winning AAS 

Improving Pilot Judgment and Decision Making 

Aviation statistics indicate that 52 percent of 

fatal accidents and 35 percent of non-fatal accidents involve judgment errors by pilots. FAA 

research suggests that a possible explanation for 

this is that traditional aviation training and certification programs stress the acquisition of 

knowledge and skill development, while regarding 

judgment solely as a by-product of experience. The 

FAA Office of Aviation Medicine is directing an international industry/government program to 

evaluate materials for systematically developing 

judgment as part of the flight training process. 

These materials include training manuals and lowcost audiovisual aids that explain the risks 

associated with various flying activities, the 

underlying behavioral causes of typical accidents, 

and the effects of stress on pilots’ decision making. 

The assumption is that pilots receiving such training would develop positive attitudes toward safety 

and avoid unnecessary risks. 

Joint testing by FAA and the Canadian Air 

Transportation Administration in a series of five 

independent studies indicated that pilots receiving 

the prototype judgment training materials outperformed their contemporaries during inflight tests. 

The differences were statistically significant and 

ranged from approximately 10 to 40 percent fewer 

judgment errors. In the largest and most recent 

evaluation of the prototype materials, conducted at 

10 flight schools in the United States, 80 percent of 

the students and 77 percent of the instructors participating recommended that the program be 

adopted. Primarily as a result of these evaluations, 

other nations such as France and Australia have 

begun evaluation programs. In addition, the U.S. 

Air Force has integrated the FAA-developed 

materials into one of its training programs for 

transport-pilot instructors. 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

Executive Order 12465, issued February 1984, 

and the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 

designated the Department of Transportation as 

the lead agency within the federal government to 

encourage, facilitate, and promote a commercial 

expendable launch vehicle industry. The Executive 

Order and the Act also vested the Department with 

regulatory, licensing, and coordinating responsibilities for this new industry. 

95 
The Department’s management and oversight 

responsibilities are separated into two broad 

categories, regulation and promotion. By law, the 

Department’s mission is to regulate commercial 

space transportation activities. The Department 

also has responsibility to promote commercial 

space transportation in foreign and domestic 

markets. In 1985, the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation reviewed government policies affecting the commercial space industry. This was an 

important first step in fashioning a regulatory 

framework specifically tailored to govern commercial launch companies carrying payloads to orbit. 

The Office also established an interagency working 

group of representatives from the Department of 

State, Defense, and Commerce, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the 

Federal Communications Commission to identify 

regulatory issues implicit in a commercial space 

transportation initiative and to determine appropriate methods for resolving them. This Commercial Space Transportation Interagency Committee works with the Department to coordinate 

and expedite the Government’s review of launch 

proposals, license applications, and regulatory issuances. 

Members of the Secretary’s Commercial Space 

Transportation Advisory Committee established in 

1984, represent a broad range of companies having 

interest in commercial space transportation. It includes both small and large launch firms; representatives of satellite, finance, and insurance communities; and other organizations with an interest 

in private-sector space transportation. The Committee met twice in 1985 to discuss issues of promotion and facilitation, much like the Interagency 

Committee advises the Department on matters of 

regulation., Among the issues on the Committee’s 

1985 agenda were financing and insurance for 

commercial space ventures, licensing procedures 

for commercial launch activities, use of national 

launch ranges, and maintaining the confidentiality 

of launch firms’ proprietary data. 

Regulatory Activities 

In February, the Department published for 

public comment its first major policy statement, 

which outlined the history and rationale that support the forthcoming launch regulations, as well as 

the actual licensing policy. This policy statement 

provided the first official, although preliminary, 

guidelines for the procedures and conditions that 

commercial ELV operators would have to meet in 

order to secure a launch license. The policy statement, along with the public comments it generated 

after publication in the Federal Register, will culminated in a draft regulation to be issued in 

96 

February 1986. The draft regulation, pending promulgation of final regulations, will provide official 

guidance for the new industry. 

Also in February, the Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation issued the first mission approval for a commercial launch activity [Space Services, Inc. (SSI) of Houston, Texas]. SSI is a new 

entrepreneurial firm of exactly the type that the 

Act seeks to encourage. Previously, under the 

review process dictated by the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), federal approval 

of license applications had required around six 

months of reviews, approvals, and agency coordination. The Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation is now able to deliver a decision on 

launch activity in less than six weeks. 

The Department is also responsible for ensuring 

that commercial space launch operators have insurance coverage adequate to protect against 

liability claims by third parties - persons not involved in space activities. To implement this 

authority, the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation issued in May of 1985 an Advanced 

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking concerning third 

party liability insurance requirements. In addition 

to protecting against liability under US. international obligations, the insurance will cover the 

federal government’s liability to U.S. nationals incurred as a result of the launch activities. Such 

liability could arise under the Federal Tort Claims 

Act where the United States is involved in a commercial launch by a private concern from a range 

belonging to the federal government. 

The Administration’s decision to promote a commercial space transportation industry also encourages launch firms to use the facilities and services available at national launch ranges. This has 

placed the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in a brokering role, helping to arrange 

agreements between launch firms and NASA or 

the Air Force, the two owner-operators of the Nation’s ranges. This year, under the Office’s sponsorship, SSI negotiated a contract to conduct a 

series of commercial launches from NASA’s 

Wallops Island launch facility. 

The Office also established a communications 

network with the Air Force to reduce some of the 

red tape normally associated with interagency 

coordination of agreements and approvals. As a 

result, changes were made in the policies and procedures that prevail at national ranges. These 

changes, like the newly established channels of 

communication, will benefit the commercial space 

transportation constituency. 

Promotional Activities 

Since a predictable, supportive government 

policy is crucial to the development of any new in- 
dustry, the Office of Commercial Space Transpor- spokesman for expendable launch vehicle 

tation, in its advocacy role for the new industry, operators during the development of national 

took part in numerous interagency deliberations. space policy priorities. When Transpace Carriers, 

The Office also participated extensively in several Inc. (TCI) filed a petition with the U.S. Trade 

high-level working groups involved in developing Representative against the European Space Agenspace policy. As a result of this participation, the cy’s (ESA) Ariane launch vehicle, DOT representaOffice Droduced the following: tives participated in the investigations and con- u 

a forecast of the market in which commercial 

expendable launch vehicles will compete, with 

the target market set for 1989 through 1994 

an analysis of Shuttle operations and pricing 

an analysis of the price, time, and reliability 

factors that affect customers’ choice of launch 

vehicles 

an interagency analysis of the effect high 

launch prices have on the competitive viability 

of space-based industries such as telecommunications satellites, upper stages and 

materials processing 

an analysis of risk to the nation’s launch 

capability in the event of insufficient Shuttle 

capacity or an unexpected surge in demand, 

and 

a report on international competitiveness in 

launch services, developed for the National 

Security Council while participating in an 

OMB working group. 

sultations that followed. In this instance, TCI 

charged ESA with predatory pricing practices, 

against which neither TCI nor any American 

launch firm could compete, in violation of Section 

301 of the Trade Act of 1974. Recognizing that 

ESA’s practices were not unreasonable in light of 

US. practices, on July 9, 1985, the U.S. Trade 

Representative recommended that the President 

deny the petition filed by TCI. 

In sum, 1985 set the stage for a new domestic industrial initiative in the form of a space-based 

freight service. As with many new private-sector 

initiatives, especially those in transportation, a 

regulatory policy is called for that is designed and 

administered with a light touch that will encourge 

expansion. Uniform, government-wide policy that 

is directed toward the same goal is also required. 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation is 

taking a leading role in this effort, initiating a 

series of steps that will result in a domestic industrv caDable of competing - in an international 

The Office also served as the Government’s market. * 

97 
Environmental Protection 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

cooperated with NASA in developing and applying 

a number of aerospace technologies, including the 

use of a geographic information system for 

monitoring the environment and factors that affect it; Landsat estuarine assessments; the use of 

remote sensing data in an impact analysis of alpine 

ecosystems; mathematical models for acid deposition studies; the use of high-altitude photography 

in support of provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) relating to wastesite location, permit writing, site analysis, enforcement activities, and the underground storage tank 

program. Aerial photography is also used to support waste-site investigations conducted under the 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), also 

known as Superfund. 

Monitoring and Assessing 

the Environment 

Geographic Information Systems 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide a 

means for computerized manipulation of multiple 

data sets from or related to Landsat satellites, 

photography, topography, land use, vegetation, 

soils, weather, population distribution, geology, 

and sampling locations for monitoring and assessing the envionment. The locations of spatially 

variable information are organized and referenced 

using Cartesian (x,y) coordinates and grid cells. 

The information is then retrieved by subject (such 

as land use, soil type, and water well location) and 

manipulated, combined, and displayed as complex 

geographic data bases. Processing and 

manipulating the GIS data base through various 

computer operations result in a series of thematic 

overlays describing many environmental variables 

that relate to a particular site or region. Applications for the overlays include hazardous waste permit analysis, local and regional environmental impact assessment, monitoring systems design, and 

compliance monitoring. 

Agency 

Landsat Estuarine Water Quality Assessment of 

Silviculture and Dredging Activities 

The objective of this project was to define and 

demonstrate the role of Landsat multispectral 

scanner data in monitoring environmental impacts 

in estuaries and their associated drainage basins. 

Landsat created an invaluable and almost irreplaceable data base for investigations correlating land-use and water quality. 

The data were examined to determine whether 

they could be used in detecting and delineating 

temporal distributions of water color and land-use 

categories in a bay system. Water color distributions were easily distinguished and the distribution 

of such water types as acidic swamp and forest 

runoff and turbid river and clear gulf water were 

monitored under numerous environmental conditions. Land-use categories also were detected and 

delineated with an emphasis on silviculture 

(forestry) such as clear-cutting, pine plantations, 

and swamp and forest communities. In addition, 

Landsat data were successfully used to monitor 

the effects of both natural and man-made structures - holes in barrier islands, channels, oyster 

bars, and bridges-on the hydrodynamics of the 

bay. 

The Landsat-derived land-use activities followed 

trends in the improvement or recovery of water 

quality. The use of Landsat data proved to be a 

more accurate method than traditional water 

sampling schemes for monitoring water distributions and associated water patterns. However, the 

collection of tandem surface-truth data would have 

greatly improved the quantitative aspects of this 

project. Moreover, if water quality samples concurrent with Landsat overpasses were required, the 

most accurate presentation of water patterns 

would result, since these water quality data could 

be used as calibration points during the classification stages of Landsat imagery analysis. 

EPAINASA Elk Mountain Remote Sensing 

Technology Demonstration 

Throughout the Intermountain Physiographic 

Region there are various activities, such as hard99 
rock mining, that pose an immediate threat to 

alpine and subalpine environments. These environments are representative of unique ecosystems that contain sources of domestic water 

supplies, contribute to surface hydrology, and act 

as a support base for various types of recreation. 

EPA and NASA are cooperating to develop a 

geographically based information and inventory 

system as a first step to ensure protection of headwater environments. The two main objectives are 

to compare two types of remote sensing platforms 

relative to their capabilities and limitations for use 

in environmental assessments and to inventory 

selected areas in the Elk Mountains of Colorado. 

The two types of platforms to be evaluated are support aircraft from EPA’s Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas and satellites; and the sensing methods to be used are multispectral scanning and photography. The capability 

of the two types of platforms to accomplish the objectives are being evaluated individually and jointly 

as part of an integrated assessment and inventory 

strategy. 

Acid Deposition Studies 

NASA is helping EPA develop methods to model 

acid deposition from the Philadelphia metropolitan 

area. This area can be visualized as an 80- to 

100-kilometer square containing a large number of 

individual sources of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and the oxides of nitrogen. 

This modeling study seeks to characterize how the 

pollutants affect the chemical composition of rainfall reaching the ground in the first few hundred 

kilometers downwind of the sources. It will compare results of calculations using mathematical 

models of meteorological and chemical processes 

with the results of field observations. 

The mathematical models are of two types. First 

is a meteorological model called the Mesoscale Atmospheric Simulation Model (MASS) developed for 

Langley Research Center. This model was tested 

by the Goddard Space Flight Center and provided 

an excellent simulation of the weather. The second 

model, the Sulfur Transport Eulerian Model 

(STEM), was developed jointly by the Universities 

of Iowa and Kentucky with financial support from 

NASA and EPA. Both models run on Langley’s 

computers and represent the state of the art in 

their respective disciplines. 

Since the study’s inception in March 1985, 

several tasks have been accomplished. First, meteorological conditions for three experimental 

periods have been simulated successfully. The 

simulations are necessary, since the atmosphere at 

levels above the surface currently is observed only 

at 12 hour intervals, and at stations approximately 

400 kilometers apart. Calculations of meteorological conditions with the models yield resolutions 

that are more detailed than those obtained from 

observations alone. 

Once the meteorological fields have been calculated, STEM performs the functions of modeling 

the chemical transformations occurring in the atmosphere, the transporting of the various chemical 

species, and the removal of the species by rain. 

Both STEM and MASS will be used to simulate 

field experiments and to analyze major processes 

contributing to acid deposition on a mesoscale 

basis. The field results from the EPA experiments 

indicate that nitrate deposition resulting from 

urban-industrial sources can be very significant. 

The models will be used to determine the origin of 

nitrates by varying contributions from several 

sources such as automotive emissions and petrochemical processing emissions and then comparing 

calculated results. In this way, the models and field 

efforts are mutually supportive. 

HighcAltitude Photography 

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

requires states to inventory open dumps and landfills associated with municipal and industrial activities. Similar inventories of surface impoundments are required under the Clean Water Act. 

These inventories help states determine and control the potential impact of seepage, drainage, and 

plumes from surface impoundments, landfills and 

open dumps. 

In support of state efforts, scientists from EPA 

acquire and analyze aerial photographs, obtained 

by NASA U-2 flights, to help locate and inventory 

hazardous waste sites. Aerial photography provides an accurate and cost-effective way to supplement other sources of information such as industrial directories, government records, thematic 

and topographic maps, and letter surveys that may 

provide only partial information, or may be out-ofdate. The aerial photographic inventories serve as 

a basic guide to sites and provide general identification and descriptions. 

In one application, specialists were able to acquire high-altitude aerial photographs covering the 

State of Pennsylvania, about 48,000 square miles, 

in 8 hours of flight time. The photographs located 

approximately 3,500 landfills and dumps and 

several times as many impoundments in the state. 

Similarly, Gulf Coast areas of Mississippi, 

Alabama, and Florida, about 21,000 square miles, 

were photographed from high altitude with a conventional mapping camera in less than 9 hours of 

flight time. These photographs allowed identification of over 600 waste sites. Sites are classified ac100 
cording to the kind of facility or activity associated 

with them, such as industrial, municipal, agricultural, mining, oil or gas, sewage treatment, and 

land disposal. 

Aerial Photographic Septic Tank Assessments 

The Clean Water Act authorizes the funding of 

sewage collection and treatment facilities. When 

implementing this legislation in areas serviced by 

septic systems, EPA has recognized the need to 

document the condition of these systems. Unfortunately, available field survey methods have 

technical limitations, and public records are usually incomplete. Therefore, researchers at EPA have 

developed aerial photographic techniques to help 

identify failures in septic systems. 

An area under study is photographed using both 

color infrared and standard color photography at a 

scale of 1:8,000. This scale provides the necessary 

resolution, while allowing enough area coverage to 

make the method cost-effective. The color infrared 

imagery is the primary source for interpretation 

because of its ability to detect subtle changes in 

vegetative growth patterns. The standard color 

photography is used primarily for comparative 

purposes. 

The analyst uses high-powered optics and stereoscope to examine each lot in the study area for 

signs of unusual vegetative growth, plant foliage 

stress, and excessive soil moisture levels. Growthstress-death vegetative patterns associated with 

upward or lateral movements of septic system effluent appear different from the surrounding vegetation on both standard color and color infrared 

photography. 

Analysts can also identify secondary indications 

of septic system failures. Indicators of such failures may be: small ditches or trenches constructed 

by home owners to remove the effluent from failing systems, small hoses or pipes to reroute wash 

water from an overloaded system, and coverings of 

an impervious material, such as clay. 

Aerial Photography for RCRAICERCLA 

Remote sensing projects support the process of 

issuing permits for facilities, site analysis, enforcement activities under provisions of the Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); and site 

operations monitoring, topographic and flood mapping, demographic change analysis, and the 

Underground Storage Tank program. Aerial 

photography is also the most commonly used 

remote sensing technique for supporting wastesite investigations conducted under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation 

and Liability Act (CERCLA), often called Superfund. The principal aerial photographic system 

used is the 9” x 9” mapping camera. 

Color and color infrared files are most frequently 

used, since these media provide enhanced differentiation of subtle spectral characteristics 

associated with such features as surface leachate, 

surface water turbidity, soil moisture, and vegetation stress. Various types of aircraft are used at 

different flight altitudes. Archival aerial photography provides a valuable source of information for 

the historical analysis of hazardous waste sites and 

is routinely used. Moreover, image analysts who 

interpret aerial imagery are fully qualified to provide expert witness testimony on the analysis findings. 

EPA conducts four basic types of remote sensing 

under RCRA or CERCLA. First, priority is given 

to emergency response projects under hazardous 

material release situations requiring rapid assessment of conditions at a site. When current information on a site is required, the practice is usually 

to acquire new photography. Da,ta analysis may be 

conducted on this new imagery or on historical imagery taken during a particularly significant 

period in the history of the site. Second, intensive 

site-analysis projects are performed on selected 

sites to document changing conditions over a 

period of time. Third, waste-site inventories are 

conducted over large areas to establish a base-line 

reference of sites. In addition, a number of special 

purpose products are produced using more advanced technologies to process photographic data. 

Fourth, photogrammetry is employed to produce 

detailed topographic maps of waste-sites. As an expansion of the applications of photogrammetry, 

flood-plain maps defining the 1 in 25, 1 in 50, and 1 

in 100-year flood plain are developed for hazardous 

waste-sites. This effort involves combining topographic data derived from photogrammetry with 

hydraulic or stream-flow data sets. 

101 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continues to support basic research in the astronomical and atmospheric sciences. NSF is lead 

agency for federal support of ground-based 

astronomy, and in 1985 contributed almost 70 percent of the federal funding for this type of research 

and 50 percent of the federal support for academic 

and theoretical research in astronomy. Funding is 

made available through five astronomy grant programs serving more than 140 universities and 

three National Astronomy Centers. 

In the atmospheric sciences, NSF provides the 

primary backing for research by universities and 

both nonprofit and profit-making organizations in 

the United States. It also supports the National 

Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the 

Upper Atmospheric Facilities (UAF) program. 

NCAR, located in Boulder, Colorado, coordinates 

and conducts large scientific research programs 

that would be beyond the scope of a single university. The UAF supports four incoherent-scatter 

radar facilities in a chain stretching from Greenland through the United States and Puerto Rico to 

Peru. 

Astronomical Sciences 

In 1985, one of the most exciting events was the 

initiation of construction of the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), a set of ten 25-meter radio 

antennas located across the United States from 

Hawaii to the Caribbean. The VLBA will be 

operated as a single instrument providing extremely fine detail in maps of energetic cosmic 

sources such as the centers of galaxies and regions 

where stars are forming. 

Scientific progress has been made in visualizing 

the structure of large jets from the center of a 

radio galaxy and of the expanding envelope left 

from the explosion of a star. These high quality images were made possible by using a supercomputer 

to process data from the Very Large Array, 

located near Socorro, New Mexico. 

An area of growing interest is the study of the 

Sun’s oscillations. Different parts of the Sun 

vibrate with different velocities. Intensive 

measurement and analyses of the velocity patterns 

on the Sun’s surface can unfold the temperature, 

pressure, composition, and other features below 

the visible surface of the Sun. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Atmospheric sciences range from studies of the 

surface of the Sun to climate information recovered from analyses of ocean cores. In 1985, 

atmospheric scientists emphasized the following 

activities: 

continued studies of atmospheric chemistry 

and mesoscale phenomena (those 10 to 100 

kilometers in spatial extent) 

ocean and atmosphere coupling, especially 

those conditions in the Pacific Ocean that influence U.S. climate 

continued development of a prototype computing system to give universities capabilities 

to access interactively and analyze graphically 

atmospheric and oceanic data. This system 

will provide real-time and archived satellite 

and ground-based data for research and educational purposes 

use of supercomputers for numerical simulation of space plasma phenomena that are responsible for solar-terrestrial interactions. 

In addition, the National Center for Atmospheric 

Research is in the process of establishing high 

speed satellite communications between its computer facilities and several universities. The hardware and software involved are being considered 

as one element of an NSF network linking supercomputer centers. 

103 
Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to national space goals through a broad program of 

basic research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 

and through the public exhibits, lectures, and 

education programs of the National Air and Space 

Museum (NASM) in Washington, D.C. NASM also 

pursues basic research in planetary geology and 

terrestrial remote sensing through its Center for 

Earth and Planetary Studies. 

Space Sciences 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

Research in 1985 included continued reduction 

and analysis of high-quality, high-sensitivity, x-ray 

data from the High Energy Astronomy Observatory satellites HEAO-1 and HEAO-2 (Einstein). 

For example, the Einstein Medium Sensitivity 

Survey was extended to include more than 500 

x-ray sources. When completed, this survey will 

identify and catalog representative samples of 

quasars, active galaxies, and stellar coronal 

sources. It will also provide important information 

on the x-ray properties of clusters and groups of 

galaxies. 

Using Einstein data, SA0 scientists have shown 

that x-ray emission is a universal property of 

quasars. In addition, analysis of x-ray emission 

from 55 elliptical-like galaxies has shown that a 

hot, gaseous envelope, or corona, may be a common feature of all such bright objects. This lends 

further evidence to the theory that some of the socalled missing matter of the universe may be in 

great dark halos surrounding galaxies. The data 

also offer an ideal means for investigating forces of 

gravity in regions extending far beyond the visible 

luminous material seen in conventional optical images of such galaxies. 

Infrared Astronomy 

A small, helium-cooled, infrared telescope was 

flown as part of the Spacelab 2 package aboard the 

Space Shuttle launched July 29. During the weeklong flight, the telescope mapped diffuse infrared 

emissions from celestial sources in wavelengths 

not previously observed, measured the Shuttleinduced contamination of the observing environment, and tested the properties and behavior of 

large volumes of superfluid helium in space. 

Gravity Research 

In preparation for the proposed deployment of a 

tethered satellite from the Space Shuttle, an SA0 

group investigated possible applications of using 

such a system, as well as any related operational 

hazards. 

Planetary Sciences 

Lunar Sample Studies 

A reinterpretation of the geologic history of the 

highlands crust underlying the Apollo 16 lunar 

landing site is emerging from the studies of a consortium organized by SAO. The consortium has 

been studying the petrology, trace-element 

chemistry, gas-retention ages, and magnetic imprints of a breccia collected from the rim of the 

North Ray Center on the lunar surface during the 

Apollo 16 mission. 

A comparison of the Carbon 14 (radiocarbon) 

content of lunar samples and Antarctic meteorites 

is being conducted in an attempt to determine the 

Carbon 14 abundance in the solar wind and the terrestrial age of the recovered meteorites. 

Comparative Planetology 

Planetary work at NASM’s Center for Earth and 

Planetary Studies in 1985 focused on two features 

of Mars: the boundary between that planet’s terrain and smooth plains, and the tectonic evolution 

of the Tharsis Plateau. The Tharsis ridge system 

was analyzed with respect to orientation, extent, 

and relative age of formation. In other investigations, field studies of the Columbia Plateau in 

the northwestern United States resulted in development of a fold model for explaining the evolution 

of both the Columbia and Tharsis ridges. Also, the 

Center continued work in cooperation with SA0 on 

the geologic map of Jupiter’s satellite Ganymede. 

105 

169-254 0 - 86 - 5 
Terrestrial Research bined to develop a working model of the morphology and desert formation processes in the Upper Inland Niger Delta, Mali. The Center also explored the use of thermal infrared satellite data for 

discriminating rock units in arid, volcanic, and 

sedimentary terrains. 

The Center’s terrestrial research program used 

orbital remote sensing data to concentrate on investigations of arid environments. For example, 

field work and analysis of satellite data were corn106 
Department of State 

Since its earliest years, the U.S. civil space program has emphasized an active program of international cooperation. The Department of State 

strongly supports this international effort, from 

which the United States benefits significantly. 

During 1985, the United States initiated discussions with several nations concerning participation 

in the largest international cooperative space project in history: the permanently manned Space Station. The Department of State worked closely with 

NASA and other interested agencies to ensure 

that this project would advance the Nation’s 

foreign policy interests. In the spring of 1985, 

NASA signed Memoranda of Understanding with 

the European Space Agency, the Science and 

Technology Agency of Japan, and the Canadian 

Ministry of State for Science and Technology concerning the design phases of the Space Station. 

Since that time, the Department of State has become the lead agency in government-togovernment talks on the Space Station, hosting 

the first round of talks with European nations in 

November 1985. This effort is expected to lead to 

formal negotiations in 1986 on construction and 

operation of the Station. The Department of State 

believes that the Space Station project offers a major opportunity to demonstrate U.S. leadership in 

science and technology, and to establish a positive 

new model for large-scale technological cooperation. 

The Department of State participated actively in 

interagency discussions of major space policy 

issues, including the pricing of Space Shuttle 

launch services and the transfer of U.S. land 

remote sensing systems to the private sector. The 

Department continued its efforts to ensure the 

most favorable international environment for U. S. 

activities in space, including the commercial use of 

space. The Department also assisted NASA and 

other agencies on operational matters, such as the 

negotiation of Space Shuttle emergency landing 

rights on the territories of other nations. 

As in the past, the Department of State played a 

leading role in U.S. participation in international 

bodies concerned with space issues. Within the 

United Nations (UN) system, the most important 

of these bodies is the Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). 

Activities Within the United Nations 

The Outer Space Committee 

The COPUOS has been foremost among the 

multilateral institutions concerned with outer 

space issues. It was established by the UN General 

Assembly in 1958 based on a proposal presented by 

the United States and 19 other nations for the purpose of promoting international cooperation in the 

peaceful uses of outer space, and its historic role 

has been very significant. In its first twenty years 

of existence it maintained an outstanding record as 

a forum for exchanging scientific information. It 

produced five international conventions on space, 

of which four are widely accepted and constitute 

the fundamental body of space law. These four conventions were the product of sound scholarly, technical, and legal analysis. For many years COPUOS 

has dealt with questions involving remote sensing. 

It has also considered questions relative to the use 

and regulation of nuclear power sources in space 

vehicles, the use of geostationary orbit, and the 

definition and delimitation of air space and outer 

space. However, in recent years there has been a 

serious deterioration of COPUOS’ scientific and 

technical focus, in part spawned by efforts to involve it in disarmament and other matters beyond 

its purpose and competence. The Soviet Union and 

its allies have attempted- so far without successto give COPUOS a role on questions about the 

militarization of space, which are now considered 

in other multilateral forums, and have exploited 

COPUOS debates to press the issue, notwithstanding its absence from the formal agenda. These attempts have adversely influenced the atmosphere 

in which business is conducted, and have made dispassionate consideration of the scientific and legal 

issues on COPUOS’ agenda more difficult to 

achieve. The introduction of such divisive issues 

has, moreover, placed the consensus principle - on 

which COPUOS’ past successes have been based - 

under unprecedented strain. From the standpoint 

107 
of the Department of State, COPUOS’ deterioration has been especially troublesome at this time 

when the United States envisions a substantial expansion in its scientific and commercial space activities, including those related to launch vehicles 

and remote sensing satellites. 

The United States wishes to re-establish 

COPUOS’ effectiveness and has worked closely 

with its allies toward that end. At a meeting of 

COPUOS in June 1985, the United States and 

seven other Western states - Australia, Belgium, 

the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, the 

Netherlands, Turkey, and the United Kingdomjointly sponsored comprehensive proposals designed to strengthen COPUOS’ science and technology activities and to improve its working 

methods. So far, the results have not been promising; although the atmosphere during COPUOS’ 

1985 sessions was an improvement on that of the 

previous years, many member states remain indifferent to the need for serious change. 

UN General Assembly (UNGA) 

Each year, UNGA’s Special Political Committee 

reviews the issue of international cooperation in 

the peaceful uses of outer space and adopts a 

resolution to guide the work of the Outer Space 

Committee and its subcommittees for the following 

year. In the 40th session of the General Assembly, 

the Soviet Union insisted upon support for its disarmament rhetoric, and particularly its antiStrategic Defense Initiative campaign, by advancing proposals for a new world space organization 

and a new UN conference on space. The Soviets 

claimed the proposals would result in comprehensive assistance to developing countries under 

the so-called condition of non-militarization of 

outer space. The United States and its Western 

allies rejected this argument, noting that the concept of non-militarization was advanced for propaganda purposes; that the Western industrialized 

countries provided 92 percent of all UN development activities, while the Soviet Union and its 

allies provided less than one percent; and that 

there should be no pre-conditions to international 

cooperation in space. Ultimately, the Soviet Union 

withdrew its insistence on UNGA recognition for 

its proposals when no support was forthcoming 

from developing countries. A consensus resolution 

was negotiated and adopted providing for no major 

changes in the agendas of the Outer Space Committee and its subcommittees during 1986. 

Communications Satellites 

In June 1985, the Department of State established a Bureau of International Communications 

108 

and Information Policy. It was created in recognition of the importance, for U.S. national interests, of rapid technological developments in 

computers, communications, and information 

systems. 

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 

The first of two sessions of ITU’s World Administrative Radio Conference on the Planning of 

the Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Space 

Services Utilizing It (Space WARC) was conducted 

August 8 to September 16, 1985, to review the 

situation which now exists with regard to orbital 

use, and to address criteria and principles which 

will be used by the second session to plan or otherwise structure a procedural approach for allocating 

access to the geostationary orbit and associated 

frequency spectrum. The conference was convened 

in response to developing countries’ concerns that 

the current regulatory process might allow current 

users of the geostationary orbit to monopolize the 

resource. Many of the developing countries wished 

to assign portions of the orbit and spectrum to 

every country regardless of any intent or ability to 

use those resources, thus creating artificial scarcities. After difficult negotiations, a compromise 

was reached which, if maintained by the second 

session, protects the interests of the United States. 

It improves on the flexible regulatory procedures 

governing the portions of the spectrum currently 

used by most communications satellites, while accommodating the concerns of developing nations 

by establishing a planning procedure for several 

portions of the spectrum to guarantee the future 

access of all countries. 

During 1985, the United States also agreed to 

participate in the newly established Center for 

Telecommunications Development for the purpose 

of providing pre-investment assistance to developing countries in establishing telecommunications 

infrastructure projects. U.S. support of the 

Center’s activities will be provided by industry. 

International Communications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) 

In 1985, the United States reached a decision to 

authorize the establishment of international satellite communications systems separate from INTELSAT for business, video, and other private 

purposes. In October 1985, the tenth Assembly of 

Parties ratified a decision by the INTELSAT 

board to approve, in principle, the provision of 

planned domestic services by INTELSAT. 

International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSA T) 

At the fourth session of the INMARSAT assembly held in London, October 14-16, 1985, 
amendments to the INMARSAT convention were 

adopted, as well as an operating agreement allowing INMARSAT to provide aeronautical com- ports. 

munications services. The assembly also adopted 

an international agreement on the use of INMARSAT ship-Earth stations within territorial seas and 

109 
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) devotes considerable attention to the subject of arms control in outer space. 

As an agency of the Executive Branch concerned 

primarily with the potential for arms control to 

enhance U.S. national security, ACDA plays a key 

role in the development and support of U.S. arms 

control policy. With increased emphasis on the 

potential use of space over the last few years, this 

role has grown in importance. 

In proclaiming National Space Policy on July 4, 

1982, the President stated: 

The United States will continue to study space 

arms control options. The United States will consider verifiable and equitable arms control measures that would ban or otherwise limit testing 

and deployment of specific weapon systems, 

should those measures be compatible with 

United States national security. 

On March 31, 1984, in a Report to the Congress 

on U.S. Policy on Anti-Satellite (ASAT) Arms Control, the President reaffirmed that policy. It remains in force today. 

U.S. Space Arms Control Activities 

During 1985, ACDA was heavily involved in preparing for the Nuclear and Space Talks, a new 

series of bilateral arms control negotiations with 

the Soviet Union. The Nuclear and Space Talks are 

composed of three separate negotiating groups, 

one of which addresses defense and space issues. 

In this forum, the United States is proposing to the 

Soviets that both sides explore further the 

possibility of a cooperative transition to greater 

reliance on defensive systems. The United States 

is also proposing that the sides join together in an 

“open laboratories’’ initiative with respect to 

strategic defense research. Under such an initiative, regular and reciprocal briefings on each 

other’s strategic defense research programs would 

be conducted, and opportunities would be provided 

for visits to associated research facilities and 

laboratories. The United States views this initiative as an example of the type of joint effort 

which will ensure a stable transition to greater 

reliance on defenses. At the same time, the United 

States has made it clear to the Soviets that the 

United States is committed to pursuing its strategic defense research program, that its program is 

permitted by the ABM Treaty, and that it will conduct the program in full compliance with the 

Treaty and all other international obligations. 

International Discussions on Space Arms Control 

ACDA continues to pursue U.S. space policy objectives in two multilateral forums each year: the 

United Nations General Assembly (First Committee) and the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in 

Geneva. For several years, the basic issue in both 

bodies has been whether the United States will 

agree to a resolution or committee mandate calling 

for multilateral negotiations of a treaty or treaties 

limiting or banning certain activities in outer 

space. In March 1985, the CD established a committee to examine issues relevant to the prevention of an arms race in outer space. The position of 

the United States remains that, while all aspects of 

arms control in outer space should be studied, 

there has been insufficient analysis of the need for, 

and verifiability of, a major new agreement for the 

control of weapons in outer space to justify multilateral negotiations. However, the US. does support the formation of a specialized ad hoc committee in the CD with a non-negotiating mandate to 

address space arms control issues, including a review of the current legal regime with regard to 

space and discussion of existing and future proposals. 

Space Policy 

ACDA is deeply involved in the formulation of 

US. space policy. ACDA co-chairs the Interagency 

Group on Defense and Space, which addresses 

space arms control issues, and participates in the 

interagency group that defines U.S. policy regarding the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) research 

program. As progress is made in determining the 

111 
technical feasibility of eliminating the threat posed 

by strategic ballistic missiles, ACDA will play a 

leading role in examining the arms control implications of the SDI. ACDA also provides members, 

advisors, and legal experts for the bilateral and 

multilateral negotiations. 

In addition, the agency participates in the work 

of the Senior Interagency Group on Space which 

considers a broad variety of space issues such as 

development of the planned US. Space Station. 

Another interagency group in which ACDA participates is tasked with reviewing the arms control 

implications of bilateral governmental space activities and sales of space-related items. 

The United States remains committed to seeking 

effective and verifiable arms control options. In his 

remarks to the 40th Session of the United Nations 

General Assembly on October 24, 1985, President 

Reagan again called for “radical, equitable, verifiable reductions in these vast arsenals of offensive 

nuclear weapons.” He went on to note that “the 

ballistic missile is the most awesome, threatening, 

and destructive weapon in the history of man. . . . Ultimately, we must remove this menace - once 

and for all-from the face of the Earth.” Reducing 

the potential for the use of space as a conduit to inflict nuclear destruction on another nation remains 

a high priority. 

112 
United States Information Agency 

An important activity at the United States Information Agency (USIA) is to inform the world about 

American space programs and the benefits that 

they can bring to all mankind. All forms of communications, including direct satellite television 

broadcasts, live radio interviews, newspaper 

stories and features, exhibits, videotape showings, 

and overseas visits by astronauts and scientists, 

have been used in this effort. Space Shuttle flights 

receive particular attention, with emphasis placed 

upon international participation in these missions 

as well as their commercial usefulness. The spotlight has also focused on plans to build, within a 

decade, a permanently manned space station. 

Friends and allies of the United States have been 

invited to participate in planning, developing, 

operating and using the Station. 

Voice of America 

The Voice of America (VOA) covered all Space 

Shuttle launches live from the Kennedy Space 

Center and provided continuing coverage of the 

missions from Cape Canaveral and the Johnson 

Space Center. In missions with foreign participation, VOA used several of its 41 foreign language 

services. VOA’s Science Editor prepared preflight 

reports for each mission, and a Los Angeles-based 

correspondent covered the Shuttle landings. In 

1985, VOA broadcast interviews with most of the 

astronauts, including Arab astronaut Sultan 

Salman, French astronaut Patrick Baudry, and 

three European scientists who manned Germany’s 

Spacelab mission in October. A number of VOA 

features dealt with topics about space, among 

them “Comparing U.S. and Soviet Manned Space 

Programs” and “Detecting Volcanoes from Space,” 

and a popular program with renowned astronomer 

Carl Sagan, which allowed VOA listeners 

worldwide to ask questions by telephone. The VOA 

continually receives requests from listeners for information on the US. space program. Reflecting 

this interest, VOA’s Voice magazine, received by 

100,000 people worldwide, carried a cover story on 

the Space Shuttle in its AprillMay issue. 

Television Service 

USIA’s increasingly popular TV network, 

Worldnet, links Washington via satellite with 

American embassies and other organizations overseas, and often covers NASA activity. Adding a 

new twist to a standard news technique, Worldnet 

broadcast a live TV interview between King Fahd 

in Jidda, Saudi Arabia, and Prince Sultan Salman 

of Saudi Arabia, while the latter was in orbit 

aboard the Space Shuttle in June, 1985. Worldnet 

also carried a program about the future manned 

Space Station, that featured an interview between 

participants in Paris and Washington. Another interactive discussion program was on the subject of 

satellite communications technology and included 

oceanographer Jacques Cousteau, speaking from 

Paris; author and scientist, Arthur C. Clarke, from 

Sri Lanka; and others located in Washington, London, Paris, Stockholm, Rome, Madrid, and Bonn. 

USIA’s Satellite File-a weekly series of TV 

news clips used by 140 broadcasters in 99 countries - carried a number of NASA-related items, including reports about the American schoolteacher 

who will be a passenger on a January 1986 flight of 

the Shuttle, and an interview on a proposed lunar 

colony. The monthly television series “Science 

World” contained segments about the Space Station, the solar wind, and nutrition in space. A 

30-minute video cassette recording (VCR) on the 

Space Shuttle Challenger was produced for presentation in the Agency’s Information Centers in 

Eastern European posts. As in the past, these 

public showings attracted large crowds of viewers. 

Films and VCRs acquired from NASA, such as 

“Space Station: The Next Logical Step,” have been 

consistently popular with audiences at posts worldwide. 

Other Information Activities 

USIA’s Press and Publications Service offered a 

continuing stream of textual materials on U.S. 

space ventures to American missions abroad for 

placement in local media, for use in post publica113 
tions, and for background information used in discussions with local opinion leaders and government officials. The Wireless File news service 

covered each Space Shuttle mission and supplemented that coverage with frequent photographs 

and article reprints from American magazines. 

USIA commissioned and wrote articles for periodicals, reprinted stories from the U.S. press, offered 

interviews of astronauts, and reviewed books and 

films about the space program. For example, 

American Illustrated, the monthly Russianlanguage magazine distributed in the Soviet Union 

under a reciprocal cultural agreement, and the 

magazines Topic and Economic Impact carried 

stories on various aspects of the Space Shuttle. All 

told, material about America’s space program was 

sent to 214 offices in 134 nations and jurisdictions. 

USIA’s Foreign Press Centers in Washington and 

Los Angeles also hosted briefings by NASA 

specialists for resident and visiting foreign journalists, and offered assistance to overseas correspondents interested in covering Shuttle launches 

and landings. 

This was an active year for USIA exhibits on 

space. The American exhibition at Vancouver’s Expo ’86 will focus on the Space Station. Astronaut 

Dr. Joseph Allen was guest of honor at the opening 

of the Expo Center in Vancouver, which offered a 

summer-long preview of Expo ’86. In addition, 

there were 14 showings of lunar samples in eight 

countries, as well as exhibits in Vienna and 

Caracas highlighting food for space flights. 

The American Participant program, which 

generated extensive media coverage, sent six 

astronauts to as many countries for meetings and 

public appearances. John Blaha visited Milan’s International Photographic Show and the Flanders 

Technology Fair in Belgium. George Nelson and 

Frederick Gregory attended international conferences in Nairobi, while Jeffrey Hoffman scored 

a public relations triumph in Lisbon, following 

President Reagan’s visit to Portugal. Ronald 

McNair visited Jamaica at that government’s invitation, and Robert Parker went to Indonesia to 

help select the first Indonesian to fly in the Space 

Shuttle as a Payload specialist. 

114 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-I 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea Year Success Failure Success Failure 

Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea Year Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ................ 0 1 0 

1958 ................ 5 8 0 

1959 ................ 9 9 1 

1960 ................ 16 12 1 

1961 ................ 35 12 0 

1962 ................ 55 12 4 

1963 ................ 62 11 0 

1964 ................ 69 8 4 

1965 ................ 93 7 4 

1966 ................ 94 12 7 

1967 ................ 78 4 10 

1968 ................ 61 15 3 

1969 ................ 58 1 8 

1970 ................ 36 1 3 

1971 ................ 45 2 8 

1 

0 

lb 

1972 ................ 33 

1973 ................ 23 

1974 ................ 27 

1975 ................ 30 

1976 ................ 33 

1977 ................ 27 

1978 ................ 34 

1979 ................ 18 

1980 ................ 16 

1981 ................ 20 

1982 ................ 21 

1983 ................ 31 

1984 ................ 35 

1985 ................ 37 

Total . . . . . . . . . . . .1,101 

2 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1 

138 

8 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

0 

79 

- 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

15 

a The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. 

“Escape” flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

A~PENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People’s United European Calendar United U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom fpace India 

of China gency Year states 

1957 . . . . . . . .............................................................. 

1958 ............... 1 ............................................. 1959 .................. 10 3.............. ............................... ........................................... 

6...................................................................... 

1962 ............. ............................................... 17 .................... ........... 57 30 .................... 48 ........ l........... 

44 ........ .............................................................. 

1967 .................. 57 

1968 .................. 45 74 ............................................................... 1969 ........ 

1971 .................. 30 

1972 .................. 30 

1973 23 ............ 1974 .......... 22 

1975 .................. 27 

1976 .................. 26 

1978 .................. 32 .......... 

89 .......................... ............................................ .... 2........1.. 

1982 .................. 18 ... 1983 .............. 1.. 

1984 .............. ... 1985 .............. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 

.................. 

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . .853 1,831 ...... 10 ......... 8.......29......15.......1.......1......12........3.. 

a Includes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

115 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-1985 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Equator (”) 

Jan. 24 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

10A 

(STS-51C) 

Jan. 24 

DoD 

10B 

Feb. 8 

DoD 

14A 

Titan IIIB/ 

Agena D 

Mar. 13 

GEOSAT 

21A 

Atlas E 

Mar. 22 

Intelsat V-A F-10 

25A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Apr. 12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

28A 

(STS-51D) 

Apr. 12 

Telesat-I 

(Anik C-1) 

28B 

Objective: To launch and return Shuttle successfully, Not available 

Spacecrtaft: Shuttle orbiter carrying DoD expericarry out assigned experinemts. 

ments. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft technology and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

techniques. 

Objective: To measure accurately small variations in 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

ocean surface height. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous 

orbit for INTELSAT to provide 13,500 two-way 

voice circuits plus two television channels. 

Spacecraft: Three-axis stabilized, 22 feet high, 51 

feet wide, measured across solar panels. Weight: 

4,402 lb. at separation from Centaur. 

Objective: To successfully launch two communications satellites, Telesat-1 and Syncom IV-3, complete assigned experiments and objectives. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying two satellites, 

two Get Away Specials (GAS), Continuous Flow 

Electrophoresis System (CFES 111), American 

Flight Echocardiograph (AFE), two student ex- periments. Weight: 24,531 lb. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite into transfer orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow spacecraft 

to achieve synchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical. Weight: 2,557 Ib. 

814 

757 

100.6 

108.1 

35,776 

35,787 

1,398.1 

0.4 

464 

319 

92.4 

28.5 

35,798 

35,777 

1,436.1 

2.3 

Fifteenth flight of Space Transportation System. Pilots Thomas K. 

Mattingly, Loren J. Shriver. Mission specialists Ellison s. Onizuka, 

James F. Buchli. Payload specialist 

Gary E. Payton. Unannounced 

payload included Inertial Upper 

Stage. Shuttle launched from KSC 

2:50 p.m., EST, Discovery landed at 

KSC 4:23 p.m., EST. Mission time: 3 

days 1 hour 33 minutes. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

Launched from WSMC. Still in orbit. 

Launched from ESMC, by NASA 

for International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). Apogee motor fired 

Mar. 24, placing spacecraft in synchronous equatorial orbit. First in a 

series of six improved INTELSAT 

commercial communications satellites. 

Sixteenth flight of Space Transportation System. Pilots Karol J. Bobko, 

Donald E. Williams, Mission 

specialists M. Rhea Seddon, S. 

David Griggs, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, 

Payload specialists Charles D. 

Walker, Senator E. J. “Jake” Garn. 

Shuttle lifted off from KSC 8:59 

a.m., EST. Discovery landed at KSC 

8:45 a.m., EST, April 19. Total mission time 6 days 23 hours 55 

minutes. First flight of U.S. 

Senator as Payload specialist. Syncom satellite successfully deployed 

but did not achieve orbit despite attempts by crew to start spacecraft 

sequencer. 

Successfully deployed from Discovery. Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) 

fired 6:30 p.m., EST, Apr. 14. 

116 
APPENDIX A-3- Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1985 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Launch Vehicle 

Apr. 13 Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit. 

Syncom IV-3 Spacecraft: Cylindrical, telescoping satellite. 

38C Weight: 7,900 Ib. 

Apr. 29 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

34A 

(STS-51B) 

Objective: To carry Spacelab 3, reusable research 

facility and return to earth. Deploy Northern Utah 

Satellite (NUSAT), Global Low Orbiting Message 

Relay Satellite (GLOMR). 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying two small 

satellites and Spacelab 3 long habitable module including 15 investigations in materials, fluid 

mechanics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and 

life sciences. Weight 23,474 Ib. 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

35,970 

35,594 

Syncom deployed successfully, but sequencer failed to start. Rendezvous 

with Discovery attempted but failed 

to operate sequencer lever. Satellite remained inoperable until restarted by crew of STS-511, Sep. 1. 

358 Seventeenth flight of Space Trans345 portation System. Piloted by 

91.6 Robert F. Overmyer, Frederick D. 

57.0 Gregory. Mission specialists: Don 

L. Lind, Norman E. Thagard, 

William E. Thornton. Payload 

specialists: Lodewijk Vandenberg, 

Taylor Wang. Shuttle launched 

from KSC, 12:02 p.m., EDT. Orbiter 

landed at Edwards, CA, 9:11 a.m., 

PDT, May 6. Total mission time 168 

hours 9 minutes. Originally planned 

to return to KSC. Global Low Orbiting Message Relay Satellite 

(GLOMR) failed to deploy and 

returned to Earth with orbiter. 

1,435.9 

3.2 

Apr. 29 Objective: To launch satellite into successful orbit. 339 Successfully deployed from 

NUSAT-1 Spacecraft: 26-sided polyhedron, with six-month 318 Challenger. In orbit. 

Satellite) 57.0 

34B 

(Northern Utah design life. Weight: 115 Ib. 91.1 

June 17 Objective: To launch MORELOS-A, Arabsat lB, 391 

Space Shuttle Telstar 3D, and launch and retrieve Spartan 1. 355 

Discovery Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellites, as well 90.2 

(STS-51G) as experiments Automated Directional Solidifica- 28.5 

48A tion Furnance (ADSF), French Echocardiograph 

Experiment (FEE), French Postural Experiment 

(FPE), Arabsat Scientific Experiments (ASE), six 

Getaway Specials (GAS). 

June 17 

MORELOS A 

48B 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit 

permitting spacecraft propulsion system to place it 

in stationary synchronous orbit for communications 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, spin-stabilized. Height in 

launch configuration: 9 feet, 4 inches. Weight in or- bit: 1,422 Ib. 

35,798 

35,776 

1,436.1 

coverage. 0.0 

Eighteenth flight of Space Transportation System. Piloted by Daniel C. 

Brandenstein, John 0. Creighton. 

Mission specialist: Shannon W. 

Lucid, John M. Fabian, Steven R. 

Nagel. Payload specialist: Patrick 

Baudry (France) and Sultan bin 

Salman bin Abdul-Aziz AI-Saud 

(Saudia Arabia). Shuttle launched 

from KSC at 7:33 a.m., EDT. 

Deployed satellites, carried out experiments. Discovery landed on 

runway 23 at Edwards AFB, CA, 

6:13 a.m., PDT, June 24. Total mission time 7 days, 1 hour, and 39 

minutes. Orbiter returned to KSC 

for refurbishment for next launch. 

Successfully deployed from Discovery 

June 17 at 3:38 p.m., EDT, Apogee 

Kick Motor (AKM) fired 7:49 a.m., 

EDT, June 18. In geosynchronous orbit. 

117 
APPENDIX A-3 - Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1985 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Equator (") 

June 18 

Arabsat 1B 

48C 

June 19 

Telstar 3D 

48D 

June 20 

Spartan I 

48E 

June 30 

Intelsat V-A F-11 

55A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Jul. 29 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

63A 

(STS-51F) 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit 35,833 

of sufficient accuracy to allow spacecraft propul- 35,737 

sion systems to place it in stationary synchronous 

Spacecraft: Rectangular with deployable solar arrays. 

1,436.1 

orbit for communications coverage. 0.0 

Weight: 2,800 lb. 

Objective: To launch satellite into planned orbit. 35,791 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, spin-stabilized. Weight: 35,783 

3,402 kg. 1,436.1 

Obiective: To launch and retrieve SDartan 1. Not available 

Satellite to map x-ray emissions from stars, and 

provide engineering data on Spartan concept. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, 126 by 42 by 48 inches. 

Weight: 2,223 lb., including 300 lb. of experiments. 

Instrument provided by U.S. Naval Research 

Laboratory. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous 

orbit for INTELSAT to provide 13,500 two-way 

voice circuits plus two television channels. 

Spacecraft: Three-axis stabilized, 22 feet high and 51 

feet wide, measured across solar panels. Weight: 

2,430 lb. in geosynchronous orbit. 

Objective: To carry Spacelab-2 aboard Shuttle, to 

launch and retrieve Plasma Diagnostic Package 

(PDP). 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying igloo-pallet 

configuration with Spacelab-2 experiments: Solar 

Magnetic and Velocity Field Measurement 

SystemlSolar Optical Universal Polarimeter 

(SOUP), Coronal Helium Abundance Spacelab Experiment (CHASE), Solar Ultraviolet High Resolution Telescope and Spectrograph (HRTS), Solar 

Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), 

Vehicle Charging and Potential Experiment 

(VCAP), Plasma Depletion Experiments for 

Ionospheric and Radio Astronomical Studies, 

Elemental Composition and Energy Spectra of 

Cosmic Ray Nuclei Between GeV/Nucleon and 

Several TeV/Nucleon (CRN), Hard X-Ray Imaging 

of Clusters of Galaxies and Other Extended X-Ray 

Sources/X-Ray Telescope (XRT), Small HeliumCooled Infrared Telescope (IRT), Properties of 

Superfluid Helium in Zero-Gravity, Vitamin D 

Metabolites and Bone Demineralization, GravityInfluenced Lignification in Higher PlantslPlant 

Growth Unit (PGU). Additional experiments: Protein Crystal Growth, Plant Growth Unit (PGU). 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX), Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation (CBDE). 

Weight of Spacelab-2 payload: 33,145 lb. 

35,774 

34,401 

1,400.6 

0.1 

321 

312 

90.5 

49.5 

Successfully deployed from Discovery 

June 18 at 9:56 a.m., EDT. In synchronous orbit at 26" east 

longitude. 

Successfully deployed June 19 at 

720 a.m., EDT, with AKM burn on 

June 21. In orbit at 125' west 

longitude. 

Successfully deployed, first in series 

of low-cost free flyers designed to 

extend capabilities of sounding 

rocket class experiments. Retrieved 

June 24 and returned to Earth with 

Discovery. 

Second in a series of improved 

INTELSAT commercial communications satellite launched by 

NASA from the ESMC. Moved to 

final orbit at 332.5 degrees east 

longitude by Aug. 25. 

Nineteenth flight of space Transportation System. Piloted by Charles 

G. Fullerton and Roy D. Bridges, 

Jr. Mission specialist: Karl G. 

Henize, Anthony W. England, and 

F. Story Musgrave. Payload 

specialists: Loren W. Acton and 

John-David F. Bartow. Lift-off 

from KSC at 5:OO p.m., EDT July 29. 

PDP deployed and retrieved, 

Spacelab-2 experiments conducted 

successfully. Data being evaluated. 

Challenger landed at Edwards 

AFB, CA, 3:45 p.m., EDT, Aug. 6. 

Mission duration: 7 days, 22 hours 

and 45 minutes. Orbiter returned to 

KSC for next flight. 

118 
MPENDIX A-3- Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1985 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Jul. 29 

Plasma Diagnostic 

Package (PDP) 

63B 

Aug. 3 

Oscar 24 

66A 

scout 

Aug. 3 

Oscar 30 

66B 

Aug. 27 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

76A 

(STS-511) 

Aug. 27 

76B 

AUSSAT-1 

Aug. 27 

76C 

ASC-1 

Aug. 29 

Syncom IV-4 

76D 

Sep. 29 

Intelsat V-A F-12 

87A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Objective: To deploy and retrieve Experiment. Same as Spacecraft: Not available. orbiter. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite. 

Spacecraft: Not available. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite. 

Spacecraft: Not available. 

1,259 

1,001 

107.9 

89.8 

1,260 

1,000 

107.9 

89.8 

Objective: To successfully launch three communications satellites, ASC-1, AUSSAT-1, and Syncom 

periments and objectives. 28.45 

Spacecrafk Shuttle orbiter carrying three satellites, 

and Physical Vapor Transport and Organic Solids 

(PVTOS) experiment. 

190 

190 

IV-4; to repair Syncom IV-3; complete assigned ex- 90 

Objective: To successfully launch communications 

satellite. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 7.2 feet in diameter, 9.2 high 

in stowed position. In orbit with antenna and solar 

panel deployed 21.6 m. high. Weight in orbit: 1,322 

lb. 

Obiective: To successfullv launch communications 

iatellite. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped, 4.3 by 5.3 by 10.5 feet in 

cargo bav. On orbit with solar panels deployed 46.5 

feetin le"ngth. Weight in orbit- 1,482 lb: 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful transSpacecraft: Cylindrical, telescoping satellite. Weight 

fer orbit. 

in cargo bay: 17,000 Ib. 

35,795 

35,779 

1,436.2 

0.0 

35,791 

35,782 

1,436.1 

0.1 

35,791 

35,787 

1,436.2 

3.2 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous 

orbit for INTELSAT to provide 13,500 two-way 

voice circuits plus two television channels. 

feet wide, measured across solar panels. Weight at 

launch: 4,402 lb. 

35,805 

35,776 

1410.9 

Spacecraft: Three axis stabilized, 22 feet high, 51 0.2 

Satellite launched by Challenger 

Aug. 1. Experiments successfully 

conducted and spacecraft retrieved 

six hours later for return to Earth 

and future reuse. 

Launched from WSMC, part of Navy 

Transit (Navy Navigational Satellite System). In orbit. 

Successfully launched from WSMC 

for Navy Transit program. In orbit. 

Twentieth flight of Space Transportation System. Pilots Joe H. Engle, 

Richard 0. Covey. Mission 

specialists James D. van Hoften, 

William F. Fisher, John M. Lounge. 

Discovery departed KSC 6:58 a.m., 

EDT. Landed at Edwards, CA run- way 23, 9:16 a.m., EDT, Sep. 3. Mission duration 7 days 2 hours 18 

minutes. Mission specialists van 

Hoften and Fisher successfully 

repaired Syncom IV-3 (launched 

Apr. 13 by STS-51D). 

Successfully deployed from Discovery, for Australia's National 

Satellite Company. Satellite on orbit and functioning. 

Successfully deployed from Discovery, for American Satellite Company. In geosynchronous orbit. 

Successfully launched from Discovery 

for US. Navy (Leasat-4). Replacement for FleetSatCom spacecraft. 

Syncom IV-4, although in correct 

geosynchronous orbit, ceased 

functioning. 

Last INTELSAT commercial com- munications satellite to be launched 

by NASA for INTELSAT from 

ESMC. Satellite to be assigned to 

the Indian Ocean region, replacing 

INTELSAT V F-1. 

119 
A~PENDIX A-3 - Continued 

Successful US. Launches-I985 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Oct. 3 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

92A 

(STS-51J) 

Oct. 3 

DoD 

92B 

Oct. 3 

DoD 

92C 

Oct. 9 

Navstar- 11 

93A 

Atlas E 

Oct. 30 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

104A 

(STS-61 A) 

Oct. 30 

GLOMR 

104B 

Nov. 27 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

109A 

(STS-61B) 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Objective: To launch DoD 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter 

periments. 

ments and satellites. 

Objective: Development of 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

satellites, conduct ex- Not available 

carrying DoD experispacecraft techniques Not available 

spacecraft techniques Not available 

Objective: To launch satellite into planned orbit. 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as Navstar-8, 

launched in 1983. Weight: 873 kg. 

Objective: To launch Spacelab D-1, conduct experiments, deploy Global Low Orbiting Message Relay 

Satellite (GLOMR). 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying Spacelab D-1 

long module plus Mission Peculiar Equipment Support Structure. Weight: 30,541 Ib. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite. 

Spacecraft: 62-sided polyhedron. Weight: 150 Ib. 

Objective: To launch MORELOS-B, AUSSAT-2, 

Satcom KU-2, and conduct experiments. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellites, as well as experiments Experimental Assembly of 

Structures with Extravehicular Activity (EASE), 

Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable 

Space Structure (ACCESS), IMAX Camera, Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES 111), 

Diffusive Mixing of Organic Solutions (DMOS), 

Morelos Payload Specialists Experiments (MPSE), 

1 Getaway Special (GAS). Weight: 42,790 lb. 

20,532 

19,729 

717.9 

63.4 

333 

32 1 

91.0 

57.0 

333 

318 

91.0 

57.0 

370 

350 

91.9 

28.5 

Twenty-first flight of Space Transportation System. Pilots Karol J. 

Bobko, Ronald J. Grabe. Mission 

specialists Robert A. Stewart, 

David C. Hilmers, Payload 

specialist William A. Pailes, Atlantis launched from KSC 11:15 A.M., 

EDT, landed runway 23, Edwards, 

CA, 1:OO P.M., EDT, Oct. 7. Mission 

duration 4 days, 1 hour 45 minutes. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

Global Positioning System satellite 

launched by DoD in joint military 

services' developmental network. 

Still in orbit. 

Twenty-second flight of Space Transportation System. Launched aboard 

Challenger for German Federal 

Ministry of Research and 

Technology (BMFT). Pilots Henry 

W. Hartsfield, Steven R. Nagel. 

Mission specialists Bonnie J. Dunbar, James F. Buchli, Guion s. 

Bluford. Payload specialists Ernst 

Messerschmind (Germany), Reinhard Furrer (Germany), Wubbo J. 

Ockels (Dutch). Challenger lifted off 

KSC 12:OO p.m., EST, landed runway 17, Edwards, CA, 12:45 p.m., 

EST, Nov. 6. Mission time 7 days 45 

minutes. 

Successfully launched from Challenger. In orbit. 

Twenty-third flight of Space Transportation System. Piloted by 

Brewster H. Shaw, Bryan D. 

OConnor. Mission specialists Mary 

L. Cleave, Sherwood C. Spring, 

Jerry L. Ross, Payload specialists 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela, Charles D. 

Walker. Atlantis launched KSC 

7:29 p.m., EST. Satellites deployed 

and experiments conducted, Shuttle landed on runway 17, Edwards, 

CA, 6:23 p.m., EST Dec. 3. Mission 

time 6 days 22 hours 54 minutes. 

Orbiter returned to KSC for next 

flight. 

1 20 
APPENDIX A-3- Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1985 

~ ~~ 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Launch Vehicle 

~~ ~ 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Remarks 

Nov. 27 

109B 

MORELOS-B 

Nov. 27 

109C 

AUSSAT-2 

Nov. 28 

RCA Satcom K-2 

109D 

Dee. 13 

Defense 

114A 

scout 

Dec. 13 

Defense 

114B 

Objective: To successfully launch communications 

satellite. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, spin-stabilized, in orbit, with 

antenna and solar panels extended 21 feet 8 inches 

high, 7 feet 1 inch in diameter. Weight: 10,008 Ib. 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful transfer orbit. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, in orbit with antenna and 

solar panels deployed 21.6 m high and 7.2 feet in 

diameter. Weight in orbit: 1,322 Ib. 

Objective: To launch communications satellite successfully. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped, 67 by 84 by 60 inch main 

structure, spin-stabilized, solar panels of two 

deployable arms. Weight before launch: 15, 929 Ib. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced 

and technology. 

35,801 

35,773 

1,436.1 

2.9 

35,790 

35,786 

1,436.2 

0.1 

35,801 

35,774 

1,436.2 

0.1 

776 

314 

95.6 

37.1 

772 

314 

95.5 

37.1 

Successfully launched from Atlantis. 

Second of two satellites launched 

for Secretariat of Communications 

and Transportation, Mexico. To 

serve as on station space for 

MORELOS-A. In orbit. 

Second in series of three communications satellites successfully 

launched for the Aust,ralian National Satellite Communications 

System, at 8:20 p.m., EST. In orbit. 

Successfully deployed from Atlantis, 

second in series of three satellites 

for RCA American Communications, Inc. In orbit. 

Launched from Wallops Flight Facility by NASA for the Air Force. 

Launched from Wallops Flight Facility by NASA for the Air Force. 

121 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites 1979-1 985 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

May 4, 1979 

Aug. 9, 1979 

Nov. 21, 1979 

Dec. 2, 1979 

Jan. 18, 1980 

Oct. 31, 1980 

Nov. 15, 1980 

Dec. 6, 1980 

Feb. 21, 1981 

May 23, 1981 

Aug. 6, 1981 

Sept. 24, 1981 

Nov. 20, 1981 

Dec. 15, 1981 

Jan. 16, 1982 

Feb. 26, 1982 

Mar. 5, 1982 

Apr. 10, 1982 

June 9, 1982 

Aug. 26, 1982 

Sept. 28, 1982 

Oct. 27, 1982 

Oct. 30, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Nov. 12, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 11, 1983 

May 19, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

June 19, 1983 

June 28, 1983 

July 28, 1983 

Aug. 31, 1983 

Sept. 8, 1983 

Sep. 22 1983 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 6, 1984 

Mar. 1, 1984 

June 9, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Sept. 1, 1984 

Sept. 21, 1984 

Nov. 9, 1984 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS II-13,14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

Fltsatcom 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-1 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intelsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Westar 5 

Anik D-1 

Intelsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11, 

DSCS I11 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

TDRS 1 

RCA-Satcom 6 

Intelsat V F-6 

Anik C-2 

Palapa B-1 

Galaxy 1 

Telstar 3A 

Insat 1-B 

RCA-Satcom 7 

Galaxy 2 

Westar-6 

Palapa-B2 

Uosat-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS-4 

Syncom IV-2 

Telstar-3C 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

mor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan III(34) D/IUS 

Space Shuttie, 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, IUS 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Delta 3924 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 39201PAM-D 

Delta 3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, PAM-D 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3920/PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 3920 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Dalta 3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Second of new DoD series. 

Launched for Western Union Co. as part of its domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fourth in series for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELSAT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. 

Third in series. To be positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in series for RCA. 

First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. 

Fourth in series; positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; 

Launched for Telesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satellites. 

Fifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series of 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Second in new series for Telesat Canada. 

First in series. System to provide continuous satellite communication. Leased by NASA from Space Communications Co. 

(Spacecom). 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. 

Sixth in series; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. 

Launched for Telesat Canada. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Indian domestic communications. 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. 

Second in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, 

munications links. 

communications links. 

replaces Westar 2. 

uprated satellites. 

satellite retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for 

refurbishment. 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved 

and returned to earth by Shuttle. 

Secondary payload with Landsat-5, for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

122 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites 1979-1985 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Nov. 10, 1984 

Nov. 14, 1984 

Mar. 22, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 13, 1985 

June 17, 1985 

June 18, 1985 

June 19, 1985 

Syncom IV-1 

NATO IIID 

Intelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom IV-3 

Arabsat- 1 B 

Telstar-3D 

MORELOS-A 

June 30, 1985 Intelsat VA F-11 

Aug. 27, 1985 AUSSAT-1 

Aug. 27, 1985 ASC-1 

Aug. 29, 1985 Syncom IV-4 

Sep. 29, 1985 Intelsat VA F-12 

NOV. 27, 1985 MORELOS-B 

NOV. 27, 1985 AUSSAT-2 

Nov. 28, 1985 RCA Satcom K-2 

June 6, 1979 AMS 4 

June 27, 1979 NOAA 6 

May 29, 1980 NOAA-B 

Sept. 9, 1980 GOES 4 

May 22, 1981 GOES 5 

June 23, 1981 NOAA 7 

Dec. 21, 1982 DMSP F-6 

Mar. 28, 1983 NOAA 8 

Apr. 28, 1983 GOES 6 

Dec. 12, 1984 NOAA-9 

NOV. 18, 1983 DMSP F-7 

July 16, 1982 Landsat 4 

Mar. 1, 1984 Landsat-5 

Mar. 13. 1985 GEOSAT 

Feb. 9, 1980 

Apr. 26, 1980 

May 15, 1981 

July 14, 1983 

Feb. 5, 1984 

June 13, 1984 

Sept. 8, 1984 

Oct. 12, 1984 

Aug. 3, 1985 

Aug. 3, 1985 

Oct. 9, 1985 

Navstar 5 

Navstar 6 

Nova 1 

Navstar 8 

IRT 

Navstar-9 

Navstar- 10 

Nova-3 

Oscar 24 

Oscar 30 

Navstar-11 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navv. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization (ASCO). 

Launched for the American Telephone and Tzlegraph Company 

Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Second satellite launched for Australia's National Satellite 

(AT&T). 

Company. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION a 

Atlas F DoD meteorological satellite. 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F Replacement for NOAA-B. 

Atlas E DoD meterological satellite. 

Atlas E 

Delta 3914 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Second of 8 planned third-generation satellites for NOAA; first was 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

Joined NOAA 7 as part of 2-satellite operational system; launched 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. 

Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-7. 

Tiros-N. 

for NOAA. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Fourth exDerimenta1 earth resources satellite. First use of 

Delta 3920 

Atlas E 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas E 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Atlas E 

thematic mapper (TM). 

Landsat-4. 

Fifth experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing 

GEODESY 

Measure ocean surface height. 

NAVIGATION 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

- 

"Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

123 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites 1979-1985 

Date 

Jan. 30, 1979 

Feb. 18, 1979 

Feb. 24, 1979 

June 6, 1979 

Sept. 20, 1979 

Oct. 30, 1979 

Feb. 14, 1980 

Aug. 3, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Jan. 26, 1983 

May 26, 1983 

June 22, 1983 

June 27, 1983 

Apr. 6, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Oct. 5, 1984 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 20, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Name 

Scatha 

Sage 

Solwind 

Ariel 6 

Heao 3 

Magsat 

SMM 

Dynamics 

Explorers 1, 2 

SME 

UOSAT 

(Oscar 9) 

IRAS 

EXOSAT 

SPAS 01 

HILAT (P83-1) 

Long Duration 

Exposure Facility (LDEF-1) 

Charge Composition Explorer 

WE) 

Ion Release 

Module (IRM) 

United Kingdom 

Satellite (UKS) 

Earth Radiation 

Budget 

Satellite 

(ERBS) 

NUSAT-1 

Spartan-1 

Plasma Diagnostic Package 

(PDP) 

GLOMR 

Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

Thor-Delta. (TAT) 

Thor-Delta. (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Delta 3910 

Delta 3914 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. 

Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, 

Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed current description of earth's magnetic field and of 

sources of variations. 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy couSolar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric 

Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science 

Infrared sky survey. 

European Space Agency study of x-ray sources. Reusable free-flying platform deployed and retrieved during STS 7; 

6 scientific experiments from West Germany, 2 from ESA. 

NASA experiments tested spacecraft technology. 

Propagation effects of disturbed plasma on radar and communication systems, for DoD. 

Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by 

Shuttle. 

aerosols, and ozone. 

pling, electric currents and fields, plasmas. 

ozone. 

experiments. 

Measurement of earth's magnetosphere, one of three satellites 

composing Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers 

Mission (AMPTE). 

Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

Third of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Exoeriment 

Research Program, NOAA-9 and NOAA-G "carryiig other 

instruments in Program. 

Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system 

Reusable free-flying platform. 

Reusable experimental platform. 

calibrator). 

Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. 

124 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1975-1985 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIE- Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, 

Sept. 6 1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and 

relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroun- dings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took 

measurements of atmosphere. 

Centaur 

Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 

Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 

Titan IIIE. 

Centaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Aug. 20, 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIE. 

Centaur 

May 20, 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

Aug. 8, 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

None in 1984 

None in 1985 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, 

July 20, 1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and 

relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroun- dings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took 

measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. 

Payload had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 

1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in 

July 1979, arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, 

Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, 

swung around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 

1980, headed for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and 

data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

125 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1985 

Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

soyuz 8 

A r 12, 1961 2. ay 5, 1961 

July 21,1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11. 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, 1969 

July 16, 1969 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Ca enter 

Andriyan G.%ikolayev Pavel R. Po ovich 

Walter M. ghirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. B kovskiy vdentma V. qereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Bel ayev Alekse A. Eeonov 

Virgil E Grissom 

John W. Young . James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Coo er, Jr. 

Charles Conra$ Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham Geor T. Beregovoy Franfsorman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Vol nov Aleksey S. Aliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eu ene A. Cernan 

Nef A. Armstrong Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeri N. Kubasov 

Anato8 V. Filipchenko 

Viktor &. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

0: 1:48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10 : 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0 : 10 : 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 : 23 : 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10: 20: 9 

3 : 22 : 51 

6: 3: 1 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

8: 3: 9 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

4 : 22 : 50 

First manned flight. First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight exceedin 24 h. 

First American to ozit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from tar et 

First U.S. flight exceefing 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6 

First woman in space; within 5 km ojVostok 5. 

First 3-man crew. 

astronaut safe. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneu2 1-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Longest extravehicular actinty to date (Aldrin, 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

versin orbit. 

8 with Agena target rocket). 

ther, Agena 8). 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km). 

5 hrs 37 min). 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; 

highest speed attained in manned flight to 

date. 

Sop 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of lunar module to landing and takeoff from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14,300 ni from 

the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to Earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to Earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

Sop 6,7, and 8 o erated as a group fli ht without actually doefing. Each conductej certain 

ex eriments, including welding and Earth and 

cePestial observation. 

126 
APPENDIX C- Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1985 

Highlights Flight Time 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew (days : hrs : min) 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

soyuz 21 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dee. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dee. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dee. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 6, 1976 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aian B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nkolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishniko 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

10: 4:36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23 : 18 : 22 

12: 7: 12 

11: 1:51 

12 : 13 : 52 

28: 0: 50 

59:ll: 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1: 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

V 

48: 1: 32 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored surface of moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms 

on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and con- tinued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew 

recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied space station for 22 days. Crew perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule 

recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo 

“J” series mission, which carried Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. Worden’s inflight EVA of 38 min 12 

sec was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyw 14 crew ocRendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

experiments. 

cupied space station. 

after abort. 

ments of ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

127 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1985 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs : hrs : min) Highlights 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

SOYUZ T-2 

soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

SOYUZ T-3 

SOYUZ T-4 

soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Feb. 25, 1979 

Apr. 10, 1979 

June 6, 1979 

Apr. 9, 1980 

May 26, 1980 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Mar. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1981 

Apr. 12, 1981 

May 14, 1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1982 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidip Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

3 7 : 1 0 : 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79 : 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108: 4: 24 

1:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55: 1 : 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12: 19: 8 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7 : 20 : 41 

2: 6:13 

8: 4:49 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

station. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first 

Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 min. Jaehn 

was first German Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

34; crew duration 175 days 36 min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

37. Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 min. 

Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of 

new-generation ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 

36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 min. Pham 

was first Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban 

to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Soviet program since 1971. 

camera system. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in 

orbit. First landing of airplanelike craft from 

orbit for reuse. Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific 

payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator 

arm. Returned for reuse. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific 

payload (OSS 1). Second test of remote 

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day 

because of flooding at primary landing site; 

alternate landing site used. Returned for 

reuse. 

128 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1985 

Highlights Flight Time 

(daw : hrs : min) Spacecraft Launch Date Crew 

SOYUZ T-5 

SOYUZ T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

soyuz T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

SOYUZ T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

SOYUZ T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41B) 

SOYUZ T-10 

SOYUZ T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41C) 

SOYUZ T-12 

May 13, 1982 

June 24, 1982 

June 27, 1982 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 20, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

Nov. 28, 1983 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

July 17, 1984 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksander Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. Van Hoften 

Vladmir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

211: 9: 5 

7 : 21 : 51 

7: 1: 9 

7 : 21 : 52 

5: 2:14 

5: 0:24 

2: 0:18 

6: 2:24 

149 : 9 : 46 

6: 1: 9 

10: 7:47 

7 : 23 : 16 

62 : 22 : 43 

181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

11 : 19 : 14 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French 

days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight testing 

program. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational 

flight; launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 

and Anik C-3); first flight with 4 crewmembers. EVA test canceled when spacesuits 

malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched TDRS 1. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station. 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa B-1), 

also launched and retrieved SPAS 01; first 

flight with 5 crewmembers, including first 

woman U.S. astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth Flight of Space Shuttle, launched one 

commercial satellite (Insat 1-B), first flight of 

US. black astronaut 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first flight of 6 crewmembers, one 

of whom was West German, first non-U.S. 

astronaut to fly in US. space program. 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication satellites failed to achieve orbit. First 

use of Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) in 

space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space 

duration record of 237 days. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment of 

LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar Maximum 

Satellite retrieved, repaired, and redeployed. 

SOFZ T-1 1 . 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 
APPENDIX C- Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1985 

Highlights Flight Time 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew (days : hrs : min) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41G) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51C) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1B) 

SOYUZ T-13 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51G) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-51F) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-511) 

SO~UZ T-14 

130 

hug, 30, 1984 

Sept. 5, 1984 

Nov. 8, 1984 

Jan. 24, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 5, 1985 

June 17, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Sep. 17, 1985 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. “Jake” Garn 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk Vandenberg 

Taylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Aziz AI-Saud 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartow 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grehko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

6: :56 

8: 5:24 

7 : 23 : 45 

3: 1:33 

6 : 23 : 55 

7: : 9 

112: 3: 12 

7: 1:39 

7 : 22 : 45 

7: 2:18 

64 : 21 : 52 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

U.S. non-astronaut. 

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

7 crewmembers, including first flight of two 

U.S. women and one Canadian. 

Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first re- trieval and return of two disabled communications satellites (Westar 6, Palapa B2) to Earth. 

Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Sixteenth STS. flight. Two communications 

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space. 

Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo 

bay of shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, 

Sept. 26, 1985. 

Eiphteenth STS flkht. Three communications D I 

satellites. One reusable payload-Spartan-1. 

First U.S. flight with French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-:! in cargo 

bay. 

Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communications satellites. Repaired Syncom IV-3. 

Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor Savinykh, 

Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin 

returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985 when 

Vasyutin became ill. 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1985 

Highlights Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Spacecraft Launch Date Crew 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-51J) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-6 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-61B) 

Oct. 3, 1985 Karol J. Bobko 4 : 1 : 45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DoD misRonald J. Grabe sion. 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Ernst Messerschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Oct. 30, 1985 Henry W. Hartsfield 7 : : 45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German 

Spacelab D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Brvan D. OConnor 

Nov. 27, 1985 6 : 22 : 54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three communications satellites. First flight of Mexican 

Mary L. Cleve 

Shenvood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

astronaut. 

131 
APPENDIX D 

US. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust 

newtons) 

Vehicle Stages Propellanta (kiloMax. Payload 

Max. Dia. First Height 185-Km Ge0synch.- Circular LaunchC 

Orbit Transfer SunOrbit Orbit 

(m) Synch. 

scout 1. Algol IIIA ...... .Solid ............ 2. Castor IIA ..... .Solid ............ 3. Antares IIIA ... .Solid ............ 4. Altair IIIA ..... .Solid ............ Delta 2900 Series 1. Thor plus ...... .LOX/RP-1 ....... 9 TX 354-5 .... .Solid ............ 2. Delta ........... NZO4/Aerozine-50 . 3. TE 364-4 ....... .Solid ............ Delta 3900 Series 1. Thor plus ...... .LOX/RP-1 ....... 9 TX 526-2 ..... Solid ............ 2. Delta ........... Nz04/Aerozine-50 . 

& sustainer .... LOX/RP-l ....... 

sustainer ...... LOX/RP-1 ....... 2. Centaur ....... .LOX/LHz ........ 

(Thor-Delta) 

(Thor-Deltap 

Atlas E 1. Atlas booster 

Atlas-Centaur 1. Atlas booster & 

431.1 

285.2 

83.1 

25.6 

912.0 

147 each 

44.2 

65.8 

912.0 

375 each 

44.2 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

1.14x22.9 255 - 155d 1979(60) 

205d 

2.44 x 35.4 2,000 705 1,250d 1973(60) 

1,410d 

2.44x35.4 3,045 1,275 2,135d 1982(60) 

2,180d 

3.05 x 28.1 2,090df - 1,500d 1972(67) 

3.05 x 45.0 6,100 2,360 - 1984(62) 

Direct SunGeo- Synch. 

185-Km synch. Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

Titan IIIB-Agena 1. LR-87 .......... Nz04/Aerozine .... 2,341.0 3.05x48.4 3,600d - 3,060d 1966 

Titan III(34)DI 

IUS 

Titan III(34)DI 

Transtage 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

2. LR-91 .......... Ni04/Aerozine .... 455.1 

3. Agena ......... .IRFNA/UDMH ... 71.2 

1. Two 51/~-segment, 

2. LR-87 .......... Nz04/Aerozine .... 2,366.3 

3. LR-91 .......... Nz04/Aerozine .... 449.3 

4. IUS 1st stage ... .Solid ............ 275.8 

5. IUS 2nd stage ... .Solid ............ 115.7 

4. Transtage ....... Nz04/Aerozine .... 69.8 

3.05 m dia ..... Solid.. .......... 11,564.8 3.05x48.0 14,920 1,850d - 1982 

Same as Titan III(34)D plus: 3.05~46.9 14,920 1,85Eid - 1984h 

280- to 420-Km Orbit ~~ 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) 

fire in parallel 

with SRBs .... .LOX/LHZ ........ 2. Two-solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with 

SSMES ....... AL/NH&CLOJ 

PBAN ......... 

ternal tank (ET) .................. Mounted on ex29,500 1981 

in full 

performance 

1,670 each 23.79~3724 configuration 

wing long 

span 

11,790 each 3.71 x45.45 

........... 8.40x46.88 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen c The date of first launch applies to this latest modification 

and a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combin- with a date in parentheses for the initial version. 

ing in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer = Solid; inhibited d Polar launch. 

red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine = eMaximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM conIRFNAIUDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/NzH4 = N,04/ 

aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOX/LHz; f With dual TE 364-4. 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene g With 96' flight azimuth. 

acrolonitrile terpolymer = AL/NH4CL04/PBAN. h Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation 

figurations. PAM =payload assist module (a private venture). 

b Due east launch except as indicated. 

System Support Programs. 

scheduled as needed. 

132 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year Defense Energy 'Om- Interior Agricul- NSF :izL NASA 

Total Spacea merce ture 

1959 ................ ... 

... 1962 ................ 1963 ................ 1964 . . . . .... 1965 . . . . .... 1966 ................ 1967 ................ 

1973 ................ 1974 ................ 1975 

1976 ................ Transitional Quarter . . . 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

4,595.5 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.gb 

6,875.3' 

7,248.0 

7,572.6 

7.386.4 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3,440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,924.9 ~ 

654305 <lb' 

489.5 34.3 

560.9 43.3 

813.9 67.7 

1,298.2 147.8 

1,549.9 213.9 

1,599.3 210.0 

1,573.9 228.6 

1,688.8 186.8 

1,663.6 183.6 

1,921.8 145.1 

2,013.0 118.0 

1,678.4 102.8 

1,512.3 94.8 

1,407.0 55.2 

1,623.0 54.2 

1,766.0 41.7 

1,892.4 29.6 

1,983.3 23.3 

460.4 4.6 

2,411.9 21.7 

2,738.3 34.4 

3,035.6 58.6 

3,848.4 39.6 

4,827.7 40.5 

6,678.7 60.6 

9,018.9 38.9 

10,194.9 34.1 

, 12,767.9 34.0 

IJ14.126.8 36.4 

... ... ... ... ... ... 50.7 ... 43.2 ... 2.8 ... 12.2 ... 26.5 ... 29.3 ... 28.1 02 

20.0 .2 

8.0 1.1 

27.4 1.9 

31.3 5.8 

39.7 10.3 

60.2 9.0 

64.4 8.3 

71.5 10.4 

22.2 2.6 

90.8 9.5 

102.8 9.7 

98.4 9.9 

92.6 11.7 

87.0 12.3 

144.5 12.1 

177.8 4.6 

236.0 3.0 

422.9 2.0 

320.6 2.0 

248.9 2.0 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

20.4 

19.4 

14.8 

14.7 

15.3 

... 

0.1 

.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

O.Od 

-73m.4 ' 6,985.3 ' E$86+3 89.1 

10, <5z 0 3,B.l 0 ',. 71 7. &- 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 'i a Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). ' 

Includes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed. 

Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

NSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA. 

784.7 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,831.4 

6,955.5 

6,969.8 

6,709.5 

6,528.9 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,824.9 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,319.9 

1,340.5 

5,982.8 

6,518.2 

7,243.5 

8,688.8 

9,977.8 

12,440.7 

15,588.5 

17,135.7 

20,166.5 

21,200.5 

23,630.4 

4,574.7 

133 
 

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134 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) ~~ ~~ ~~ 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Space Programs 1985 1986 1987 1985 1986 1987 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal agencies: 

NASAa .......................... 6,924.9 6,700.5 6,988.3 6,607.4 6,732.0 6,826.2 

Defense ......................... 12,767.9 14,126.3 16,286.8 10,441.3 11,850.4 13,973.4 ........................... 34.0 36.4 89.1 34.0 36.4 89.1 

.................. 422.9 320.6 248.9 155.4 505.3 278.2 

Interior ................... ... 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 

.................................. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

...................... 14.8 14.7 15.3 14.7 14.7 15.3 

..... 20,166.5 21,200.5 23,630.4 17,254.8 19,140.8 21,184.2 

NASA: 

Space flight ............................. 3,951.5 3,775.8 3,777.4 3,988.6 3,809.4 3,760.9 

Space science, applications, and technology .... 2,023.0 2,091.9 2,218.7 1,857.9 2,087.6 2,160.8 

Air transportation ........................ 647.7 605.9 706.1 643.2 608.9 651.6 

Supporting operations ..................... 950.4 832.8 992.2 760.9 835.0 904.5 

Total NASA ........................... 7,572.6 7,306.4 7,694.4 7,250.6 7,340.9 7,477.8 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation. Includes $37.6 million 

for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

h NSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Aeronautics Programs 1985 1986 1987 1985 1986 1987 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

NASA” .................................. 647.7 605.9 706.1 643.2 608.9 651.6 

Department of Defenseb ..................... 3,442.0 4,124.9 4,557.0 3,101.1 3,411.8 3,812.4 

Department of TransportationC ............... 265.0 181.8 134.5 265.5 262.6 177.7 

Total ................................... 4,354.7 4,912.6 5,397.6 4,009.8 4,283.3 4,641.7 

a Research and Develo ment, Construction of Facilities, SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

Research and Program dnagement. 

and related equipment. 

Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft 

Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and 

Information: To obtain general information about the con- tents of this report, contact S.E. Kale, Code LB, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 20546, (202) 453-8337. 

135 

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1986 0 - 169-254