Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1979 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1979 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Table 

I . Summary of the US . Aeronautics and 

Space Activities of 1979 .............. Introduction .................... Communications ................ Earth’s Resources ............... Space Science .................. Transportation ................. Space Energy ................... 

Administration ..................... Introduction ................... Applications to Earth ........... Science ......................... Space Transportation ............ Space Research and Technology . . Space Data Services .............. Aeronautical Research and 

Technology .................. 111 . Department of Defense .................. Introduction ....................... Space Activities ..................... Aeronautical Activities .............. 

IV . Department of Commerce ............... Introduction ....................... Space Systems ...................... 

I1 . National Aeronautics and Space 

Relationships with NASA ............ 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space .... Space Support Activities ............. Space and Atmospheric Support ...... Aeronautical Programs .............. V . Department of Energy ................... Introduction ....................... Progress in Space Applications 

of Nuclear Power ................. Advances in Supporting Technology . . 

Status of Prior Missions .............. Satellite Power System ............... Nuclear Waste Disposal .............. Remote Sensing of Earth ........... Nuclear Test Detection ............. 

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VI . Department of the Interior .............. Introduction ........................ Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Program .................. Monitoring the Environment ......... Geology ............................ Cartography ........................ International Activities .............. VI1 . Department of Transportation ........... Introduction ....................... Aviation Safety ..................... Air Traffic Control and Air 

Navigation ....................... 

Appendixes 

A-1 1J.S. Spacecraft Record .................. A-2 World Record of Space Launchings 

Successful in Attaining Earth 

Orbit or Beyond ...................... A-3 Successful U.S. Launchings-I979 ......... B-1 U.S. Applications Satellites, 1975-1979 .... B-2 US-Launched Scientific Payloads. 

1975-1979 ............................ B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes. 1975-1979 .... C History of United States and Soviet 

Manned Space Flights ................ D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles .............. E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

Historical Budget Summary-Budget 

Authority ............................ 

Aeronautics Budget ..................... 

White House Statement on Management 

E-2 Space Activities Budget .................. 

F 

of U.S. Civilian Remote Sensing 

Activities ............................. 

G The United Nations Moon TreatyText and 1J.S . Analysis ................ 

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iii 

cal flight characteristics at all speeds. 

V 
Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1978 I 

Introduction 

In 1979 the United States programs in aeronautics 

and space made substantial technological and scientific progress. In aeronautics, improvements in 

engine components and systems promised reductions 

in fuel consumption, while improved computational 

and design techniques would provide aircraft designers with better design criteria. In space programs, the Space Shuttle moved closer to its first 

orbital test flight, even as Voyager spacecraft flew 

past Jupiter and its spectacular moons and Pioneer 

11 became Earth’s first spacecraft to visit Saturn 

and its rings. United States expendable launch vehicles attempted 16 launches; all were successful, 

placing a total of 18 payloads into orbit. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) in 8 launches orbited 8 payloads, including 2 for the Department of Defense (DoD) and 3 

for its own program. DoD in 8 launches orbited 10 

payloads, including a new Tiros-N-series meteorological satellite built by NASA for the Department 

of Commerce. Among the NASA satellites launched 

were the third and last of the big high-energy astronomy satellites and a satellite designed to survey 

the Earth’s magnetic field. 

In Bern, Switzerland, and Vienna, Austria, the 

United States participated in the second and third 

sessions of talks with the Soviet Union on limitation of anti-satellite activity. The joint communique 

issued at the Vienna summit meeting stated that 

President Carter and President Brezhnev “agreed to 

continue actively searching for mutually acceptable 

agreement in the ongoing negotiations on antisatellite systems.” 

In November the President implemented a portion of the space policy decisions announced in 

1978: he designated the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the Department of Commerce to be manager of all operational civilian remote sensing activities from space. 

The decision provides three paths for the nation’s 

space-based remote sensing: 

“-Integration of civilian operational activities 

under NOAA. 

-Joint or coordinated civil/military activities 

where both parties’ objectives can be best 

met through this approach. 

-Separate defense activities which have no 

civilian counterpart.” The text of this announcement is reprinted as Appendix F. 

Also in November, the United Nations completed 

action on a proposed treaty governing activities on 

the moon and other celestial bodies. The text of the 

treaty, together with United States commentary on 

some of its provisos, is given in Appendix G. 

In this summary chapter, highlights of 1979 in 

the national aeronautics and space programs are 

organized topically across the government rather 

than by agencies responsible for particular activities. 

Subsequent chapters further describe the activities 

of the agencies with the largest programs in aeronautics and space. 

Communications 

Communication satellites are among the most 

profitable space systems to result from the nation’s 

investment in space activity. 

Operational Space Systems 

Intelsat. The internationally owned INTELSAT 

global communication satellite system now consists 

of three active Intelsat IV-A satellites in the Atlantic Ocean region and two in the Indian Ocean 

region. The Pacific Ocean region is served by spacecraft from the Intelsat IV series. Development of 

a follow-on generation, the Intelsat V, progressed, 

with launch of the first flight model projected for 

mid-1980. Intelsat V will operate in both the 6-4 

gigahertz (GHz) and 11-14 GHz bands along with 

the added flexibility of a “crowstrap” mode of 

operation (signal sent up to satellite on 6 GHz and 

returned down from satellite on 11 GHz; and up on 

14 GHz and down on 4 GHz). Of the eight Intelsat 

V satellites under procurement, four will provide 

maritime services. Those four satellites can be 

launched by any one of three vehicles: the Atlas1 
Centaur, the NASA Space Shuttle, and the European Space Agency’s Ariane. 

Domestic Commercial Communication Satellites. 

Westar 3, launched in September, brought the total 

number of domestic communication satellites to 8. 

These operate in the 4 and 6 GHz bands. Two are 

part of RCA Americom’s SATCOM system, 3 are 

in Western Union Telegraph’s WESTAR system, 

and 3 are in AT&T’s COMSTAR system. These 

satellites provide message toll service, television 

distribution, and single channel per carrier or multiple channels per carrier for transmission of voice, 

data, television, and digital data. In July 1979, the 

three-year ban on commercial usage of the AT&T 

COMSTAR system expired. Satellite Business Systems (SBS) continued its development efforts toward a two-satellite system. It plans to use the 12 

and 14 GHz bands and 5- and 7-meter Earth stations to provide voice, data, and television transmission services to large industrial and government 

users. The matter of construction of the SBS satellite system is still before the U.S. Court of Appeals 

for the District of Columbia. Applications have been 

received from Western Union Space Communications, Inc. (SPACECOM) for an advanced Westar 

using both the 4-6 and 12-13 GHz bands. In 

December 1979, applications were received to 

launch the third and fourth Satcom satellites, and 

the third SBS satellite. 

Previous decisions by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) , authorizing more flexibility in the design of receive-only Earth stations for 

cable television and other types of television and 

audio distribution systems, have led to the authorization of over 1800 receive-only Earth stations for 

the distribution of these services. The Corporation 

for Public Broadcasting (CPB) and National Public Radio (NPR) have begun to construct their 

Earth stations as part of the satellite distribution of 

multiple audio programming to NPR radio stations 

and are looking toward an operational date early 

in 1980. Several applications for authorization of 

new systems have been received, including those 

from the Mutual Broadcasting Company’s audio 

distribution network, the Appalachian Regional 

Commission’s television distribution system, and 

from both the Associated Press and the United 

Press International wanting to establish their own 

satellite distribution networks. The FCC has also 

received a proposal by the Western Union Telegraph 

Company to make available transponder capacity in 

the WESTAR satellite system for television transmission solely within Mexico. 

Late in January 1979, the FCC released a Notice 

of Inquiry designed to explore legal, technical, and 

policy questions associated with the possible deregulation of Earth stations. The number of all Earth 

stations that have been authorized to date is in excess of 2300. 

Military Communications Satellites. Three broad 

categories of space communications are identified for 

the defense establishment: 

0 worldwide point-to-point communications for 

fixed users with high capacity and high data 

rate 

communications for mobile users, with moderate capacity and low data rate 

0 command and control of strategic nuclear 

forces. 

DoD progressed in all three categories in 1979 

with ( 1 ) the successful launch of Defense Satellite 

Communications System (DSCS) I1 satellites 13 and 

14, (2) the successful launch of the second Fleet 

Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) satellite, 

and (3) the achievement in May of the initial operating capability of the Air Force Satellite Communications system (AFSATCOM). The FCC is 

reviewing an application filed by Hughes Communication Services, Inc., to construct a satellite 

system known as LEASAT which will replace the 

existing Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM), providing the Navy and other military services with a nearly global communications capacity. 

The LEASAT system is scheduled to begin operation in October 1981. 

Marisat. Commercial satellite service to shipping 

continued to develop and expand. Service is currently provided through Marisat in the Atlantic, 

Pacific, and Indian oceans to approximately 300 

ships. Eventually up to 8000 ships are expected to 

be fitted for satellite communications. 

On February 15, 1979, the United States, pursuant to the International Maritime Satellite Communications Act of 1978, signed the convention on 

the International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) in London. INMARSAT will provide global telecommunications services for maritime commercial and safety purposes. Since 1972, 

the United States has been working with other countries to improve maritime communications through 

a global satellite communications system that meets 

the requirements of merchant fleets. The new organization, which will be headquartered in London, 

came into existence on July 16, 1979, when the 

required number of investment shares had been 

taken up by signatories. Patterned closely after 

INTELSAT (the International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization), INMARSAT is expected to 

begin operations in the early 1980s, relying primarily on Intelsat V spacecraft, equipped with maritime communications payloads, for its first generation of satellites. 

2 
Military Navigation Satellites. The new military 

navigation satellite system is the NAVSTAR Global 

Positioning System. It is a joint-service system to 

provide high-accuracy, global position fixing in 

three dimensions. Field testing of the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System user equipments with the 

four GPS satellites launched in 1978 demonstrated 

the required accuracies, and the program began 

full-scale engineering development in August. 

Space Communication Experiments 

Experimental Satellites. Satellite experiments associated with the United States-Canadian Communication Technology Satellite (CTS) in the 11.7-1 2.2 

GHz band began winding down in 1979 after three 

years of operation. With notification of termination 

at mid-year, most American experimenters are completing their projects, In some of the experiments 

dealing with program delivery, experimenters are 

making plans to use proposed or existing domestic 

satellites in the 6-4 GHz bands to continue operation. Similar projects are being completed in the 

2.2-2.69 GHz band associated with the Application Technology Satellite (ATS 6) which was terminated in the last quarter of 1979. 

Emergency and operational communication provided through the operation of ATS 1 and ATS 3 

has grown somewhat. These satellites have narrowband VHF transponders and are basically being 

used by experimenters to send narrow-band voice 

and data communications to 37 fixed and portable 

receiving stations. Messages deal with medical emergency, state government operations, and church administration. Two new areas of VHF satellite operations have begun this year; one experiment uses 

satellite data telemetry to control the flow of natural 

gas in cross-country pipe lines; another experiment assesses the role of satellite communications in 

search and rescue operations in remote areas of the 

United States. 

Communications Research. NASA identified the 

two areas in satellite communications that need improvement. They are (a) multiplying the use of 

existing frequencies and (b) extending the usable 

frequency spectrum. The multiplication of frequency 

use depends on the development of spaceborne multibeam antennas; several frequency ranges and a 15- 

beam antenna began range testing. The second problem was being examined in a prototype system that 

could greatly reduce the bandwidth used by digitized 

television signals. 

DoD was also researching means of using higher 

frequency bands, partly to avoid the congestion in 

the lower frequencies and partly to lessen the effect 

of jamming. In 1979 new components were developed that could operate in the EHF frequency 

range. A developmental test model of a laser communication device was completed and testing was 

begun. Laser communications would allow transmission of high data rates and protection against 

jamming. 

Communications Negotiarion. The year 1979 was 

an active one for the United States in international 

deliberations on space communications. 

WORLD ADMINISTRATIVE RADIO CONFERENCE. 

Once every 20 years the International Telecommunications Union convenes a General World Administrative Radio Conference to review and adjust 

the world-wide allocation of radio frequencies. Since 

the United States is a major communications user 

and since this was the first such conference in which 

international space activities were a major consideration, substantia1 effort went into preparation for and 

participation in the conference. This conference met 

for ten weeks, addressing the many issues of frequency allocation with an intensity that reflected 

the rapidly growing pressure on the existing frequency spectrum. At the conclusion of the conference, the United States delegation reported general 

satisfaction with the results; some 95 percent of the 

United States positions had been accepted. 

DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITES. The United Nations, in the Legal Subcommittee of the Committee 

on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, made progress 

on elaborating principles for use of artificial Earth 

satellites for direct television broadcasting. Only 

two issues appear to be blocking consensus-the 

principles on consultation and on agreement between 

countries. Both involve the concept of prior consent. 

Much of the background on this subject dates to 

1977, when a World Administrative Radio Conference was held under the auspices of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The conference adopted a plan of national assignments of 

frequencies and orbital slots for direct television 

satellite broadcasting for Regions 1 and 3, which 

comprise the world’s surface except for North and 

South America (Region 2). The same conference 

also treated the problem of “spillover.” Broadcast 

satellites transmit a wide beam. Although the beam 

can be shaped somewhat by the antennas aboard 

the satellite, it is impossible to shape the beam to 

conform with national boundaries. Hence there is 

inevitably spillover of the beam into neighboring 

countries. The 1977 conference established limits, 

based on technological realities, on this unavoidable 

spillover, seeking to reduce it to a minimum. 

Although ITU’s technical regulations impose in 

effect a prior consent rtgime for direct broadcast 

satellites in Regions 1 and 3, in the United Nations 

discussions the Soviet Union and the Eastern-bloc 

countries insist that there ought to be United Nations principles for direct broadcast satellites which 
establish politically a requirement that direct broadcast signals cannot cross national borders without 

the prior consent and agreement of the neighboring 

country. 

A large group of delegations would exclude the 

requirement for prior consent in the case of unintentional spillover but would apply it to the case 

where a country intends to broadcast its signal into 

some country other than its own. 

The United States and a very small number of 

other delegations view the present language of the 

proposed principle on consultation and agreement 

between countries as limiting and as eroding the 

principle of free flow of information, a fundamental 

human right recognized in such international instruments as the Universal Declaration of Human 

Rights in Article 19 of the United Nations Charter, 

which declares the right of people “to seek, receive, 

and impart information and ideas through any 

media and regardless of frontiers”; this has been reaffirmed in Resolution 331’115 of the General Assembly and most recently in the UNESCO Declaration on the Mass Media. The United States fully 

supports a principle providing for full consultations 

prior to the establishment of any international direct broadcast satellite by a country- consultations 

which could include the subject of program content-but not that they must end with an explicit 

agreement or the prior consent of a receiving station before such broadcasting may begin. 

The issue obviously is ideological and political 

and may be difficult to resolve. It remains to be 

seen whether consensus will ever be reached. 

Earth’s Resources 

The remote sensing of Earth’s surface and atmosphere from spacecraft and aircraft continued in 

1979. Some of these sensing systems were tentative 

and experimental, others were semi-operational, and 

a few were fully operational. 

Znventorying and Monitoring 

Earth Resources. The most significant activity in 

land observations was in agriculture. Analysis of 

data from the three-year Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) , an experimental use of 

remotely sensed data for crop measurement and 

prediction, had shown that it is possible to distinguish wheat from similar crops and to obtain reliable yield estimates. 

To build on the LACIE experience, AgRISTARS 

(Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys 

Through Aerospace Remote Sensing) officially began on October l, 1979. AgRISTARS is a 6-year 

program of research, development, evaluation, and 

application of aerospace remote sensing for agriculture and renewable resources. It is a cooperative 

effort of the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, 

and Interior; NASA; and the Agency for International Development. The goal of the AgRISTARS 

program is to determine the usefulness, cost, and extent to which aerospace remote sensing data can be 

integrated into existing or future agricultural measurement systems to improve the objectivity, reliability, timeliness, and adequacy of data for resource 

management as well as commodity production 

information. 

All participating agencies are closely linked in a 

joint program. Within AgRISTARS USDA has the 

responsibility for defining the overall information 

requirements, performing research related to development of yield models and their applications, development of an agronomic data base and collection 

of ground data, and evaluation of technology for its 

utility and affordability. NASA is responsible for 

research, development, and testing for foreign croparea estimation, Landsat data acquisition, and 

spectral inputs to various research activities. NOAA 

of the Department of Commerce provides the meteorological data that supports research work on yield 

models. The Department of the Interior is charged 

with Landsat data storage, retrieval, and dissemination. The Agency for International Development will 

evaluate the utility of research, development, 

and testing results for application in developing 

countries. 

Landsat data, combined with extensive groundgathered data, improved the official 1978 year-end 

estimates of Iowa’s planted corn and sorghum acreages. This was the first time that researchers of 

the Department of Agriculture had analyzed data 

from Landsat for an entire state for regularly scheduled reports of crop acreage. The satellite data 

helped reduce sampling errors and demonstrated 

that Landsat data can be used to improve crop 

acreage estimates at the state and sub-state level. 

However, resource efficiencies and timely acquisition 

of Landsat data must be achieved before this approach can be used in operating programs. A vital 

part of the statistical estimation procedure is development of sampling frames; remotely sensed data 

are particularly useful for the development of improved frames. Satellite imagery is now being used 

as a basic source for establishing homogeneous 

strata and for providing a basis for the digitizing of 

entire frames to improve area measurement accuracy. Initial activity is now under way with AID to 

provide sampling frame procedures and techniques 

to cooperating host countries at their request and 

to extend the use of satellite imagery to get better 

4 
land-use stratification within individual states of the 

United States. 

During 1979 USDA employees assigned to an 

AID project completed a schematic soil survey of 

Saudi Arabia using Landsat imagery. Under a cooperative agreement with the Treasury Department, 

a schematic soils map was prepared for publication 

on a Landsat mosaic. On the domestic scene Landsat digital data were used as an aid in the National 

Cooperative Soil Survey. The Department continued 

its cooperative effort with NASA under the nationwide Forestry Application Program to identify and 

investigate new remote sensing methods, with special emphasis in the application of inventory procedures for renewable resources and to application 

of remote sensing technology to the management of 

forest and range lands. Specific project areas included detection, classification, and measurement of 

disturbances, including forest, insect, and disease 

damage; classification and mensuration of forest and 

range land resources; regional and large area renewable resource inventories including timber management surveys; environmental monitoring and the 

land management planning process; and vegetation 

classification with topographic data. 

International interest in Landsat data continued 

to mount. With the coming into operation of the 

Landsat station in India in August, the total of 

foreign Landsat stations rose to 7; 3 more were 

under way, and discussions were in progress on 2 

more. In addition to foreign Landsat stations, foreign requests for Landsat coverage grew rapidly. 

Requests for coverage from United States users 

also grew. Other uses included US. Coast Guard, 

NOAA, and USGS monitoring of the oil spill off the 

Yucatan coast. Beginning in June, NASA provided 

Landsat coverage of the Gulf of Mexico to these 

agencies and to the Mexican government; it delineated the spread and movement of the huge oil slick. 

The development of geobased information systems continued to grow in popularity. In these, 

Landsat data are put in a computer along with terrain data and soil map data; as subsequent Landsat 

data reveals changes in land use the data bank can 

be used to predict problem areas for drainage and 

erosion, pinpointing the needed field inspections. 

Success with experiments of this type led the Iowa 

legislature to appropriate funds for purchase of a 

state-owned system for Landsat applications; Florida 

is planning to develop a statewide Landsat-based 

information system. 

In forestry, the California Department of Forestry 

chose Landsat technology over other methods to 

meet a requirement by the legislature for a statewide inventory of forest lands by August 1, 1979, 

with updates to follow at five-year intervals. 

In control of water resources, Landsat data were 

used in a demonstration project in Florida to define 

the land cover in the basin of the Apalachicola 

River to better predict the effects of existing and 

planned agricultural and industrial developments. 

Along the Gulf of Mexico, Landsat data are being 

used to study Choctawhatchee Bay for the effect of 

urban development on water shortages in the Ft. 

Walton area. 

In longer term development of methods for using 

remotely sensed information in prospecting for mineral deposits, NASA has been working closely with 

university and industry scientists to evaluate the usefulness of satellite data in geological reconnaissance. 

At 12 test sites with known deposits of copper, 

uranium, or petroleum Landsat data were examined 

for broad area possibilities and aircraft flew more 

detailed sensing missions over the most promising 

locations. At Copper Mountain, Utah, a multispectral scanner in an aircraft detected patterns of iron 

oxide stains over known uranium deposits. When a 

similar pattern was detected nearby in supposedly 

barren land, a ground check by geologists was conducted and the company owning the mineral rights 

staked a claim. 

A new tool in geologic assessment was put into 

operation in 1979 with the launch of Magsat in 

October. The first satellite designed to survey the 

Earth’s vector magnetic field and orbiting at a much 

lower altitude than previous satellites measuring the 

magnetic field, Magsat is intended to return much 

more detailed information about the magnetic 

anomolies within the Earth’s crust, thus defining 

crustal structure in large-scale models for mineral 

assessment in remote areas. 

At the United Nations, work on principles to govern remote sensing of the Earth’s natural resources 

and environment continued into its fourth year. The 

United States does not see the slow pace of negotiations as a basis of pessimism. Growing experience 

with Landsat programs is educating all nations to 

the potential and possible modes of operation for 

remote sensing systems. 

Access to and the dissemination of remote sensing data or information derived therefrom still raises 

a diversity of views despite extensive discussion 

over the last four or five years. In very early discussions, the right of a nation to sense the territory 

of another nation without the latter’s prior consent 

was questioned. With more and more nations having this capability and recognizing the potential 

value of this space application, this argument has 

largely disappeared and in its stead many delegations now seek to impose prior consent on the dissemination of data or information. Other delegations, including the United States, support the right 

5 
of a nation operating a sensor or of a nation with a 

receiving ground station to disseminate remote 

sensing data openly without the prior consent of the 

observed nation. The Soviet Union has proposed 

that data having a resolution of no better than 50 

meters be openly disseminated while data better 

than 50 meters resolution be subject to the prior 

consent of the observed nation. 

The United States believes that Landsat-type systems can continue to provide significant national, 

regional, and international benefits that far exceed 

the slight risk of injury to the economic, political, 

or national security of any country. 

If the principle of prior consent were adopted, 

the international cooperative program under which 

the Landsat ground stations have been located 

abroad would have to be ended since data are held 

not only by the country controlling the spacecraft 

but also by the ground-receiving-station countries. 

In response to the Soviet proposal, the United 

States and other delegations pointed out that from 

a technical standpoint spatial resolution was not a 

reliable or standard reference, a conclusion supported by the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee 

as well as by COSPAR (the Committee on Space 

Research of the International Council of Scientific 

Unions). 

Another arena of Earth observation has been the 

study of the dynamic processes within the Earth 

through the measurement of tectonic plate movement and the resulting deformations and shifts of 

the crustal surface. NASA has for four years used 

satellite ranging systems along the San Andreas 

Fault in California and has measured slippage between the Pacific and North American plates of from 

6 to 12 centimeters per year. A fourth data phase 

was completed early in 1979 and the data are now 

being analyzed. 

Mobile lasers have been installed at four stations 

and a second-generation laser installed on a truck 

by the University of Texas will take measurements 

from 25 sites in the western United States. Other 

mobile and fixed lasers are operating overseas in a 

number of countries in an international network. 

United States participation, in addition to NASA, 

involves the National Science Foundation (NSF), 

National Geodetic Survey, USGS, and the Defense 

Mapping Agency. 

Monitoring the Sea State. The 99-day operational 

phase, followed by the abrupt premature failure, of 

NASA’s Seasat 1 satellite in 1978 was pursued in 

1979 by extensive evaluation of the quality and 

validity of data from Seasat and from Nimbus satellites that had employed oceanographic sensors. 

NOAA convened a workshop on the usefulness of 

Seasat data in measuring the high winds, waves, and 

heavy precipitation from storms at sea. The conclusion was that imaging radars on satellites are 

very effective in both atmospheric and ocean-surface 

measurements. In the ability of satellite instruments 

to measure waveheight and mean sea level, NOAA 

compared satellite data with surface-truth data and 

found agreement for waves with heights up to 30 

centimeters. 

In March NOAA, NASA, and DoD completed 

a study on possible development of a National 

Oceanic Satellite System. The joint study explored 

the operational needs for oceanographic information in civil and defense agencies and the technical 

requirements in the space and ground segments of 

such a system. 

NOAA continued monitoring with its Goes 

spacecraft the position, warm and cold eddies, and 

thermal boundaries of the Gulf Stream. These data, 

published in weekly maps, are used by fishermen 

to locate productive fishing grounds. In 1979, for 

the first time NOAA began issuing surface temperature maps of the waters adjacent to Alaska; these 

should be of use to fishermen and researchers in 

correlating fish catches to temperature factors. All 

22 of NOAA’s data buoys located in waters around 

the world were converted to transmit environmental 

and communications data through the Goes satellites. 

Environmental Analysis and Protection 

One of the early successes of the United States 

space program was the weather satellite. For more 

than a decade complex systems of weather satellites 

have been operational in weather forecasting. In 

the last few years, research has started on the lessdiscernible trends of world climate and changes in 

Earth’s upper environment caused by man-generated pollutants. 

Weather Satellite Operations. During 1979 NOAA 

operated a two-satellite polar-orbiting weather satellite system. During the first half of the year the 

former Improved Tiros Operational Satellite 

(ITOS) system was being-replaced by the new 

Tiros-N system. In October 1978 NASA’s experimental prototype, Tiros-N, had been launched and 

replaced one of the two ITOS satellites in the operational network. On June 27, 1979, NOAA’s 

first satellite in the new series, Noaa 6, was orbited 

and in a few weeks it replaced Noaa 5, completing the new network. 

The Tiros-N satellites are in near-polar, Sunsynchronous orbits, crossing the equator some 12 

hours apart. Each satellite has four primary sensors: 

a very-high-resolution radiometer, a vertical sounder 

comprised of three complementary sounding instruments, a data collection and location system, and a 

space environment monitor. With improved visual 
and infrared imagery, they will also measure temperature and moisture and at stratospheric levels 

will monitor proton and electron flux. A new ground 

system was accepted in February 1979 to handle 

the extremely large volume of digital data generated by the Tiros-N system. 

NOAA’s other system of satellites is the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

(GOES). In 1979 this system supported the international Global Weather Experiment and the operational utility of GOES imagery was improved in 

March 1979 by the introduction of a new interactive 

computer system which provides better accuracy and 

faster response time in gridding of GOES images. 

DoD’s weather satellite systems is the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program, supporting military 

operations with high-quality visual and infrared imagery and other specialized weather data; it also 

furnishes NOAA with data supplementary to its 

satellite systems. From polar orbit DoD’s two 

weather satellites acquire data on the world’s 

weather four times each day, store it, and later 

transmit it to the Air Force and Navy weather centrals in Nebraska and California respectively. The 

data are also transmitted in real time to mobile 

readout stations in key locations around the world 

to support tactical operations. In 1979 the fourth 

Block 5D satellite was launched and became operational in July. In addition to providing cloud imagery, this satellite has a new microwave sensor that 

takes a vertical temperature profile as well as several special sensors that read ionospheric data into 

forecasts of ionospheric electron counts. Design was 

completed and a contract awarded for a passive 

microwave imager to measure precipitation, cloud 

and liquid water content of the atmosphere, ocean 

surface wind, and sea ice distribution. 

Weather Research. In December 1978 the World 

Meteorological Organization opened its long-awaited 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) . 

The first phase was a year-long Global Weather Experiment. Several United States agencies are involved, 

with a special role for NOAA and NASA environmental satellites. In conjunction with weather satellites from other nations and extensive ground-truth 

data collection, they should provide a high-density 

data bank; systems and instruments also will benefit from intercalibration. NOAA began comparing 

its satellite data with those from Japanese and 

European Space Agency satellites and found the 

data to be quite compatible. Comparison periods 

will be continued indefinitely at the rate of twice a 

year. 

One of NOAA’s case studies involved a Tiros-N 

orbit across the United States on May 2, 1979, 12 

hours before tornadoes struck along the border of 

Oklahoma and Kansas. The study revealed the 

presence of a low-pressure area, an intense moisture 

front with convectively unstable air, and strong 

divergence of the upper-level jet over the area. 

Tiros-N had indeed flagged the percursor conditions 

of development of severe storms and made advance 

warning possible. 

The improved radiometer on Tiros-N and the 

Earth Radiation Budget experiment on Nimbus 7 

enabled more comprehensive study in 1979 of the 

Earth’s radiation budget. Not only is the radiation 

budget important for meteorological forecasting, it is 

also of interest to students of fluctuations in climate. 

Data from eight narrow-field-of-view channels are 

being used to develop computer programs for 

angular models, which will improve accuracy of 

readings of radiation outgoing from Earth. 

A trnospheric and Magneto.rp1ieric Research. For 

some years several Federal agencies have been making space-based, air-based, and ground-based measurements of constituent gases and particles in the 

various layers of the Earth’s outer environment. The 

range of interests has grown from concern over 

charged-particle effects on radio communications, to 

the pass-through effects on weather, to effects of 

man-made pollution on the ozone layer, to the effect 

on Earth’s climate, and most recently to chargedparticle effects on electric charging of geosynchronous spacecraft. 

NOAA continued research on several aspects of 

atmospheric clouds and moisture content. Evaluation continued of microwave-derived temperature, 

water-vapor, and thermal wind measurements made 

by NASA’s Nimbus 6 satellite with its Scanning 

Microwave Spectrometer. The satellite soundings 

proved to be as good or better than ground-based 

soundings down to the 700-millibar pressure level 

over water and down to 500 millibars over land. 

Other studies of microwave data sought to improve 

the accuracy of temperature measurements by correcting errors induced by heavy precipitation. 

In research into hurricanes and convective cloud 

systems, NOAA continued to use satellite-derived 

data and to compare it with aircraft-derived data. 

In 1979 this technique was used to study Hurricanes 

David and Frederic as these storms moved up the 

Carribean to their landfalls in Hispaniola, Cuba, 

and then the United States. The satellite and aircraft 

data may provide information on the degree to 

which cloud motion represents wind speed and direction at the lower levels, and the accuracy of 

satellite estimates of storm intensity. 

Several approaches were taken to extend and improve the data base for forecasting of weather over 

the northern Pacific Ocean, where Alaska’s weather 

originates. Since numerical forecasting over oceans 

has serious limitations, NOAA performed operational tests on a new technique using satellite data 

7 
to locate and track developing systems in the midPacific through estimates of central pressure. Data 

from geostationary satellites were used to determine 

low-level cloud movements over the Pacific; this is 

in addition to previous use of such data for highlevel winds in global forecast models. The Pacific 

weather data base was extended even farther west 

in 1979 by regular acquisition of cloud images over 

the western Pacific from Japan’s geostationary 

meteorological satellite; this area is beyond the 

range of United States geostationary satellites. 

During 1979 the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) worked with NASA to use the high 

technology developed for space exploration to address the problems of pollution. EPA and NASA 

have entered into a joint research program to improve the usefulness of satellite imagery for studying the dynamics of large-scale pollution episodes. 

The development and movement of such episodes 

were first identified through visibility isopleths derived from routine National Weather Service visibility distance measurements. Areas with low visibility show up on satellite images as hazy areas 

which can be differentiated from clouds. Occurring 

in the summer and early fall in the eastern United 

States, these low visibility episodes have been increasing in severity and geographic extent over the 

last 20 years. The reduction in visibility has been 

associated statistically with high concentrations of 

sulfate particles and other pollutants; together these 

may affect both health and ecology. 

The dimensions of hazy air masses are on the 

order of hundreds of kilometers, with travel distances of thousands of kilometers. Because of the 

large dimensions, satellite observations offer an excellent means for observation of their formation, extent, travel, and dissipation. This information, which 

can be obtained from existing satellite imagery, will 

be used to determine meteorological conditions associated with the haze masses so that their formation and movement may be predicted. Also the data 

will enable us to associate periods of intense pollution with health effects. 

A second EPA-NASA joint effort is the remote 

sensing of accelerated energy-fuel development and 

the associated environmental impacts. In anticipation of increased energy requirements of the next 

quarter century, the Federal government is promoting the development of untapped national energy 

resources such as low-sulfur coal reserves, oil shale, 

and geothermal resources, all of which are located 

in abundance in the western United States. Their 

development will usually involve greatly increased 

strip mining, along with the construction of large 

conventional power and coal gasification plants in 

presently pristine areas of the West. EPA and NASA 

are obtaining essential baseline and trend data by 

remote sensing. As part of this effort, the hardware 

and software needed for processing remotely sensed 

digital data were transferred to EPA. The EPA Data 

and Analysis System can handle data from EPA’s 

present remote sensing systems and from currently available and proposed satellite multispectral 

scanner systems. 

The EPA-NASA remote sensing capability has 

been used for such purposes as showing the impact 

of land use activities on water quality in Apalachicola Bay, Florida; assessing the damage to hardwood trees from sulfur dioxide emissions; and measuring turbidity and sediment concentrations in water 

bodies. All results evaluated thus far are very encouraging. They demonstrate the feasibility of using satellite and aircraft-acquired multispectral 

scanner data for monitoring the effects of energy 

resources development. 

The next step in expanding the EPA‘s remote 

sensing is the development of a Geo-Referenced Interactive Data Base System (GRIDS). This system 

would handle various types of digitized environmental data and provide graphical displays of the 

overlaid data sets, producing, in effect, an analog 

model of the geographical environment under study. 

The environmental analog becomes dynamic when 

data sets from different periods are compared. Further steps in developing this system would incorporate various models (e.g., air and water quality), thereby permitting a graphical and dynamic 

presentation of the impact from an undesirable environmental action. 

A third EPA-NASA cooperative effort is the development of better instrumentation for measurement of airborne sulfur dioxide. During the past 

year, a mobile ground-based ultraviolet (UV) lidar 

system was developed for measurement of sulfur 

dioxide and aerosols in stack plumes. This system 

consists of a unique laser, developed at NASA’s 

Langley Research Center, which produces two independently tunable UV wavelengths that are separated in time by 100 microseconds. The laser is 

combined with a dual-channel receiver for simultaneous detection of the backscattered light in the 

UV and visible portions of the spectrum. The mobile UV lidar system was demonstrated in a joint 

field experiment conducted in cooperation with the 

Maryland Power Plant Siting Program and EPA at 

the Morgantown generating plant of the Potomac 

Electric Power Company. 

The lidar system used two UV wavelengths near 

300 nanometers in the measurement of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the power plant plume and the 

532-nanometer wavelength of the pump laser for 

measurement of particulate distribution in the 

plume. In addition to the lidar system, several other 

instruments obtained corroborating and supporting 
data, both in the stack and in the plume. UV lidar 

measurements were made both day and night. Instack measurements compare well with the lidardetermined concentrations of sulfur dioxide. The results indicate that a UV lidar system can measure 

the extent and average sulfur dioxide concentration 

in power plant plumes. With increased power, a 

UV lidar in an aircraft can measure sulfur dioxide 

at long ranges downwind of the stack to near-ambient concentration levels. Development is nearly 

complete of an airborne UV lidar system to measure sulfur dioxide, ozone, and aerosols. The system 

was flown to measure ozone and sulfur dioxide in 

the fall of 1979. 

A fourth application of space expertise to pollution problems is the validation of plume models. 

Verification studies of plume rise and dispersion 

models, using the lidar data base from a previous 

lidar plume dispersion experiment, were completed 

in 1979. Comparisons were made between measured 

and predicted values for the standard deviation of 

the particulate distribution in the plume in the vertical and the cross-wind direction. The lidar system 

has been demonstrated to be effective in obtaining 

plume dispersion parameters that cannot be measured with passive techniques. 

The study of climate was officially mandated in 

the National Climate Program Act of 1977. This led 

to the establishment of NOAA’s National Climate 

Program Office, engaged in the long term and spatially extended collection and analysis of all the environmental variables studied in connection with 

the weather and the oceans. In I979 NASA supported the NOAA program with studies and measurements of aerosols in the atmosphere. With the 

launch of the SAGE (Stratospheric Aerosol and 

Gas Experiment) payload, NASA was well situated 

to gather remotely sensed data on the violent eruptions of the volcano La Soufriere in the Caribbean 

in April. Combinations of airborne instrument readings and SAGE data agreed that heavy concentrations of aerosols rose to and traveled at the 18- 

kilometer altitude. This was the first time a remote 

sensing capability was in place to measure such a 

phenomenon quantitatively and to map the spread 

of the aerosols around the globe. These data will 

also suggest how pollutants might be transported 

around the world, with implications for the siting 

of industrial complexes that exhaust large quantities 

of airborne wastes. 

A phenomenon in the magnetosphere that has 

been of concern to both the military and civil sides 

of the national space program has been spacecraft 

charging-the buildup of excessive electrical charges 

on spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit, posing a 

threat to spacecraft electronics. DoD has taken the 

lead in research on this problem. In 1979 theoretical 

studies were supplemented with the launch of the 

Scatha payload-some 12 experiments designed to 

measure, analyze, and define the amounts and causes 

of the charging. Data from the Scatha satellite combined with other data from theoretical and empirical 

studies are being made available in a handbook and 

updated models. 

An experimental radar, designed to provide new 

knowledge of winds, turbulence, and waves in the 

atmosphere between about one and 100 kilometers, 

is being constructed in Fairbanks, Alaska. The radar 

transmits a 50-megahertz signal at a peak power of 

6.4 megawatts from a phased dipole array of 40,000 

square meters. 

The device measures the downward scattered 

radiation arising from variations in the radio refractive index; at the highest elevations, the returned 

scattered radiation arises from free electrons. The 

scattered radiation, when suitably processed, can be 

used to infer air motions along the local vertical, 

and this can be done about every four minutes. Conventional balloon techniques, by contrast, permit 

such measurements only twice a day, rockets even 

less frequently. Thus the motion of the atmosphere 

can be measured in much greater detail. Such information is vital for an understanding of weather 

systems, atmospheric composition and chemistry, 

radio propagation, and atmospheric wave motions. 

The facility is being constructed by scientists from 

NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, with support from NSF. 

Although the near-Earth magnetic field has a simple dipole character, its more distant structure is 

severely distorted by interaction with hot solar 

plasma (ionized gas) that continuously blows out 

from the Sun. The outer reaches of the Earth’s 

magnetic field cause a “magnetospheric” cavity in 

this “solar wind” some tens of Earth radii across 

and stretching away from the Sun past the distance 

of the moon’s orbit. 

An important cause is the motion, in the highlatitude ionosphere, of magnetic field lines that trace 

to great distances into the magnetosphere. Plasma 

tracing these trajectories can move at speeds of 

kilometers per second, corresponding to driving electric fields tens of kilovolts across the dawn-dusk 

ionospheric polar cap. A qualitatively new capability 

is now available to measure plasma velocities (and 

derived electric fields) continuously over the entire 

band from 60” to 75” magnetic latitude. With support of the NSF a 50-meter-diameter fully steerable 

antenna has been added to the Millstone Hill radar 

at Westford, Massachusetts. Data collected to date 

with this newly upgraded facility are already extending the understanding of both solar control and 

atmospheric effects of these circulation patterns. 

Magnetically quiet days have been found to have a 

9 
plasma flow pattern consistent with expectations 

from present idealized models. while increasingly 

disturbed days show subtle to dramatic departures 

from this pattern. 

At the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 

analysis of the 1976 gravitational redshift experiment, in which an extremely precise hydrogen maser 

clock sent into space was compared with an identical clock on the ground, was completed in 1979. A 

recalculation of all systematic errors and the formal 

statistical errors has led to a final result: the relationship between the observed redshift and the prediction from the equivalence principle is verified to 

within 143 parts per million. 

A second test of the equivalence principle with 

clocks involved comparison of hydrogen-maser and 

superconducting-cavity clocks at Stanford University to search for a possible nonmetric behavior of 

gravitation. Evidence for this behavior would be 

that the frequency difference between clocks operating on different physical principles would be affected 

by changes in the Sun’s gravity potential owing to 

the laboratory’s motion during the period of measurement. No effect was seen at the 1 percent level 

of sensitivity. 

During 1979, a hydrogen maser was successfully 

operated at a temperature of 25 K, made possible 

by a new type of gaseous wall coating material 

frozen in place. The stability available from the new 

cold maser is at the lo-’: level and work is in 

progress to demonstrate this tenfold improvement 

over present technology. 

Space Science 

Space science can be considered to begin in the 

region of interactions between the Earth’s magnetic 

field and the incoming solar wind. Beyond that. it 

encompasses the solar system and the entire detectable Universe. 

Sun-Earth Studies 

Much remains to be learned about the Sun, the 

sole source of Earth’s light, life, and energy; and 

about the interactions between solar emissions and 

the layers of Earth’s environmental shell. 

The Sun. In 1979 the International Sun-Earth 

Explorer (ISEE) satellites marked their first full 

year of operation as a complete three-satellite system. This system, a collaboration between NASA 

and the European Space Agency (ESA), has two 

satellites (ISEE 1 and 2) traveling in highly elliptical orbits in and out of the Earth’s magnetic field, 

reporting on a cross section of the Earth’s magnetosphere; the third ISEE satellite, launched late 

in 1978, is positioned farther out (some 1.6-million 

kilometers from Earth) at the Sun-Earth libration 

point. As a sentinel between Sun and Earth, it reports on events in the solar wind about one hour 

before these same effects reach the Earth’s magnetosphere. Over a period of time, the flow of data 

from this triangle of satellites will tell us much about 

the fluctuations of the magnetosphere in response to 

the aberrations in the solar wind, in addition to giving reliable short-term warning of imminent disturbances in the magnetosphere and ionosphere. 

With the approach of the point in the Sun’s 11- 

year cycle known as the “solar maximum”-featuring maximum activity on the solar surface-the international scientific community has joined together 

in an International Solar Maximum Year. This began in August 1979, and will continue through 

February 198 1. The ISEE satellites will play an important reporting role in the effort. A major new 

initiative from the United States in support of this 

international effort will be the launch of a Solar 

Maximum Mission (SMM) early in 1980. This 

satellite is instrumented for meticulous reporting of 

flares and other disturbances on the solar surface; 

its data will be supplemented from an array of other 

satellites and ground-based telescopes. 

The next major foray toward the Sun after the 

solar maximum is the International Solar Polar 

Mission. Its two spacecraft will be the first solar 

mission to approach the Sun from outside the ecliptic plane and will report on the complex polar regions on the Sun. In 1979 the United States spacecraft and experiments were contracted; the other 

spacecraft is being developed by the European 

Space Agency. 

Study of the Planets 

Few if any years in the history of the United 

States space program have seen such activity and 

dramatic new vistas in planetary exploration as 1979. 

Our unmanned spacecraft visited Venus, Jupiter, 

and Saturn; in their passages of Jupiter Voyager 1 

and 2 brought us the first views of the striking diversity of the four large Galilean moons-all of 

them big enough to qualify in the rapidly growing 

new science of comparative planetology. 

Mars. At the end of 1979, almost four years after 

the arrival of the Viking spacecraft in the vicinity 

of Mars, one of the two Viking orbiters still had a 

supply of control gas and was returning high-quality 

imagery of the Martian surface. Both of the landers 

sent imagery and meteorological and radio science 

data during the year. The lander nearer the equator 

has been programmed for periodic interrogation 

during the next decade. 
Venus. In the closing weeks of 1978 the PioneerVenus orbiter and five probes arrived at Venus; the 

orbiter circled the cloud-enshrouded planet through 

1979. The probes descended through the atmosphere, sending back a large volume of data that will 

require several years of intensive analysis. Two 

items have been of early interest: the trace elements 

of the rare gases, argon and neon, in the atmosphere 

of Venus were an order-of-magnitude less in quantity than in Earth’s atmosphere and another orderof-magnitude less than in Mars’ atmosphere. Since 

these gases do not enter into chemical compounds, 

they provide relatively direct information about the 

original materials from which the planets were 

formed. The other item of interest is the large 

amount of sulfur that the probes encountered in the 

lower atmosphere of Venus. 

Meanwhile the Pioneer orbiter probed the geography of the surface of Venus with its radar altimeter, sketching out at least some of the major 

features. Especially interesting is a large plateau, 

rising some 6 kilometers above its surroundings and 

spreading about 100 kilometers across. Such features are found on Earth but not on the other inner 

planets; it would seem to have been created by 

large-scale crustal forces. 

Jupiter. The dramatic highlight of 1979 in ’the 

United States space program was the flights of 

Voyager 1 and 2 past Jupiter and its four Galilean 

moons. The more than 30,000 images returned by 

the two spacecraft depicted in detail the violent, 

colorful weather patterns in the atmosphere of the 

solar system’s largest planet: rapidly shifting anticyclonic winds swirling around the edges of the 

Great Red Spot-the huge, long-lived storm twice 

as large as the Earth; banded polar weather systems propelled by strong east-west winds rather than 

by thermal convection as previously thought; winds 

as strong as 260 kilometers, twice the force of hurricane winds on Earth; extensive auroral displays; 

and cloud-top lightning discharges of much greater 

power than any on Earth. 

Even more impressive was the diversity of the 

Galilean moons, all four of them near enough to the 

size of Mercury to qualify as planet-type satellites: 

bright-orange Io, pockmarked with several erupting 

volcanoes spewing sulfurous material over the surface; white-faced Europa, laced with thousands of 

intersecting fracture lines; Ganymede, larger than 

Mercury yet light enough in weight to be half water, 

with a heavily cratered surface alternating with 

grooved terrain; and brooding Callisto, darkest in 

albedo and with concentric ring remnants surrounding ancient huge impact basins long since filled in 

by flow of the icy crust. 

The massive Jovian magnetosphere proved to be 

similar to Earth’s in some respects-well defined 

magnetospheric boundaries and tail and bow shock 

wave-but surprising in other respects, such as a 

strong magnetic flux tube arching between Jupiter and Io, perhaps contributing energy to Io’s 

volcanism. 

Now headed across the solar system, Voyager 1 

is expected to arrive at Saturn in November 1980; 

Voyager 2 will follow in September 1981 and perhaps fly on to Uranus. 

Satunz. For the first time, a spacecraft from Earth 

flew past the big distant planet Saturn whose spectacular rings have long tantalized viewers through 

their telescopes. Pioneer 11, launched in April 

1973, had followed its sister spacecraft Pioneer 10 

around Jupiter in December 1974 and then had 

sailed across the solar system to its encounter in 

1979 with Saturn. Its measurements of Saturn’s 

strong magnetic field confirmed that Saturn, like 

Jupiter, radiates more heat than it receives from the 

Sun. Though it did not penetrate the famous rings, 

it did find two more faint rings outside of those 

visible from Earth; also it confirmed that the rings 

absorb the energetic particles trapped by the magnetosphere, so that passage near them should be safe 

for Voyager 2 as it flies past Saturn on a course 

toward Uranus. Saturn’s moon Titan is an object of 

much speculation because it is known to have an 

atmosphere; Pioneer 1 I passed no closer than 350,- 

000 kilometers from Titan, so the rather fuzzy pictures revealed little. Both Pioneer 10 and 11 will 

not make further planetary encounters but will depart the solar system. They will continue to be interrogated for several years for data on the composition of the interplanetary medium. 

Ground-based Research and Analysis. Teams of 

researchers continued to sift the vast amounts of 

data from the Viking missions, the Venus probes 

and orbiter, the Voyager data on Jupiter and the 

Galilean moons, and the new data on Saturn. 

Ground-based astronomy acquired a powerful new 

tool in 1979 when the Infrared Telescope Facility 

was completed on the summit of Mauna Kea in 

Hawaii. The new telescope supported the Voyager 

encounter with Jupiter; all planets will be studied 

by observations of the thermal emissions of their 

surfaces and atmospheres. When the planets are not 

in position for study, the telescope will be used as a 

national facility for stellar astronomy. 

Study of the Universe 

Answers to the most profound questions about 

physical existence, the nature of matter, and the 

range of physical processes may well be found in 

study of the complexities of the Universe. 

Research with Spacecraft. HEAO (High Energy 

Astronomy Observatories) satellites are the largest 

11 
and heaviest automated spacecraft yet launched by 

the United States space program. The series of three 

satellites has been instrumented to inventory and 

study the high-energy sources in the Universe. 

HEAO 1, launched in August 1977, was highly successful in surveying the entire sky to map the x-ray 

sources. When it reentered the atmosphere in March 

1979, it had increased by four times the count of 

known x-ray sources. One of its findings was that a 

class of stars exhibiting strong x-ray emissions has 

very hot, active atmospheres, or coronae. HEAO 2, 

launched in November 1978, was designed to study 

in detail the most interesting of the x-ray sources 

identified by its predecessor. It confirmed HEAO 1’s 

findings about the hot-surface stars but extended 

those findings to show that a much larger class of 

stars, in a range of sizes, ages, and temperatures, 

are unexpectedly bright x-ray sources. This finding 

challenges most of the existing theories on stellar 

atmospheres. HEAO 1 and 2 have also raised questions about the diffuse x-ray background in the Universe; this could have direct bearing on the ultimate 

question of how the Universe began and how it will 

end. Their finding indicates a widespread diffusion 

of x-ray sources; if the diffusion is many x-ray stars, 

the required mass will not exist to “close” the Universe, end its expansion, and turn it back inward 

toward eventual implosion; if the x-ray readings are 

truly diffused in enormous, very hot gas clouds, 

there might indeed be enough mass to close the Universe. HEAO 3, launched in September 1979, is instrumented to study gamma-ray and cosmic-ray 

emissions in the Universe. AI1 instruments are performing well and the data are expected to supply 

many pieces for the Universe puzzle. 

The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), 

satellite, launched in 1978, performed well through 

1979, its data exciting much scientific interest. With 

instruments from NASA, the United Kingdom, and 

the European Space Agency, IUE has studied the 

spectral lines associated with atomic radiation in 

the atmosphere of stars and in the interplanetary 

medium. It confirmed the existence of a galactic 

halo-rarefied, high-temperature gas extending far 

above and below the plane of the Milky Way. 

Research from Suborbital Vehicles. Returns from 

balloons, aircraft, and sounding rockets continued 

to make meaningful contributions to technology and 

scientific knowledge. NASA’s balloon program 

lofted a far-infrared telescope that measured the 

portion of the total luminosity of the Milky Way 

contributed by dust; this offers information on the 

rate at which stars form. In the NASA airborne research program, the Kuiper Airborne Observatory 

detected for the first time a major output of farinfrared molecular lines from carbon monoxide in 

a region where stars are forming; measurement of 

these intensities is important in understanding the 

energy balance in star-forming regions. 

Sounding rockets won a place in 1979 in the 

Space Shuttle program; approval was given for a 

development flight in 1981-1982 to demonstrate 

the concept of flying sounding rocket payloads off 

the orbiting Shuttle, to be recovered and returned by 

the Shuttle. 

Research from the Ground. A unique double 

quasar has been discovered by research sponsored 

by the NSF. The quasar was first detected at the 

Jodrell Bank Radio observatory in England. At that 

time the object appeared to be an ordinary quasar. 

Then on March 29, 1979, the Kitt Peak National 

Observatory’s 2. I-meter optical telescope found that 

the object was in fact two images separated by an 

angle of 5.7 arc-seconds. This finding was later confirmed by the University of Arizona’s 2.3-meter telescope on Kitt Peak and the new Multiple-Mirror 

Telescope operated by the University of Arizona and 

the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. 

Although binary in appearance, the two images 

may be the result of light from a single quasar being split by what amounts to a gravitational lens. 

This would require the presence somewhere between 

the quasar and Earth of either a supermassive black 

hole or a large galaxy with trillions of solar masses. 

More recently the double quasar’s radio-wave 

image was observed on the Very Large Array interferometer radio telescope in New Mexico. Again 

the double image appeared. But more interestingly, 

one of the two quasars is actively expelling jets of 

matter into space. Because no similar matter is associated with its twin, the radio-wave observations 

indicate a genuine double quasar; perhaps no gravitational lens need be postulated. The near-identical 

redshifts and optical features of the two quasars do 

suggest a common origin. 

In December 1978 three astronomers at the University of Massachusetts announced the first experimental evidence directly supporting the existence of gravational waves. Such waves, long hypothesized but never directly observed, are in some 

ways similar to radio waves, but are based on the 

forces of gravity rather than on those of electricity 

and magnetism. The existence of gravity waves is 

one of the longstanding but heretofore untested 

predictions of Einstein’s general theory of relativity. 

The discovery came out of a four-year observing 

program to measure the general relativistic effects in 

a binary pulsar. The pulsar, located some 15,000 

light years from Earth, was observed with the 300- 

meter-diameter radiotelescope antenna operated by 

the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center. 

Discovered in 1974 by the same research group, the 

pulsar is known to be orbiting another massive object-perhaps another pulsar, or perhaps a black 

12 
hole-because its repetitive pulses of emission speed 

up and slow down over a period lasting a little less 

than 8 hours. 

Einstein’s theory predicts that such a system 

should emit gravitational waves that slowly extract 

energy from the orbit, thereby causing the pulsar 

and its companion to move closer together. As the 

size of the orbit decreases, the length of time required for the pulsar to complete an orbit also decreases. Relativity theory predicts that the orbital 

period should decrease at a rate of one ten-thousandth of a second per year. The measured amount 

is almost precisely this value, or about four tenthousandths of a second since late 1974. Thus an 

important prediction has been verified by an application of Einstein’s theory that could not have been 

foreseen when he developed the theory 60 years ago. 

Solar flares and other manifestations of solar activity are intimately connected with magnetic fields. 

A central objective of contemporary solar physics is 

to study how these fields are generated and how they 

produce the spectacular phenomena associated with 

solar activity. The proximity of the Sun allows these 

problems to be studied in great detail, providing a 

firm foundation for hypotheses concerning similar 

processes in more remote objects. 

Analogs of solar activity are found on many other 

stars. Flare stars, for example, exhibit violent outbursts similar in many respects to solar flares, but 

involving as much as a thousand times more 

energy. Most stars, like the Sun, have chromospheres 

and coronae, some much more pronounced than the 

Sun’s. Recent work at Hale Observatories has shown 

that the activity of stellar chromospheres waxes and 

wanes over periods of years in a manner strongly 

suggestive of the solar activity cycle. It has been 

supposed that all these phenomena are caused by 

stellar magnetic fields, but until recently there was 

no way to directly detect and measure magnetic 

fields on solar-type stars. 

Now, Sacramento Peak Observatory has devised 

a way to directly measure the strengths and areas of 

stellar magnetic fields. The method relies on the 

Zeeman effect: the shape of a spectral line formed 

in a gas containing a magnetic field depends on 

the strength and direction of the field. A magnetic 

field was easily detected for the first time on the 

dwarf star Xi Bootis A. The field strength was 2900 

gauss, covering about 45 percent of the stellar surface. By comparison, the solar field strength is about 

1500 gauss, covering about 1 percent of the surface. 

Since Xi Bootis A is a young star exhibiting much 

more prominent chromospheric activity than the 

Sun, this observation provides direct confirmation of 

an intimate connection between stellar magnetic 

fields and stellar activity. The new method is now 

being systematically applied to study magnetic fields 

in solar-type stars, using data obtained with the 4- 

meter Mayall telescope at Kitt Peak National 

Observatory. 

Study of the Life Sciences 

Work with the Soviet Union included flying United 

States biological experiments on Soviet spacecraft 

plus joint ground-based clinical studies. This year’s 

study has concentrated on finding a more authentic 

experimental model for the effects of weightlessness 

on the human cardiovascular system; an additional 

benefit has been standardizing test procedures that 

are applied to American astronauts and Soviet 

cosmonauts. In two sets of tests in 1979 10 subjects 

were studied intensively by teams of American and 

Soviet investigators. The data proved to be similar, 

despite the many differences in procedure. 

Studies continued on means to maintain the health 

and safety of Space Shuttle crew members. To minimize any adverse effects suffered when crew members reenter Earth’s gravity, NASA has been conducting tests with anti-gravity suits that inflate automatically during reentry when the flow of blood to 

the head decreases. Water-cooled suits and bloodvolume replenishment have been developed for use 

on longer missions or for more susceptible passengers. The recurring problem of space motion sickness has been the subject of extensive study, and 

drug screening has identified several medications 

that relieve the symptoms with minimal side effects. 

Transportation 

In aeronautics and space the United States carries on extensive research and development for new 

transportation systems and for improving the operations and flexibility of existing systems. 

Space Transportation System 

The Space Transportation System represents the 

maturing of the Space Age-an integrated approach 

to space travel and exploration. It encompasses 

flight and ground operations, logistics, and future 

mission planning. The flight component is the Space 

Shuttle. Scheduled to make its first orbital test flight 

in late 1980 or early 1981, the Shuttle is composed 

of: 

e 

e 

the airplane-like orbiter, which houses the crew 

of from 3 to 7 persons and the payload and 

can maneuver in space, reenter from orbit and 

land on a runway, to be refurbished and fly 

again; 

two solid-fuel rocket boosters that fire during 

the ascent phase and then fall away to be recovered from the ocean and used again; 

13 
and the external tank, which provides liquid 

hydrogen and oxygen to the three engines on 

the orbiter during the launch phase. 

In April 1979 the Space Shuttle configuration 

passed its design certificate review and most of the 

qualification of flight-configured elements. 

The Space Shuttle will be diversified by several 

supplemental systems. Spacelab, funded and developed by the European Space Agency, is a variable 

set of modules that can house payloads and crew 

members in a shirtsleeve environment, or expose instruments to the space environment from pallets. To 

lift payloads out of and into the orbiter’s cargo bay 

while in orbit, a remotely operated loader-unloader 

arm is being funded and developed by Canada. To 

boost payloads from the orbiter’s low orbit to 

higher orbits, DoD is building the Inertial Upper 

Stage, a three-configuration set of upper stages. 

Smaller boosters, to lift smaller payloads into higher 

orbits from the orbiter, are being funded and built 

by United States aerospace industries as commercial 

ventures. 

Space Shuttlc. The orbiter has been the pacing 

item of the Space Shuttle. Its cluster of three highpressure, throttleable engines and its sheathing of 

thermal-protective tiles have had stubborn problems that have only slowly yielded to step-by-step 

engineering solutions. At NASA’s Kennedy Space 

Center the first flight orbiter, Columbia, was slowly 

being clad in its shielding of protective thermal tiles 

during 1979. The second orbital vehicle, Challenger, 

is nearing the end of structural testing, after which 

it will be converted to flight hardware. Two more 

orbiters are in production. 

The orbiter’s main engine progressed slowly 

through its extensive program of test firings, delayed a number of times during the year by small 

anomalies that called for the test engine to be pulled 

off the test stand and partially disassembled for inspection and repair. Much more is being asked of it 

than of any previous large rocket engine: it is to 

operate at high internal pressures to produce a 

superior thrust-to-weight ratio; it is to be throttleable; it is to last much longer than previous engines; 

and it is to be reusable for many flights. This year 

the engine passed the mark of 50,000 seconds of 

test-firing time toward the goal of 80,000 seconds 

prior to orbital flight. 

Two 3.7-meter-diameter solid rockets will fire 

along with the cluster of three main engines during 

launch and ascent. As their burn is completed, they 

will separate from the orbiter, descend on parachutes 

to ocean landings, after which they will be recovered, reworked, and reloaded with propellant for 

another firing. The developmental firings of these 

motors have been completed and two of the qualification firings have taken place, with one more to 

come. Most of the rocket segments for the boosters 

to be used on the first orbital flight have already 

been delivered to Kennedy Space Center. 

The big external tank-7.5 meters in diameter by 

47 meters long-is the fuel tank (liquid hydrogen 

and liquid oxygen) for the orbiter’s three main engines during launch and ascent phases. As orbital 

altitude approaches, the main engines cut off and 

the empty tank separates and descends to a landing 

in a remote ocean area. The first flight tank has already been delivered to Kennedy Space Center; 

three more flight tanks are under construction for the 

other flights in the orbital flight-test program. 

Ground Facilities. At the Kennedy Space Center, 

all launch facilities are completed and in place for 

the first orbital flight. Ground support equipment 

and the computerized launch-processing installations 

are in the final stages of completion, with software 

being validated. At NASA’s Johnson Space Center, 

DoD was completing design of facilities and equipment for providing training and operational control 

of classified DoD missions on the Shuttle. At Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, DoD began 

construction in 1979 of the nation’s second Shuttle 

launch and landing site, this one to be used by both 

civil and military missions that require polar orbit. 

Work neared completion on the design of unique 

equipment and installations and acquisition of 

launch processing and computer software. 

Planning for Operations. When the Space Transportation System completes its orbital test flights 

and becomes operational, many new activities will 

become possible in space. Payloads can be placed 

into orbit and serviced there or returned to Earth 

for refurbishment and reorbiting. Experimenters 

can accompany their experiments into space and 

operate them in a shirtsleeve environment or control them remotely while the instruments are directly exposed to the space environment. Small, discrete experiments will be possible as well as large 

payloads. The first few years of Shuttle operations 

are fully booked by a wide range of civilian and 

military agencies of the United States government 

and by domestic and foreign governments and conimercial organizations. An additional nine commercial and foreign users made payments or deposits 

on reservations this year. 

NASA published in the Federal Registiv the 

policies on user charges that will be in effect for 

the first few years of Shuttle operations. They describe the price structure and conditions under which 

NASA will furnish launch services and flight hardware. The program begun in 1977 to provide Shuttle 

services for small, self-contained payloads continued to attract much interest in 1979. By the end 

of the year more than 300 individual payloads had 

14 
been approved and confirmed by advance payments. 

Individuals, educational institutions, and industries 

can fly these small payloads that require minimal 

support from the Shuttle or the crew. 

Spacelab. Funded, designed. and developed by the 

European Space Agency, Spacelab is a significant 

contribution to the versatility of the Space Transportation System. Built to fit into the cargo bay of 

the orbiter in any of several modular combinations, 

Spacelab will provide access to space for experimenters from many nations in disciplines such as 

space technology, meteorology, biology ’medicine, 

communication !‘navigation, space processing, and 

material science. The Spacelab module offers experimenters a shirtsleeve environment in which to work; 

the Spacelab pallets expose experiments directly to 

the space environment. The normal Spacelab mission will last 7 days, though it can remain in orbit 

as long as 30 days. 

Under terms of the agreement between NASA 

and ESA, ESA will deliver the first Spacelab flight 

unit, an engineering model, two sets of ground support equipment, and spares to support the first two 

missions. NASA will provide the connective itims 

such as the tunnel between the Shuttle cabin and 

Spacelab and will be in operational control. In 1979 

ESA delivered the second engineering model of the 

pallet to Kennedy Space Center. In Germany, the 

Spacelab engineering model hardware is being processed, while the flight module is being assembled. 

Subsystem testing is more than 80 percent completed. 

Progress was made on the first Spacelab payloads 

during 1979. NASA received the instruments to be 

carried on the first Shuttle payload missions and 

began their integration into Spacelab pallets. OSTA 

1, the first mission, will be instrumented to collect 

Earth resources and environmental data. The second 

mission, OSS 1, will gather solar physics data, 

evaluate the ambient and induced Shuttle environment, and collect data on payload thermal control. 

An experiment in plant growth will be carried in the 

orbiter cabin. The major tests of the Spacelab module will come on the Spacelab 1 and 2 missions; 

these moved into final design in 1979 and manufacture of hardware was begun. All instruments 

have been approved and most experimenters are 

well into fabrication of their flight hardware. 

Inertial Upper Stage. DoD continued the fullscale development of the Inertial Upper Stage 

(IUS), begun in April 1978. Intended to carry 

larger DoD payloads and NASA’s geosynchronous 

and planetary missions from the Space Shuttle to 

higher orbital altitudes, IUS will also be used with 

the Titan I11 booster during the period of transition 

to the Space Shuttle. The first DoD launch of Titan 

111-IUS is scheduled for 1982; the first NASA use 

of the two-stage version will be the launch of the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in 1982. First use 

of the three-stage version will be the launch of 

NASA’s International Solar Polar Mission. 

Spitining Solid Upper Stagc~. Spinning Solid 

Upper Stages (SSUS) are being developed by 

American aerospace companies at their own expense 

for sale to users who need to launch smaller satellites into geosynchronous orbit. SSUS-D is sized for 

payloads that would use the Delta expendable 

booster, the SSUS-A for somewhat larger ones that 

would use the Atlas-Centaur. Design for the two 

classes was completed in 1979 and qualification programs began. Most hardware has been manufactured 

and is ready for assembly. SSUS-As have been ordered by NASA for launch of Comsat’s Intelsat V 

communication satellites. SSUS-Ds will be used for 

NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites and for most commercial users. 

Skjmlnh 

Skylab had been in orbit since May 1973 as the 

first orbiting laboratory of the United States. Expected to stay in orbit until about 1983, Skylab encountered several years of greater atmospheric density than expected-caused by an increase in sunspot activity-which shortened its orbital lifetime 

to 1979-1980. Ground controllers succeeded in reactivating Skylab systems and trimming its attitude 

but an attempt to modify its orbit by flying a teleoperator booster rocket up to it was abandoned in 

1978. Because of Skylab’s large size. there was 

some international concern about danger from descending debris following its breakup upon reentry. 

Jn the last few orbits NASA controllers made minor 

adjustments to Skylab’s orientation and it reentered 

on July 11, 1979. Although some debris from the 

breakup landed in rural parts of Australia, there 

were no reports of personal injury. Some pieces 

were recovered for study. 

Experidable Launch Vehicles 

The United States space program had a total of 16 

launches in 1979; all were successful, launching 18 

payloads. Atlas-Centaur, Atlas F, Delta, Scout, 

Thor, and Titan I11 launch vehicles were used for 

space launches this year. 

Research for Spacecraft Improveme?it 

A number of research projects in materials and 

structures, electronics, and propulsion were conducted in 1979. 

Materials and Structures. During 1979 two new 

insulation materials were developed for use on portions of the Space Shuttle orbiter. For use in areas 

15 
of moderate reentry heating, there is a silica-based, 

quilted-felt material that is flexible and reusable. 

For use in areas of higher heating, there is a fiberreinforced composite insulation which is twice as 

strong and has greater heating resistance than present reusable insulation. In composite structures, a 

composite aft body flap for the orbiter was fabricated and tested; if adopted, it would lighten future orbiters by 160 kilograms, mostly because it 

would not require thermal insulation. 

Electronics. A “multi-layer magnetic lattice file” 

was successfully demonstrated in 1979 by NASA. 

Building on technology for the magnetic bubble 

memory, it promises space data recorders up to SO 

times the storage capacity as those in today’s recorders. Fundamental research on radiation damage to silicon solar cells in space showed that 

thermal annealing (heating) of the damaged cells 

can restore 90 percent of the power loss. 

DoD continued development of a fault-tolerant 

spaceborne computer that would minimize satellite 

dependence on ground stations and used magnetic 

bubble memory technology in progressing toward 

a solid-state spaceborne memory that will provide 

hardened, non-volatile data storage. 

Propulsion. In 1979 NASA neared completion of 

verification testing of ion propulsion. With this entirely new form of propulsion, missions to comets 

and other difficult interplanetary destinations could 

become realities. In FY 1979 a 12-kilowatt deployable solar array underwent simulated acoustic and 

thermal tests prior to a test on an early Shuttle 

flight. 

Aeroizautical Transportation 

Like space transportation, aeronautical transportation comprises military as well as civilian systems 

and those that are operational as well as those that 

are in development. 

Operational Airborne Systetns. In the United 

States national system of aeronautical transportation, 

DoD has responsibility for operational airborne 

systems. 

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT. In January 1979 the first 

production F-16 multimission fighter aircraft were 

received by the United States and Belgium; the 

Netherlands received its first aircraft in June. Denmark and Norway, the remaining partners in the 

development of the F-16, will begin receiving aircraft in 1980. Delivery of A-10 close-air-support 

aircraft to tactical forces in the United States and 

Europe continued. By the end of 1979, over 300 of 

the approved 627 aircraft had been produced. Reliability and maintainability have been demonstrated 

to be favorable, promising low operating costs. Improvements in existing F-15 fighters are concentrating in upgrading software rather than the expensive hardware systems. Over 430 of the total order 

of 729 had been delivered to the Air Force. Delivery 

of the C and D models began in June; these feature 

a 1000-kilogram increase in fuel capacity. The remainder of the aircraft produced will be the C and 

D models. F/A-18 fighters were approved for fullscale development, with 11 test aircraft on order. 

Designed to provide the commander at sea with a 

high-performance, agile strike fighter, the F/A-18 

will replace the remaining Navy and Marine F-4 

Phantom fighters, and later will replace the A-7 

light attack aircraft. 

BOMBER AIRCRAFT. A series of improvements are 

under way to update and improve the effectiveness 

of the B-52 fleet. The navigation system is being 

modernized with nuclear-hardened digital systems in 

place of obsolete vacuum-tube systems. All avionics 

are being hardened to withstand electromagnetic 

pulse from nuclear explosions. Also the bombers 

are being fitted to carry the air-launched cruise missile. Other bomber-related activity is limited production of the EF-I 1 IA, designed to provide defense radar jamming in support of United States and 

allied air operations. 

TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT. By the end of 1979, 19 

E-3A airborne warning and control (AWAC) aircraft had been delivered to the Tactical Air Command out of the 34 on order. NATO has also ordered 18 of the aircraft, together with an improved 

computer to increase the tracking capability. 

HELICOPTERS. Modernization of the large CH-47 

helicopter fleet continued, to update and standardize 

all CH-47s and provide a medium-lift helicopter 

capability beyond the year 2000. Seven systems are 

in development for modernization; in 1980 they will 

be tested in three prototype helicopters. The fullscale engineering development of the advanced attack helicopter continued, with the prototype helicopters being modified to accept updated targetacquisition and night-vision systems. Airborne firings of the Hellfire ballistic missile from the helicopters began in 1979, progressing through guided 

launch to autonomously designated launch. 

CRUISE MISSILES. The AGM-86B and AGM-109 

air-launched cruise missiles made 10 flights each in 

1979 in a competitive “flyoff.” Source selection is 

expected in March 1980. A production rate of 40 

per month is planned, complementing the B-52 

modification rate. The ground-launched cruise missile, intended to bolster theater nuclear firepower, 

is being procured in an amount of 560 for deployment in Europe. Essentially this puts the Tomahawk 

cruise missile into a system with an air-transportable, mobile ground component. The advanced 

strategic air-launched missile, designed for use with 

the present and future strategic bomber force, is a 

16 
long-range supersonic missile that can neutralize 

the Soviet interceptor threat against United States 

warning and control aircraft as well as take out 

defenses and primary targets. A flight-test program 

was begun in 1979 to validate the ramjet propulsion 

system. 

Operational Airway Syster?is. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the Department of 

Transportation is responsible for maintaining and 

operating the National Aviation System. NASA assists with research and development for the airborne 

portions of the system. 

AIR SAFETY. With studies, research, and tests, 

FAA continued to improve aircraft equipment and 

to improve the competence to handle safety-related 

problems for aircraft on the ground, on takeoff. and 

on landing. 

As a result of research into problems of controlling aircraft traffic on the surface area of airports-runways, taxiways, etc.-particularly in bad 

weather, a new radar has been developed. The 

ASDE-3 (Airport Surface Detection Equipment) is 

better able to detect stationary aircraft and track 

taxiing aircraft in all weather conditions. A prototype ASDE-3 began testing in August at the National Facilities Experimental Center. 

To provide warning of potential wind-shear problems during takeoffs or landings, the FAA has developed and tested the Low-Level Wind Shear Alert 

System. Remoted anemometers are mounted 6 to 12 

meters above the ground in the approach and departure corridors at busy airports. When a wind 

vector difference of as much as 28 kilometers per 

hour develops between any of the remoted anemometers and the centerfield anemometer, air traffic 

controllers relay the information to all aircraft in 

the airport traffic pattern. The system is now operational in 24 airports. 

A wind problem generated by large aircraft has 

been of increasing concern : wake vortices-strong 

rotational wind gusts-trail behind large jet aircraft as they approach and land. Aircraft following 

them, especially smaller ones, are endangered. For 

their protection, the separation distance between 

landing aircraft has been enlarged; this reduces the 

airport’s traffic capacity. A prototype Vortex Advisory System was evaluated in 1979 at Chicago’s 

O’Hare International Airport and is expected to be 

commissioned early in 1980. Its network of anemometers in the runway approach zones assesses wind 

conditions; decision can then be made when aircraft separation can be set at 5 kilometers. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. Since 1971, DoD, DOT, 

and NASA have jointly worked to develop a microwave landing system (MLS). Operational and economic advantages argue in favor of equipping the 

national air network with a universal system that 

can handle civil and military air traffic for the remainder of this century. 

The same deficiencies in the existing Instrument 

Landing System (ILS) that motivated the United 

States to develop a new landing system also affect 

the other nations of the world and generated wide 

support for a new international standard. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) set 

out to select and standardize an international system. Several competing systems were studied and 

given field tests. In April 1978, the United States 

entry, the Time Reference Scanning Beam, was selected by the ICAO as the new international standardized system. Of the three versions of MLS to be 

developed, the basic narrow aperture and the small 

community systems have been tested and evaluated. 

The third system, the basic wide system, designed 

for major airports, began testing in 1979 at NASA’s 

Wallops Flight Center. Meanwhile small community 

systems will be installed at Philadelphia International Airport, Washington National Airport, and 

Bader Field (Atlantic City) early in 1980; a basic 

narrow system has already been installed at Washington National Airport. These will provide operational data for incorporation into handbooks and 

other regulatory material. 

Another system being evaluated is the Discrete 

Address Beacon System; the last of three prototypes 

was received in 1979 and joined the other two in 

the vicinity of FAA’s National Aviation Facilities 

Experimental Center. The new beacon system provides discrete identification of individual aircraft by 

use of code-numbered transponders in the aircraft. 

This automatic identification is increasingly important as the national airway network becomes more 

automated. 

AIRWAY MODERNIZATION. As part of the automating of the 20 air traffic control centers, FAA in 1979 

let a contract for development of an engineering 

model of an Electronic Tabular Display System. It 

is to provide more efficient display and update of 

flight plan data than the current. largely manual, 

paper flight-progress strips. In 1980 the engineering 

model will be installed at the National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center for test and evaluation. 

Similar automation is in process for the air controllers at airport terminals. The Terminal Information Processing System (TIPS) uses computers and 

associated electronic displays to process and display 

flight data automatically. A prototype TIPS system 

is in development; in 1980 it will be installed at the 

National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center 

for test and evaluation. 

17 
Research for Aeronautics lmprouement 

Essential to a competitive national aviation establishment is a continuing flow of innovations and refinements. While FAA develops improvements in the 

National Aviation System, NASA and DoD seek 

improvements in present and future aircraft. 

Engines. For current transport aircraft, NASA’s 

research focused on improving the technology of individual components to make them save fuel and be 

more durable. In fundamental research with ceramics, NASA tested an abradable ceramic seal 

for turbine engines which could reduce the wear 

of turbine blade tips by a factor of 10, with a 2 

percent saving in fuel consumption. From its list 

of 16 improvable components, NASA completed 

work on 7, of which 4 are already in production in 

the aircraft engine industry. DoD pursued two programs; one assessed core components of engines under realistic test conditions, searching for improved 

reliability and maintainability. This year the program conducted tests of a new generation of gas 

generators and of variable-area, high-temperature 

turbines that used advanced materials. The other 

program studied the interaction of high-pressure 

engine components, such as turbine engine cores, 

with low-pressure fans, compressors, and fan turbines in a full-scale technology demonstrator engine. 

A erodynarnics. NASA continued research on reducing energy use in transport aircraft. In fundamental research, NASA achieved the first computational solution predicting and explaining the unsteady flow of air over wings and other lifting surfaces at transonic speeds. In a joint Air Force-NASA 

test, a KC-135 tanker aircraft was flown in 1979 

with winglets; when completed in 1980. the test program is expected to show the winglets decrease drag 

by 6-8 percent. Wind tunnels have tested a new 

wing flap configuration that increases maximum lift 

by 30 percent. In research on removing the turbulent 

air flow over wing surfaces, NASA built wing panels 

in 1979 with slots and porous surfaces to remove 

air turbulence. 

Structures. In recent years NASA and DoD research on aircraft structures has concentrated on 

composite structures-structures fabricated from the 

family of synthetic materials that are stronger, or 

lighter, or more heat resistant than conventional 

materials. In 1979 NASA identified newer, tougher 

graphite ‘epoxy materials that withstood impact tests 

to almost twice the strain that presently used composites can tolerate. Since much remains to be 

learned about the lifetime performance of these new 

materials, the testing approach has been conservative, beginning with small, less stressed portions of 

larger structures, and building up a design data base 

from static, fatigue, and sonic experience. For secondary structures, NASA completed its DC-10 

rudder tests in 1979, and the structure was accepted 

by FAA for airline service. Airline service began 

for five shipsets of B-727 elevators. For medium 

sized primary-structure components, the design 

phase was completed. The primary B-737 stabilizer 

components passed static, fatigue, and fail-safe tests 

and the first full-scale B-737 stabilizer was fabricated. 

DoD was testing in wind tunnels large-scale 

models of the forward-swept wing, the feasibility of 

which derives from the characteristics of advanced 

composite materials. Also under test were adhesive 

bonding as a replacement for riveting of primary 

structures in aircraft, as well as the use of cast 

aluminum for primary structures. 

Itnpro19ernent of Long, ‘Short-Haul A ircraf 1. 

NASA’s research on technology for future long-haul 

supersonic aircraft centered on propulsion, aerodynamics, and structures that would make possible 

a cost-effective, environmentally acceptable aircraft. 

In 1979 two engine concepts were tested, high-lift 

devices improved the low-speed efticiency of swept 

wings, and research in titanium structures led to design and fabrication of a titanium tail for a small 

supersonic aircraft. In research on quiet short-haul 

aircraft, NASA continued flight testing the research 

aircraft. By the end of the year it was apparent that 

the aircraft was performing very close to design predictions, particularly the very low noise characteristics necessary for short takeoff and landing 

operations. 

Aircraft Fir(. Safety. FAA used a C-133 fuselage 

to simulate a wide-body jet in a series of fire experiments to determine survivability patterns from 

post-crash fires fed by spilled fuel outside the fuselage. Since many of the worst fires arise from fire 

balls, caused by spilled fuel forming fine, mist-like 

particles, FAA experimented with additives that 

would inhibit such combustion. 

A lliation Sccirrity. FAA research and development 

on means of deterring air-travel terrorism and sabotage concentrated in 1979 on improved techniques 

for detecting explosives in baggage and other items. 

A transportable bomb detector was constructed and 

prepared for testing in airports. Authorities were 

provided with vapor characteristics for a broad 

range of explosives; these can be used for evaluating 

screening devices in an airport environment. 

Space Energy 

The accepted means of producing or storing electric energy in space have been solar cells, batteries, 

fuel cells, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Space missions now being envisioned by DoD 

18 
and NASA will call for much higher energy levels 

extending over mission profiles of several years. 

Studies also continued on the possibility of collecting large quantities of solar energy in space and 

beaming it to Earth as a supplemental power source. 

Energy for Use in Space 

Radioisotope Generators. The Department of 

Energy (DOE) has been developing a new form of 

radioisotope thermoelectric generator for NASA’s 

Galileo planetary mission. During 1979, the version 

of the generator that has been very effective in 

DoD’s Lincoln Experimental Satellites and NASA’s 

Voyager 1 and 2 planetary missions was upgraded 

with an improved alloy for the fuel capsules and use 

of composite materials in the heat-source aeroshell. 

The International Solar Polar Mission, operated 

jointly by NASA and the European Space Agency, 

plans to launch two spacecraft in 1985, each with a 

power requirement of 275 watts two years after 

launch. This requirement is expected to be met with 

thermoelectric generators comprising 18 heat sources. 

Dynamic PoMw Systerns. For electric power in 

space greater than 500 watts, dynamic power systems are expected to take over from the static selenide conversion systems because they offer improved 

endurance, efficiency, weight ratio, and reliability. 

In tests in 1978, the Organic Rankine Cycle was 

chosen for further development, with expected e% 

ciencies in the range of 18-25 percent. 

Reactor Power Systerns. Studies by DoD and 

DOE predict that DoD space missions in the late 

1980s will have electric power requirements of 10- 

100 kilowatts. Consequently, a technology development program for a space reactor was begun in 

1979. In five years it is to develop component technology that merits further funding by the user 

agency. Civil applications that might need this order 

of electric power include satellite power systems, 

electronic mail, and advanced television coverage. 

Energy for Use on Earth 

Satellite Pobtser System. The concept of beaming 

solar energy from a point in space to receiving 

antennas on Earth has been studied since 1968. In 

1977, DOE and NASA began a broad study in 

which DOE was to set the basic ground rules and 

investigate the many areas of potential effects; 

NASA was to investigate the technology demands 

and opportunities. DOE has identified and is studying some 40 generic systems-radars, satellites, computers, etc.-that could be affected; sciences and 

humanistic effects are also being studied, as well as 

preliminary estimates of cost, health and safety, and 

land requirements. The joint study made good 

progress toward its reporting date in 1980. 

19 
National Aeronautics 

II and Space 

Introduction 

The mission of the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) is the planning, direction, and conduct of civil research and development in space and aeronautics. These activities are 

shared or joined by a number of other agencies of 

governments-foreign, Federal, state, and localwith research or operational interests in these fields. 

Space activities that are solely military are conducted by the Department of Defense (DoD); in 

aeronautics, NASA supports DoD with research and 

test data to improve performance and safety of current and future military aircraft. 

NASA’s long-standing goals in space have been 

the development of technology and techniques that 

make space operations more effective; development 

and demonstration of an enlarging range of practical applications of space technology and data; and 

scientific investigations of the Earth and its immediate surroundings, of the natural bodies in our 

solar system, and of the origins, entities, and physical processes of the Universe. In aeronautics, the 

goals have been improvement in aerodynamics, 

structures, engines, and overall performance of aircraft, to make them more efficient, more compatible 

with the environment. and safer. 

Applications to Earth 

In applying space research and technology to 

specific needs of the nation and the world, NASA 

programs made substantial progress in 1979. Emphasis continued on improving technology for space 

communications, observing Earth to assess its environment and resources, and experimenting in 

space to acquire new knowledge about materials. 

Communications 

NASA has carefully mapped a path for a new 

phase of satellite communications research and development. The program has four distinct and related facets: advanced research and development, 

Administration 

public service communications, advanced applications of satellite communications techniques, and 

technical consultation and support. 

Advanced Research arid Development. Intensive 

interaction with suppliers and users of satellite communications identified the highest priority items for 

future applications-items enhancing the communications capacity of each location along the geostationary arc 33,000 kilometers out from Earth. That 

enhancement will come from multiplying the use of 

presently employed frequency bands and the opening of new bands. The multiplying effect will come 

from on-board switching systems, while the new 

bands are obtained by developing new components 

and techniques. 

To guide the communications R&D effort, 

NASA’s Lewis Research Center contracted with two 

major communications common carriers to project 

predictions of satellite communications traflic 

through the year 2000. Their results showed traffic 

demands exceeding the capacity of conventional 

satellites in the early 1990s. Technology appropriate 

to a new generation of satellites is being defined to 

meet these demands. 

Multibeam antenna research is proceeding in 

three frequency bands: at 30-20 GHz, 1.5 GHz, and 

14-12 GHz. The 30-20 GHz band has five times 

the allocated bandwidth of the more conventional 

6-4 GHz or 14-12 GHz bands but is hampered by 

more severe propagation effects. Means to counteract such effects will be a major element of NASA’s 

investigations over the next few years. The 1.5- 

GHz activity is an adaptive multibeam phased array 

under development, managed by the Lewis Research 

Center. The 14-12 GHz research is being performed under contract to Langley Research Center. 

A remarkable 15-beam antenna, with a capability to 

provide a theoretical frequency reuse rate of 7.5 

times, is presently undergoing antenna range tests. 

Work is also continuing on more efficient uses 

of the spectrum. Under way at Ames Research Center is laboratory work on a prototype system that 

can greatly reduce the bandwidth of digitized television signals. Using inexpensive integrated circuits, 

the prototype provides viewer-perceived quality al20 
most identical to that obtained with conventional 

systems employing 6 to 10 times as much bandwidth. 

Public Service Communications. In 1979 NASA 

completed two of the most successful and significant 

programs in the development of satellite communications-NASA’s Applications Technology Satellite 

6 (ATS 6) and the Communications Technology 

Satellite (CTS), developed jointly with Canada. 

Both greatly exceeded all mission objectives. Meanwhile ATS 1, launched in 1966, and ATS 3, 

launched in 1967, continue to provide important 

communications service after more than a decade 

in orbit. ATS 1 serves the Pacific Basin, largely 

through the Peacesat program, delivering educational, health-care, and even life-saving information. 

ATS 6 demonstrated the feasibility of large spacedeployabJe antennas, three-axis stabilization in geostationary orbit, and television broadcasting from 

space. CTS pioneered the use of new frequencies in 

the 14-12 GHz range, and was the first high-powered broadcasting satellite-a model for things to 

come in many parts of the world. Opening this new 

frequency paved the way for the Japanese BSE, the 

Canadian Anik-B, Intelsat V, and the SBS satellites-all built in the United States. The CTS satellite further provided the operational basis for future broadcast and fixed-service satellites to be used 

in Canada, Europe, the Mid-East, and Asia in the 

1980s. These satellites may now be built in Canada, 

Europe, or Japan as foreign industry gains strength. 

In international cooperation in space, CTS 

demonstrated how two nations can share in the development of operations to meet regional needs. 

Canada designed and built the CTS; NASA’s Lewis 

Research Center supplied the key component, a 

transmitting tube ten to twenty times more powerful 

than those on other such satellites. The powerful 

transmitter made possible much smaller, less expensive, and more portable ground receiving equipment. 

Most importantly, ATS 6 and CTS demonstrated 

the value and significance of user-oriented applications of space technology. By delivering improved 

health services in Alaska; teacher education in Appalachia; classroom enrichment in the Rocky Mountain states; emergency communication in many remote areas; video teleconferencing and educational 

television in India, Puerto Rico, and elsewhere, the 

satellites pioneered entirely new services and proved 

the value of satellite communications to and for 

vast groups of people. 

The most recent practical demonstrations of the 

value of such systems occurred in September 1979 

when state and local authorities in Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana requested the use of ATS 3 

for communications from emergency medical services during hurricanes David and Frederic. During 

Hurricane Frederic, the township of Richton, Mississippi, used the ambulance mobile unit to call 

through ATS 3 for a shipment of parts for the local 

hospital’s emergency generator and to inform the 

civil defense headquarters in Jackson about problems of water supply. A portable base station was 

used in Pascagoula for backup communications 

when primary power was lost and a leaning microwave tower carried emergency communications 

traffic. The portable stations were supported by 

primary and backup emergency ATS 3 base stations 

established in Hattiesburg and Jackson, Mississippi; 

Malabar, Florida; and at General Electric in Schenectady, New York. 

NASA is also helping the Public Service Satellite 

Consortium and the Appalachian Regional Commission in changing over from NASA experimental 

satellites to self-sustaining operations on commercial 

satellites. 

NASA is also assisting the recently formed National Telecommunications and Information Administration of the Department of Commerce. Goddard Space Flight Center has contracted for the development of a computer model of costs for public 

services traffic. The model permits analysis of various combinations of uplink and downlink satellite 

configurations, Earth terminals, terrestrial links, 

end user costs, studio costs, and transponder types, 

as well as administrative, operations, and maintenance costs. The public service user learns the initial, recurring, and amortized costs, as well as intermediate (city-by-city ) and summary (total system) results. The computer model will be a valuable 

tool in analyzing the economic feasibility of future 

public service communication systems. 

Goddard Space Flight Center has contracted for 

development of a low-cost (approximately $10.000) 

video receive-only terminal at 12 GHz for public 

service applications. One of the subsystems in the 

terminal, the solid-state receiver, is a unique lowcost unit developed earlier. The terminal will be a 

benchmark in the development of low-cost U.S.-built 

instrumentation for public service users. Activities 

such as those so successfully proven in the ATS 6 

and CTS programs will be expanded to thousands of 

users as private industry adapts NASA-developed 

technology to its needs. 

Advanced Applications of Satellite Communications Techniques. The communications techniques 

originating in ATS 6 and CTS activities also have 

other applications such as search and rescue, navigation, and position location. The satellite-aided 

Search and Rescue (SAR) project is proceeding on 

schedule toward a projected first launch in the 

spring of 1982. The Memorandum of Understanding 

among the U.S. Coast Guard, NOAA, Air Force, 

and NASA was signed in December 1978; the one 

among Canada, France, and the United States in 

21 
August 1979; and, subject to confirmation, the one 

between the SARSAT parties (Canada, France, and 

the U.S.) and the U.S.S.R. in November 1979. 

Navigation-related applications studies, involving 

Loran-C and the Global Positioning System, were 

conducted in cooperation with the Coast Guard, 

NOAA, and the Maritime Administration. Convincing study results and a low-cost experiment conducted in the Chesapeake Bay showed present technology to be adequate for an operational system. As 

a result, costly field experiments are unnecessary, 

permitting instead advanced studies of the relevance 

of advanced technology to navigational applications. 

Technical Consultation and Support. Approximately every 20 years a general World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) is held in Geneva 

to reassess international radio regulations. The most 

recent conference was held in late 1979; it included 

a review of frequency allocation, technical standards, frequency-sharing criteria, and coordination 

procedures for space and terrestrial telecommunications and remote sensing. 

NASA completed more than 100 technical studies 

and papers, conducted extensive propagation and 

radio frequency interference measurements, and 

participated in or chaired many WARC preparatory 

committees and working groups. 

The propagation studie? performed in support of 

WARC have led to several major accomplishments: 

(a) a global rain attenuation model for frequencies above 10 GHz; (b) the first long-term continuous (three-year) data base for the development of 12-GHz systems; (c) a propagation-effects 

predictive model for 10 GHz through 100 GHz (attenuation, depolarization, and diversity) ; (d) the 

first model of antenna-gain degradation caused by 

adverse propagation effects from 2 GHz to 30 GHz: 

and (e) the first cross-polarization degradation 

model for 12-GHz satellite systems. 

Data System 

The demand for combinations of data has fostered 

awareness of the rapidly changing relationship of 

spacecraft instruments to data users. Tn the early 

years, and in a few limited examples today, a single 

principal investigator would be concerned with the 

data produced by an instrument (a one-to-one relationship). As instruments-such as the Multispectral Scanner on Landsat-have become more 

powerful, one instrument has come to serve the 

needs of numerous users (a one-to-many relationship). In the future, many users will each require 

the data from many instruments (a many-to-many 

relationship). The differing needs of the various 

users, the differing characteristics of the various instruments, and the widely disparate data bases to 

which the users will require access are major challenges of the future. 

NASA is conducting a feasibility study for an applications data service to examine protocol standardization, a transportable software system for data 

base management. and data format compatibility 

among data bases and networks. The first steps to be 

taken are the identification of suitable pilot projects 

upon which the data service can be overlaid. 

Emironmental Observations 

Upper Atmosphere. Nimbus 7, launched in October 1978, provided extremely useful data throughout 1979. Its Total Ozone Monitoring System provided the first global maps of total ozone with high 

spatial and temporal resolution. This is the first 

time one has been able to study short-period dynamic effects in ozone distribution; a series of these 

measurements will help provide the information 

needed to detect long-term, globally averaged ozone 

changes in the atmosphere, whether natural or manmade. Decisions involving freon refrigerants or highflying aircraft may hinge on how well we can understand their effects on the ozone layer. 

The final total ozone results from Nimbus 4’s 

Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) instrument have 

been compiled for the first two years of operation 

and vertical profiles of ozone in the stratosphere 

were being made available in late 1979. These data, 

plus results being obtained from the Nimbus 7 BUV, 

are complemented by the measurements of temperature, nitrogen-containing species, water vapor, 

and ozone from the Nimbus 7 Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere experiment. This information fills in another part of the puzzle of ozone production and destruction. 

Aerosols in the stratosphere also play an important role in chemistry and in the amount and spectrum of solar radiation that drives the photochemical processes. On February 18, 1979, NASA 

launched the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) aboard a Scout rocket from Wallops 

Flight Center, Virginia. The preliminary results on 

aerosol and ozone profiles agree well with results 

from soundings or aircraft underflights. The stratospheric Aerosol Measurement experiment aboard 

Nimbus 7 has also provided information on aerosol 

extinction as a function of altitude. Repetitive observations over a longer period will enable us to 

determine the effects, if any, of aerosols on climate. 

Lower Atiiio.rplicrc. Through an agreement with 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), NASA provides research and development support for weather satellites. Tn the past 

fourteen months the prototype and the second of a 

new series of near-polar-orbiting satellites, Tiros-N 

22 
and NOAA-A, have been launched. They have produced a combined total of twenty months of improved meteorological data. 

NASA continues to participate with NOAA, the 

National Science Foundation (NSF), and others in 

the Global Weather Experiment as part of the 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (CARP) 

involving more than 140 nations. The results represent the most comprehensive data base ever compiled on the limits of predictability for satellites in 

weather forecasting. This set of coordinated global 

weather data should increase our knowledge and enable improved weather predictions. 

Theoretical programs are continuing work on 

understanding the limits of forecasting and the 

sensitivity of the forecasting process to the kind of 

data provided by satellites. As part of this activity 

NASA is investigating advanced temperature and 

pressure sounders and wind-measuring techniques. 

If satellites can observe these characteristics globally, then modelling of the atmosphere can begin 

to predict its future state and motion. Studies show 

these are the areas offering the greatest potential 

payoff in weather forecasting. 

Improved prediction of severe storms is of major 

concern to weather forecasters. NASA, NOAA, and 

NSF conducted an experiment last spring in Oklahoma, the Severe Environmental Storms and Mesoscale Experiment (SESAME). The first day of the 

observing period was April 10, 1979, when severe 

weather was predicted-but not necessarily tornadoes. As it happened, this was the day of the Red 

River Valley (Wichita Falls) tornado outbreak. 

The intensive data collected that day will provide 

critical information on events that precede smallscale severe storms. 

The study group of the NASA-Space Activities 

Commission of Japan completed its deliberations in 

1979. It recommended steps toward a number of 

projects in space applications and science, including use of the Goes-A satellite and Japan’s geostationary meteorological satellite in an attempt at 

stereographic measurement of cloud heights over 

the Pacific-cloud heights offer clues to the behavior of the storms they accompany. Other nearterm prospects include a study of ocean winds and 

waves, using existing satellite and surface-truth data. 

Other environmental observation techniques under way or under study include using a camera for 

observing lightning phenomena from space; use of 

satellite imagery to track air pollution from space, 

and aircraft-based lidar to measure pollutant ozone 

and particulates, both as part of a multi-year agreement with the EPA; and the Measurement of Air 

Pollution from Satellites experiment to measure carbon monoxide in the troposphere. 

Ocean Surfaces 

Despite rapid developments in electronics, computers, and miniaturization over the past decade, 

the realization that ships, aircraft, and buoys will 

never be numerous enough to provide a synoptic 

view of the oceans’ surfaces has been a major obstacle to oceanographers. Remote sensing of the 

oceans has been proved by several techniques tested 

on Nimbus 7, earlier Nimbus satellites, and Goes 3 

as well as Seasat. The complement of microwave instruments flown on Seasat demonstrated the operational potential of ocean remote sensing. Seasat results, primarily from the Gulf of Alaska Seasat 

Ground-truth Experiment, proved that measurement 

objectives can be met: surface wind accuracies of 

22 meters per second surface, topography with a 

precision of -+ 10 centimeters, and significant wave 

height of ? 10 percent. 

Climate. Climate involves the long-term and spatially extended collection of all the environmental 

variables studied in the atmosphere and oceans. 

NASA has given special attention to assisting 

NOAA’s National Climate Program Office in developing a long-range program responsive to the 

National Climate Program Act of 1978. NASA’s 

evolving program emphasizes the application of 

space observations to improved understanding of 

climate influences and trends. 

This year NASA initiated a special study of aerosol effects on climate, including theoretical studies 

and measurements of aerosols in the atmosphere. 

Theories predict a large volcanic eruption can inject 

enough material into the atmosphere to cause 

changes in the Earth’s surface temperature. 

SAGE, whose launch was mentioned earlier, observed the violent eruptions of the volcano La Soufriere in the Caribbean in April 1979. An aerial 

photograph of the eruption and two profiles combining data obtained from an airborne laser instrument and a preliminary inversion of SAGE data 

showed heavy aerosol concentrations at 18 kilometers altitude in both profiles. A number of such 

events have been documented in the past, but SAGE, 

in conjunction with similar measurements acquired 

by Nimbus 7, offers the first remote sensing capability to measure quantitatively such phenomena and 

globally map the spreading volcanic veil. 

Tracking aerosol dispersion from such wellcharacterized events as the La Soufrier eruptions 

gives a useful insight as to how pollutants might 

also be transported globally. Thus, planners in the 

future may be able to site industrial centers with 

high air-waste by-products so as to minimize the 

effects on other geographic areas. 
The Sun’s total energy output is the most critical 

external force affecting Earth’s climate. Until recently the assumption has been that the sun’s energy 

output is constant-indeed, the quantity of energy 

passing through a unit area at the mean Earth orbit, 

per unit of time, is called the “solar constant.” Recent measurements have provided the first direct 

evidence that this quantity may vary. A comparison 

of NASA sounding-rocket measurements of the 

solar constant made in June 1976 and again in November 1978 revealed a 0.4 percent increase in the 

solar constant over two and a half years. Initial 

data analysis and our present understanding of 

climatic models indicate that such an increase could 

produce a one-half degree Celsius change in Earth’s 

surface temperatures, with an impact on crop production, ice coverage, and global precipitation 

patterns. 

Resource Observations 

The most significant gains in land observations 

were in agriculture. It was clearly demonstrated that 

remotely sensed data can be used to distinguish between spring wheat and barley as well as between 

corn and soybeans. 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys Through Aerospace Remote Sensing), 

the long-term agriculture research program initiated 

on October 1, 1979, went through a detailed planning phase during the past year. This comprehensive 

interagency program was developed by a task force 

led by the Department of Agriculture (USDA). 

Eight teams representing the participating agencies 

will carry out research and testing. In addition to 

overall leadership, the USDA will provide direct 

leadership of five of the teams: Early Warning, 

Domestic Crops and Land Use, Renewable Resources, Soil Moisture, and Conservation Pollution. 

NOAA will lead the Crop Yield activities and 

NASA the Supporting Research and Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting. The USDA will 

provide an independent user evaluation group to 

expedite implementation of the appropriate technology in routine operation5 and assess its value. 

A major portion of this past year’s effort has been 

devoted to ensuring continuity of remotely sensed 

data for researchers and operational users. 

Requests for Landsat data during 1979 reflect increasing worldwide interest in applying the technology to environmental and resource-management 

problems. The Landsat ground stations in India and 

Australia began receiving test data in 1979 and will 

become operational in 1980, bringing the number of 

foreign stations to eight in seven countries. Argentina’s station is under construction and scheduled to 

become operational in 1980. Thailand has taken 

the first step by requesting construction bids for a 

station. Negotiations were conducted with the People’s Republic of China, which is to purchase a 

Landsat-D ground station from United States industry under the United States-China Understanding 

of January 31, 1979. Chile, Kenya, New Zealand, 

Romania, South Africa, and Upper Volta have expressed interest in establishing a data-receiving 

capability. Requests for coverage from other countries continue at an unprecedented level. Among 

users in the United States, the largest demand is 

for agricultural studies, especially during the growing season when repetitive coverage in nine-day 

cycles and rapid data delivery offer successful crop 

monitoring and yield prediction. 

In June, at the request of the U.S. Coast Guard, 

NASA began regular Landsat coverage of the oil 

spill off the Yucatan coast. Imagery of the entire 

Gulf of Mexico was supplied on a rapid delivery 

basis to the Coast Guard, NOAA, and USGS teams 

dealing with this disaster. Copies of all images of the 

spill were sent to the Mexican government on request. The Coast Guard used the Landsat data for 

broad, synoptic surveillance and to determine direction of movement of the spill. 

Renenwhle Rcsoiircrs. The emphasis in spacedata research for renewable resources has been on 

developing and testing of techniques for extracting 

from remotely sensed data information which could 

improve the management of the nation’s agricultural, forestry, rangeland, and water resources. 

Landsat data are greatly increasing the utility of 

geobased information systems for agricultural 

studies. A regional program demonstration with the 

state of Iowa addressed the increased soil erosion 

that sometimes follows the conversion of pasture 

land to row crops-for example, on high slope terrain with unstable soils. Landsat-derived agricultural land-use changes were combined with digitized 

soil maps and terrain data in a georeferenced information system to calculate expected erosion and to 

identify potential problems, thus focusing the field 

inspection program. This success and related projects were instrumental in passage of a state legislative appropriation of $125,000 for the Iowa Geological Survey to purchase a state system for continuing Landsat applications work. In Florida, 

Landsat inventories of agricultural land and water 

resources are providing data for assessing the impact of planned industrial development. Florida is 

also planning to develop a statewide Landsat-geobased information system. 

An example of efforts in transferring the use of 

remote sensing for crop identification and acreage 

assessments to the private agribusiness community 

was the initiation of an Applications Pilot Test with 

Cotton Incorporated, a private research and market- 
ing organization supported and funded by U.S. cotton growers. Test sites in California, Mississippi, 

Alabama, Arizona, Texas, and Brazil will be used to 

develop an automated cotton-acreage inventory system using Landsat data. 

Cooperative forest inventory demonstration projects have been completed in California, Montana, 

Hawaii, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 

Florida. 

The California Department of Forestry was required by state legislation to produce a total inventory of forest lands in the state by August I, 

1979, with updates every five years. The department selected Landsat technology because of lower 

overall costs and the relative ease of updating the 

data. Land cover and forest classes were derived 

from a digital Landsat mosaic of the entire state. 

Commercial use of Landsat techniques by the 

private sector has been adopted by the St. Regis 

Paper Company. The company is implementing a 

digital Forest Resource Information System which 

combines Landsat imagery with conventional map 

graphics and tabular information, permitting rapid 

update of forest inventory and monitoring of 

changes. 

NASA has also begun development of an Automated Resources Inventory System in conjunction 

with the Navajo Nation to assist them in assessing 

the potential of their land. A technique for inventorying and monitoring vegetation using Landsat 

data is being developed; results are independently 

verified by the Navajos at random test sites. The 

method has proven to be 86 percent accurate. This 

new information will be added to their digital data 

base, along with soils and terrain data. Extensive 

familiarization of the Navajos with Landsat techniques and the data base has been compieted; they 

are implementing image analyses on a computer 

facility at their community college. 

Research in water resources is aimed at developing remote sensing techniques for monitoring soil 

and snow moisture. Exploratory experiments have 

been performed with visible, thermal infrared, and 

microwave sensors on the ground, in aircraft, and 

on spacecraft. Concurrently NASA is developing 

surface runoff and snowmelt hydrologic models 

using remotely sensed data. Such models will improve water and irrigation management methods for 

planning the water supplies and irrigation and for 

control of runoff and reservoir levels. 

Water-related problems have been a major element in a Florida demonstration project where 

Landsat data are being used to delineate land cover 

in the Apalachicola River Basin so as to understand the impact of current and planned agricultural and industrial activities on the river and for 

possible designation of the river as a national estuarine sanctuary. In the Choctawhatchee Bay an existing hydrologic model containing Landsat data is being used to determine the extent to which urban 

development has caused water shortages in the Ft. 

Walton area. A Landsat-derived basic vegetation 

inventory is part of an impact assessment for a proposed superport at Port St. Joe. 

A water management and control verification 

test in cooperation with the Corps of Engineers has 

been completed. It shows a savings of 50 to 80 percent in survey costs per watershed. As a result of 

the test, the Corps of Engineers plans to implement 

Landsat techniques operationally. 

Non-Renewable Resources. Development continued of a national long-range plan to address 

those problems in non-renewable resources to which 

space technology can be applied. This plan builds 

on the results of the Applied Research and Data 

Analysis program and, in particular, the Geosat 

Test Case Project. In this project, NASA scientists 

are working closely with industry and university 

geologists to evaluate the usefulness of remote sensing techniques in the reconnaissance phase of 

ground-based exploration. Aerial and satellite data 

have been obtained for twelve test sites in areas 

containing known deposits of copper, uranium, and 

petroleum. The joint data analysis program is proceeding well. 

As part of the studies on uranium exploration. 

the test site at Copper Mountain, Wyoming, was 

overflown with an aircraft multispectral scanner. 

Subtle patterns of iron oxide stains were detected 

over known uranium deposits, stains that are difficult to identify in ground surveys or conventional 

aerial photos. A similar pattern was discerned in a 

nearby area which had previously been considered 

barren, and a prediction of potential mineralization 

was made based on the aircraft multispectral data. 

Independently, geologists from the Rocky Mountain 

Energy Company, which has mineral rights in the 

area, had studied the area from the ground and 

found sufficient evidence of mineralization to stake 

a claim. Efforts are now underway to investigate 

the relationship between the alteration staining 

phenomenon and the presence of uranium-enriched 

rock. 

These exploratory investigations demonstrate that 

remote sensing techniques may be used for geological 

reconnaissance surveys leading to the identification 

of mineralized areas and, perhaps, significantly increase the efficiency of exploration surveys. 

Magsat, the first spacecraft specifically designed 

to conduct a global survey of Earth’s vector magnetic field, was launched in October 1979. This 

satellite was placed into a significantly lower orbit 

than previous magnetic field-measuring satellites to 

provide more detailed and precise information about 

25 
the nature of magnetic anomalies within the Earth’s 

crust. These anomalies are directly related to 

crustal structure. Magnetic-anomaly mapping will 

help improve large-scale models of crustal geology, 

enhancing the capability to conduct regional mineral 

assessment studies in remote unexplored areas. 

Geodynamics. Space data are used in geodynamics 

to improve understanding of dynamic processes 

within the solid Earth, through observation of 

crustal movements and deformations. Laser ranging to the moon and to artificial satellites, and very 

long baseline microwave interferometry (VLBI ) 

techniques are being used to complement and extend ground based observations using conventional 

surveying techniques. 

Since 1972 NASA has periodically used satellite 

ranging systems to detect changes in the distance 

between selected points on opposite sides of the San 

Andreas Fault, the boundary between the North 

American and Pacific tectonic plates. The fourth 

data phase was completed earlier this year and the 

data are now being analyzed. Previous analyses indicated the plates are sliding relative to each other 

at a rate of between six and twelve centimeters per 

year. 

Improvement in the measurement techniques is 

continuing. Mobile lasers (Moblas) have been installed at four VLBI stations for intercomparison 

of long baselines by VLBI and laser-ranging techniques. A second-generation mobile laser ranging 

unit mounted in a standard truck has been completed by the University of Texas and will offer 

much greater mobility. This unit will be deployed 

by the end of the year and will be able to visit 

twenty-five sites per year in the western portion of 

the United States. It and other units will be used to 

map the deformation of the Earth’s crust by the 

force generated by colliding plates. 

Moblas units are now operating in Australia, 

American Samoa, and Kwajalein Island. These and 

other fixed lasers at worldwide locations form an 

international network for global observations of 

tectonic plate stability and motion. Confirmation of 

the rates and direction of plate motion, which will 

take many years, will increase understanding of how 

and why earthquakes occur. 

NASA’s activities are well coordinated with other 

federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), National Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geological Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. 

On the international scene NASA is engaging in 

talks with scientists of many other countries; project 

agreements with Japan and Australia are being 

negotiated. 

In a related activity NASA, in cooperation with 

the NSF, explored the possible use of NASA largescale testing facilities for research in earthquake 

structures and geotechnical engineering. A NSF 

workshop held in 1979 concluded that several 

NASA test facilities could be used for these purposes and that some of the facilities, particularly for 

full-scale testing of buildings, are unique in the 

world. Planning is underway to make these facilities 

available for NSF-sponsored research. 

Materials Processing in Space 

NASA is developing capabilities in the space environment for materials research and processing applications, so as to demonstrate these capabilities 

to the scientific and industrial communities and to 

provide opportunities for independently funded 

users to exploit the space environment for materials 

processing applications related to their own needs. 

NASA has encouraged industry’s early participation 

in the development of materials processing technology to ensure that the program reflects industrial 

needs. 

To achieve these objectives, NASA is establishing a research base for materials processing 

technology, both to explore the effects of gravity on 

processes and to allow extensions of current capabilities into the environment of space. A range of 

opportunities and hardware will be made available 

to the scientific and industrial communities. 

NASA has been working with an advisory committee of distinguished materials scientists, including 

members of the National Academy of Sciences, to 

develop new approaches for materials processing in 

space. The main feature of the new orientation is a 

considerably increased emphasis on ground-based 

research. As this emphasis has been made known, 

there has been a substantial rise in the number and 

quality of research proposals submitted and a noticeable increase in materials scientists’ willingness to 

participate in activities related to materials processing in space. Both trends reflect the scientific community’s increasing confidence in the utility of 

studying and performing materials processing in the 

space environment. 

Interest has also been fueled by new research results showing that the force of gravity has important 

influences on some processes and that significant 

new knowledge can be obtained on these processes 

by experiments in weightlessness. 

Fundamental studies of the interference with fluid 

behavior by gravity-driven convection have been 

performed. For example, basic differences in the 

freezing of materials have been observed by carefully controlling the orientation of the experiments 

in Earth gravity or by using the low gravity environment of sounding rockets. Casting structures 

produced in low gravity are fundamentally different 
because of the reduction in thermal convection 

flows. It will now be possible to design schemes for 

controlling casting structures through the reduction 

or enhancement of convection. The detailed nature 

of such interactions is being explored for many different materials processing systems, involving extremely subtle and little understood phenomena in 

both heat- and mass-transfer effects. The solidification process for complex alloys, for example, has 

been found to possess unstable time-dependent 

effects that cannot be avoided in one-g. Avoidance 

of such convection effects-as in zero-g-is absolutely essential if controlled materials structures and 

related properties are to be produced. 

NASA has made substantial progres4 this past 

year in the area of containerless processing. The 

ability to study and prepare materials in the absence 

of solid containers has stimulated interest in the 

mechanisms by which solids can be formed from 

liquids under very high cooling rates. Space conditions could mean the diffusionless transformation 

of molten liquids to solids; these solids would have 

substantially higher compositional uniformity and 

thus enhanced performance in extended operatins 

conditions. Applications of such materials include 

jet-engine turbine blades or nuclear-reactor rod 

sheaths. Interest has also been expressed in the 

ability to measure the properties of molten substances at extremely high temperatures where solid 

containers do not exist. These properties are of interest in such applications as the fabrication of 

nuclear-reactor rod sheaths, nuclear reactor core design, and magnetohydrodynamic power generation. 

Containerless processing plays a vital role in fusion power being investigated by the Department of 

Energy as a possible new source of energy. One approach is laser bombardment of a deuterium-tritium 

fuel mixture contained in precise ultra-thin-wall 

glass microsphere shells. The shells must be perfect spheres with walls of uniform thickness. Thow 

in use today are made by dropping particles of 

glass-forming materials through a high-temperature 

vertical-tube furnace where size is limited to a few 

tenths of a millimeter in diameter at most. Shells 

ten times as large, or larger, are needed. 

During the past year NASA has been studying 

fundamental processes involved in glass-shell formation and investigating the possibility of making 

larger shells. Theoretical work at the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory (JPL) has shown that large shells can 

be made in free fall where the surface tension of 

the molten glass can hold it in a highly spherical 

shape. Experiments in zero-gravity aircraft flights 

have demonstrated that oscillations of a spherical 

shell tend to make its wall thickness more uniform. 

Close cooperation has been established between 

JPL and DOE’S Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. 

The Space Processing Applications Rocket 

(SPAR) experiments continued to provide information valuable to the understanding of materials 

processing in space. Two Spar V experiments on 

the freezing of ammonium chloride solutions simulated the behavior of dendrites in metal casting. In 

one experiment, bidirectional freezing formed no 

dendrite fragments; thus the freezing structure consisted completely of aligned dendrites with no zone 

of random orientation normally found in earth castings. Knowledge from such experiments is fundamental in controlling the formation of composite 

materials. Spar VI was launched in October 1979, 

and its data are being analyzed. 

Techologj’ Transfer 

Technology transfer continues to play a major 

role in NASA’s efforts to broaden the base of technology applications transfer begun in the R&D programs. 

Emphasis in space applications remains in remote sensing, where user interest in operational 

systems is growing into action, particularly at the 

state government level. Under a continuing cooperative project, the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) has been responsible for legislative hearings on Landsat in eight states over the 

past year and has supported NASA in two Executive Agency workshops. Over 5000 copies of the 

Conference’s “Legislators’ Guide to Landsat” have 

been distributed to state governments, industry, 

and universities. NCSL’s Natural Resources Information System Task Force has been a major source 

of state “feedback” to the Administration and the 

Congress on state interest and needs regarding 

Landsat-both through formal recommendation and 

through testimony before the Congress. NCSL is 

also assisting NASA to understand how states could 

use Landsat data through analysis of state implementation of natural resources legislation. 

The parallel liaison effort with the National Governors’ Association (NGA) is now fully operational. 

An Earth Resources Data Council creates an effective forum for communicating with and representing state interests in operational systems development for remote sensing. The Council has, on request, provided state perspectives on open issues in 

the Landsat-D program and a Federal multi-agency 

study on classification and inventories of natural 

resources, as well as commenting on Administration 

studies of options for operational systems. Both 

NGA and NCSL representatives testified during 

Senate hearings this summer, giving state views on 

an operational Landsat system. 

Specific technology transfer programs with state 

governments are carried out principally through the 

27 
three NASA Regional Centers. All three have newsletters to keep users informed on state activities, related NASA programs, and technology developments. 

A number of major analysis programs have now 

been documented and made public and more are 

on the way. Analysis software is also being adapted 

to run on a variety of computer systems and analysis 

software has been installed on a national time sharing computer network (COMNET) to provide easy, 

low cost, interim access to analysis capabilities for 

users still in the exploratory stage. Listings and 

technical summaries of commercially available 

analysis software and geobased information systems 

have been published to help users find assistance in 

the private sector. 

Through the Applications Systems Verification 

and Transfer (ASVT) program, emerging applications technology is being verified and transferred 

to a variety of users. Users involved in the seven 

current ASVT programs include eight federal agencies, thirteen states, and two regional commissions. 

NASA’s Ames Research Center is concluding an 

extensive ASVT project with the Pacific Northwest 

Regional Commission and state ageixies in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho to develop operational 

Landsat analysis capability. During FY 1979, the 

states and the Regional Commission assumed major 

financial responsibility for the continuing effort. 

NASA will provide some continuing phase-over support, principally involving software and training. 

For example, Landsat data processing software is 

now operating on computers at Washington State 

University and the State Auditor’s computing facilities in Idaho. The states have assumed complete 

responsibility for the Landsat data application projects. A self-sustaining Landsat processing and analysis capability is projected in these states in FY 

1982. 

While the AVST programs are quite effectively 

meeting a number of important immediate needs, 

the key to future growth is building a strong technical base in the user community. Toward this end, 

the University Applications Program has developed 

remote sensing centers at universities in 25 states. 

To broaden these benefits each year, one or two 

programs are phased out and moved to other universities in other states. Over the past few years, 

NASA support has been phased out at seven of 

these schools but, as planned, the remote sensing 

centers continue to be viable with funding from 

other sources. In other words, they have become 

self-supporting institutions for research, education, 

and expertise for problem solving-a continuing resource for the university and the state. 

University applications are not limited to remote 

sensing applications. In line with NASA policy and 

an implementation plan approved this past year, 

NASA began to expand and strengthen the involvement of the academic community in applications 

programs by devoting a larger fraction of resources 

to basic research. Today the major barriers to progress in many areas, including climate prediction, 

weather forecasting, agricultural productivity assessment, and location of mineral resources on the 

Earth’s surface, stem largely from lack of basic 

knowledge about many of the geophysical, geochemical, and biological processes. Only strong activity in basic research can provide the insight for 

design and development of an effective space observations program. 

Under the new program, universities will be 

funded to do independent basic research where the 

long-term objectives would be in consonance with 

those of the program, but not necessarily directly 

related to a specific space mission. The first program was started in FY 1979 in geodynamics, focusing on the nature of the mechanisms that drive 

the tectonic plates and the way the plates deform 

in response to the driving forces. 

Science 

Space science aims at an understanding of the 

origin and continuing evolution of the cosmic environment; the origin and evolution of the solar 

system; the origin and distribution of life in the 

universe; and the dynamic processes that shape the 

terrestrial environment. Space science also uses 

space technology and environment to further knowledge in medicine and biology. 

Stitdy of the Sun and its Earth Eflects 

As our ultimate source of light and heat, the 

Sun has profound effects on all parts of the Earth’s 

environment. NASA studies the Sun, the solar wind, 

the Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere, and the 

complex interactions between these elements. 

Skylab Data Analysis. Fiscal Year 1979 was the 

final year of sustained postflight analysis of data for 

the Skylab experiment teams. During their relatively 

brief nine-month period of operation ( 1973-1974), 

the instruments of Skylab’s Apollo Telescope Mount 

revolutionized our perception of the Sun. The observations of the forms and evolution of coronal 

holes and their identification with high-speed solar 

wind streams, the observation of large numbers of 

coronal transient events and their connections with 

underlying activity on the solar surface, and the observations that the hottest parts of solar flares occur within very compact magnetic arches are only a 

few of the major breakthroughs derived from this 
mission. The current cumulative total of ATM publications is 359, plus three book-length monographs 

from Skylab workshops. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer. The International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) program involves 

three spacecraft, and is a collaboration with the 

European Space Agency (ESA). ISEE 1 and 2 are 

in highly elliptical orbits, one following the other 

closely as they pass through different regions of the 

Earth’s magnetosphere. On November 20, 1978, 

ISEE 3 was injected into a “halo” orbit about the 

Earth-Sun libration point, which is about 1.6 million kilometers from Earth (0.01 AU) on the 

Earth-Sun line, from which point the solar wind can 

be observed an hour before it reaches the Earth’s 

magnetosphere. This capability is useful for advance warning of impending magnetospheric and 

ionospheric disturbances near Earth, which the 

ISEE 1 and 2 spacecraft then monitor. In addition, 

ISEE 3 has seen a surprising number of particles 

streaming away from the Earth toward the Sun. 

These probably originate from the solar wind, and 

are reversed by a mechanism not yet understood. A 

similar phenomenon has been observed near Jupiter. 

Such magnetospheric acceleration suggests a way in 

which low-energy cosmic rays may be produced. 

Project CAMEO. In Project CAMEO (Chemically Active Material Ejected in Orbit), canisters containing barium and lithium were carried on the 

Delta vehicle that launched Nimbus 7. On October 

29, 1978, four barium canisters were released by 

telecommand at 40-second intervals. The barium 

initially streaked upwards at speeds and to altitudes 

that indicated that electric fields must have been 

present. This result provided direct evidence for 

one of the acceleration mechanisms suspected from 

ISEE and earlier data. Plasma instabilities then 

broke the streaks up into striations, an effect not 

seen from rocket releases with lower injection velocities. Lithium was released a few days later and detected with sensitive photometers in Scandinavia 

and by atmospheric laser probing from France. 

Solar Maximum Mission. Solar activity has been 

increasing rapidly, and the evidence indicates that 

the sunspot maximum for this solar cycle will be 

high and should occur early in 1980. This maximum 

period is ideal for the Solar Maximum Mission 

(SMM) to observe active regions and flares, since 

the SMM is now scheduled for launch in early 

1980. The slip from the original October 1979 

launch date was caused by minor technical problems, and by a need to fully develop the complex 

ground control and data handling facilities. The experiments were integrated with the SMM spacecraft, 

subjected to final environmental tests, and shipped to 

the Kennedy Space Center in January 1980. The Investigators Working Group met a number of times 

and developed a large array of sequences for coordinated observations of solar phenomena by all 

of the SMM experiments. 

International Solar Polar Mixsioii. The International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) will be the first 

space mission to explore interplanetary and solar 

phenomena from the plane of the solar equator to 

above the solar poles themselves. Two spacecraftone European and one American-are expected to be 

launched by the Shuttle in 1985; they will be boosted 

by an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) to Jupiter, and will 

use gravitational swing-bys for acceleration out of 

the ecliptic plane, with passage over the poles of 

the Sun in 1988. The ISPM is a cooperative mission 

with the European Space Agency (ESA), under a 

Memorandum of Understanding signed in March 

1979. Science approval of investigations was also 

completed in March 1979, and all United States 

investigators are currently under contract for experiment development. The prime contractor for 

the United States spacecraft was selected in July 

1979. 

Reusable Faci1itic.s jor Solar Rc..rrurch. The selection of the first set of solar terrestrial instruments 

for follow-on Spacelab missions was completed in 

August 1979. Two multiuser instruments will be developed: the solar optical telescope and the chemical release module. The telescope will be a 1.25- 

meter diffraction-limited model with a variety of 

focal-plane spectrographs and imaging instruments. 

It will offer a ten-fold improvement in our ability 

to resolve fine detail on the Sun’s surface compared 

to that routinely possible with ground-based telescopes. The solar physics experiments will complement the telescope’s temperature coverage in the 

solar atmosphere. These experiments include an extreme ultraviolet spectrograph, an imaging x-ray 

telescope and spectrometer, a white-light coronagraph, and a coronagraph designed to measure 

coronal temperatures and densities through observations of scattered radiation from hydrogen atoms 

and 0+5 ions. 

The chemical release module will inject small 

amounts of tracer elements into the Earth’s magnetosphere to map mass motions and electric fields 

and to investigate ion acceleration processes. The 

tracers will be observed with sensitive TV systems 

on Spacelab and on the ground, with mass spectrometer systems on Spacelab, and with a remote spectroscopic observatory on Spacelab. All the space 

plasma physics investigations will emphasize active 

experiments from Spacelab-injecting particles or 

waves inio the magnetosphere and ionosphere and 

then observing the effects of these injections at varying distances from Spacelab. 
Study of the Planets 

The United States planetary exploration program 

made remarkable advances in several areas in 1979. 

Large quantities of new data have been returned by 

unmanned spacecraft visiting Venus, Jupiter, and 

Saturn. A first look has been taken at the four large 

Galiliean (Jupiter) moons-moons big enough to 

be important objects in the newly emerging science 

of comparative planetology. The data returned from 

the various spacecraft span a wide range of disciplines; the quality and quantity of those data have 

increased immeasurably since the beginning of 

planetary exploration almost two decades ago. 

Pioneer Venus. The Pioneer Venus multiprobe 

spacecraft and orbiter arrived at Venus toward the 

end of 1978. During 1979, over 100 scientists have 

worked both to analyze the data returned by the 

probes during their brief descent through the atmosphere and to continue the operation of the orbiter 

which has now passed into a second Venusian year. 

The in .yitu probe measurements have provided basic 

information about the nature of the Venusian atmosphere. Of great interest are the quantities of rare 

gases which are present in trace amounts: these 

gases do not enter into chemical compounds and 

can therefore provide relatively direct information 

about the nature of the original materials from 

which the planets formed. Although the results are 

still subject to considerable uncertainties, comparisons with direct measurements of the Earth’s and 

Mars’ atmospheres (the latter made by Viking) 

show that the proportion of such rare gases, relative to the total planetary mass, decreases in orderof-magnitude steps from Venus to Earth to Mars. 

The reason for such a circumstance is as yet unclear, but in time this information may lead to iniportant insights into the nature of the primitive 

solar system. 

Large concentrations of sulfur compounds were 

measured in the lower atmosphere of Venus; it is 

clear that sulfur is an important ingredient of the 

pervasive Venusian clouds, apparently composed in 

part of sulfuric acid. Challenging problems remain 

in understanding the sulfur chemistry of the lower 

atmosphere and the clouds; these problems will be 

the subject of future data analysis and synthesis. 

Pioneer Venus, through its radar altimeter. has 

added significantly to our meager knowledge of the 

planet’s surface. A broad plateau has been identified; about 1000 kilometers across, it rises about 

6 kilometers above the surrounding plain. Comparable topographic features are found on Earth, but 

not on the other inner planets. Its origin seems associated with large-scale crustal forces. 

Much of the data analysis presently under way is 

involved with the many Pioneer Venus investigations 

of the static and dynamic characteristics of the 

atmosphere and its complex cloud layers. The data 

are so extensive and the results so promising that 

analyses will continue for several years. The Soviet 

Union also sent probes to Venus in late 1978. The 

two nations are exchanging data and engaging in 

joint analyses, which will increase the value of each 

nation’s mission. 

Viking. The active presence of United States 

spacecraft at Mars continues, almost four years after 

the arrival of Viking at Mars. At the end of 1979, 

one orbiter still had a supply of attitude control gas 

and was returning high-resolution imagery. The two 

landers returned imaging, meteorology, and radio 

science data during the year. The more equatorially 

located of the two landers has been programmed to 

allow periodic interrogation of the spacecraft for the 

next decade. A substantial analysis team continues to 

study the several years’ worth of data returned by 

the landers and the orbiters. 

Voyager I and 2. The two Voyager passages 

through the Jupiter system were a fitting close to a 

decade of United States planetary exploration that 

brought new understanding of how the solar system 

was formed and in what ways the histories of the 

planets were similar or different. Like the inner 

planets-Mercury, Venus, and Mars-Jupiter had 

been examined by spacecraft before. The Voyager 

missions benefited from the earlier experience of 

Pioneer 10 and 11 ; they also gained capability from 

major improvements in the technological state of 

the art, both in spacecraft instrumentation and in 

ground receiving equipment-a system improvement, Science magazine asserted, “a factor of 

150,000 times better than that used with the 1965 

Mariner mission to Mars.” 

Voyager I, launched September 5, 1977, began 

measuring the Jovian system on January 6, 1979. 

Its closest approach to Jupiter was 348,890 kilometers on March 5. During the 98-day period before and after closest approach, the spacecraft returned more than 18,000 images of Jupiter and its 

four Galilean planets, as well as mapping the accessible portion of Jupiter’s complex magnetosphere. 

In Jupiter’s atmosphere, some significant observations were: a belt-zone pattern of east-west winds 

near the poles, where it previously was thought that 

the weather systems were driven by convection 

(upwelling and downwelling) ; much interaction 

around the fringes of the Great Red Spot-the massive storm that has been prominent for at least 400 

years-including anticyclonic motion of material, 

the impinging of smaller spots on the edges of the 

Great Red Spot and on each other, and substantially 

colder atmosphere above the Great Red Spot; massive cloud-top lighting bolts; auroral emissions in 

30 
the polar region in both ultraviolet and visible wavelengths; and uniform velocities of atmospheric forms 

quite different in scale, arguing that mass moxon 

rather than wave motion is being observed. In the 

diverse satellites of Jupiter: 7 active volcanoes on 

Io, with plumes reaching 250 kilometers above the 

surface; a heavily cratered, ancient crust on Callisto, 

with ring remnants marking huge impact basins 

since filled in by flow of the icy crust; on Ganymede, 

both grooved and cratered terrain, possibly from 

global tectonic stresses; on Europa, a surface crisscrossed with linear marks, possibly from tectonics 

or crustal lifting; and a planetary ring around Jupiter, beginning some 100,000 kilometers out from 

the center of the planet and measuring some 30 

kilometers thick. In the magnetosphere: well defined 

bow shock wave and magnetospheric boundaries and 

tail, similar to Earth; existence of a 5-millionampere magnetic flux tube between Jupiter and Io. 

Voyager 2, launched 16 days earlier than Voyager 1 but arriving at Jupiter four months later, 

passed closest to Jupiter on July 9. Its 13,000 

images naturally showed fewer discoveries than those 

of Voyager 1, but did much to supplement and amplify them. Among its valuable coverages were: 

four-month-later patterns of Jupiter’s atmosphere, 

showing kinds and rates of change of structure; 

high-resolution views of volcanoes eruptin? on IO 

and additional views of the other Galilean satellites; 

and clearer pictures of Jupiter’s ring, showing it to 

be more extensive and possibly more complex than 

it seemed on Voyager 1 imagery. 

Safely past Jupiter, the two Voyager spacecraft 

used the planet’s gravity to bend their course across 

the solar system toward the second largest planet, 

Saturn. Voyager 1 is to arrive at Saturn in November 1980, Voyager 2 in August 1981. If fuel 

remains, Voyager 2 may venture on to Uranus by 

1986. 

Pioneer 10 and 11. During the year Pioneer 10 

traveled another 410 million kilometers on its way 

out of the solar system. It continues to return basic 

information about the charged particles and electromagnetic fields of interplanetary space in the region where the Sun’s influence is fading. Pioneer 

11, moving in the opposite direction to its sister 

ship, completed the first spacecraft journey to 

Saturn in September 1979. Though a relatively simple spacecraft in comparison to Voyager. Pioneer 

11 returned data that have added significantly to our 

understanding of the most vividly ringed planet in the 

solar system. The spacecraft measured the strong 

magnetic field of Saturn and confirmed that the 

planet is radiating more heat than it receives from 

the Sun. It discovered a new faint ring outside 

those famous ones visible from Earth. Information 

about the temperature and mass of the rings acquired on this flight will significantly constrain the 

range of possible explanations for the nature of 

these striking phenomena. While Pioneer 11 did not 

penetrate the rings, it did come close enough to 

demonstrate the safety of the environment just outside the rings. This is important for Voyager 2, 

which must pass through the same region if it is to 

continue on to Uranus after its Saturn encounter. It 

found that since the rings almost totally absorb the 

energetic particles trapped by the magnetic field, 

there is a benign radiation environment beneath and 

above the rings. 

Saturn’s large moon, Titan, was also observed 

and its temperature measured. Though this large 

moon is especially tantalizing because of its significant atmosphere, Pioneer flew no closer to it than 

356,000 kilometers, so it remains a highly enigmatic 

object. 

Both Pioneer 10 and 11 will be tracked and interrogated for several more years: no more planetary 

encounters will occur, but the spacecraft will be 

reporting from unexplored regions of space. 

Reserrrcli and Analysis. Work continued on the 

interpretation of data sent back from previous missions, such as Viking, and on acquiring new information about the solar system by means of groundbased telescopes. A highlight of the year was the 

completion of the Infrared Telescope Facility on the 

summit of Mauna Kea in Hawaii, the best observing site in the world. Many unique features provide 

the new telescope with exceptional performance in 

collecting key information about planetary bodies 

by observing the thermal emissions of their surfaces 

and atmospheres. The new telescope supported the 

Voyager 2 encounter with Jupiter and will be important for the success of the Voyager encounters 

with Saturn and for the Galileo mission. All the 

planets will be studied; at times when planetary objects are in unsuitable positions for studv. the telescope will be operated as a nationally available facility for stellar astronomy. 

Studies of the Universe 

The NASA program in astrophysics is directed 

toward answering some of the most fundamental 

questions that mankind has ever posed-what is the 

nature and origin of the universe? How will it end? 

What is the origin of the elements of which the 

Earth and our bodies are constructed? What is the 

nature of exotic high energy physics occurring in 

space? 

High Energv Astrononiy Obscr\wtories. After a 

hi9hly successful operational lifetime of nearly one 

and one-half years, HEAO 1 reentered the atmo31 
sphere in Mmarch 1979. HEAO 2 was launched in 

November 1978, and is continuing to function well. 

Both observatories have added diverse and complementary data on a wide variety of x-ray emitting 

objects. 

With regard to observations of stars, HEAO 1 

established that the class of stars known as RS CVn 

stars exhibit relatively strong x-ray emission, which 

presumably arises in the very hot, active atmospheres, or coronae, of these stars. HEAO 2 confirmed this result, and further demonstrated that a 

considerably wider class of stars, ranging from very 

massive, hot, young stars through less massive, 

cooler, evolved stars (some very similar to the Sun) 

are unexpectdly bright x-ray sources. These discoveries indicate that earlier theories of stellar 

atmospheres must be discarded or seriously revised. 

HEAO 2 has provided the basis for a better understanding of the structure and generation of 

stellar atmospheres. 

HEAO data on supernova such as the Crab 

Nebula indicate the presence of heavy elements, in 

roughly the same abundances as in the solar system, in the expanding shell ejected during the initial supernova explosion. Interestingly most of the 

observed supernova remnants do not contain an observable compact object as expected. This implies 

either that the compact object is not a conventional 

neutron star, or that a compact star was not produced by the explosion at all. In either case, a revision of theory of the origin of neutron stars, their 

structure, and the supernova phenomenon is clearly required. Studies of the x-ray pulses and erratic 

fluctuation of the x-ray binaries are in progress, with 

the potential of detailing the internal structure of 

neutron stars and providing increased evidence for 

the existence of black holes. 

HEAO 1 and 2 have also provided data on the 

vast scale of the universe itself. In particular, the 

nature of the diffuse x-ray background has a direct 

bearing on the ultimate fate of the universe. If this 

background radiation is caused by a very hot, diffuse gas distributed uniformly through space, this 

could provide enough mass to “close” the universe. 

Alternatively, if the background arises from a large 

number of discrete x-ray sources, there would be 

insufficient mass to halt the expansion and the universe would expand forever. The data, from HEAO 

1 and 2 give different answers to the questions. At 

present, it is fair to say that a large fraction of the 

low energy x-ray background seen by HEAO 2 is 

composed of distant, discrete sources, while some 

fraction of the high energy x-ray component observable by HEAO 1 is truly diffuse. 

HEAO 3 was launched from Cape Canaveral by 

an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle into near-perfect 

orbit on September 20, 1979. The observatory carries three instruments to study gamma ray emissions and cosmic-ray flux in the universe. The 

cryogenically cooled gamma-ray spectrometer, supplied by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, is receiving 

excellent data on gamma-ray source location and 

nuclear line emissions. A cosmic-ray instrument, investigating isotopic composition and supplied by a 

consortium of French and Danish scientists, is operating well. The third instrument, supplied by three 

American universities (Washington University, University of Minnesota, and the California Institute of 

Technology) is designed to study heavy nuclei in 

space and is performing very well. 

Space Telescope (ST). The design and development of the ST is progressing on schedule and 

within budget toward a December 1983 launch by 

the Space Shuttle. With its 2.4-meter (96-inch) 

primary mirror, the ST will be able to view celestial 

objects SO times fainter than large Earth-based telescopes can and with a resolution improvement of a 

factor of 10. 

The ST will have a long lifetime-of more than 

a decade. This is made possible by the Space Shuttle 

providing on-orbit repair, exchange of scientific 

instruments, or return of the entire observatory to 

Earth for refurbishment and subsequent relaunch. 

Preliminary design reviews for the three major 

components of the ST (the support systems module, 

the optical telescope assembly, and the scientific instruments) were completed early in 1979, and the 

scientific payload was confirmed. Grinding and 

shaping of the two primary telescope mirror blanks 

were finished during the past year. In 1980 the design phase of development for all components will 

be completed and fabrication and assembly of the 

scientific instruments and the optical telescope assembly will begin. 

A new institute will be established to conduct the 

integrated science program of the ST, including selection and support of telescope observers, science 

planning and scheduling, and data analysis. The request for proposals for management and operation 

of the ST science institute was released in late 1979; 

contract award is planned for late 1980. 

Explorer Satellites. Explorer satellites carry relatively low-cost payloads designed to explore new 

fields of scientific research. The International Ultraviolet Explorer WE), launched on January 26. 

1978, into an eccentric geosynchronous orbit, is 

still operating well. The program is a joint undertaking by NASA, the United Kingdom’s Science 

Research Council, and the European Space Agency 

(ESA). The IUE provides the capability to study 

the spectral lines associated with the transmission 

and absorption of atomic radiation in the atmosphere of stars and in the innerstellar medium, as well 

as with object5 within the solar system. The IUE 

32 
has demonstrated the ubiquitous nature of stellar 

winds, which represent substantial mass loss for all 

types of stars and significantly affect their evolutionary paths. It has produced the first evidence confirming the existence of a galactic halo, consisting 

of high-temperature, rarified gas extending far above 

and below the plane of the Milky Way. Further, it 

has proved useful in the study of flare stars, which 

undergo eruptions many times more violent than 

have ever been observed on the Sun. 

The first observations with this satellite generated 

such excitement that over 180 proposals have already been received for observing time on IUE during 1980, although only 120 observing programs 

can be accommodated. 

Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), is the first satellite 

designed to study the cold infrared universe. This 

cooperative project with the Netherlands and the 

United Kingdom is scheduled to place a “first of its 

kind” cryogenically cooled telescope system in orbit 

in 1981. The primary mission is to produce an unbiased all-sky survey of discrete sources to identify 

the location and variety of objects radiating in the 

infrared. The telescope system is to be furnished 

by the United States and to be managed by the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory and the Ames Research 

Center. The detectors for the telescope’s focal plane 

were selected in September 1978. 

Development activity is proceeding on four other 

Explorer projects. The Dynamics Explorer, which 

will investigate the interactions between the Earth’s 

magnetosphere and ionosphere, is in final development, leading to launch in 1981. Development work 

continues on the Solar Mesospheric Explorer. Also 

to be launched in 1981, it will determine solar ultraviolet flux and study changes occurring in ozone and 

related chemistry as a result of that ozone radiation. 

Development work continues on the Cosmic Ray 

Isotope Experiment to be launched on a DoD satellite in 1981 and again on the San Marco-D missions, a cooperative project with Italy having 

launches in 1981 and 1982. 

Detailed study continues on three future Explorers. One is a joint NASA-German Federal 

Ministry for Research and Technology mission, the 

Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer. 

NASA will provide the Charge Composition Explorer, Germany the Ion Release Module. The 

Cosmic Background Explorer will measure the 

residual three-degree-Kelvin background radiation 

believed to be associated with the “big bang” origin 

of the universe. The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

will survey the sky for very hot objects such as 

white dwarfs, opening up one of the few remaining 

unexplored regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Another international Explorer, the Infrared 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (OAO). 

OAO-3, named Copernicus, is still operating successfully more than seven years after launch. It continues to furnish valuable information on an apparent black hole detected in the constellation 

Scorpius. 

Suborbital Vehicles. Sounding rockets, balloons, 

and aircraft continue to make their contributions to 

technology and science. For example, in the NASA 

balloon program, a far-infrared telescope has measured the contribution that dust in our Milky Way 

galaxy makes to the total luminosity of our galaxy, 

giving information on the rate at which stars form 

throughout our own galaxy. 

In the NASA airborne program, instruments 

aboard the Kuiper Airborne Observatory have detected, for the first time, a far-infrared molecular 

line from carbon monoxide in a region where stars 

are forming. Since the cooling of this region is 

caused mainly by carbon monoxide, and since most 

of the radiation is coming out in the form of these 

lines, measurement of their intensities plays an important role in understanding the energy balance of 

star-forming regions. 

The sounding rocket program became linked to 

scientific use of the Shuttle in 1979 when approval 

was given for a development test flight in 1981- 

1982 to demonstrate the concept of flying sounding 

rocket payloads off the Shuttle in a 24-hour freeflyer mode, then to be recovered and returned by 

the Shuttle. The concept is a logical extension of 

the sounding rocket program with the added capability of obtaining 24 hours of scientific data as opposed to the 10 minutes from a sounding rocket 

flight. 

A.rtrophy.5ic.r Spacelab Payloads. A significant 

milestone has been reached with regard to scientific 

use of the Shuttle. Ten instruments for high-energy 

astrophyiscs and astronomy have been selected for 

development and flight on fully operational Shuttle 

Spacelab missions starting in 1983. These ten, plus 

approved reflight of two Spacelab 2 instruments and 

six new instruments approved for study, represent 

an intensive selection process that originally started 

with a total of 94 proposals. 

Life Sciences 

The life sciences program concerns itself with the 

physiology of man in space and more generally with 

living or life-like processes in space, whether of 

terrestrial or extraterrestrial origin. 

Medical Operations. Measures to maintain the 

health and safety of Space Shuttle crew members 

have continued to be of prime concern. To mitigate 

any adverse effects of returning these crew members 

to Earth’s gravity, tests have been conducted with 

33 
anti-g suits that can be inflated automatically during reentry when the flow of blood to the head is 

diminished. Other more sophisticated procedures 

employing water-cooled suits and blood volume replenishment have also been developed for longer 

missions and more susceptible non-astronaut passengers. The prospect of some crew members encountering motion sickness has necessitated a comprehensive drug screening program to select those 

medications that will be most effective and will have 

the least side effects. Several drug combinations 

used on both men and women have been found to 

have these desirable characteristics. Better methods 

of administering the drugs have also been studied; a 

procedure that permits the drug to be absorbed 

through the skin appears to be most promising. 

Biorm>dical HcJscvirch. Several laboratories have 

participated in a concerted effort to understand 

more about the structure and function of the human 

vestibular apparatus and its neural interconnections. 

Using experimental animals, key anatomical fiber 

tracts have been located. Techniques for pinpointing the involvement of specific parts of the nervous 

system in the genesis of motion sickness have been 

developed, and experiments have been defined for 

employing these techniques in the Shuttle and 

Space1 ab. 

Substantial improvements have been made in the 

instrumentation and procedures for detecting of 

bone deterioration. These procedures, based on 

computer-aided tomography, have demonstrated 

subtle structural changes in the bones of human 

test subjects confined to bed. Similar changes are 

believed to occur in spaceflight. Experiments are 

being prepared for applying the new technology to 

Shuttle crew members. With bedrest as an analogue 

of space flight, a diphosphonate-containing drug, 

capable of partially protecting the integrity of the 

bones, has been successfully tested. Several flight 

experiments have been selected to elucidate the 

mechanisms underlying the loss of bone mass in 

space. Some of these will be flown on Shuttle’ 

Spacelab, while others are taking advantage of flight 

opportunities offered to the United States in the 

Soviet Cosmos biosatellite program. 

Cooperative efforts with the Soviet Union have 

included both the flight of United States biological 

experiments on unmanned Soviet spacecraft. In 

1979, the third such Soviet biosatellite carried 14 

United States experiments. Cooperation in this area 

also includes joint ground-based clinical studies. Although the 1979 study has emphasized validation of 

a more authentic experimental model for the effects 

of weightlessness of the human cardiovascular system, an additional dividend has been the standardization of test procedures applied to American 

astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts. In Moscow. during the month of May, and again at NASA’s Ames 

Research Center in August, ten subjects were studied intensively for five weeks by teams of Soviet 

and American investigators. The data obtained were 

reasonably similar despite the geographic separation 

of the test centers and the diversity of investigators 

and experimental subjects. 

Space Biology. A study of the effect of gravity 

and other physical forces on the growth and development of plants has pointed to the importance 

of the hormone ethylene in these processes. Mechanical stress accelerates production of this compound, which in turn causes dwarfing and the failure of the plant’s gravity sensing. Studies of the relationship of gravity to a broad spectrum of other 

biological processes has enabled refinement of an 

animal model system simulating certain aspects of 

weightlessness. The changes in a rat suspended with 

the longitudinal axis of its body pointed head-down 

have faithfully mimicked many of the metabolic 

and 5tructural changes that occur in the absence of 

gravity. 

Exobiology. Research in planetary biology is 

focused on the origin, evolution, and distribution of 

life-related molecules on Earth and elsewhere. A 

new line of investigation this year emphasizes attempts to decipher the long series of evolutionary 

events that characterized early biological history. 

Recent discoveries from laboratory simulation, 

modeling, and ground-based observations all indicate that comets may represent a unique reservoir 

of information regarding precursors to life at the 

time of the formation of the solar system. In addition to providing further support for theories that 

chemical evolution occurs in locations beyond the 

Earth, these findings have led to the theory that 

comets may, in fact, have played a major role in 

organic chemical evolution on the primitive Earth. 

Calculations have shown that significant amounts of 

important early forms of molecules could have been 

deposited on the planet Earth during its earliest 

history by falling comets. 

Simulation experiments have successfully duplicated data from one of the more controversial life 

detection experiments on the Viking Mars landers. 

Specially prepared clays, when mixed with salts in 

amounts consistent with other Viking measurements, 

catalyzed the release of carbon dioxide in a fashion 

similar to that observed in the Viking labeled-release experiment. Recently it has been shown that 

these same clay-salt mixtures can be inactivated by 

heating at 160°C for 3 hours. The sensitivity to heat 

observed in the labeled release experiment was the 

most biological-like response observed on Mars and 

the most difficult to simulate on Earth. 

Flight Program. The Shuttle ’Spacelab life sciences flight experiments program will provide ob- 
jective, quantifiable research data that will give 

NASA and the scientific community answers to the 

many problems raised in the Skylab programs. The 

most immediate problem is space motion sickness, 

which impaired the ability of the astronauts to perform in the early hours of their exposure to space. 

This nausea affected about half of the astronauts for 

from one to four days. With the early Space Transportation System flights scheduled to last 7 to IO 

days, the STS crew and payload scientists could, if 

similarly affected, lose a substantial amount of productive time because of this discomfort. Additional 

problems concern fluid and electrolyte balance. sensory deprivation, diurnal rhythm changes, cardiovascular deconditioning, circulation impairment, and 

muscle atrophy. 

Life Sciences experiments for Spacelab I. 2, and 

3 are in the hardware phase. During the past year, 

over 370 proposals for Life Sciences flight experiments onboard a dedicated mission were reviewed 

and evaluated by 13 panels of non-NASA scientific 

peers. NASA analyzed the proposals for en&' meering, cost, and mission compatibility considerations. 

Ninety proposals were identified as scientifically 

and technically sound investigations and candidates 

for flight experimentation. The majority of these investigations are being funded for an experiment 

definition phase, after which the fiield will be further narrowed to 50-60 investigations. From this 

group, payloads for two dedicated missions will be 

selected. 

Spacelab Payloads 

During 1979, responsibility for the planning, development, and operation of all NASA Spacelab 

missions was consolidated into the new Spacelab 

Mission Integration Division within the Office of 

Space Science (OSS). Comprised of functions and 

elements from both Space Science and the Office of 

Space and Terrestrial Applications (OSTA), this 

division will provide a single focus for NASA Spacelab mission management. Responsibility for planning and developing the NASA Spacelab payloads 

or instruments themselves will remain in the discipline divisions of the program offices. In addition 

to refining these management arrangements, other 

steps have been taken to prepare for Spacelab operations. In late 1978 the physical integration of 

instruments or experiments into Spacelab hardware 

was assigned to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). 

During 1979, progress was made in arranging for 

contractor support for that activity. In September, 

a draft statement of work for such a contract was 

circulated to industry for comment. The comments 

received will help NASA to better integrate the requirements and capabilities involved in this complex area. 

The payload development has been progressing 

satisfactorily. In late 1979, the instruments that will 

be flown on the first Shuttle payload missions were 

delivered for integration into Spacelab pallets. The 

first mission, OSTA 1, will carry instruments to be 

used in gathering Earth resource and environmental 

data that will help to deal with many problems in 

those areas. The Johnson Space Center has mission 

management responsibilities for OSTA 1. The other 

mission, OSS I, is managed by the Goddard Space 

Flight Center. The instruments on that mission will 

gather solar physics data, evaluate the ambient and 

induced Shuttle space environment, and provide 

data on payload thermal control technology. Another experiment dealing with Life Sciences (plant 

growth research) will be located in the Shuttle 

cabin. 

Significant progress was also made on the Spacelab missions 1 and 2, the first extensive operational 

demonstrations of the Spacelab hardware being furnished by the European Space Agency. During 

1979, the Spacelab 1 and 2 missions moved into 

the final design phase and manufacture of flight 

hardware was begun. Final design and operations 

reviews have been held for all instruments and most 

investigators are well into fabrication of their flight 

hardware. 

About 140 investigations were selected during 

1979 for future Spacelab missions. As these activities mature, and as we gain a clearer insight into 

future requirements, Spacelab mission planning will 

focus on more effective and efficient use of Spacelab hardware and Space Transportation System 

capabilities. 

Space Transportation 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle will be the first reusable Earthto-orbit vehicle, meeting the needs of NASA, DoD, 

and other domestic and international users of space. 

It will provide eficient, economical access to space 

and will greatly enhance the flexibility and production of space missions, producing savings in the cost 

of space operations which cannot be achieved with 

today's expendable launch vehicle systems. 

In the Space Shuttle development program, all 

major system elements are proceeding in test and 

manufacture, and major ground test programs are 

approaching completion. The design certification review of the overall Space Shuttle configuration was 

completed in April 1979. In general, development 

testing throughout the program has been completed 
or soon will be, and the program is now deeply involved in the qualification of flight-configured 

elements. 

Space Shuttle Orbiter. The orbiter vehicle will 

carry personnel and payloads to orbit, provide a 

space base for performing their assigned tasks, and 

return them to Earth. The orbiter’s large cargo bay 

will be capable of carrying payloads weighing up to 

29,500 kilograms (65,000 pounds) into space. The 

orbiter will provide a habitable environment for the 

crew and passengers, including scientists and engineers. The structural-test article for the orbiter is 

currently under subcontract for structural testing. 

This test article has a flightworthy airframe, and will 

be converted to become the second orbital vehicle, 

Challenger. 

Work on the first flight orbiter, Columbia, proceeded at KSC at a slower pace than planned; much 

more work remains before the first flight, now 

scheduled in late 1980. 

Main Engine. Three high-pressure hydrogen/ 

oxygen main engines, each with a thrust of 2,000,- 

000 newtons (470,000 pounds) are located in the 

orbiter’s aft fuselage. The main engine represents a 

major advance in propulsion technology. It has a 

longer operating life, the ability to throttle the 

thrust level over a wide range, and is the first large, 

liquid-fuel rocket engine designed to be reusable. 

This highly advanced engine has experienced a 

number of development problems during its test 

program. Some difficulties still remain, but over 

50,000 seconds of test time have already been accumulated toward the goal of 80,000 seconds before 

the first orbital flight. 

External Tank. The external tank contains the 

propellants (liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen) for 

the Space Shuttle main engines. Just prior to orbital 

insertion, the main engines cut off, and the external 

tank will separate from the orbiter and descend 

through a ballistic trajectory over a predesignated 

remote ocean area. The first flight tank has already 

been delivered, as have three test tanks. Three more 

flight tanks are being manufactured for flight in the 

orbital flight test program. 

Solid Rocket Booster. Two solid-rocket boosters, 

attached to the external tank, will burn in parallel 

with the main engines to provide extra thrust during ascent. At completion of burn, the solid-rocket 

boosters will separate, descend on parachutes, and 

land in the ocean approximately 280 kilometers 

downrange, to be recovered and returned for refurbishment and reuse. Four development firings 

have been completed on this 3.7-meter-diameter 

booster, and the qualification firing program has 

been started. Two qualification motor firings have 

been made, and one more is scheduled before the 

first flight. Most of the rocket segments for the first 

flight boosters have already been delivered to KSC. 

Launch and Landing. All facilities at KSC are 

complete and in place for the first manned orbital 

flight. Although ground support equipment and the 

computerized launch-processing installations have 

been delayed, they are in the final stages of completion, and software validation is in process. All 

hardware for the launch processing system has been 

delivered, simulation support is continuing for development of checkout procedures, and checkout 

software is being developed and validated. Integration of all the ground support equipment will continue, and initial flight equipment is being checked 

out and processed for launch. 

Follow-On Production. A national fleet of 

orbiters must be produced to meet the needs 

planned by the users of space for the 1980s. Following the test flights, the first operational Shuttle 

will be available in 1982 as an operational transportation capability for the many users of the Space 

Shuttle. Three additional orbiters will be delivered 

in later years, phased to accommodate increasing 

usage of the Space Transportation System. These 

additional orbiters (after Columbia) will be Challenger in 1982; Discoverer in 1983; and Atlantis, 

now scheduled for late 1984. 

Operation of the Space Transportation System 

When the Space Transportation System becomes 

operational in 1982, a greatly expanded range of 

space activities will be possible. A wide variety of 

users have already made firm commitments to use 

the system-civilian and military components of the 

United States government, and domestic and foreign 

customers, both governmental and private. They will 

be able to place a wide variety of payloads and experiments into Earth orbit. Payloads can be refurbished in orbit or returned to Earth for repair. and 

relaunch; space laboratories can be launched, operated, and returned to Earth for examination; scientists can fly along to operate their experiments; 

geosynchronous or planetary missions will be possible with the aid of supplemental upper stages. With 

the art of the possible expanding so rapidly, and 

with flight hardware coming off the production line, 

NASA has placed major emphasis in 1979 on planning and preparing for operations. 

Policies and Procedures. Policies on user charges 

during the early years of operations have been published in the Federal Register, describing the price 

structure and stipulating other conditions under 

which NASA will furnish launch services and flight 

hardware to government and commercial users. A 

reimbursement guide, which describes types and 
costs of standard and optional services, is expected 

to be published in 1980. 

Following extensive negotiations during the past 

year, nine commercial and foreign users, including 

Comsat, Western Union, RCA, Telesat,/Canada, 

and the governments of India, Indonesia, and the 

Federal Republic of Germany have made payments 

or deposits on STS flight reservations. Together with 

NASA’s own payloads, plus firm commitments for 

DoD and other United States government agencies, 

the first few years of STS operations are fully 

scheduled. 

A program to provide for small, self-contained 

payloads was begun by NASA in 1977. Individuals, 

educational institutions, and industries can fly small 

payloads, requiring minimal support from the 

Shuttle, on a space-available basis at very reasonable prices. Both in the United States and abroad, 

this program has been extremely successful in attracting new users; by the end of 1979, advance 

payments had been received for more than 300 individual payloads, with a wide variety of ideas and 

experiments. The response from educational institutions has been particularly gratifying, since it indicates renewed interest from young people in space 

research and exploration. Several universities are 

offering science scholarships or grants for students 

to develop payloads. 

DoD is developing STS launch and recovery facilities at Vandenberg AFB, California, to handle 

high-inclination missions. Maximum commonality 

of ground equipment at KSC and Vandenberg is reducing both acquisition and operating costs. 

Flight Crew. The 35 astronaut candidates, including six women, selected in 1978 continued 

training at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in 

Houston, Texas, and have been designated fullfledged astronauts in 1979. NASA has advertised 

for additional pilot and mission specialist candidates. Selections of candidates will be made in 1980. 

Policies for the selection, responsibilities, duties, 

and training of “payload specialist” and the scientific members of the crew were formulated in 1979 

and published in the Federal Register. 

Spacelab 

Spacelab is an orbital laboratory being designed 

and developed by the European Space Agency to be 

carried in the cargo bay of the Shuttle. The major 

objective of the Spacelab is to provide access to 

space for a variety of experimenters from many nations and in fields such as material science, space 

processing, biology/medicine, meteorology, communication/navigation, and space technology. 

The Spacelab offers the experimenters two options, a pressurized shirtsleeve laboratory (the 

module) and an unpressurized platform exposed to 

the space environment (the pallet). It also offers 

the experimenters standardized support services. 

The Spacelab’s normal mission lasts 7 days, although it can remain in orbit for up to 30 days. 

Design life expectancy is 50 flights of 7-day duration over a 10-year period. As many as four payload 

specialists can operate the experiments aboard the 

laboratory. The payload weights will range from 

4800 to 8800 kilograms. 

The 1973 agreement between the European Space 

Agency (ESA) and NASA calls for ESA to design, 

develop, and manufacture the first Spacelab flight 

unit and an engineering model, two sets of ground 

support equipment, and initial spares to support the 

first two missions. ESA’s current cost-to-completion 

estimate is approximately $800 million (FY 1979 

dollars). NASA’s responsibility is for operation of 

Spacelab; development of ancillary equipment, such 

as the tunnel between the Spacelab and the cabin of 

the Shuttle; development of the mission verification 

equipment; and procurement of one additional 

Spacelab unit from ESA. 

In 1979, ESA delivered the second of two engineering model pallets to KSC. These payloadequipped pallets are scheduled to be flown on Space 

Shuttle orbital flight tests. 

In Bremen, Germany, the prime contractor for 

Spacelab development continues to process the engineering model hardware. The initial flight unit is 

being assembled; testing is expected to start in 1980. 

Spacelab subsystem qualification tests are over 80 

percent complete at various subcontractor facilities, with remaining tests scheduled for completion 

in 1980. Manufacturing and qualification testing of 

the engineering model pointing system are nearing 

completion. 

The software to check out Spacelab on the 

ground and operate it in orbit is nearing completion. Preliminary issuance of this software has been 

delivered to NASA and is currently being used during integration and testing of the engineering model 

in Bremen. 

NASA continues preparing for ground and flight 

operations for Spacelab flights. The critical design 

review for the verification equipment was completed. This equipment will be used to verify satisfactory performance of the first Spacelab module 

mission. The crew tunnel, which provides access 

to Spacelab from the orbiter, underwent a successful preliminary design review and a crew walkthrough. The hardware for the software development facility was installed and checked out at 

MSFC. A critical design review for the experiment computer operating system was successfully 

completed. Installation of the crew training simula37 
tor is in process at Johnson Space Center. NASA’s 

resident office in Bremen, Germany, continues to 

monitor the integration and test activities on the engineering model and flight unit, at the same time 

learning how to prepare for technical support of 

Spacelab processing at KSC. It also monitors the 

acceptance and qualification testing of the engineering model and flight unit. 

The Operations and Checkout (O&C) building 

is now operational at KSC and the first two Spacelab pallets to be used for orbital flight tests are 

being processed there for installation of payloads by 

the users. The Spacelab orbital flight pallets are 

scheduled to be turned over to the users this year. 

In July, NASA and ESA concluded a follow-on 

procurement letter contract for the second Spacelab 

long-lead items. NASA also received ESA’s total 

proposal for a second Spacelab and a contract with 

ESA was in preparation for signing early in 1980. 

Upper Stages 

Inertial Upper Stuges. The Inertial Upper Stage 

(IUS) system is being designed and developed by 

DoD to extend the capability of the Space Shuttle 

into orbits beyond the capability of the Space 

Shuttle alone. The solid-propellant IUS and its payload are deployed from the orbiter in low Earth 

orbit; the IUS is then ignited to boost its payload 

to a higher energy orbit. NASA will use a two-stage 

configuration of the IUS primarily to achieve geosynchronous orbit and a three-stage version for 

planetary orbits. Full scale development continues 

with NASA coordinating the NASA-unique and 

other non-DoD requirements into the DoD IUS 

program to ensure its utility for other-than-DoD applications. The DoD’s detailed design of the twostage IUS configuration has been completed and 

subsystem hardware development is proceeding on a 

schedule that supports the first two-stage IUS 

launch of the tracking and Data Relay Satellite in 

1982. Detailed design of the NASA three-stage configuration has been initiated. 

Spinriing Solid Upper Stages. Two sizes of Spinning Solid Upper Stages (SSUS) are being developed by American aerospace industries at their own 

expense for launch of smaller spacecraft to geosynchronous orbit. The SSUS-D is configured for 

satellites that have been using the Delta expendable 

launch vehicle, the SSUS-A for those using the 

Atlas-Centaur. SSUS designs have been completed 

and the qualification program initiated. Production 

is proceeding, with most flight hardware manufactured and ready for assembly. NASA has ordered 

SSUS-As for Comsat’s Tntelsat V communications 

satellite missions. NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite missions are now 

planned for launch on SSUS-Ds, as are the launches 

of most commercial users, who are buying SSUS-DS 

directly from the developer. 

Skylab Reentry 

Skylab, launched in May 1973, was the first 

United States orbiting laboratory. Operated by three 

successive crews for a total of 171 days, it was left 

dormant in February 1974, with an orbital life projected to about 1983. Sunspot activity had been 

greater than predicted, making the upper atmosphere more dense and accelerating Skylab’s rate of 

orbital decay. Because of Skylab’s large size, there 

was some concern of danger from its debris; a program to alter Skylab’s orbit was approved for an 

early flight on the Space Shuttle of a teleoperator 

retrieval system. This program was reassessed in 

November 1978 and dropped because of its limited 

chance of success. 

Skylab reentered and returned to Earth on July 

11, 1979. Although some debris from the breakup 

landed in Australia, there were no reports of personal injury or property damage. 

Advanced Programs 

Studies and developments continued in 1979 to 

investigate concepts to improve the utility, flexibility, 

and effectiveness of the Space Transportation System, with special emphasis on the Shuttle orbiter. 

The definition and Shuttle interface studies were 

completed for the power extension package (PEP). 

PEP would provide the orbiter additional electrical 

power by means of a solar array deployed by 

Shuttle’s remote manipulator. Design studies for a 

space-storable 25-kilowatt power system for the 

Shuttle and attached platforms were also completed. 

Studies were initiated to define the nature, utility, and 

cost bcnefits of a number of automated space facilities that promise to lower the cost of space applications and expand the user base. The science and 

applications platform and materials experiment carrier studies will define space platform concepts and 

materials processing in space payloads to take advantage of the 25-kilowat power system. Geostationary platform and geosynchronous mission studies were continued. Proposals were received for the 

definition of the solar electric propulsion system 

planned to be used €or high-energy danetary and 

cometary missicns in the mid to late 1980s. Orbital 

transfer vehicle concepts for missions beyond the 

capability of planned STS upper stages continued 

with the selection of two vehicle contractors and 

three engine contractors. The orbital transfer vehicle 

would be a reusable vehicle to transport Shuttle pay38 
loads to Earth orbit, lunar orbit, and planetary 

missions. 

Innovative equipment and tools to further the 

utility, effectiveness, and flexibility of the Shuttle, as 

well as reducing the cost of operations, are being 

developed. Their functions include placement, retrieval, and in-orbit maintenance and repair of satellites and retrieval of unstable satellites and space 

debris. EVA tools and support equipment studies 

are under way. The preliminary design was completed for the open-cab “cherry picker.” 

A large-structures space experiments and denionstration plan was generated, involving such “enditems” as a large deployable antenna and various 

beams and structures. All of these aspects of large 

structures will be needed for future space applications and science activities. 

Expendable Lunch Vehicles 

NASA conducted 8 launches during 1979 with 

its Expendable Launch Vehicles consisting of the 

all-solid-motor Scout, the Atlas-Ccntaur, and thc 

Delta. Of the 8 launches, 3 were for NASA scientific 

and application purposes and 5 were for a variety of 

other United States government and reimbursing 

customers. 

Scout. This vehicle was used to launch a NASA 

Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE), 

a NASA magnetic satellite (Magsat), and a reimbursable United Kingdom scientific satellite (Ariel 

Atlas-Centaur. This vehicle was used to launch 2 

satellites during 1979; 1 was a DoD communication 

satellite and the second was a NASA scientific satellite (HEAO 3). 

Delta. Three launches were conducted using this 

vehicle-one domestic communications satellite for 

Western Union, another for RCA, and an experimental satellite, called Scatha, for DoD. 

Atlas F. A weather satellite was launched on an 

Atlas F by the Air Force for NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. All 

launches attempted were successful, another 100- 

percent year. 

6). 

Space Research and Technology 

The ability to explore and beneficially use the 

space environment is critically dependent on the 

state of technology. The purpose of the space technology program is to advance the frontiers of capability in space by providing a sound technological 

basis for future missions. In so doing, this program 

also stimulates the generation of advanced concepts. 

The program is organized into two areas, the 

first dealing with advances in the fundamental space 

disciplines and the second with the systems technology necessary to demonstrate the readiness for 

fight of new capabilities generated in the fundamental area. 

Fundamental Technology 

As the practical applications of space grow, the 

need for high density, onboard information storage 

capabilities becomes more pressing. During 1979 a 

novel concept called a “multi-layer magnetic lattice 

file” was successfully demonstrated. This concept 

builds on magnetic bubble memory technology, 

which has now evolved to a stage of commercialization and provides increased data storage capability 

with minimum photolithographic dimensions. Future 

space recorders will have storage capacities up to 

fifty times greater than those currently available for 

the same size, weight, and power. 

In thermal protection, during 1979 two new insulation materials were developed which will be used 

on selected portions of future Shuttle orbiters. The 

advanced flexible reusable surface insulation is a 

silica, quilted-felt material that will be used on the 

upper areas of the orbiter which experience moderate reentry heating replacing the current material at 

substantial cost savings. The fiber reinforced composite insulation is a silica reinforced insulation 

with 20 percent aluminum silicate fiber. This material is twice as strong and has higher temperature 

capability than the current reusable surface insulation. 

During the past year, the feasibility of mass-producing very thin silicon solar cells and incorporating 

them into lightweight, high-performance solar arrays 

has been demonstrated. Since 1978, 5000 of these 

cells have been manufactured, with half of them 

having energy-conversion efficiencies of about 12 

percent, a number approaching that of the best 

individually made silicon cells. 

Space radiation damages solar cells and seriously degrades their power output. Thermal annealing 

(heating) of solar cells in space is one way to alleviate this problem and increase the lifetime of a 

satellite. Annealing mechanisms for silicon and gallium arsenide solar cells are being studied. It has 

been found that annealing for one hour at 400- 

450°C is sufficient to restore 90 percent of the 

power lost by silicon solar cells that have received 

radiation equivalent to 10 years in geosynchronous 

orbit. Gallium arsenide cells also exhibit attractive 

annealing behavior, with nearly complete restoration possible at temperatures of only 250°C. 

One factor limiting the life of batteries in both 

space and terrestrial applications has been the dur39 
ability of the separators used to prevent contact between active materials. Separator material under investigation by NASA for a number of years has 

been improved in the past year so that the useful 

life of batteries using nickel, silver, and zinc as 

active materials can be tripled, and separators can 

be made using more environmentally acceptable 

materials. This promises to extend the life of satellites and spacecraft, and could contribute to practical electric automobiles. 

In the launch vehicle propulsion area, 1979 saw 

the successful initial testing of high-pressure primary combustors and turbine-drive gas generators 

burning liquid oxygen and high-density fuels. Regenerative cooling, with liquid oxygen in an operating engine, was also demonstrated, thus confirming earlier heat transfer analyses and laboratory 

scale tests that predicted superior cooling capabilities of liquid oxygen, compared to fuels of typical 

density, such as RP-1. 

Finally, the technology verification of ion propulsion neared completion. This entirely new form of 

propulsion capability will permit the consideration 

of missions to comets and other difficult interplanetary destinations heretofore considered impractical. This work is expected to provide the 

basis for future development of a solar electric 

propulsion rocket stage. 

Systems Research and Technology 

In systems research and technology, emerging 

fundamental technologies are structured into interdisciplinary programs leading to demonstration of 

technology readiness for advanced space systems. 

Such activities are organized into three main categories-information systems, spacecraft systems. 

and transportation systems. 

Znforr~iation systctiis. Tnformation system technologies lead to advanced sensor and instrunientation systems to facilitate acquisition of data and to 

processing and transmission systems to convert that 

data for effective and timely user information 

exchange. 

Current NASA photographic imaging systems 

rely on silicon, charge-coupled device (CCD) technology to provide sensing capability in the visible 

and the near-infrared portion of the electromagnetic 

spectrum. During this past year, NASA developed 

and tested technology for a new imaging system involving a 1 x 9 array of mercury-cadmium-telluride 

CCDs capable of extending this capability into the 

thermal, far-infrared portion of the spectrum. Future plans involve expanding the array size to 1 x 

1000 elements for use in a solid-state, multi-spectral 

system for imaging the Earth and its resources. 

Continuing emphasis has been placed on the 

NASA end-to-end data systems (NEEDS) program 

to define system configurations and develop enabling 

techniques and technology for NASA-wide information systems of the 1980s. During the past year an 

optical data storage system successfully demonstrated the use of a laser to record and read data on 

film at a density of over 7 million bits per square 

centimeter. With this performance, one optical storage unit can replace up to 100 high-density magnetic-tape storage devices. Also during 1979, a 

significant step toward very high-speed processing 

was taken with the completion of the design of a 

“massively parallel processor,” a 128 x 128 array 

of discrete processing units. This device can perform image processing computations at speeds of 

over 6 billion arithmetical operations per second, 

thereby enabling the classification of an entire 

Landsat image in six milliseconds. 

NASA has been continuing communications technology development to enable future spacecraft to 

operate efliciently with the new Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). During FY 1979, 

test demonstrations were completed on two different 

antenna configurations; the S ./Ku-band planar array 

and the electronically switched spherical array. The 

S “Ku-band antenna was designed to handle high 

data rates in the megabit-to- 1.8-gigabit-per-second 

range. Both antennas were designed to point electronically to TDRSS. 

Spacecraft Systeriis. Spacecraft systems technology contains the elements to provide future advances in spacecraft structures and their associated 

subsystem, including power generating systems, 

control systems, onboard propulsion, and utility distribution systems. 

NASA has continued the large space systems 

technology (LSST) program to develop the technology for future spacecraft that may be assembled 

in space through some combination of deployable 

and erectable space assembly methods. This program provides technology for two principal types 

of large space systems: support structures such as 

platforms, trusses, and beams; and shaped structures 

such as antennas. Initial efforts have focused on developing fundamental understanding of the characteristics of such structures in space through 

ground simulation. As a result of truss assembly experiments in the neutral buoyancy tank at Marshall 

Space Flight Center, the time and capability limitations of man-assisted assembly methods were revealed; this caused NASA to increase program emphasis on technology for assembly aids, deployment, and automated assembly techniques. As one 

example, several new concepts for structural joints 

were developed to respond to high-speed, automated 

assembly procedures. Additionally, a deployable 

40 
truss constructed from very thin-wall aluminum tubing and very compact in packaging, was developed 

and tested. In the laboratory, this scale model performed well in tests for extension and lock-up performance. Future free-fall tests in a large vacuum 

chamber will evaluate the adequacy of the deployment scheme. 

A 12-kilowatt deployable solar array is being 

readied for test demonstration on an early Shuttle 

flight. This array design is intended for use by 

NASA in possible Shuttle power augmentation systems and the solar electric propulsion stage (SEPS). 

During 1979, this 32-by-4-meter lightweight wing 

was successfully subjected to simulated acoustic 

and thermal vacuum tests. Along with previous 

simulated zero-g testing aboard a KC-135 aircraft, 

the tests provide confidence for the planned Shuttle 

flights. 

Transportation Sy.stcin.s. Transportation system 

technologies provide data needed for both the development of future aerospace vehicle design concepts and the improvement of the current Space 

Shuttle design. 

Continuing last year’s dynamics test program in a 

number of NASA wind tunnel facilities. models of 

the mated Shuttle orbiter, external tank, and solid 

rocket boosters were subjected to flutter and buffet 

loads. Ground-wind-load tests were conducted, 

simulating conditions for the ascent trajectory. In 

all cases, the design characteristics of the Shuttle 

were validated and there were no indications of 

aerodynamics instabilities or other problems. 

NASA’s composites for advanced transportation 

systems (CASTS) program fabricated and tested a 

wide variety of large graphite-polyimide structural 

panels. Included among these pieces of test structure was an element of the Shuttle orbiter aft body 

flap. As an example of the potential payoff of this 

lightweight structures technology for future space 

transportation systems, this body flap, if fully developed, could save future orbiter vehicles 160 kilograms in structure weight. More than 75 percent of 

this weight reauction derives from capability of 

composite materials to function at higher temperatures than aluminum, thereby eliminating the need 

for thermal protection. 

NASA plans to exploit the unique opportunity to 

extend entry research and improve its ability to employ ground test facilities by conducting full-scale 

testing on orbiter flights. Early orbiter flights will be 

instrumented in the “Orbiter Experiments” program (OEX) to provide lifting-entry experimental 

data. OEX instrument packages have been designed, 

and during 1979 the following progress occurred: 

the Shuttle infrared leeside temperature sensing experiment, to measure upper surface temperatures on 

the Shuttle, was subjected to a critical design review 

preparatory to release for fabrication; hardware for 

the tile gap heating experiment approached completion and is currently being readied for the second 

Shuttle mission; the Shuttle entry air data system, to 

measure aerodynamic pressure, completed preliminary design; and hardware was completed for the 

aerodynamic coefficient identification package, 

which is being integrated into the orbiter for the 

first Shuttle launch. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA seeks to ensure the effective use of its experience and technology in support of national 

energy needs. Most of NASA activity in energy is 

reimbursable support for the programs of the Department of Energy (DOE). 

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Systetns. NASA fuel 

cell expertise and capabilities developed in space 

applications have, for the past three years, been applied to terrestrial fuel cell technology in support of 

the national energy goals. 

In support of DOE, NASA has completed technology verification tests of an advanced cell stack 

concept. This stack promises, through the reduction 

in electrolyte losses, a five-fold increase from 8000 

hours to 40,000 hours of operational life. This 

longer life should allow for amortization of the 

capital investment in a fuel cell system. In addition, 

the new stack can be fabricated at a lower cost. 

Automotive Research and Development. In 1972, 

NASA started providing technical consultation to 

the Environmental Protection Agency’s automotive 

gas turbine program. With the growth and subsequent transfer of the program to DOE, NASA’s 

role has continued to grow. Currently, under the 

programmatic direction of DOE, NASA is providing 

technical management of the turbine development 

project and the parallel Stirling engine project. 

The automotive gas turbine program saw the completion of a development which improved the fuel 

efficiency of a Chrysler engine by 10 percent and 

identified directions for further improvements. In 

another automotive gas turbine development, a 

number of ceramic turbine parts have been successfully tested at a temperature of 1040°C. Two industry teams, General Motors Corp. and AiResearch /Ford, were awarded 5-year contracts to develop an advanced automotive gas turbine engine. 

The new engine should be available for road tests 

in mid-1983. 

In the development of automotive Stirling engines, 1979 saw the initiation of engine component 

development, and the successful integration of a 

Stirling research engine into an American Motors 

stock car to gain understanding of installation problems associated with this new type of engine. 

41 
At the request of DOE (then ERDA) in 1976, 

NASA assumed technical management for research 

and technology elements of the electric and hybrid 

vehicle program. In 1979, NASA took delivery of 

the first electric car designed, using best available 

components, for the evaluation of electric vehicle 

systems technology. In preliminary tests the GE/ 

Chrysler-built car achieved a range of 14.5 kilometers at a cruising speed of 70 kilometers per hour, 

a SO percent improvement over electric vehicles previously tested. 

Industrial Gas Turbine Technology. Since FY 

1977, NASA’s expertise and capabilities in aerospace power and propulsion systems have been applied to the development of technology for large gas 

turbine engines in direct support of DOE’S stationary power generation programs. 

NASA’s Lewis Research Center working with industry has initiated two efforts in turbine technology 

to enable gas turbines to use coal-derived liquid 

fuels when they become available. The materials 

effort for turbine hot-section components is focused 

on the development of long-life ceramic coatings 

capable of surviving the hostile environment created 

by combustion of coal-derived liquid fuels. The 

combustor work is directed toward the efficient 

burning of synthetic fuels while also satisfying federal emissions standards. Verification is to be done 

with modified gas turbine engines. 

Photovoltaic Conrversion (Solar Ccllc) . Although 

NASA developed solar cells to power satellites over 

20 years ago. the first government program to apply 

them to terrestrial use was begun jointly by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and NASA in 

1975. Management of this key element of the energy 

program was subsequently transferred to the DOE. 

During 1979, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

(JPL) was designated the lead center for photovoltaic technology development and applications by 

DOE. JPL will develop plans, establish budgets. 

and provide overall program management of the 

national photovoltaic program. 

Two NASA-directed applications of photovoltaic 

pomcr are now operational. At the Schuchuli Tndian reservation in Arizona, solar cells are gencrating 3.500 watts of electric power and the second 

detmnstration, supported by the Agency for Tnternational Development, is in Upper Volta at the village of Tangaye where solar cells generate 1800 

watts of electric power. 

Wind Energy. NASA has been assigned responsibility for the technical management of large wind 

turbine development and demonstration efforts since 

1973. The first large machine, capable of developing 100.000 watts of electric power, was completed 

in 1975. Two similar wind turbines, generating 

twice that power, became operational in 1977 and 

1978. 

On June 15, 1979, a third 200,000-watt wind 

turbine having a 38-meter-long blade was dedicated 

at Block Island, Rhode Island, and on July 11, 

1979, the largest wind turbine ever constructed was 

dedicated at Boone, North Carolina. Its 60-meterdiameter rotor can generate two million watts of 

power, enough for 500 homes. An even larger turbine, using new technology to reduce cost, will be 

operational in 1980. 

In addition to managing these wind energy efforts 

for the Department of Energy, NASA is now working with the Department of the Interior’s Water and 

Power Resources Service to supervise construction 

of a large wind turbine and to train operating personnel. This machine, to be operational at Medicine 

Bow, Wyoming, in 1981, may lead to construction 

of a “Wind Energy Farm” at that site. 

Space Data Services 

NASA tracks, receives telemetry from, and sends 

commands to all NASA spacecraft by means of two 

worldwide tracking networks, one for deep space 

missions and one for Earth orbital missions. Supporting these networks are a cluster of mission control centers and a large data processing complex, 

with the complete system tied together by a global 

communications system. This system also provides 

real-time data processing for mission control and 

orbit and trajectory determination, as well as routine processing of engineering and scientific telemetry from the spacecraft. 

Operxtions 

The tracking systeni provided continuing support 

to about 30 NASA Earth-orbital missions in 1979, 

including the newly launched HEAO 3 and Magsat 

catellites, and the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas 

Experiment. The system also provided launch support for several satellites launched by other government agencies, commercial firms, and by foreign 

governments, and provided backup capability for a 

few spacecraft controlled by other government agencies. This was an extremely busy year for the Deep 

Space Network, which supported 17 interplanetary 

spacecraft. Some of their missions required significant advancement in the capability of the network, 

such as the Voyager 1 and 2 encounters of Jupiter 

and the Pioneer I I encounter of Saturn. 

Network Improziements 

More sophisticated space missions, always pressing the boundaries of technology, continued to re42 
quire extension of the capability of the network. In 

the Deep Space Network the conversion of the 26- 

meter S-band antenna to 34-meter S- and X-band 

units continued, allowing higher rates of data transfer from deep space. Another innovation to provide the capability required by the ever-increasinp 

distances and improve the return data rates of 

planetary spacecraft was a technique called “arraying.” This consists of using two separate antennas 

to collect data from the spacecraft and then electronically adding the signals together. producing 

the effect of a single antenna of larger diameter. 

This technique was experimentally used during the 

Voyager encounter with Jupiter and during the 

Pioneer 11 encounter with Saturn. The experiments 

were successful and improved signal reception. 

In addition to the difficulties in data reception 

and spacecraft command resulting from the great 

distances of planetary spacecraft, these distances 

placed great demands on our navigation capability. 

This is particularly important when the missions require a close flyby of a planet to get an assist from 

that planet’s gravity to alter trajectory and reduce 

travel time. We have used a navigation technique 

called “differential very long baseline interferometry,” wherein two geographically distant antennas 

collect data from a known radio source, such as a 

quasar, as well as the spacecraft. Integration of this 

information provides precise positioning and reduces 

navigational uncertainties. 

The Earth-orbital tracking system was also being improved to meet demands that are increasing 

in difficulty. The Shuttle flights will require voice 

communications; the required modifications were 

essentially completed. Preparations were begun for 

the very high data rates that will be experienced in 

Spacelab support. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS) 

The TDRSS is a system of four data-relay satellites that will ultimately replace the ground tracking stations for support of low Earth-orbital missions. NASA has contracted with Western Union 

for tbe lease of services from the system for ten 

years. TRW is acting as the major subcontractor to 

Western Union in the spacecraft development portion of this system and that development is now 

moving along satisfactorily with the major subsystem 

having been delivered for integration and test. The 

ground station at White Sands that will receive 

TDRSS data is nearing completion as is the network control center at Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Greenbelt, Maryland. 

General World Administrative Radio Conference 

(GIVARC) 

Every 20 years the GWARC convenes to revise 

the international regulations and frequency allocations that govern the use of the radio spectrum. 

With the tremendous increase in demand for these 

frequencies that has resulted from the advances in 

communications technology, this subject is of great 

interest to the United States and to NASA. The 

GWARC convened on September 27, 1979, with 

NASA supplying 4 of the 84 United States delegates. 

One hundred and forty-eight nations were represented by approximately 1700 delegates. NASA 

presented position papers on space research, landmobile satellites, a solar power satellite, and remote 

sensing. Almost all space communication requirements were successfully negotiated during the 

conference. 

Aeronautical Research and Technology 

NASA’s aeronautical research seeks improvements 

in the pcrformance, efficiency, and safety of current 

aircraft and a base of high technology that designers 

can use to improve aircraft of the next generation. 

These objectives focus research onto: 

establishing and maintaining a strong techrcducing energy consumption and undesirable 

improving terminal area operations 

advancing long-haul and short-haul aircraft 

providing technical support for the military. 

nological base 

effects of aircraft 

Nnivitaining a Stroirg Technology Base 

The fundamental aeronautics research and technology program includes activities in all disciplines 

and provides for the continued advancement of technology and the establishment of a strong aeronautics technology base. Significant accomplishments in 

1979 include the development of new airframe and 

cnginc component materials, improved computational techniques, advances in flutter prediction and 

control, and improved human-aircraft interface and 

air-system management. 

The airframe materials research during 1979 continued to focus on composite structures. New, 

tougher graphite/epoxy composite materials were 

identified. These composite laminates, based on four 

new epoxy formulations, have survived laboratory 

impact tests at a strain almost twice that of presently 

used composite materials. Present composites permit 

a 25-percent weight reduction over aluminium structures; doubling the maximum allowable design strain 
for composite structures will significantly increase 

the potential weight savings. 

Materials research for propulsion systems has 

continued to provide materials with the strength and 

oxidation/corrosion resistance required for higher 

engine operating temperatures. A ceramic material, 

zirconium oxide, has been used in an abradable turbine engine shroud seal. The shroud used a compliant layer between the ceramic surface and the 

metallic backing to relieve thermally induced strains 

that might delaminate or crack the ceramic. The 

seal has successfully completed 1000 thermal cycles 

at 1300" without failure. Replacement of conventional scals with ceramic seals can lead to a 10-fold 

reduction in the wear of turbine blade tips, with a 

resulting reduction in specific fuel consumption by 

about 2 percent. 

For the first time, an analytical computer code 

successfully described the flow characteristics 

through both stationary and rotating propulsion system components. The internal flow was modeled by 

using a three-dimensional viscous analytical technique having high computation speed, and a large 

enough numbcr of mesh points to analyze the complex flow, including secondary cross flows and vorticity. This model ha5 been verified by experimcntal 

measurcmcnts in actual turbofan mixers. Knowledge 

of the dynamics of the mixing of the flow in the 

engine will contribute to future improvements in 

cngine performance and jet noise reduction. 

During 1979, significant advances were made in 

computational aerodynamics research. For the first 

time, a computational solution was obtained which 

predicts and cxplains the details of the unsteady 

behavior of flow over wings and other lifting surfaces 

at transonic speeds. When compared with data obtained on a fighter aircraft, the solutions showcd 

that both the onset and magnitude of buffet effects 

were as predicted. 

The trend toward lighter, more flexible structures 

for aircraft requires new methods of predicting and 

avoiding flutter instability. During FY 1979, an 

active control concept, based upon a computerimplementcd fcedback control system, was successfully tested in the wind tunnel. Twelve transducers 

on the airfoil surface sensed the onsct of flutter and 

transmitted this to the computer; the computer activatcd existing flaperons to produce aerodynamic 

forces that oppose flutter. The model airfoil with the 

active controls was able to attain a velocity 50 percent greater than the flutter onset without the controls. The technique is being tested currently in flight 

tests with a radio-controlled drone. 

In the joint NASA-FAA cockpit display of traffic 

information (CDTI) and heads-up display (HUD) 

programs, results from laboratory studies using static 

symbology indicated that HUD-experienced pilots 

are able to simultaneously perceive both symbolic 

(HUD) and real-world information. A simulator 

study using dynamic HUD symbology is presently 

under way to quantify pilot responses. A generic display concept was developed and experiments conducted to provide a data base on crew perception of 

lateral separation, using CDTI. 

Reducing Energy Consumption and Undesirable 

Eflects 

NASA made progress in 1979 toward its goals of 

developing technology that would reduce fuel consumption in derivative and future commercial subsonic transport aircraft by as much as 50 percent. 

Engine Syrterns. Looking toward near-term fuel 

savings in current production and derivative JT8D, 

JT9D, and CF6 turbofan engines, NASA selected 

16 engine components for advanced technology improvements. Work has been completed on 7 of these 

and the demonstrated fuel savings have been very 

close to predictions. Four are already in production 

by the aircraft engine industry: an improved fan, a 

iicw short-core nozzle, a more rigid front engine 

mount for the CF6 engine, and an improved highpressure-turbine active clearance control system for 

the JT9D engine. The new technology is particuarly 

timely, since new derivative engines are under development. 

The information generated by the NASA investigations to isolate and quantify the causes of performance deterioration in engines and their resultant 

loss in fuel efficiency has been adopted by a number 

of airlines; results have been a one-percent improvement in cruise specific fuel consumption and a reduction in costly unscheduled engine removal rates 

of as much as 50 percent. If all the engine improvemcnts and diagnostic techniques are adopted by the 

industry, a cumulative fuel savings of 33 billion liters 

could be realized over the next 25 ycars that these 

engines are produced and in service. 

Looking further into the future, NASA is developing technology for a new generation of turbofan 

engines that will be extremely fuel-efficient, resistant 

to performance deterioration, and economical to 

opcrate and maintain. Engine aystcm designs were 

complctcd in 1979, and the major hardware phase 

of the program was initiated. Overall estimates of 

engine system performance indicate that these new 

energy-cfficient engines could reduce fuel consumption by 14 to 22 percent depending on the flight 

mission, reduce direct operating cost by 5 to 10 

percent, reduce performance deterioration by 50 

percent, and decrease noise and emission levels 

below those of thc most advanced engines in service 

today. 

44 
High-speed propeller technology is being developed for application to commercial transports and 

short-haul commuter aircraft. Subscale model tests 

have validated the design tools for modern, advanced-technology propeller configurations that 

could reduce fuel consumption by 15 to 20 percent 

over turbofan engines of the same technology level. 

The design was completed on the latest in a series of 

propeller models: a ten-bladed configuration with 

low blade tip speeds to reduce propeller noise. This 

configuration is estimated to be about 20 decibels 

quieter and one percent more efficient than any 

models previously tested. 

Aerodynatiiic Systems. Aerodynamics research for 

reducing energy use in transport aircraft continued 

to make good progress in 1979. 

In mid-1979, a KC-1 35 tanker aircraft, modified 

to incorporate winglets, completed its first flight 

under a joint NASA-USAF research program. To be 

completed in 1980, the flight program is expected to 

demonstrate a 6-8-percent reduction in cruise drag 

compared to the unmodified KC-1 35. 

Wind tunnel investigations of advanced high-lift 

systems for transport aircraft wings have led to new 

flap configurations that are significantly better than 

current devices, demonstrating 30-percent higher 

maximum lift. Including this capability in advanced 

wing design would provide improved operating efficiency in the takeoff, climb, and descent phases of 

flight. 

Removal of the turbulent (high drag) air layer 

that flows close to the wing surfaces could improve 

the energy efficiency of transport aircraft by 20 to 40 

percent depending on the extent of application and 

on aircraft range. In 1979, wing surface panels incorporating the necessary slots and porous surfaces 

to restore laminar flow were built and tested under 

simulated flight environments in preparation for 

actual flight test of these state-of-the-art concepts on 

a wing leading edge next year. The design of an 

optimum airfoil, tailored to the specific requirements 

for active removal of the turbulent boundary layer, 

has been completed, and testing will take place in 

the near future. 

Structural Systetm. A major effort is being expended to accelerate the acceptance of fiber-reinforced composite structures for transport aircraft. 

The potential benefit from this technology is structural weight savings up to 25 percent for fuel savings 

of 10-15 percent. The current program consists of 

developing the technology for secondary structures 

and medium primary structures. 

In the secondary-structures program during 1979, 

the DC-10 rudder program was essentially completed, with FAA certification and planned airline 

service. Five shipsets of B-727 elevators have been 

manufactured, all ground and flight testing completed, FAA certification obtained, and airline service begun. The design phase of the L-1011 aileron 

was also completed and the first full-scale part 

fabricated. 

The design phase for the medium-sized primarystructure components has been completed. The principal B-737 stabilizer subcomponents (stub box) 

have successfully completed static, fatigue, and failsafe testing and the first full-scale B-737 stabilizer 

was fabricated. Skins and spars for a full-scale 

L- IO 1 1 vertical fin have been fabricated, and DC-10 

vertical-stabilizer fabrication has begun. 

Fiw1.Y. Aviation jet fuels research and technology 

are directed at investigating variations in the properties of futurc jet fuels dcrived from petroleum and 

non-petroleum sources, and studying the potential 

effects of these varying properties on performance 

of engines and fuel systems. Results to date indicate 

that a major problem is the increasing amount of 

aromatic hydrocarbon compounds; these generally 

burn with a smokey, luminous flame, because excessivc soot forms in the combustion process. Thc 

likely variations in the properties of future jet fuels 

have now been established and activities are under 

way to develop the combustor and fuel-system technologies needed so that these fuels can be used with 

acceptable levels of emissions and durability. 

Noise and Eniission Reduction. An extensive systematic study on effects of inlet geometry and flow 

on the noise radiated from aircraft inlets has been 

conducted. Test results from an advanced “scoopedinlet” concept show that the ground-measured noise 

level could be reduced as much as 10 decibels, compared to that from a conventional symmetrical inlet. 

Experimental engine testing of an advanced combustor applicable to small engines was conducted 

during 1979, and reductions in carbon monoxide 

emissions of 50 perccnt and unburned hydrocarbon 

emissions of 80 percent were demonstrated. Preliminary design of several lean prevaporized/premixed combustor concepts were analytically evaluated and two of these concepts were selected for 

experimental evaluation. If successfully developed, 

these would provide extremely low emission levels in 

both the airport environment during taxi, landing, 

and takeoff, as well as in the upper atmosphere during high-altitude cruise. 

lmproving Terminal Area Operatiom and Safety 

Research on terminal area operations and safety 

is being pursued vigorously by NASA. 

Terminal Area Operations. In 1979, the NASAFAA program to develop technology for advanced 

airborne systems and for flight procedures for more 

efficient operations in the terminal area demon45 
strated advanced airborne guidance, control, and 

display systems which aided flight crews operating 

the NASA Terminal-Configured Vehicle (TCV) 

B-737 at Denver and an L-1011 at Dallas. These 

tests were conducted under actual Air Traffic Control (ATC) conditions to fly minimum-fuel descents 

to fixed approach entry points within a few seconds 

of assigned arrival times, as compared to two-minute 

variations using conventional systems, and were conducted with the air traffic controller acting only in a 

monitoring capacity. The results have provided support to airlines and the aircraft industry for the incorporation of such concepts in the development of 

new aircraft; benefits include improved safety, fuel 

efficiency, and system productivity. 

Safety. NASA's safety research included studies 

of new elastomeric material blends for tires meeting 

demands of high-performance aircraft. Flight tests 

of tires based upon a NASA-developed formulation 

showed improved wear, but exhibited chevron-cut 

growth. In an cffort to avoid these undesirable tendencies, tires are now being processed using advanced blending and curing techniques and will be 

tested in the NASA Landing Loads Track at the 

Langlcy Research Center. 

The Aviation Safety Reporting System continues 

to be important to NASA's aircraft safety program 

by providing a flow of confidential safety information from the users of the National Aviation System. 

Approximately 100 voluntary reports are received 

by NASA each week, and arc used as a basis for 

issuing alert bulletins and conducting special studies 

to analyze trends and recurring problems. One of 

thc special studies in 1979 involved the analysis of 

cockpit distractions that led to hazards identified in 

reports. It was concluded that 33 percent of the 

distractions were non-operational in nature, such as 

requests over the company radio, the public address 

system, and interruptions by flight attendants. The 

rernaindcr were distractions from operational activities, such as checklists, minor malfunctions, and 

watching traffic. The detailed analyses of the types 

and cauSes of distractions provided an important 

input to the air carriers to improve their crew training and operational procedures. 

Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircsaft 

Efforts continued to develop and prove the technology for long-range supersonic aircraft, very quiet 

short-haul aircraft that operate at very low approach 

speeds. and rotorcraft and general aviation aircraft, 

which are becoming incrcasingly important elements 

of short haul transportation. 

Supersonic Research. Research continued on propulsion, aerodynamics, and structures technologies 

that would enable design of supersonic aircraft that 

could be economically attractive and environmentally acceptable. Two variable-cycle engine-component test rigs reached the stage of all-up testing in 

FY 1979. One concept, the double-bypass engine, 

successfully demonstrated noise reductions of 6-8 

decibels, confirming small-scale model tests of the 

co-annular noise principle. The other concept, a 

variable stream control engine, demonstrated very 

high duct burner efficiency, with low levels of 

exhaust emissions. High-lift devices have been tested 

which improved the low-speed efficiency of highly 

swept arrow wings by 12 percent over the best 

achieved two years ago. Titanium design and manufacturing process studies continued; with the Air 

Force, NASA began the design and one-step fabrication of a complete super-plastic-formed, diffusionbonded, titanium horizontal tail for a small supersonic airplane. NASA's AD-1 oblique-wing research 

aircraft made its first flight on December 21 from 

Dryden Flight Research Center. Though the wing 

was in the usual position perpendicular to the fuselage for this flight, it can be pivoted as much as 60" 

for investigation of handling characteristics. 

Quiet Short-Haul Aircraft. NASA activity in propulsive-lift short-takcoff and landing (STOL) aircraft research has increasingly been concentrated in 

flight testing. In 1979, research with the C-8 jet augmentor wing and Twin Otter propeller STOL research aircraft was essentially completed in such 

areas as control compensation following engine failure in the landing approach, examination of the 

influence of night visual cues on pilot landing performance, and automatic STOL landings using the 

microwave landing system. 

Following completion early in 1979 of proofof-concept flights on NASA's quiet short-haul research aircraft (QSRA) , flight-envelope documentation flights began. Takeoff ground rolls of less than 

203 meters, landing ground rolls less than 168 

meters, and low turn (to 183-meter radius) capability have been demonstrated. Analysis of the latest 

test data indicates that the QSRA is performing very 

close to preflight predictions from wind-tunnel data 

and, in particular, has demonstrated the capability 

of obtaining the very low noise characteristics necessary for STOL operations. 

Rotorcraft. In 1979. wind-tunnel tests determined 

means to improve airflow in rotor hub and pylon 

areas with marked reduction in drag. Other windtunncl tests were started on a newly acquired fullscale research rotor that incorporated some of the 

desirable foatures determined from scale-model testing and analysis. 

Full-scale tunnel tests also demonstrated a unique 

advanccd rotor system known as the X-wing; it 

operates as a rotor in helicopter flight and as a 
fixed wing in an X-configuration in high-speed forward flight. 

Flight data were gathered on the use of airborne 

radar as a navigation aid in landing approaches to 

oil rigs in the Gulf Coast. This will assist the FAA 

in establishing criteria for terminal-area instrument 

procedures. 

A major effort completed in 1979 was the formulation by a NASA task force of an advanced rotorcraft technology program. NASA also conducted a 

highly successful rotorcraft modeling workshop with 

wide participation by the helicopter community. 

Genernl Aviation. NASA made gains in 1979 in 

its research in general aviation to improve energy 

efficiency, environmental impact, safety, and utility. 

In 1979, NASA conducted full-scale cooling drag 

tests in the Ames Research Center's 40 x SO-foot 

wind tunnel using a semi-span model of a general 

aviation wing and nacelle combination. The tests 

demonstrated that exhausting the cooling air 

through exits in the nacelle's side rather than via 

standard cowl flaps can provide better cooling and 

significantly reduce drag from cooling. 

The quiet, clean, general aviation turbofan 

(QCGAT) engine program was successfully completed, and the primary program goals were met. In 

pollutant emissions, there was a 54-percent reduction in carbon monoxide, 76-percent reduction in 

unburned hydrocarbons, and significant reductions 

in nitrous oxides. The QCGAT engine noise was IO 

to 14 decibels lower than the most quiet of current 

business jet engines. 

The most severe test in the joint NASA-FAA general aviation crash dynamics program was performed at the Langley Research Center's Impact 

Dynamics Research Facility. A twin-engine aircraft was crash-tested at a 30-degree nose-down attitude using small rockets to increase impact velocity 

to 145 kilometers per hour. Two NASA-designed 

energy-absorbing passenger seats were tested in the 

controlled crash. One was a rocker motion seat designed to rotate the passenger into a more acceptable position at impact. The other was a ceilingsuspended seat that uses the wire bending principle 

to dissipate energy. Both restraint systems attached 

to the seat instead of to the fuselage as in conventional design. The test results indicate that the seats 

reduce occupant load up to SO percent, thereby providing a better chance to avoid serious injury in the 

event of a crash. 

Techizicnl Support for the Alilitnry 

Since most of NASA's aeronautical program addresses broad-based fundamental problems, considerable potential military benefit accrues from 

much d the NASA program. 

Highly Munciri*i~rablc Aircr~ft Tc~liriology 

(HiMA T) . A major joint program involving the 

USAF and NASA that deals with the technology 

of high-performance aircraft is the HiMAT program. The HiMAT remotely piloted research vevicle, a 44-percent scale model of a potential future concept, made its first flight on July 27, 1979, 

from Dryden Flight Research Center. This was not 

only the first step in validating the very advanced 

technologies used in the vehicle design, it also 

demonstrated a new flight-test techniclue (i.e., subscale, remotely piloted research vehicles) that offer 

significant cost reductions for future flight research. 

Tilt Rotor Rci.rrtrrch A ircraft. The NASA-Army 

tilt rotor research aircraft has been successfully 

flown over a speed range from 0 to 382 kilometers 

per hour. After completing hovering flight and documenting the aircraft's flight characteristics at various combinations of forward speed and rotor tilt 

angle, the aircraft was flown with the rotors tilted 

forward in the airplane mode for the first time. The 

Navy has now joined with NASA and the Army in 

this program to obtain data on the tilt rotor concept 

applicable to future V 'STOL aircraft options that 

meet Navy requirements. 

Rotor Systeriis Research Aircraft. The rotor systems research aircraft program, another NASAArmy program, reached a major milestone with the 

delivery of both research aircraft to the Ames Research Center. The two vehicles, one in the helicopter configuration and the other in the compound 

configuration (wing and auxiliary thrust engines 

added), are now being flown in familiarization and 

instrumentation systems checkout in preparation for 

starting research flights. 

47 
111 

Introduction 

Department of Defense 

Space and aeronautics are areas of major interest 

to the Dcp;irtment of Defense becnuse they are 

fiintl;inient;il to the national security. DoD therefore operates a strong program with a wide scope of 

activities in slxicc and aeronautics. These activities 

range from research and development that in;iintains tlic flow of fresh technology to the phasing in 

of new concepts and systems for more efficient fulfillment of requirements in such areas as coniniiinications, coniniaiid and control, navigation, 

envii.oiinienta1 forecasting, surveillnnce, and experimentation. While the purpose of these activities is 

military in nature, Don inaint;iiiis close cooperation with other agencies of the government throiigh 

which I)cnefits from the DoD program reach the 

civilian sector. In 1979 there was not;il~lc progress 

in a broad range of space activities, including the 

start of construction of a Space Shuttle launch facility on the west coast and the bringing to full 

operational strength of the space segment of a global 

DoD communications network. Aeronautics progressed with flight-test programs of several advanced 

concepts and promising new electronic systems. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Cominzinicntions 

Satellite comm~inicaiions systenis are being employed to meet priority communications needs that 

are uniq~ic to worldwide Don communications requirements. These systems are also used to establish high-priority ;ilternatc routing for certain terrestrial systenis to impi-ove survival~ility, and to 

reduce tlcpcndence on third nations to approve 

coniniiinica tions ;ICCCSS to other countries. The flexibility ofrered by this niediiini to rapidly reconfigure 

existing communic;itioiis networks to meet crisis 

nianagenient i~cquirenients and provide direct communications to task force commanders is important 

as a force multiplier. 

Defense rcqriirenients lor satellite conininnications call for three categories of capability: (1) 

higli-capacity, high-data-rate, long-haul, point-topoint coiiiiiiiiiiicntions for fixed users; (2) moderate-capxi ty, low-data-ixte communications for 

niobilc iisers; ;id (8) conini;ind and control of 

strategic niic1e;ir Eorces. AIiIitary satellite communic:i tions sytems for these mission must he hardened 

;ig;iinsL nucIe;ii. dIects and have jamming protection 

to ni:riiit;rin eommiinic;itioris and command/control continiiity iii ;I liostilc or crisis environment. 

(:ui.i.ently these tIii.cc categories of capability are 

wtisfied by (1) the Defense Satellite Cominunicarions System Phase I1 (DSCS 11); (2) Fleet Satellite 

<:ommunic;itions System (F1,TSATCOM) , ~IUS 

Ic;isetl sen.ices on the hl;iris;rt satellite system (Gapfiller): ;id (3) the Air Force Satellite Comniunications Systeni (AI3A7CO11) , consisting of comniriniations ~xickages on the Satellite Data System 

(SI),$), ant1 FI .l'SATCO;\I. During tlic coining dec- 

;rtlc, these existing s)'stems will be replaced and 

;iiigniented in ;in evolutionary manner by (1) DSCS 

111, (2) 1.e;isctl Satellite (IXASAT) System, and 

(3) Strategic Satellite System (SSS). 

I)r,foi.sc S(i/rlli/r ~:o,ri,iiirizicnlions Systcm (DSCS). 

7'11~ mission of the DSCS is to provide seciire voice 

and higIi-tl;i t;i-ixte transmissions in support of 

iinicliie ;ind vital requirements for worldwide military command and control and crisis management, 

intelligence data relay, early warning detection, 

monitoring and surveillance, and diplomatic traffic. 

The DSC3 siipports critical, glohal communication 

i.cciiiii.enicnts of the National Command Authorities, tlic M'orldwitle Military Command and Control System (WWilrCCS), the Ground Mobile 

I;oi~ccs, the Defense Comiiirinicntions System, the 

1)iploniatic Te1ecoiiimrinic;itions Service, the White 

Hoiise (:omniiiiiic;itions Agency, antl selected allies. 

Now ftilly ol)cration;il, the spice portion of DSCS 

consists of foul- active satellites antl two on-orbit 

spii'es and provides g1oI~:il (less polar) coverage 

with iieiir 100 pei'cent availability through the 

I !)8Os. To ciisui'c continuity of essential communications and cui~~~ival,iIity during crises situations and 

;I potenti:il hostile comniunications environment, 

c~~olving DSCS satellites will include an improved 

48 
anti-jam capability in addition to nuclear-effects 

hardening. 

The initial research and development phase of 

the Defense Coiiimiinications Satellite Program provided a limited operational system from 1966 

tlirough 1974. For most of 1979, the space subsystem 

consisted of four operational spacecraft and one onorbit spire: one DSCS I1 satellite (number 4) 

launched in December 1973, two DSCS I1 satellites 

(numlms 7 ant1 8) 1;iunchetl in hIay 1977, and two 

DSCS I1 satellitcs (numbers 11 and 12) launched 

in Decenilxr 1978. The successful December 1978 

launch of satellites 11 and 12 permitted the return 

to h'ATO of the NATO IIIR satellite which was 

on loan for temporary use because DSCS I1 satellites 9 ;ind 10 failed to achieve orbit in RIarch 

1978. DSCS I1 satellites 13 and 14 were successfully 

launched in November 1979, achieving the desired 

six-satellite configtiration for the first time. DSCS I1 

satellites 1.5 and lfi will become available as replacements in 1980. 

The next generation of DSCS satellites will be 

DSCS I11 niotlels, with improved perfomiance and 

sui-viv;il>ility. During 1979, development of a qualification-model satellite, two RkD flight satellites, 

and ground c-oniniand and control equipment continued. 'The first RkD satellite (DFS 1) is planned 

for a dual 1;iuncli with DSCS I1 number 15 and will 

undergo about six months of RR-D test and evaluation; it will then be turned over for operation:il 

use. The second RR-D satellite (DFS 2) is planned 

for a tl1i:il Iauncli wi~h DSCS I1 number 16 and 

will undergo a comparable test period before being 

placed into operational use. 

The DSCS I11 satellite will have multiple, independent transponders for efficient handling of 

both small and large terminals. It will provide a 

tlirec-fold increase in channel flexibility, will have 

improved anti-jam protection through multiplebeam antennas capable of nulling or minimizing 

uplink ,jamming signals, and will provide responsive 

adaptability in reallocating power and bandwidth 

assets. In addition to the norma1 S-band tracking, 

telemetry, and command functions operated by the 

Air Force Satellite Control Facility (SCF) , the 

DSCS I11 satellite will have a super-high-frequency 

command capability, controlled operationally by 

the Defense Communications Agency. This capability will improve response time for reconfiguration 

of antenna systems. The satellite will conform to 

nuclear survivability guidelines and is being designed for an on-orbit life of ten years. Since the 

Space Shuttle will become operational during the 

life of the DSCS I11 program, the new satellite is 

being designed to be Shuttle-compatible. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM). Moderate capacity, mobile-user service will 

I)e provided by the FLTSATCOXI. Its objective is 

to develop, procure, and implement a satellite communications system to satisfy the most urgent, 

.tvoi.ltlwide, tactical peacetime and crisis management commiinic;itions requirements of the Navy 

ant1 strategic comnirinications requirements of the 

.iir Force. Production contriicts for five FLTSATCOAf spacecraft have been awarded and the first 

two sp;icecr;ift were 1;iunclietl in February 1978 and 

Xfay 1979, respectively. The third spacecraft was 

sclieclulctl for Iaunch in January 1980. Installation 

of fleet I,i-o;tclc;tst receivers is virtually complete, 

with systems installed in approximately 420 ships 

ant1 IO!) siilmi:irines. Additionally, over 236 ships 

are now ecltiil)pctl for reliable long-range secure 

voice opxtion. Shipboard terminal equipment is 

now operating through both the XIARISAT and 

FI .I'SATCOhI s)'stems. 

Reginning in 1982 this class of service will be 

provided through the lease of UHF satellite service 

(I .EAS,.\I') from the commercial sector. This LEASA\T s),<tciii will initially supplement and eventually 

re1)I;ice FI .7?%2?'COi\f satellites ;IS they approach 

the end of their service life. 

Air Forcc Sotcllitc Coi,i~)iIrnirnrions. The Air 

Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCORI) 

System provides coniniunications for command and 

control of strategic and other selected nuclearc-:ipabIe forces. The initial operating capability of 

the system was achieved in Rlay 1979. The space 

segment incl des UHF transponders on FLTSATCOM and the Satellite Data System (SDS). Upgratlctl trnnspoiiders with increased jam-resistance 

are being integrated into the first DSCS I11 satellites 

as ;I secontlary payload, with first launch planned 

for the early 1080s. AFSATCORI terminals are being installed in ground command posts, airborne 

comni;ind posts, and the strategic bomber force. 

Atlditional terminals are being procured for ICBM 

lauiich control centers. 

Sntcllitc Dntn Syste?n (SDS). The Satellite Data 

Systein provides critical two-way, transpolar comniand and control for nuclear-capable forces as well 

;IS siipporting the data communications network for 

the Satellite Test Center and the remote tracking 

stations. 

St ra t cgic Sa tellit e System. Evolutionary improvements to the AFSATCOM system are planned. 

These improvements to the space segment include 

development of additional ,jam-resistant transponders for the Satellite Data System and the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System and possibly a new 

satellite specifically conceived to provide highly 

survivable communications into the 1990s. These 

space segment improvements and the terminal upgrades will become available in gradual steps and 

49 
arc collectively referred to ;IS the Strategic Satellite 

System. 

Sntellitc Coti~municntions Gm~rnrl Strpport. The 

Army Satellite Conimunications Agency is responsible for the development and acquisition oE strategic 

and tactical satellite comnilinications ground terniinals for iise by all services. Two ma.jor projects in 

this prognni element arc the DSCS and the Ground 

R.lol,ile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications 

Programs. A third and s~naller project in this program is devoted to the exploratory development req i t i red to support t lic two in;~ jor pro,jec ts. 

During 1!179, there wxs significant activity i.elatetl 

to the ground terminals supporting the DSCS I1 

system. All 18 of the new AN/FSC-78 11e:ivy terniiniils were operational the entii-e year, niecting critical ii.ser reqiiirenicnts. The second-year buy of 

AN/C;SC-S!) niedium termin;ils took place in 1979, 

bringing the total on contr;ict to 12. .A third-year 

buy for an :iclditional !I terniinds will be funded in 

1980. Prociii-enicnt of 10 iiiore medium terminals 

to i-epl;ice the qing mid o1)soletc A2N/TSC-54 and 

AN/AISC-46 terniinals is pl;inned for 1982. Also, 

the first of the Iiew AhT/7'SC;-8f tr;insport;tl~le JCS 

contingency satellite tei.iiiin;ils TV~I'C tlcployetl in 

late 1!)7!). Continued siicccss T\.;IS csl~erienced in 

the contract for the new anti-jam Iiiiiltiple ;icccss 

equilmients (,\N/USC-25) , Ivitli the first of these 

titiit sc~hctluletl for tlclivei.!. in SepteniIxr 1950. ,211 

large, fixed military satellite terminals employed in 

support will he equipped with these new anti-jam 

modems. 

Tnrtirtll Snlcllitc ~~~//~tiii~nir~~/~~iz,s. Delivery of 

tlte initi:il I,uy of 81 ~nulticliarincl SHF tactical terniinals (.iiY/l'SC;-85, AN/TSC:-93) was completed 

in 1979, and I:! of these tcrniinals \vi11 be tlcploycd 

to tlic U.S. Army in Europe for use xvitli the DSCS 

11 slxice aeginent. In Septcnihcr 1979, ;I production 

conti';ict for 2225 xk1itioii:il tctmin;ils vas ;i\vartlcd, 

with fii-st deliveries in 1951. When fully tleployed, 

these SHF tct~niin;ils will provide mobile, in111 tichannel coiiiniiitiic;itions for the ground mobile 

forces transniitting froin the ficltl through the DSCS 

satellites. Production WIS I)egitn of 2110 UHF \chiculat- tei~iiiiii;ils (,IN /i\ISCi-64) to he used with the 

FI,TS.~TCOAf s:~tellitcs Ixgitining in 1981. Testing 

W;IS coniplctetl on the U HI; inmpick terminal 

(AN/PSC-l), ant1 a niltlti-yeai- contract aiv;irtl for a 

total of 17.1 tci.niin:ils for special Army IISCI~S is expected in 19810. 

Narigation Sntellite Actiziity 

SA ITS T A li G 1 ob (I 1 Sy s f c in 

(GPS). N.\VS?'AR GPS is ;I joint-service 1)rogr;iiii 

to provide ;I c:ipabiIity for tliree-diiiicnsioii~~l, high 

accui.acy, continuous, worldwide navigntion. The 

TI1 e Posi 1 io pi i 11 g 

operation;il NAVSTAK GPS will consist of constel1;ttions of s;itellites in three orbital planes at 20,400 

kilomctct.s, ;I ground segincnt for calibration and 

control of the satellites, and numerous user equipments of various classes. The GPS will provide 

all-weather coverage on a coininon grid, enabling 

users passively to determine position to within 10 

iiieters ant1 velocity to within .03 meter per second. 

'I'he system will also provide precise worldwide time 

t 1.a nsfer. 

Dcvelopniental models of all classes of user equiptileiits, including high accuracy, low-cost, and manpack models, have I,cen and continue to be field 

tc5tcd with the four GPS satellites launched in 1978. 

The desired prototype user-equipment accuracies 

were ;icliievetl, completing the concept-validation 

~)liasc in ,June 1979. Full-scale engineering development was initiated in August 1979, with initial 01)- 

ci.;iting c:ipiIility expected in the mid-to-late 1980s. 

1,:iiiiicli of the fifth GPS satellite is planned for 

I~el~l~ll~l~y 1980. 

i\.leteor.ological Actithies 

Ik/(,ii 5 (, AI(.! oo 1.o logiro 1 Sn 1 cl late Progrn in 

(D2WzYP). Diiririg 1979, tlic Air Force-managed 

DAISP s;itellitc s)'stcni contintied to support DoD 

sttxrcgic ;ind tactic:il needs for weather information 

wit11 three 12loek ~5D satellites in orbit. The Navy 

coiitiniictl to cspincl its me of DAISP's high-resolutioii jmigery and sounder data both ashore and 

afloat. The global, stored satellite data are now 

iniitinel), ti.;insniitted to the Fleet Numerical 

Oce;inogr;iph) C;eiitci., ingested into the numerical 

;iir-occ:in tiiodel's glolxil tl;it;t base, and the imagery 

is ~~eti~;insiiiittcd by conipiiter to the other major 

iiaval occ~itiog~~~iphic ~)~ediction centers. The Air 

Iorcc C;lol):il Wc:ithci. Ce~itrnl (AFGWC) continues 

10 roiitinely procesc kits into its rexl-time global 

(I;I tit I);ise for nwt.ItlwitIe striitegic applications, and 

i\ inst:illing ;I s;itellitc tkitn 1i;indling system which 

\vi11 peimit real-time interaction of the mcteorologi\t wTitIi the cotiipiitei' (lata I)ase. The imagery is 

i~~:i~i~niittecl l't.oni the s:itcllite in real time to trnns- 

~mi~t~il~le tcitl-out stations :it key 1oc;itions worltllvicle to support ,\im~, Navy, and .\ir Force tactical 

operations. In 1979, the Navy continued to im- 

~)ro\,c its t:ict ic;iI ~~;itl-oiit pi'ogixii by the addition 

of [lie fifth tlii.ect re~id-out unit to the Fleet. The 

foiirtli I2loc.k 5D s:itellitc was Iaunched and became 

ol)et.;itional in July 1 97!) and is providing excellent 

nietcoi.ologica1 information. In addition to cloud 

ini;igci.)~, this s;i tellitc provides vertical teinperatnre 

profile infoi~nintion from :I new microwave sensor 

s) steiii and ioiiospfieiic &ita froin several other 

\pecial seii\ws. .-\FGM'C: is now tising the plasma 

pt'ol)e iiiforni:ition for real-time analysis and fore- 
casting of ionospheric electron content. This represents tlie first iise of real, in-situ nieasiiremerits of 

space environmental data. Also in 1979, the joint 

Air Force-Navy DhISP instrument development 

procurement program produced fin:il design and 

conti-act award for a passive microwave imager that 

will provide qiiantitative values of precipitation, 

cloucl aiitl liquid water content of the atniosphere, 

ocean sitif;ice wind speed, and sea ice tlisti.il,ittioii. 

This new fmiily of DJISP instrunients will lie 

flown in 3981-1984. 

Surveillance Activities 

Early TT'c/t,ning Sa/cllil~.c. Early warning capabilities 1-esit1e in ;in integi-;itctl sy.stem of grouiid-based 

satellites for e;irlie,t int1ic;ition of a hostile lnllistic 

missile Iauiich against the United States. During 

1979, ;I successful I;iiiiich rcpl;icetl one of the older 

s:itellites that WIS failing. Development continued 

on niotlifications to ensure conip;itibility of early. 

warning s;itcllite p;i)~londs lvitli the Titan 34D and 

Shuttle Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) ;IS well as iniproveineiits in the survivability of the satellite and 

ground systems. 

Spncc S711.ueillnncc.. The current capability for 

locating, tracking, and identifying objects in spice 

is provided liy a network consisting primarily of 

grouIitl-l);ised radar seiisoi-s deployed for piirposes 

other than space sur~eilIancc-ior example, missile 

warning. This sensor network h;is a limited capability to detect objects above 5.300 kilometers altitude and has pips in the cover;ige below this 

;iltitdc. Doll is procitriiig ;I Ground-Ikised ElectroOptical Deep Space Surveillance system for comprehensive detection and tracking of satellites at high 

a1 ti t utles . 

A vial>le approach, in tlie long-term, for responsive surx.eill;ince 1111 to geosyi~chronous altitudes appears to lie in spaceborne sensors. Several RPcD 

activities to develop this technology are continuing. 

For example, tlie Air Force has developed detector 

modules for a niosaic staring sensor which is expected to provide improved survivability. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) continued in 1979 development of advanced concepts and technology for strategic and 

tactical surveillance from space. Radiation source 

monitoring from spice is being demonstrated with 

the DARPA 301 gamma ray spectrometer, placed in 

orbit by the USAF Space Test Progmn in early 

1979; the experiment is operating successfully, including demonstration of the long-life cryogenic 

refrigerators developed for this flight. The experiment has achieved the highest garnma-ray spectral 

l., 'I d, '11 . s . and :t constellation of three geostation;iry 

iwoliitioii nic;isured in space. Development of infi.;iretl survciII;ince technology for mosaic detector 

:iiny, signal processing, cryogenic refrigerators, 

;ind large optics ;iiitl striictiires continued, with 

sricces~f~il I;il)oi.;icory testing of it new generation of 

infrared tlctector arriiy and hrgc, actively controlled 

mirror elenleiits. 'l'lie Teal Ruby sp;ice experiment 

to cleiiioiistixte tletectioii of aircraft will use firstgciicixtioii iiifi~;ii~etl mosaic detector arrays and is 

ciitcriiig the (Iiialifiatioii testing phase, with launch 

exl)cctcd :ih:iixl the Shuttle in late 1082. D.iKPA 

h;is initiated the advanced sensor demonstration 

pi'ogixiii to demoiirti.;ite advanced surveillance missions ;tiid the technology Ixise developed to support 

thein; ;in ;itlv;iiiced space system is in the design 

pIi:isc, with 1;tiiiich pl:innctl in FY 1987. Technology 

tlevelopnicnt is initiated for key components of 

~picc-l~~iscd i.:icl;ii. concepts with emphasis on broad 

iiiission app1ic;itioiis for tlie technology base, a 

pIiiIwopIi), iIi;it was sricccssful in the definition of 

tlic iiit'i.;irccl technology needs. 111 1979, DARPA 

c oiltintied coiiceptri;il designs for the Talon Gold 

csl)eriiiieiit, i\.liich ivill tlcvelop space technologies 

foi- support of I)iwisioii ;icqiiisition, tracking, and 

1)oiiitiiig ;it long range. 

Splice Shuttle Actittities 

Ip/(,i,/iol lr/i/wi. S/crgc (ZUS). The IUS is under de- 

\.clol)iiieiit l)~ the ,lir Force to deliver DoD spaceci.alt to higher orbital altitudes and inclinations 

11i;iii the Slitittle aloiic provides and will also be 

tisctl by N.-\Sh for their syiiclironous-orbit payloads 

;iiid p1;tiiet:ii.y missions. Don will also iise tlie IUS 

on the Tit;in I11 to improve mission success during 

tlic e;ii.I), ti.:iiisition period to Shuttle. During 1979, 

~~ill-sc~ile tlevclolmient continued, having started in 

.\priI 1978; other procurement involved IUS 

Si-oiiiid support eqiiipment, logistics support, and 

~~ecess;ii.y niotlifications to the Solid hlotor Assembly 15uilcling :it Kennedy Space Center. 

Con/rollctl i\lotlc crt Johnson Space Center (JSC). 

hliiittle launcliec will use N.lS:\'s JSC for simulation, trainiiq, ;ind flight coiitrol foi- DoD Shuttle 

iiiijsions. In 1958, ;I special ;id hoc Shuttle security 

gi.ocip ol tlic ~lc~~oii~iiitic~ ;iiitl .~\st~~onautics Coordinating 13oard (4ACH) completed validation of the 

coritr.ol1ctl iiiotle c.oricept IO provide the capability to 

coiitluct c.l;tsifietl Doll Shuttle niissions out of JSC 

~vitli iiiii~ii~iiiin inip;ict to concurrent civil space opel-atioiis. I'he .I,\(; 15 ;ipproved the recommendation 

of this ;id hoc group, and both Don and NASA 

iiiiti;itetl iiiil)lenient;ition of the controlled mode. In 

1 !)59, ellorts were coIiceiitrated on detailed system 

design, software valk1;itioii and verification, and detei-niinatioii of facility modifications. A preliminary 
design review W;IS held in early October. Initial 

operating capability for the controlled mode is expected in early 1982 to support the initial classified 

DoD payloads on Shuttle. The investment in controlled mode is heing held to a minimum consistent 

with essential security needs and projected Don 

workload on Shuttle through the mid-1980s. 

Vantlenbo-g Air Force Base (VAFB) ShiilIlc 

Launch Site. Efforts continued during 1979 to acquire Shuttle launch and landing capabilities at 

Vandenberg .4ir Force Base (VAFB) , California. 

Vandenberg facilities are required by both civil and 

DoD users for polar launches, complementing Kennedy Space Center (KSC) which will launch to lowinclination orbits, such as geosynchronous equatorial 

deployments. Commonality of equipincnt and procedui-es between KSC and VAFR is being maximized to minimize acquisition costs md operations 

complexity. 

The requirements definition contract for VAFB 

was conipletetl in mid-1978. Tlie follow-on effort, to 

design uniqiie support equipnient, develop and 

acquire the launch processing and computer applications software, and prepare installation designs is 

nearing completion. I;;icility construction began in 

~~1111l;lry 1079. 

Space Boosters 

The Don family of space hoostei-s is comprised of 

the Atlas ant1 Titan I11 standard launch vehicles as 

well as siirplris Thor (IAV-2D, LV-PF, SLV-2A) and 

Atlas E/F ICHAI vehicles. Nine Don slxicc niissions 

were successfiilly launched in 1079: 5 on Titan IIIs, 

1 on IaV-2F Thor, 1 on ;Ztlas-F, and 2 which were 

Iaunclietl by NASA (1 on Delta and 1 on AtlasCentaur) . In addition, DoD launched 1 N4S.4- 

NOAA niission on an Atlas-F. Integration of the 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) with tlie Titan 111 

launch vehicle family, begun in June 1977, continued through 1979. As DoD transitions its payloads to Shuttle, the expendalile launch vehicles 

will be p1i;iscd out at a rate dependent on progress 

with major development and orbiter delivery milestones of the NASA Space Ti-ansportation System. 

Space Test Program 

Tlie Sp:ice Test Progi-ani provides spice-flights 

for test and evaliiation of Don KkD experiments 

and certain operational spacecraft not authorized 

their own mc;ins for space flight. Three payloads 

were successfully flown in 1979. 

Sp;icecr;ift XIission P78-1, known by its 1wini:it.y 

payload tlie ganiina ray spectrometer, was launched 

on Fcliriiary 24 from Vandenberg AFB on an AtIns-F. It carried seven payloads. Spacecraft Mission 

P78-2, also referred to as the spacecraft charging 

at high ;tltitutlcs (SCATHA) mission, was launched 

on ,J;init;iry 30 froni Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station on n NASA Delta launch vehicle. The 

twelve experinients comprising tlie SCATHA paylo;ttl, three of which are NASA's, were to provide 

the data to determine methods for protecting space- 

(.raft systems in geosynchronous orbit from transient outages and electronic ni;ilfunctions caused hy 

slxtcecixft chai-ging. Finally, Spacecraft hlission 

98-1, also referred to as the Navigational Package 

(N;\\WAC;) niission, was flown on ;I host vehicle 

ant1 tested ;I geodetic package. 

The progrniii will now serve as the pathfinder for 

Don to exploit ways to use tlic manned Shuttle as 

;I laboratory in space. This exploitation approach 

will expedite infitsion of new technology into space 

systems througli tlie me of simpler, incrementally 

tlcsignecl, niaii-aided systems. New hardware will be 

tlcvclopetl ant1 procured to enalde this exploitation. 

.I coiitr;ict aw;trtl is expected in 1980. 

Space Research and Technology 

Spice-related research and technology by the Depirtiiicnt of Defense includes efforts defining the 

space enviroiiment and assessing its effect on the 

perfoi-mance of DoD systems operating within it. 

Solor R(idici/ion Monitoring Progrnni. The Navy 

s01;tr monitoring program in 1979 consisted priiiiarily ol' developing additional applications for opera tional predictions of propagation phenomena 

affecting HF and VLF radio systems. Solrad Hi and 

Goes satcIIite t1;it;i provided significant real-time 

so1;rr ~iic;rsureiiients for the research and developineiit of a prediction system under evaluation at 

tlic Naval Communication Station, Stockton, California. The N;iv;il Research Laboratory continues 

to explore 1);isic research studies in solar physics, 

solar-terrestrial relationships, and plasma process to 

tleterniinc tliesc so1;u- effects on Navy systems and 

operations. 

:is part of the continuing Air Force technology 

progr;tm in prediction of propagation environment, 

solar processes are being investigated and solar 

emissions are measured. The programs in solar 

emissions include the theoretical study of the processes 1e;ltling to solar flares, in which the ,4ir Force 

Geophysics I ,:illoratory works closely with the Nation;il Science Founc1:ition's Sacramento Peak 

Ol,serv;itory. Techniques to forecast the time 

history of Iiigli-eiierg solar particles that may imiii the tlevclopnieiit stage. The Air Force is installing ;I ivorlclwide radio-solar-telescope network for 

I,;tcL the E;1rth follow ig ;I major so1;ir flare are still 

52 
use with the Solar Optical Observing Network. In 

1979, the radio solar telescope in Australia became 

opera t i oiia 1. 

Air Force scientists are also participating in 

rocket and satellite olxervations of solar ultraviolet 

(UV) emissions. Working closely with NASA scientists, Air Force personnel are studying the variations in solar UV observed by spectrophotometers 

on Atmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. 

Rocket flights designed to measure solar UV flares 

between 230 and 3500 Angstroms continue to be 

flown and, in conjunction with satellite measurements, used to develop models of the solnr UV 

emission spectrum. 

Enuimnmentnl Rcvlotr: Scnsing. The Air Force 

Geophysics 1,alIoratory h;is ;I continuing program 

to monitor sl~ce environment-intluced efEects ;IS 

observed at the surface of the Earth. Scientists are 

measuring ionospheric scintilla tion and signal delay 

at a number of ground station around the globe, 

using tr;insniissions from beacons on both orbiting 

and geostationary satellites. These measurements 

indicate signal statistics for satellite communication 

systems and Air Force surveillance r;idars. 

Spacecvafl Cha,-ging Technology. The Air Force 

Geophysics I.abor;itory (AFGI.) is actively involved in the joint USAF/NASA spacecraft 

charging technology program. 111 addition to developing theoretic;d and empirical models of the natural environment leading to spacecraft electrical 

charging at synchronous altitude, AFGI, continued 

preparation of a 1iandl)ook that will tlocunent the 

full range of variability of charged particles and 

fields that can be expected at this altitude. Data 

from the Air Force Scatha satellite, launched in 

fanuary 1979, are being used to upcl;ltc die moclels 

and the handbook. Scatha satellite instriunetit;~tion, 

supplied by the Air Force, includes electrostatic 

analyzers, charged particle flux spectrometers, and 

electron and ion beam systems to assess the feasibility of actively controlling satellite charging and discharging. Close coordination between the interdependent activities of the Air Force and NASA 

continues through the joint USAF/NASA spacecraft charging technology program. Models of the 

energetic electron flux at satellite altitudes will be 

implemented to measure energetic electrons in the 

1 10-megavolt range, showing the dosage rates received by satellite microcomponents. 

Aduanced Space Conzm,zinications. The advanced 

space communications program develops and demonstrates advanced spacecraft and airborne/ground 

terminal technologies to meet future DoD needs for 

military satellite communications systems. In 1979, 

new space components were developed for operation in the higher EHF frequency bands. These 

higher frequenc y bands are being investigated as a 

me;itis of relief from frequency spectrum congestion 

Ixing experienced in the lower frequency bands 

and ;IS ;I means of enhancing protection against 

.j;iniming. En'orts are also under way in laser comniuiiication technology to provide significant impi.o\~nic~~ts in ,j;imming protection as well as veryliigli-d;it;i-I.~ite transmissions. The Air Force Space 

Divisioii Iias coniplctcd a developmental model 

groiind test pli:isc :it a White Sands, New hIexico, 

test Ixiigc. .I 'follow-on phase, currently in progress, 

will intcgixtc ;I hser communications terminal into 

at1 E(:-155 xiucraft for air-to-ground tests in FY 

1 980. ,In orl,ital her communications package is 

also ~~ntlcr tlei.elopment for launch on the Teal 

liul~y spicccraft in late 1982 aboard Shuttle. 

0th~~ Tc~rlrnological Acliuitics. Under the space 

vcliicle srilqstcni technology program, spacecraft 

sul)s) stein inilwovements are in progress that will 

I)c iiiipoi.tant to the siu-vivability, autonomy, perforiii;iiice, powei., ant1 weight of DoD satellites in 

tlie 1980s. An iniprovetl magnetic bearing niomentiini wltecl, for better satellite stability, will comI'letc environniental testing of a new wheel matei.ia1 in early 1980. The space sextant, which will be 

import;int to l'ittu1.e ;ititonomom satellite operation 

;iiitl improved survivability, entered the flight-unit 

fabi.ic:ition ;ind qualification test phase. Development ol the fault tolerant spaceborne computer, 

~vliich will enhance survivability by minimizing 

s;itcllitc tlcpentlence on ground stations, has been 

;icceler:itcd towird ;I demonstration flight in 1984. 

.\Is0 ni:i,jor advances were made in the magnetic 

l~11b11le nicinory technology for a solid state spaceborne memory that will provide a hardened, nonvolatile data stotxge capability. In satellite space 

power systems, efforts continued on the a 50-amphoitr nickel-liytlrogen hattery intended to replace 

iiickcl-c.;itlritirrln units, as well as on a high-efficiency 

solar pnel employing gallium-arsenide and silicon 

solnr cells. 

Spnce Ground Support 

Don space activities were principally supported 

in I979 by the Air Force's Eastern and Western 

Spice arid Missile Centers, Satellite Control Facility, :tiit1 Arnold Engineering Development Center; 

and the Army's White Sands Missile Range. These 

facilities, available for use by Federal agencies, industry, and other nations, support a wide variety of 

test and eva1u;ition activities. In October 1979, Air 

Force System Command (AFSC) realigned its 

space and inissile developnient and acquisition elements. Space Division (SD) , which reports directly 

to Hq AFSC, has assumed the space-related activ- 
ities previously the responsibility of the Space and 

Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO), which was 

deactivated. The Eastern Test Range at Patrick 

AFB, Florida, has become the Eastern Space and 

Missile Center, while the Western Test Range at 

Vandenberg AFR, California, has become tlie Western Space and Missile Center. 

Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). ESRIC 

has the responsibility to support a variety of DoD 

space and ballistic missile operations, NASA space 

programs, and commercial or international satellite 

launches under the sponsorship of NASA. Current 

improvement emphasizes tlie enhancement of teleinetry, radar tracking, and range safety. During 1979, 

ESMC provided support to Navy testing of Poseidon and Trident fleet ballistic niissiles. 1,aunch 

and data-acquisition support was provided to 

NASA’s programs, satellites for commercial organizations, and operational spice payloads for the 

Air Force. ESXIC was also actively engaged in conducting planning and ;inalyscs in support of tlie 

Space Shuttle, whicli will be Inunclictl for orbital 

test flights from the Kennedy Space Center. 

Western Space nntl Missile Crntcr (TI7SMC). 

WSRIC provides range tracking, data acquisition, 

and flight safety support for all Ixillistic niissilc and 

space Iauiiclies, as well as aeronautical tests at Vandenberg AFR. Approxiniatcly 50 l~allistic missile, 

space Iarinclics, and neronautic;il flights were conducted in 1979. The major aeronautical prograin 

was the cruise niissilc. WSAlC is actively eng;lged in 

planning for the S~xice Sliuttle I;iunclies from Vandenberg AFB, which involves extensive construction 

of launch, logistic, and maintenance facilities. 

1,aunch pad construction foi- Shuttle was Ixgun in 

January 1979. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF). During 1979, tlie 

SCF supported 17 launches, including 9 DoD niissions, 1 NASA mission, and 7 lxillistic flights. Requirements for network support continued to grow, 

with 86,900 contacts totaling 68,400 hours of support. With the addition of a second antenna at 

Tliule, Greenland, and the British Telemetry and 

Commanding Station at Oakhanger, United Kingdom, the SCF now has 12 tracking stations at seven 

sites worldwide. Significant maintenance efforts included the replacement of the antenna aziinuth 

bearing at the New H;iinpshire station and replacement of tlie radome over the 18-meter antenna in 

Hawaii. Also, modifications were completed for SCF 

participation in the orbital flight test of the Shuttle. 

A niajor data system modernimtion effort was 

started, whicli will replace aging computers at the 

remote sites and consolidate telemetry, tracking, 

and commanding functions into a centralized systeni at tlie Satellite Test Center. When operational 

in 1983-1984, this system will enlarge capacity and 

reduce operating expense. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The 

Army’s WSMR continued to provide support to 

DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. A 

full spectrum of launch, flight, and recovery services was provided, including ground and flight 

safety, surveillance, command and control, data acquisition, and analyses. NASA program support included the Space Shuttle, the calibration rocket 

pi-ogtxni, upper atniosplieric sounding with rockets 

;I ntl Ixilloons, ;ind variety of astronomical test progr:iins. Specific Space Shuttle activities included 

qualification tests on the orbital maneuvering system and on forwai-d and aft reaction control system~, evalu;ition of Sliuttle spacecraft materials. 

training of astronauts to land the Shuttle, and a 

wtcllite system to track and relay Shuttle position 

(lata back to earth. 

A).no/d Engincwing Deuelofimenl Center 

(AEIIC). AEDC provides essential aerodynamic, 

spice eiivironnient, and propulsion tests to accelei’atc tlevelolmient of aeronautical and space systenic. Its criicial value can be measured by tlie fact 

it Ims siipportcd virtrially every nia,jor U.S. aerospace 

1)i‘ogr;iiii. Its 40 test units provided approximately 

N.000 test 1ioiii.s in 1979 to support missile projects, 

the Spice Sliuttle, and space launch rocket motor 

tests. .-In ;leropropulsion Systems Test Facility will 

be t.e:itly in 1983 to test large, high-performance 

tiirbojct ;ind turbofan engines in a more realistic 

envir&inient than can he attained today. Another 

test unit in planning is tlie Turbine Engine Load 

Siiiiul;itor (TELS). TEI,S will be a centrifuge that 

\vi11 stress engines to simulate an inflight environment and at tlie sinie time x-ray tlie engine to deteiminc abnornialities caused by “g” forces. TELS 

will contt.il)iitc greatly to reductions in developiiient ;ind 1n:iinteiiance costs. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircvaft md Airborne Systems 

I:-lfj Mirltirtii.s.c.ion Fighter. The first production 

l:-l(j aircraCt TVCI~ received by the United States and 

Iklgiuni’ in January 1979 while the Netherlands 

t.eceivetl their first production aircraft in ,June 1979. 

7’11~ remaiiiiiig European partners, Denmark and 

Nor~v;iy, will begin receiving production aircraft in 

1!M. 71‘l~e niiiltinatioiial operational test and evaluation (A107’E) w;is initiated in January 1979 at 

Hill AFR, Utah. These tests are providing information on the c;ilxibility and suitability of the F-16 

to perforin its olmxtional niissions. In addition, developnient testing is continuing to resolve deficien- 
cies that have been previously identified in aircraft 

systems. 

B-52 Squudrons Development Projects. The development projects under the R-52 squadrons address a variety of avionics programs all essential to 

tlie effectiveness and survivability of the B-52 force. 

One critical effort is the continuation of the program for the offensive avionics system (0AS)- 

phase one. This project develops for B-52G/H 

modification an update to tlie bombing navigation 

system incorporating nuclear hardened, digital subsystems in place of the 1950 vacuum tube technology. Additionally the 0,4S also integrates the air 

launched cruise missile (ALCAI) on the R-52G. Recause of the critical schedule requirements to deploy the iiLChl and update the avionics, tlcvelopment and procurement are being considered 

concurrently. Initial options for the modification 

contract were negotiated between January and July 

1979, and the contract was issued in Aiigust 1979. 

The first of the modified aircraft will be available 

in 1981. A second critical item to the bomber mission is surviving the effects of nuclear explosions. 

New programs will have hardness included, but iiircraft systems not scheduled for replacement will 

require, as a minimum, protection against electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Analyses and studies bepn 

in 1976, but in 1979 the program received new emphasis, with the B-52 being exposed to the electromagnetic pulse at two facilities during tlie year. 

Joint DoD, Air Force, and contractor teams are CIITrently reviewing tlie EhIP programs in view of the 

test results and will make recommendations to increase the probability of aircraft surviving the 

ERIP threat. Because this threat could affect a11 airborne and ground digital systems, progress on 

B-52s will be closely monitored for potential use in 

other programs. 

A-IO Close-Air-Support Airrrnf t. The Air Force 

plans to procure 733 A-10s to provide a specialized 

close-air-support aircraft. Research and development is complete, except for integration of new 

systems being added to improve effectiveness. Of 

the 627 aircraft approved for production, approximately 300 have been delivered to tactical forces 

in the United States and Europe. The Air Force 

activated its first wing and two Air National Guard 

squadrons in the United States as well as an initial 

wing of four squadrons, with later growth to six 

wings, in the United Kingdom. The aircraft in the 

United Kingdom will also operate from four forward locations in Germany. Favorable reliability 

and maintainability factors have been demonstrated, so the anticipated low operating costs 

should be realized. 

I;-15 Ai,. Slrpriorily Fighter. Limited development efforts are continuing on the F-15 to complete 

electronic countermeasure updates and to provide 

other component improvements. These efforts incliide tlevelopnient of a programmable signal 

~)i~oce~soi-; thisexpimimi of the c;tp;iljility of the 

radar system will permit future improvements 

through software changes rather than more expensive 1i;irdw:ire modifications. 

Delivery of production F-15 aircraft is contiiiiiing. l%y the end of FY 1979, a total of over 430 

of the 729 total planned F-15s had been received by 

the Air Force. Delivery of F-15C and D model aircraft Ixg;in in June 1979. This improved version 

featuim a 1000-kilogram increase in fuel capacity, 

provisions for low-dr;ig conformal fuel tanks, and 

increased niaxiiiiiim takeoff weight of 30,900 kilograms. The remainder of the F-15 programmed 

procurenlent will Ijc C and D model aircraft. 

F iA-1,S C:cirric~r-Bctscil Strilte Fighter. The Navy's 

1:/;1-18 ;iircraft is the replacement for the remaining Navy and hlarine 1;-4 Phantom fighters as they 

reach the end of their service life. It will also rep1:ice the aging .\-7 light attack aircraft in the mid1!)8Os. Introclriction of this aircraft into the fleet 

rvill p.ovitle the txtical commander at sea with a 

liigli-l,erformaiice, agile strike fighter, capable of 

surviving in hostile territory. The Secretary of Defense has approved full-scale development of this 

aircraft. The first flight was in November 1978, and 

;i total of eleven full-scale development aircraft are 

schetluleti for delivery. 

EF-IIIA. The EF-I 11A is designed to provide defense suppression radar jamming in support of 

United States and Allied air operations. The peacetime mission will lie to provide training for operat ions in ;in electronic collliterllie;isl1res environment 

for our own air defense and tactical forces. The 

EF-111'4 is in limited production, which includes a 

test effort to evaluate the correction of deficiencies 

identified during earlier tests. Flight-test data to 

date iiic1ic:ite the EF-111.1 is surpassing all reliabili ty performance requirements. 

Atluancctl Attack Helicopter (AAH). The advanced attack helicopter continued in full-scale engineering tlevelopnient during 1979. The initial 

prototype target acquisition designation systems 

(TADS) and pilot night vision systems (PNVS) 

were delivered by both competing contractors, for 

use in system integration and checkout. The two 

Phase I flight prototype helicopters were returned 

to flight status after completing modifications which 

converted them to the Phase I1 configuration. 

The first airborne firing of a Hellfire ballistic 

missile from the AAH took place on hlarcli 3, 1979. 

The firing was successful, with no detrimental ef55 
fects on the aircraft. This and other successful ballistic launches led to the first guided Hellfire launch 

from the AAH on September 18, 1979. The first 

autonomously designated launch of a Hellfire from 

an AAH (fired from the AAH as designated by the 

target acquisition designation system on the same 

aircraft) was successfully completed on October 20, 

1979. 

CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization program is designed to ensure that the Army 

will have a medium-lift helicopter capability beyond the year 2000. An engineering development 

effort which began in June 1976 has produced three 

prototype CH-47D models which incorporate seven 

modernized systems: rotor, drive, hydraulic, electrical, advanced flight control, cargo handling, and 

auxiliary power unit. These changes are to improve 

the reliability, availability, maintainability, productivity, safety, and survivability, and produce one 

standard CH-47 configuration to facilitate logistical 

support and maintenance. All three prototypes 

have begun contractor flight testing and will be 

tested by U.S. Army personnel in the field beginning in January 1980. Once the test results have 

been analyzed, a decision on full-scale production 

of the completely modernized CH-47 will be made. 

The Army plans to have an entire unit of 2.4 CH47Ds in the field by mid-1983. 

E-3A Airborne Warning and Control System 

(AIVACS). The E-3A Wing at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, reached operational status in April 1978. By 

the end of 1979, 19 E-3A aircraft were delivered to 

the Tactical Air Command providing an all-altitude, airborne radar surveillance and command and 

control system with good survivability. The total 

United States E-3A force is programmed for 34 

aircraft. The NATO defense ministers approved a 

NATO airborne early warning and control 

(AEWRC) program which includes the procurement of 18 E-3A aircraft, the upgrading of ground 

communication links, and the preparation of support bases and facilities. NATO is also funding development of an improved E-3A computer to increase the system’s tracking capacity. This program 

is the largest acquisition ever undertaken by 

N4TO. United States developments are focused on 

further improvements in capability. 

Development continued on incorporating into 

the E-3A the joint tactical information distribution 

system (,JTIDS) to provide jam-resistant, secure 

communications between the E-3A aircraft and 

other users. Flight testing of the JTIDS terminal 

in the E-3X aircraft was completed with successful 

demonstration of the pertinent performance requirements, and plans arc to initiate full-scale development of a fighter aircraft terminal in 1980. 

Tonlahawk Cmise Missile. Tomahawk is a highsubsonic-speed, turbo-fan-powered, long-range 

cruise missile sized to be fired from a submarine 

torpedo tube, but also capable of being launched 

from surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground platfornis. This missile is being developed in two forms, 

a conventionally armed anti-ship version and a 

nuclear-armed land attack version. 

?’he anti-ship Tomahawk will provide an important complement to carrier-based aircraft in extending the Navy’s anti-ship capaliility over a broad 

occan area. The stand-off capability afforded by 

Toni;ih;iwk \vi11 pose ;I credible threat to enemy 

surface forces ;it mininiiim risk to our launch 

’l’hc nuc1e;ir I;intl-;itt;ick l‘oiiiahawk could pro- 

\,itlc ;I flexible iiticlear force for theilter or strategic 

roles. Its ability to penetrate with its single warIiead and high accuracy and its survivability make 

it particularly suitable for use in limited nuclear 

;I t tacks. 

7’omali;iwk is planned for installation on nuclear 

attack sulimarines and cruisers. A ground-launched 

version of Tomahawk is being developed for the 

Air Force. 

Aii.-f.cii~ric.lrc~tl (;vrii.w ,Ui.s.\i/t, (ALCM) . A competitive “flyoff” between the AGM-8GB and the 

~iC;Af-lO!l ;iii.-launclied cruise niissiles (A1,Chl) was 

conducted during 1979 and early 1980 with ten 

launches each. Flight-test results are being evalwted ;ilong with contractor cost and technical 

proposals. Source selection and a production decision are to lie made in RIarcli 1980. 

Current plans are for a maximum A1,CR.I procluctioii rate of 40 per month. This is consistent 

with the H-52G nioclification rate and supports the 

“hoot ;Ind penetrate“ concept of initial R-52G/ 

.lICAr cleployiiient. 7’11~ first alert c;ipability of the 

lK5X n.itli esteimlly 1o;itlcd ;iI,CAl is scheduled 

l‘oi. Septeml)cr 1981, and the initial operating capability 01 the first 13-52G squadron is planned for 

Doc em1ier 1982. 

Cui ise Missile (G L C M ). 

GIChf will be part of the modernization of the 

long range theater nuclear force to bolster deterrcncc, protection against failure of conventional 

forces, and theater nuclear firepower. The Air 

Force plans to procure 560 missiles for deployment 

to Etirojie. The GI.ChI system will integrate the 

Toni:th:iwk cruise missile into ;in air-transportable, 

grountl-mobile system which consists of a transI,orter-crector-l;lunchel. and a launch control center. The system is now in fdl-scale engineering develo pmen t with i ni t i;r 1 operating capald i ty planned 

for December 1983. 

A tlwt n rod St r(i Irjgic A ii.-I.(i II rirli ctl Missile (ASALM). ASAIX is being developed to enhance the 

ph tforms. 

2.0 ti n d- La ti nch ed 

56 
strategic bomber force, which includes the B-52, 

FB-111, and future strategic carriers. ASALRI is a 

long-range supersonic missile capable of neutralking the Soviet air-defense interceptors and warning 

aircr;ift, ;is well ;is suppressing defenses and striking 

prini:iq targets. prop~lsion technology validation 1irogr;ini was established to tlenion5tr;ite the 

ASd4I.AI integ~ral I-ockct rani,jet propulsion system. 

This flight-test progr;irii consists of seven flights 

between October 1979 ;ind :ipvil 1!)80. 1niti;il test 

results :ippear vet.) Iavoi~al~lc. The next phase will 

be ;I suhsysteni de~iioristr;~tion v:iliclation which will 

emph;isi/e air-to-air guitlance tlevelopment, and 

will begin in e;irly 1980. 

P~IP 1.071’ III. C)peration;iI ev;ilu;ition of the Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service’s Pave I.ow I11 

combat rescue system has heen completed at Xfilitary Airlift Command’s Kirtland AFR, New hlexico, and the first proditction unit wa.5 completed in 

1979. Pave Low 111, when integrated into an H-53 

helicopter, provides the Air Force with a highly 

sophisticated, atlv;incctl system that \vi11 Immit lowlevel penetration and recovery of downed airmen 

in hostile territory in darkness ;ind :itlv~rse weather. 

Necessitated by an increasingly lethal enemy threat 

that will outdate current rescue tactics, the system 

employs forward-looking infrared devices, terrain 

avoidance/following radar, and inertial/doppler 

navigation in its rescue/~,enetration operi~tions. 

Aeronautical Reseaid And Development 

Aciunncecl Twhnology Conccf2fs. The Don research, development, test and evaluation (RDTPcE) 

program continued to sponsor a myriad of activities 

for the national defense. Its DoD science and technology program sponsors activities in research, exploratory development, and advanced technology 

demonstrations. Technological areas extend from 

propulsion for aircraft, missiles, and space systems; 

to guidance and control, communications, and electronics; through materials, structures, and information processing; and through environmental sciences to the vital areas of safety and life sciences. 

Technological applications in aeronautics and 

space are developed to meet more sophisticated 

requirements of current and projected programs. 

During 1979, efforts in advanced electronics-electro-optics, microwave, and computers-continued to 

drive technological improvements for aeronautical 

and space systems. 

Electro-optics technology is being incorporated 

in many devices, such as infrared and chargecoupled imagers, signal processors, ring laser gyros, 

fiber optics, and displays. These devices are finding 

their way into improved aeronautical systems such 

;IS target design;itors, range finders and trackers, 

optic;il search and tracking devices, miniature solidst;itc 7’V camerx, and navigational systems. 

AtIv;inces in microwave technology continue to 

Iirovitle improvements in niicrowave-power-generating efficiencies and in electronic package miniaturimtion through the me of recently developed 

solid-state components. 

Emphasis continues on computer science technology ;IS computer processing requirements beconic more integral with the total aeronautical 

system 7’otl;iy’s aircraft contain as m:iny as a dozen 

niiniconil~ ters, 1i;indling functions such as navigation, :iltinictry, fire control, weapon delivery, search, 

;ind flight control. Recent developments in mass 

memory c;ip;ibilitics iire allowing development of 

corrcl;ition by computer of stored ni:ipping inforniation with tcrr:iin features sensed by radar or passive 

~.;itlionictcrs, tliris providing precise navigation over 

long distances. 

.I major new initiative was begun in 1979 011 integi.;itetI circuits with the very high speed integrated 

citx.tiits (VHSIC) progr;ini based on silicon technol0s‘)’. The olijective of this six-),ear program is to 

:icceler;ite the avai1;ibility to Don of high-speed 

integi.atetl circuits featuring submicron sizes. These 

intcgr;itetI circuits will provide new or significantly 

increased c;ipabilities in satellites, avionics, cruise 

missiles, radar, and digital signal processing. It is 

expected that one VHSIC will replace 50 or more 

liresent integrated circuits-at least a ten-fold reduction in six, weight, power consumption, and failure 

rate with concomitant savings in both initial and 

life-cycle costs. Thc projected 200-fold increase in 

signal processing will increase by a factor of ten 

the ;iccuracy in cruise missile targeting and synthetic-;ipertut.c-ra~l~ir ground mapping during evasive 

maneuvering of attack aircraft, as well as a low 

prol)al,ility of intercept by air surveillance radars. 

Rescnrrh in Airrvcift Propiilsion Systems. The 

;idv:incetl turbine engine gas generator (ATEGG) 

program is the main Air Force propulsion program 

assessing core engine components under realistic 

test conditions. Traditionally stressing durability 

and performance, the program has been increasing 

in scope to include life-cycle costing and structural 

testing earlier in the engine development cycle. 

A4ccomplishments in 1979 include initial tests of a 

new generation of gas generators, successful completion of the first dedicated structural/durability 

test and continued demonstration testing of variable-area, high-temperature turbines employing 

;itIvanced materials. Future efforts will emphasize 

comprehensive durability assessment, including accelerated life testing of components. 
The aircraft propulsion subsystems integration 

(APSI) program is a multi-faceted Air Force effort. 

The joint technology demonstrator engine (JTDE), 

a joint Air Force-Navy program, is a part of APSI. 

High-pressure turbine engine cores from ATEGG 

are integrated with new low-pressure coniponents 

(fans, compressors, and fan turbines) to form a 

full-scale technology demonstrator engine (the 

JTDE). When combined with independent demonstration and assessnient of inlets, exhniist nozzles, 

and afterl)urnei-s the tests cIi;ir;icteri7e atlvanced 

engine technologies as complete propulsion systems. 

Accomplishnients in I979 include initial demonstration testing. of the JTDEs, initial application of 

life-cycle cost models, verification of structural life 

prediction/correlation models, and assessment of 

operational benefits for variable cycle engines. 

Follow-on JTDE testing will emphasize comprehensive ~nechanical integrntion/l,erformance testing 

and dur;ibility/life characterization. 

The Army is conducting a competitive demonstrator engine prograin in the 800-shaft-horsepower 

size. The overall objective of this project is to provide an advanced technology option for future 

Army aircraft and other defense needs. This program has ;IS its goals a 50-60 percent improvement 

in specific power and 20-25 percent improvement 

in specific fuel consumption over present in-service 

engines. Initial test results have been promising. 

A ircrci f t St rtict ti rc.s n n ti Mn t crici 1.y Tech n oloa . 

Each of the services has RRD progi-;inis directed 

toward improved structures and inaterials for aerona 11 t ica 1 n ntl spa cc a p pl i ca t ions. 

The Air Force is determining the suitability of 

cast alriminum for primary aircraft striictures, offering a niiniiniiin 38 percent cost saving with no 

weight pen;ilty. A full-scale foi-wai-d fuselage bulkhead from a cargo aircraft was redesigned froin over 

400 parts and 3000 fasteners to a one-piece cast 

aliiininuni structure with no fasteners. Testing to 

va I ida te structiiixl in t egri ty is nearing conipletion. 

Primary adhesively bonded striictiire technology is 

also being developed by the Air Force. Through 

the use of adhesive bonding, fabrication of large 

cargo aircraft structures such as fuselages can be 

reduced from the lalior-intensivc assembly of thousands of parts to the assembly of ;I few large bonded 

nioddcs. The Ail. Force has conducted an advnncctl 

technology demonstration program to design, fahricate, and test a full-scale, 18-meter-long fuselage 

section using adhesive honding in place of conventional riveted fastening. The test strrictrire has 

success f 11 1 I y coni ple tetl four 1 i fe t inies (76,000 pressure cycles) of fatigue testing, some of which was 

performed with intentional damage in the form of 

saw ciits up to 20 centimeters long. A significant 

reduction in the propagation of such damage in the 

adhesively bonded structure, as compared to conventional riveted structure, was observed. This structural safety improvement contributes an additional 

five percent to the originally projected structural 

weight savings of 15 percent using adhesive bonding. Cost savings of 30 percent were also demonstrated, principally from the elimination of over 

80,000 fasteners. 

In 1979, the Army initiated a two-phase program 

called advanced composite aircraft program 

(,\ClP). Phase I, which is the preliminary design 

ph:ise, will de\~lop ;itlvanced composite design concepts for the primary structrii-e of the next generation of U.S. .\rniy helicopters. Phase I1 will flightdcnionstr;ite two of the most promising concepts. 

Future benefits will include ininimum weight and 

reduced m;iniif;icturing cost plns reduced radar 

cross-section :ind iniprovcd ballistic survivability. 

Fomlni~l S7~'cpl Tiling. Advanced composite mateI i;ils with inherent characteristics that allow tailorills of the ~iir~r~tlt stnictiiral features has led 

to the development of the forward swept wing 

(FSW) concept. FSW offers the designer increased 

configirr;i t ion;i I flcxibil i ty tha t can translate into 

gi~i ter tr;tnsoiiic m;ineuveral)ility, lower transonic 

IKI\T dr;ig, ;ind improved low-speed handling qualities. ,\ D;\KPA progr;un in 1979 validated the 

capibility to design :I divergence-free FSW throngh 

\vintl tunnel tests of large-scale seniispan models. 

Tii\mtigations will be undertaken in 1980 toward 

tlie tlevelopnicnt of :I flight demonstration vehicle. 

A(l~uinw~1 Fliglrt Control Concepts. In 1979, the 

.\ir Force coniplecetl flight tests of a YF-16 aircraft 

modi ficd to provide independent six-degrce-of-freetlom control. The tests demonstrated the feasibility 

of providing intlependent control about all axes to 

improve acciiracy of weapon delivery. The results 

of these tests are being incorporated into the Air 

Fol~c figh ter technology integra tion (AFTI) prograni, Tr1iel-c tlie aircraft fire control system is intcgr;itetl with ;in advanced flight control system to 

piavide even greater accuracy improvement. AFTI 

is scheduled to begin flight tests in 1981. 

A (i71(i n ccd H c7lic o p 1 L' 1. R o t or Sy st c m.7. The Navy 

;itl\xncetl helicopter rotor system program is 

tlircctetl toward denionstrating the flight feasibility 

of the circul;itioii control rotor (CCR) concept. 

CCR is ;I noii-;irticul;ited rotor in which aero- 

(1) ii;iniic ;ingle of attack is achieved By boundary 

layer control. The first flight of :I CCR mounted on 

;I niotlifictl Navy/K;inian H-2 helicopter took place 

in Septem1)cr 1979, and the test program is expected to continrie throngh 1981. The X-wing is 

;I stopped rotor concept that incorporates CCR 

technology. Feasibility of the X-wing concept, which 
is being jointly developed by DARPA and the 

Navy, was demonstrated through full-scale wind 

tunnel tests of a 7.6-meter-diameter rotor. Transition between rotary wing flight and fixed wing 

flight, and vice versa, was demonstrated in excess 

of 30 times during these tests. A small (1700-kilogram) demonstrator aircraft program will be 

initiated in 1980. iltlditionally, testing has been 

conducted on a high-speed, countcr-rotating rotor 

called the advancing I)ladc concept (ABC) as part 

of a .joint Army-Navy-NASA program. Atlvantnges 

of this concept include improved maneriver;il,ility, 

low noise, high hover efficiency, and the ability to 

perform high-speed flights at high altitades. Testing 

to date has documented these advantages, and evaluations of this higli-speed rotor will continue 

through FY 1981. 

Sy n t h c 1 ic Fl igli t T1-n in i ng Sys t e Ins (SI; T S ). Following Army testing, the flight simulator for the 

CH-47 helicopter became stantlard in June 1978. 

This simu1;ttor iises a closed-circuit television system in conjunction with a three-tlimensioii~il terrain model to provide a realistic visual display, the 

first ;1\rmy flight simulator with such a capabilitf. 

The first production article of tlie CH-47 simulator 

was placed on contract in early FY 1979. The prototype continrtes to be used in an aviator training 

program at Fort Rucker. 

The AH-I flight and weapons simulator (FWS) 

is the first to incorpoi-ate weapons engagement 

along with other flight maneuvers. The evolution 

will continue with the development of the UH-60 

Black Hawk flight simulator which will me a 

camera model hoard for one cockpit and a computer-generated imagery visual system for the other 

cockpit. Testing in 1979 evaluated the training 

benefits of these two technologies. Concept formulation and development are underway for the AH-64 

flight antl weapons simulator which will have the 

capability to produce tlie sound and fury of the 

battlefield. Testing of tlie simulator is scheduled 

for 1982. 

Remotely Piloted Vehiclcs (RPV). The Army remotely piloted vehicle (RPV) system performs 

target acquisition, designation, aerial reconnaissance, and artillery adjustment missions. A small 

unmanned air vehicle, including its mission payload, is controlled from ;I ground control station, 

with the plane’s video imagery and target location 

information returned via an anti-jam data link. 

Between October 1, 1978, and September 30, 1979, 

administrative and contractual arrangements were 

made to conduct engineering development of a remotely piloted vehicle system. A contract was 

awarded on August 31, 1979, for the full-scale engineering development. Hardware deliveries will 

consist of L“‘ air veliicles, 18 mission payload subs~ stenis, foul. gi.ound control stations, and three 

I;iitnther ;incl recovery subsystems. First flight of the 

$)stein is schetlitled for late 1981. 

Relationships with NASA 

Aeiwncirdtics nncl Asti.onnrrtics Coordinating Board 

‘l’lie .leroiiaittics antl Asti.onaiitics Coordinating 

h;ii tl (.\,lCI%) is the primary mechanism for adtlrcssitig 1ii;i)or policy issues o€ interest to DoD and 

S.lS.1 in sixice ;ind aeronautics. In 1979, the Road 

ivas crlensively in\~olved in reviewing the NASA 

Sp;ic,c Slirittle tlcvclopment antl orbiter production 

i)iqgixiii, ;ind tlie Don program for Shuttle use. 

htli ;igencics m;itle adjustments in their respective 

J”‘ogr;llll s. 

.IC Spec Sliuttlc deve1ol)ment has progressed, 

pei-foi.ni;iiice inat-gins have changed because of design xntl equipment changes as well as weight 

gmwtli. To allow for further improvement in tlie 

Shuttle’s c:ipabiIity, NAS;l lins considered a number of options for providing thritst augmentation, 

;itit1 presented to tlie AXCR iii early 1979 tlie deci- 

$ion that sitch ;I project, if undertaken in future 

).e;irs, would use two strapon solid motors, one on 

c;icIi of tlie Shuttle’s large solid rocket motors 

(SliAls) . Correspondingly, the Air Force agreed to 

niotlify the \’:\FH Shuttle launch pad design to 

;icconiniotl;itc the thrrist-;iugtiieiited Shuttle configiii.;ition if needed. N.lS,Z has also baselined a 

second tlii.ust-;tugiiieiitation approach using liquid 

boost niotlr~les (LFiAI) that employ Titan technology. This I.RAI approach is also compatible 

with the revised V,2FR launch pad design. Thus, 

citlici. strapon solid motors or LRAI tlirust-auginent;~ tion approaches can be accommodated. 

l%o;itd members have extensively reviewed 

N.k‘jA’s Shuttle developmental problems and recent schedule changes. The First Manned Orbital 

Flight (FAIOF) on Shuttle is now scheduled for 

late 1980, while Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is 

now to begin launching operational flights in 1982. 

Orbiter 099 is scheduled to he delivered in 1982, 

Orbiter 103 in 1983, and Orbiter 104 in 1984. This 

revised schedule will support the DoD plan to begin the transition of operational spacecraft to 

1;iuncli on Shuttle in FY 1983 and to complete this 

transition by FY 1986. 

NAS.4 and the Air Force reached formal agreeiiient in RIarch 1977 on the cost of Space Shuttle 

flights for Don missions. Entitled “NASA/DoD 

RIeniorandum of Agreement on Basic Principles for 

NASA/DoD Space Transportation System Launch 

I~eiinbiirsemerit,” tlie agreement establishes the 
DoD cost for the standard Space Shuttle delivery 

flight at $12.2 million in FY 1975 dollars. Discussions are currently underway to expand this agreement to include optional services, such as the addition:il time on orbit that ivill be t.cquirec1 for 

certain defense missions. Discussions arc also under 

way on the Ixisic principles which will guide sale, 

by the Air Force, of the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) 

to N;IS.\, other civil, and foreign customers. 

Nczlioncil Acrontirrtic Fncililies Program. In its 

final form as tlefincd by Don and NASA, the Nat ion;\ 1 Aerona 11 tic Fa ci 1 i ties Program con ta i ns three 

large facilities necessary to continue the efficient 

dcvclopnicn t of ;ieronautical technology and systems 

through the etitl of this century. The f;icilities contained in the program arc: 

0 f\I~.KOPKOPL'1,41ON sYSTE.\lS TICST FACILITY 

(ASTF)-sl,oiisored by the Air Force to support 

the economical development of advanced cngincs for fighter, large strategic tr;insport, antl 

Ijoniber aircraft. 

0 NATIONAI. TI~ASSOSIC FACII.ITY (NTF)-sponsorctl by hT.lS.1 to permit i.ese:irch xnd development testing ;it high Kcynoltls titinibel- in the 

tra tisoti ic niach-number ra nge (conil)incs the 

requirements of the c;ii.licr High Reynolds 

Ntiiii1)cr Tuniiel, sponsoi.ed by the Air Force, 

antl the 'I'r;insonic Kcse;ircli Tunnel, spon0 40 x 80 FOOT S~~I<SONIC TUNSEI. ~IODII~ICATIOXsponsored by N;ZSA to meet subsonic research 

neetlc for the stud!, of rotor cixft and I;irge 

po1veiul-1 it t veliiclcs. 

Significant ~)rogrcss continued on a11 three facilities during 1959. Their completion and ;icti\r;ition 

soretl by X.4S.4). 

:llr scllctlrlletl lot. the e:ll.l). IWOS. 

Coopeuntizje Progi*nms/Efforts 

Don continrietl to actively participate in joint 

activities with NASA ;ind other agencies during 

1950. Elloi~s alicid~ tlesct.il)ctl ;it-e tlic sol;it- radiat ioii nioii i tori iig pix)gt.;i 111, slxicc(~;i f t ch;irgi ng 

tctlinolog\, ;ind ;ic-ti\.itics associated ivitli the Spire 

Shuttle. Other ;ireas of interest: 

Spncr, LaIrnch. The major space Iarincli vehicles 

used by N.1S.l Ii:rve cliat.:ictei.istic~illy Ijeen direct 

applications or derivatives of .4ir Force lxillistic 

missile systems (Thor, ;\tlas, and Titan). The Air 

Force pixjvitled ;\tlas E/F launch to N,,\S.-\ for National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration 

(NO;\:\) satellites, ;ind the ,Zir Force 6 

Test Gt.oup in;in;iges the prelaunch checkout and 

launch of sttch systems. .\ir Force persotinel :it both 

the ESlIC and WSAIC Iaitnch sites provide support 

to N.4SA for t-;ingc operations, range safety, tests, 

and procurement. 

,\'(itionti1 Occ.anic Satellite System (NOSS). A 

joint stritly by NXSA, NOAA, and DoD has shown 

tI!;it NOSS, iiittlci. joint ;rgenc)' m;inagenient, could 

meet most operational oceanic measurement reqtiircnientc of both the civil and military communities. NOSS is being initiated as a limited oper:i tioti;iI tlcmonsti.;ition pro.ject intended to prove 

the utility of ;I routine, repetitive set of related and 

s).tiol)tic space me;isurements from which the reqiiiixxl glol)al ocean surface information (sea 

IieigIi I, se;~ siii.f;ice temperature, ice cover and age, 

sc;~ c~t~~rct~ts, ocean wind field, and water color and 

tiit.l)itlity) an I)e extracted. A new real-time ground 

1)rocessiiig ;ind ucci- t1;itn distribution system will be 

;I key fc;ititi.e in proving NOSS's utility. NASA will 

Ii;ive 1c;itl ~.esl)onsil)ility for developing the space 

zegnicnt witli Don sharing costs, while NOAA and 

Dol) \vi11 zli~ii~~ i.esponsibility for ground segment 

tlevelopment. 1)evclopnient and operation will be 

joiiitly III~III~I~~~ by tlie three agencies with control 

sliil'ting to KO.\.\ and DoD in the later phases of 

the tlemonstt.;ttion. .-\Irernntivc concept studies for 

s! stem c.onfigui.;ition will commence in early 1980. 

H VI I o/ -A I o I I n ctl I>i.s/) In y Trc 11 no 1 ogy . The Air 

I;o tx.e .\ eimp c-e X Ictl icn 1 Research Labora tory 

(,\I;.\Jl IC1 .) IMS provided a helmet-mounted 

(1ispI;i) '4iglit ;ippiixtits for testing at NASA's 

lohiisoil Sp;itx (:eiiter (JSC). This display will be 

inst;tIIctl ill the Slxice Shuttle simulator to test its 

iitiIity 101. pt.o\.itIitig critic;iI inforni;ttion for final 

;ipI)i.o;icIi ;iiitl I;inding of the Shuttle. Per a hfemo~t ndut11 or .\glwment Iwtween AFAhlRL and 

S.\S.\. .\F.\JIRI, will provide NASA with the 

l1:tid\v:tI.e of the visit;iIly conpled system, consult on 

tlie intci.l;icc design. ant1 be responsible for the 

itistaI1:itioti of this equipment in the Space Shuttle 

siiiiul;itor. JSC has provided funding in FY 1979 

;iiid FI' 1!)80 to initiate the development of ad- 

\.;iiicul helmet-motinted t1ispl;iy electronics, and 

\vi11 mikc :iv:iilal)le ;ill technical information from 

tlii5 elfort. 

A//IIO,\/I~IOI ic. Itc,scvt.rl,. The joint effort between 

SO.\.\, h'AS.-I, ;ind USAF which produced the 

IJ.S. St;iiitI~ii~d .\ttiiospliei.c (1!17(i) continues. That 

ioitit piil)lic;ition has disseminated the wealth of 

I\ttowlctlgc oil the upper ;itmosphere obtained during the pist sol;tr cycle. Extensive rocket and satellite ht:i ;iccliiii.etl over more than one complete 

sol;ii. qcle ;ire incorpoixtetl. This stratospheric 

iiicasiit.cment capbility will provide important 

spin-off benefits to the National Plans for Stratosl)lici.ic- 12eseatx.h ;itid XIoiiitoring which are now 

Iwiiig I)tq);ii'ed ;it the Fetlcral level as a result of 

the growing concern over oione tlcplction and cnvii.oiiment;il deterioration. 

Dui.ing 1959, a large, coordinated program under 

60 
the auspices of DoD, NASA, and the National Kesearch Council of Canada was conducted to iiicasiii‘e 

the responsc of the middlc atniospherc ;ind loivcr 

ionosphere to the February 1370 solar eclipse. During the eclipse, Don’s Atmospheric Sciences 1,:iI)- 

oratory was niainly interested in the clcctron density in the lowest portioii of thc ionospliere, since 

DoD comniiinic~itioiis ant1 radar signals are ;tffectetl 

by the electrons and ions in this area. The ra1)icI 

dny-to-niglit-to-~l~iy transition afforded by the eclipse 

provided ;I rare opportunity to observe how the 

~jresence and iibscnce of solar radiation affects the 

atniosplicre. It is expected that the 1979 solar 

eclipse program will serve as a forerunner for the 

niitltlle :I tiiiospliere prograiii in 1!)80-1!)85. 

KC-135 Wing-let.s. The joint USAF/NASA KC135 winglet demonstration program is an advanced 

dcvelopment program ivitli the objcctivc of 

~~roving, tliroiigh flight testing, that the total of aircraft drag rctluction cm be achievcd with winglets. 

Winglets re sm:tll airfoils of optimum shape located at the wing tip in a near \~~ical position. 

Drag retliiction translates into ;I fuel saving whicli 

is dependent on aircraft fleet utilization rates. 

Rased on recent rates, ;in 8-percent drag reduction 

on the KC-135 tanker aircraft could savc 164 million litcrs of fuel annually. Winglets dso increase 

the tanker off-load capa1)ility because less fuel is 

used to transit to and from the refueling point. 

The Air Force has completed the modification of 

a KC-195 aircraft, and flight testing to validate a 

predicted eight percent improvement in range hegm in Junc 1979. This development will have application to both commercial and military 

transpoi- ts. 

Rotor Sy.yte?,?.y Rrsmwh Aircraft (RSRAJ. A joint 

Army-NASA contract has led to the completion and 

acceptance of two rotor-systems aircraft to serve ;IS 

“flying wintl-tiinnels” for helicopter research. The 

aircraft design permits the in-flight testing of fullscale main rotor systems having from two to six 

blades. The design also allows the addition of fixed 

wings and thrusting engines that will permit rotor 

testing at flight speeds up to 550 kilometers per 

hour. These two aircraft will provide data on aerodynaniic ~~rolilenis that are currently iliathematically intractible and cannot be solved without the 

aid of precise flight research results. One research 

aircraft, with its first set of rotor blades, has conipleted its first phase of flight testing as a piire helicopter, as a compound with thrusting engines, and 

as an all-up compound with thrusting engines and 

augmenting wings. In the next phase, these aircraft 

will be used to test and optimize the performance 

of various candidate rotor designs as well as obtain 

data to improve rotorcraft prediction methodology. 

Tilt Roto,. Rcscwrch Aircvaft (XV-15). Under a 

joint .\riiijyA’.4S.\ contract awarded in 1973, two 

lilt-rotor i.ese:ircIi ;iircrnft, the XV-15, were built. 

?’lie first of ihe t~vo aircr;tft Iins completed fullscale tests which include hover flight and operation 

iiiitlei, ixmote conti-ol in a wind triniiel. The second 

X\’-l~? is pi‘eseiitly participating in contractor flight 

iestc to c~t;il~IisIi thc basic flight characteristics for 

I)otli Iiclicoptcr ;tiit1 ;iirpIaiie modes of operation. In 

,\iiIy I!):!), No. 2 XI’-I5 completed its first in-flight 

( oiivct-\ion Ii.oni ;I helicopter to the airplane mode. 

It Iixs iiolv lloivii twenty hours and Iias reached a 

true air si)ced of 204 knots. The Nary joined the 

pi~ogi.;riii in 1979. 

Al/c)xtr/p F~ir1.s Progi.cir,r. The alternate fuels 

I)rogr;ini is pirt of a long-term coordinated effort 

aiiiong tlic services, NAS,\, aiid thc Department of 

Energy to ensure that Iiqiiitl fiicls obtained from 

tlonicstic res~iii~ce~ such ;IS lower quality peti-oleum, 

oil 5Ii:ile, tar sands, and coal will be acceptable altcrn;itivcs to liclriitl hytlrocarl~on fuels in highI)ei.loi.m;iiicc engines. The initial DoD effort is an 

esl)ci‘inient;il pi.ogr;ini to ~~rodiice aviation turbine 

Iticls froin sli;ile oil and coal. Results to date pro- 

\,itIc cncoiii-;igiiig evidence that the aviation industry can IIW 111el p~x~dr~c~etl Ironi tlic vast United 

St;iies 1 esouixc\ ol‘ oil sli:11e. 111 I%!), significant ef1oi.t IVAS esl~cii(let1 tle\~clopiiig ;I Defense Fuels MoI)iIily .\ctioii PI;iii, ;iiitl ;I 1)eIense Xfo1)ility Fuels 

0flic.c ivas c~t:il)lishcd to conso1itl:itc the Don effort. 

Trcl/iiical Dcuclopmcnt Support. DoD has det:rilctl :I niinibcr of technically ti-aincd persons to 

Nils.% to assist in programs of mutiial interest. The 

tec1inologic;il traiisfcr back to DoD in unique 

functional ;ii.cas is iniportant. The detailees are 

working in ;I vai-icty of operational and RkD programs I)ut iiiost are xsociated with the Space Trans- 

~~oixitioii Sytein activities which include space mission pl;iiining, ;i\.ionics and communications 

vxii1.i tj,, ci’civ proccdures, payloads software, logistics, ;ind facilities construction. In 1979, the Air 

Force ;i\sigiietl ;I gciiei-;rl officer ;it N.lS.4 Headquartei-s to fiirtlier strcngthen joint Shuttle planning 

:iiid progr;ini implementation activities. At Johnson 

Sp;ice Center (JSC), the Air Force currently has 20 

~)ei.soiinel supporting Shuttle activities with growth 

to 54 pcople expected by June 1980. 

A.slrontlirt Progrci,,~. The DoD continued to support this progr;ini by providing astronaut canditlates for the Space Shuttle program. Of 35 new 

cant1itl:ites choscn by NASA in 1977, 21 were from 

Don. In 1979, these new astronaut selectees completed their training program that began in July 

1!)78. All 21 have heen certified and are awaiting 

;tssignnient to specific payload missions. DoD is also 

submitting atlditional candidates for the next astrollant selection by NASA, scheduled for May 1980. 

61 
IV Department of Comrnerce 

I 

Introduction 

The five agencies in the Department of Commerce that contribute directly to the nation’s aeronautics and sp;tce programs are the National 

Oceanic ;iiitl .Atniosphci-ic ;1tlmittistt.;ition (NOAA), 

the National Eureau of Standards (NRS) , the 

hIaritimc Administration (MARAD), the National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) , and the Bureau of the Census 

(ROC). 

NOAA’s mission is to improve the safety and 

quality of life through better comprehension of 

the Earth’s environment and through more efficient 

use of its resources. To this end, NO.?\,$ operates, 

manages, :ind improves the nation’s operational environmental s;ttellite systems; provides satellite data 

on the impact of natural factors and human xctivities on glohl food and fuel slipplies and on environment;il quality; uses satellite data and aerial 

ptiotogra ph y for charting, coa stit 1 mapping, and 

geodetic research: employs satellite data to improve 

the assessment and conservation of marine life: and 

upgrades weather services by developing new forecasting techniques, automating field operations, 

and improving dissemination of weather information. 

NBS seeks to improve the standards and related 

services necessary to ensure uniform and reliable 

measurements. The NRS p-ticipation in the nation’s aeronautics and space program is to provide 

measurement support services for space and satellite 

systems, atmospheric and space research, and aeronnutical programs. 

hIARAD works to improve ship safety, operations, and nianagenient. Use of satellites increases 

the efficiency of commercial ship communication, 

nnvigntion, and operation. 

The NTIA, pi-incipal communications advisor to 

the President, develops and coordinates Executive 

Branch policy in teleconimitnicatioiis and informatioii. Wie S-I.I.1 is respoiisi1)lc for the tiiattapiient 

of the radio spectrum assigned for Federal use, explores ;ipplications for telecommunications technology, performs applied scientific and engineering 

analyses to improve technology, and provides 

tcc1inic;il assistance to other Federal agencies. 

BOC works to improve information on population trends, urban growth, and the internal structure of national land areas. Satellite data are used 

101. tleniogr;iph ic studies and population estimates. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

‘I’tic National Environmenlal Satellite Service 

(NESS) of h‘OA;Z operates two satellite systems: 

the polat.-ot.l)iting system and the geostationary 

system. 

Po 1 II v-0 1. bi I i ng Sn I cl 1 it cs . D uri ng the first ha 1 f of 

1!)70, NESS converted from the Improved Tiros Opcrational S;itellite (ITOS) system to the new generation Tiros-N series. Tiros-N, the NASA prototylx :itid the first of this series, was launched 

Octobei- 13, 1!)7S. No;i:i 6. XO;\A’s fit.st operationiil satellite of this series, was launched June 27, 

1979. These two satellites are known as the Tiros-N 

s! stem. The Tiros-N and ITOS systems overlapped 

rtntil ,111ly 16, l!)79, ivlien No;i;i 5, the List of the 

ITOS series, was deactivated. 

Rctliintlancy is ;ichievetl in the Tiros-N system by 

two itlcntical satellites rather than two identical 

instruments on :I single satellite. Tiros-N was 

I;iiiiichetl into a near-polar, Sun-synchronous 870- 

kilometer orbit crossing the equator in a north- 

~v:itxI direction at 1500 loc;il time. Noaa 6 orbits 

;it 830 kilometers, crossing the equator in a southwitd direction at 0730 local time. 

The Til-os-N system satellites carry four primary 

itisti.iinimts: ;in .1tlv;incctl Very High Resollition 

R;itliometer; ;I Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder, 

consisting of three coiiip1ement;iry sounding instruments, one of which is provided by the United 

I<ingdoni: an .It-gos Data Collection and Platform 

1,oc;ition System, which is frtrnished hy France; and 

;I Spice Environment hlonitor. In ;tdtlition, the extreniely large volume of digital data delivered by 

62 
these satellites required installation of a new 

groiind system, which was accepted in February 

1979. 

Gco.slnliontiry Satellites. The NOAA designation 

for its Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite system is GOES, the successor to NASA's 

prototype geostationary Synchronous Aleteorological S;itellites (ShIS) . Since 1974, two SMS and three 

GOES satellites have been launched. Presently, 

Goes 3 antl ShIS 2 are the operational geostationary 

satellites covering the Western Hemisphere. ShlS 2 

i4 1oc:itetl over the cqiiator at 75" west longitutle 

antl Goes 3 at 135" west longitude. SAIS 1 (130"W) 

:\iid Goes 2 (105"IV) :ire on st;indhy status. Goes 1 

~-eiii~iinetl atits position of 56" east longitude over 

the Indian Ocean. The spacecraft was under control 

of the Eiiropean Space Agency until November 30, 

1979, to support the Global Weather Experiment. 

On Kovember 30, 1979, it was commanded to drift 

e:i51n~iid at 2" longitutle per day. Goes 1 is schedlilctl to :ii.rivc at its tlcstination of 90' west longitiitle during hrarch 1980. 

dl new interactive computer system designed to 

improve the accuracy of the navigation and gridding of GOES images became operational in RIarch 

1979. This computer system is called the Visible 

Infrai-et1 Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Interactive 

Registration and Gridding System (VIRGS). It will 

provide a faster response time in computing accurate grids on images after normal spacecraft 

maneuver operations, improve the accuracy of 

griclded image products, and potentially reduce the 

amoinit of costly ground tracking equipment. The 

niorc acciirate gridding aids in the prodiiction and 

iise ol "movie loops" which depict cloud motions. 

These "movie loops" are frequently used for storm 

ivartiings such as Hurricanes David and Frederic in 

.\tigtist ant1 Septeni1)er 1 079 and by TV meteorologists as part of their daily weather programs. 

Lond Progmms. On November 16, 1979, the President designated the Department of Commerce 

througli NOAA to manage all operational civilian 

reiiiotc saising activities from space [for the text of 

the President's announcement, see Appendix E]. 

NO,\A'I; experience in successfully operating and 

nian;iging three generations of environmental satellites piq)ares it to assume the responsibility for 

hntl remote sensing in addition to its on-going 

atmospheric and oceanic activities. NOAA will 

establish ant1 manage an operational satellite program of land remote sensing based upon the 

N.\S.\-ni;inagetl 1,;indsat raearch and development 

program. 

"0,4A completed a preliminary plan by December 15, 1<li<), atid will siilmiit ;I final transition plan 

to the President hy June 1, 1980. Imidsnt W;IS begun 

in 19i2 1):. S.\S.\ :is ;I satellite effort specifically designed to test remote sensing techniques for observing surface features of the Earth. 

Srrtcllilc Data Zlzsfribi~lion. During 1979, NESS 

I)eg;in upgracling the Satellite Field Services Stations 

(SFSS) by p2i;ising out their photo laboratories and 

converting to ;in ;~ll-electronic image displaying 

system. I<lectronic processing of satellite images will 

signific;iiitly redrice NESS ann~r;il operating costs by 

tiio1.e tinicly Ixoduction of aniniatetl data, improved 

s!stcni Ilcsil)ility, eliniin:rtion of photographic 

1;iI)oi.atory costs, and minimizing equipment comI'lcsity. The new satellite image display devices 

offer low capital investment, low cost for exupendnIilcs, reIi:ibility, unattendccl operation, consistent 

good qiiality imager)., no plioto processing, and 

conipatibility with NESS'S existing image animation 

devices. 

The GOES Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) Service 

is now I)roadcasting tlnta via the geostationary 

satcllites located ;it 75'W, 105"W, and 135"W. The 

1VEF.lX data 1i;ive Iieen expanded to include 

st:intlai~tl nicteorological charts broadcast from the 

central s:itcllite in addition to the satellite image 

ti-;insniissions ;ilready prol~ided by the east and west 

s;itcllites. This allows users of the central satellite 

to have both satellite images antl standard meteorological c1i;irts. The WEFAS user commimity has 

cspindcd to more than 70 national and international land stations, some of them located in the 

<:nrilihenii ;iiitl Centr;il atid South A4mericnn countries. :ind to ovci. 50 mobile st;itions carried aboard 

I I;I 1.a 1 ;I ntl mci.ch a n t vessels. 

"AX1 Weather," a new TV weather program 

~~1-od11cec1 by the RIaryland Center for Public Broad- 

(Listing in cooperation with NO;ZA, the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA), and the Aircraft 

0wnci.s and Pilots :\ssoci:ttion. W;IS initiated in 

1979. RIeteorologists from NESS and the National 

Weather Service pai.ticip:ite in daily (llonday 

through Friday) 15-minute broadcasts describing 

the weather over the continental United States. 

iIpproximately 200 public television stations across 

the country transmit the program live. Real-time 

satellite images and "movie loops" afford an opportunity to show the public where the weather is occurring. This program also is highly beneficial to 

the aviation and agricultural communities. 

The GOES-Tap system, implemented in 1975 to 

provide for the dissemination of GOES satellite 

images by geographic sectors, was further expanded 

in 1979 to include lines to several FAA Air Route 

Traffic Control Centers. Initial GOES-Tap lines 

wcrc installed in those centers that control highclensity airrraft operations along the east coast. 

Meteorologists, trained by NESS in weather satellite 
image interpretation, are collocated with the FAA 

controllers and provide them with the latest 

weather information. 

The GOES Data Collection System (DCS) has a 

total of 41 national and international users that 

operate more than 1000 Data Collection Platforms 

(DCP) . During 1979, 11 new users and more than 

350 platforms were added to the system. A new remote command feature was added to the system; 

now the user can change the configuration of one 

or more DCPs in the network by sending a cominand either by telephone or by satellite directly to 

tlie DCS computer which relays the command by 

satellite to the platforms. This feature saves time 

and reduces errors inherent in a manual system. 

Plans also were completed to develop a GOES 

DCS Aiitomatetl hlonitoring System which, when it 

becomes oper;itional in early 1981, will sample the 

characteristics of the platform radio transmissions. 

Frequency stability, signal strength, and other performance aspects relating to platform condition can 

be monitored and automatically recorded as a 

ineaiis of detecting platform nialfunction. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Deterruining 1l'ind.r nnd Tcirrpernfiires. During 

1979, atmospheric temperature soundings and scasurfacc temper;itrires wei-e obtained opcrationally 

over the entire globe from the polnr-orl)iting satcllites, and wind measiirements were obtained operationally three times each day ot'er thc Western 

Hemisphere from geostationary satellites. Cloridmotion winds were determined at three atmospheric levels at a 300-kilometer spatial interval. 

These data were provided to the National Weather 

Service, the United States Air Force and Navy, ;ind 

twenty foreign g-overnments. In ;i<ldition, these data 

become part of the Global Weather Experiment 

data base. 

Digital infrared data from tlie geostationary satellites arc stored in a data base. Real-time users can 

obtain these data to supplement conventional observations. S;itellitc-derivetl cloud-top temperatures 

and land temperatures provide an instantaneous 

view of conditions associated with the development, 

intensity, and surface coverage of convective storms. 

These obsci-vations are iised in detei-mining the 

potenti;il for the development of tlaniaging winds 

and flash fiootl events. Imdsurface temperature 

patterns are used to determine the potential for 

frost or frcex conditions threatening agricrilturc. 

and the se;i-surf;ice temperatiire patterns are used 

to assist the fishing industry and route ships in 

major ocean current regions. This improves the efficiency of operations at sea for two ma,jor users. 

During 1979 NESS implemented a program to 

coinpire information on cloud-motion derived 

winds from geostationary satellites operated by the 

United States, the Japanese hleteorological Satellite 

Center, ;ind tlie European Space Agency. These 

studies inrludetl special (lata sets produced by the 

Space Science ;ind Engineering Center at the University of Wisconsin and two research laboratories 

in Eiii~ope. This year's comparisons coincided with 

t 11 c GI oh 1 Wca tli er Ex per inient Intensive Observatioii Periods of January and hlay 1979. The results 

so f;ii. show that observations from these diverse 

soiirccs are qiiitc compatible. Two coinparison periods c;tcli year ;ire to be continued intlefinitely to 

ciisii1.e ;icc-iir;icy and coinpatihility of these data for 

the World Weather Watch. 

Tlic N0.2.i Wave Propagation I.aboratory 

(WPI.) completed the second phase of a systems 

:iiialyih oil tlic f'e;i\iI)ility of nic;isiiring the global 

winds with a s;i tellite-lioi~ie lidar (laser-light-detertioii-;intl-i.;inging system). Thc technique involves 

tlic tixcking of dust and other particles suspended 

in the ;itniosplicre. The attentinting effects of typical 

c.loutl distributions, ixnging from fair weather CIImuliis to intcrtropica1 convergence zone clouds, 

WCIT ;~tItletl to the stiitly in this past year. The 

I;iilurc of the laser beams to penetrate thick, watertli,oplct cloiids resriltetl in some loss in accuracy at 

I)icisiii'e levels Ixlow 700 millibars, but in most 

c;iscs wind spccd coiiltl be determined to within 2 

meters per second in the presence of clouds, and 

I)crtcr th;iii 1 meter per second in the clear air. 

C:ompiiter programs were successfully developed 

for various man-machine interactive methods to 

process ;ind cvaltiate Tiros-N temperatnre and 

iiioistuir souirtlings. Comparisons made between 

si teIIitc-tlei.ivcd temperatures and radiosonde tempCIJ ttiixs shoivetl Root Mean Square errors of 

;tl)otlt *?o(: ;it iiiost levels. h1:iiiy case studies were 

conducted integrating the Tiros-N temperature 

tl;it:i with geostationary satellite cloud-cover images 

;ind i.;itliosoiidc observations. Data sets were colIcctcd ;ind processed for regional forecast studies by 

gi'o~ips ;it the Aiistr;ilian Numerical hleteorological 

1icsc;ircli Centrc and the United States National 

Cenrei. for ,~\tmosl)lieric Research. One case study 

iiicliitletl an orbit over tornadoes in the United 

States oil hlay 2, 1970. ln this study, detailed analyws mxle of the Tiros-N data 12 horirs prior to the 

toi.ii:itlo development along the Oklahoma-Kansas 

hortler tletcctctl the low pressure arca, the intense 

nioistiii.c front with convectivcly unstable air, and 

tlic strong divergence of thc upper level jet over the 

xrea where tlic severe weather subsequently occurrecl. Tlius, the Tiros-N data were able to de64 
lineate the precursor conditions of severe weather 

development. 

C;cos~;i tioii~ii-)-s;itellite-dcl.i\.ed winds often were 

obtained simultaneously with Tiros-N overpasses. 

The capability was developed to use Tiros-N soundings to assign pressure heights to these winds. Evaliia tions suggest that the cloud-height determination 

is considerably improved by merging these data 

sources. This procedure was used at the University 

of Wisconsin to determinc cloud heights from Goes 

I-dcrivetl winds over the Indian Ocean during the 

Glolxil Wen ther Experiment. 

hfoniloying Global Radiation. Radiation budget 

data werc derived from the Tiros-N Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer beginning January 1, 

1979. Data from the Tiros-N satellites, like the 

ITOS series, include measurements from which 

various heat budget components are derived and 

niapped globally on different time scales. These 

heat budget components are important diagnostic 

tools for meteorological and climatic studies and 

a soiircc of information to the growing number of 

scientists interested in climate fluctuations. These 

data also provide information on the radiative 

rkginies of the Earth, and they yield indirect evidence on variations in cloudiness, ice and snow 

cover, and other heat sources. 

The Earth Ikidiation I%utlgct (ERB) experiment, 

carried on Nimbus 7 (launched October 24, 1978), 

continued to monitor solar output during 1979. 

The derivcd solar constant remained at a value of 

1376 watts per square meter. The ERB experiment, 

hy observing in detail both incoming and outgoing 

radiation, will provide accurate information on the 

Earth’s radiation budget as a function of location 

and time. 

Environmental Warning Seruices. On selected 

days from March through June 1979, NESS operated GOES satellites in a special three-minuteinterval iniaging niotlc to support the Severe Environmental Storms and Mesoscale Experiment 

(SESARIE). The objective of Sesame is to use a 

combined set of satellite and conventional observations to allow meteorologists, for the first time, to 

observe convective cloud and storm development 

with a resolution in space and time comparable to 

the scales of the atmospheric phenomena being observed. Meteorologists are trying to determine the 

fine-scale, short-lived mechanisms that trigger 

thunderstorms and thunderstorm systems which 

produce hail, tornadoes, and damaging winds. Additional support consisted of communications services and the provision of the new electronic satellite image video display system. This system was 

placeti at NOA’4’s National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Okl~~lioma, for use by the researchers. 

111 addition to being tlic first intepited use of satellite clat:i. this also wxs the first field use of an electronic satellite iniage animation device. The benefit5 of s;itellite c1;iL:i and satellite image ;tnimation to 

the ~~cse:irch ~vcre con\.iiicingly demonstrated on 

.Iuril IO. l!)i!). ~vhcn tornadoes along the Red River 

Valley tlcvastated the towns of Vernon and Wichita 

Falls, Texas, mtl Lawton, Oklahoma. Satellite data 

cxlled attention to this threat and allowed forecxsters to sound an early alert, thus preventing the 

possibility for further loss of lives and property. 

The data from Project Sesame are currently being 

analyzed. 

NESS’s Satellite Field Services Stations (SFSS) 

iverc instrumental in many new environmental 

warning activities during 1979. One of the primary 

functions of the SFSS is to support the National 

Mieathcr Service (NWS) by providing interpretation of GOES images to improve the accuracy of 

i.outine forecasts and to provide timely severe 

weather warnings to the public. 

In response to a demonstrated need to improve 

niarinc and coastal weather services in the Gulf of 

Alexico, a Gulf of Rlexico satellite support unit was 

staffed in June 1979 and located with the Kansas 

City SFSS.‘In 1980, the “Gulf Support Unit” will be 

moved to Slidell, Louisiana and will be collocated 

with the NWS Forecast Office. 

In 1979, NESS’s Synoptic Analysis Branch placed 

into opcration a procedure for estimating precipitation intensities from GOES satellite images. These 

precipitation estimates were provided as input to 

the NWS forecasts of possible flash-flood events. 

The most notable event for which rainfall estimates 

werc provided was the Pearl River flood in Mississippi. Rainfall estimates also are provided for the 

International Water Commission (United States 

and Rlexico) and are useful for planning the regulation of water flow in the Rio Grande River. 

In research, infrared measurements from geostationary satellites continued to be used in a statistical approach to measuring rainfall for input to 

the NWS river-flow models. While a correlation 

was found between infrared cloud-top temperatures 

and rainfall, results were improved by adding other 

meteorological variables derived from a combination of satellite measurements ani1 conventional observations. Testing the repeatability of these relationships tinder various meteorc logical conditions 

continues. 

NOAA’s National Hurricane ind Experimental 

Meteorology Laboratory has continued to use satellite data for its research into hurricanes and convective cloud systems. Satellite d tta were collected 

over Hurricanes David and Frederic as these storms 

passed over Hispaniola, Cuba, and the United 
States. Simultaneous data also were collected by 

NOAA’s research aircraft. Aircra f t tln ta i ncl iided 

low-level wind fields, storm intensities, and digitired 

radar depicting the rain distributions with time. 

Aircraft and satellite data sets will be iised to study 

the degree to which cloud motions represent winds 

at the lower levels, the accuracy of storm intensity 

estimates from satellites when compared with observed values, the :iccuracy antl detail of rainfall 

estimates from satellite images when compared with 

quantitative airborne radar tnemireinents, the 110ssible indications of diurnal variations in the satellite-observed cloud field when compared with radar 

observations and observed wind fields, and forecast 

changes in storm intensity antl motion from satelli te-ohserved cloud characteristics by comparison to 

the i-ese;irch aircraft nicasurements. Wind fields 

have Ixen determined from cloiid motion in the 

oiiter fringes of hurricanes but not within the inner 

core of the storm. Riiinfall estimates froin satellite 

images seem to give reasonable results, but quantitative conip;irisons over lengthy periotlc of time have 

not I)een possible I)ec;iiise of little s~irface truth 

data. An accumulation of digitired radar measurements over long periods will provide dnt;i for these 

coni pa tisons. Sa tel I i te st orm-i ti t ensi t y cs t i 1113 tes 11 a ve 

Ixen re;ison;il)ly good, hut large errors are occasionally found. Further study of the satellite and concomitant xircraft data should provide more relixlile 

comparisons. 

The hTa~y-NO~4~4 Joint Ice Center Iiccame operational in ,June 1979. I’he A1ask:in and Hemispheric 

Ice Analyses :ire now produced ;it the Joint Ice Center at Fleet Weather Facilitv, Suitland, Alarylatid. 

These ice charts are an important aid to shipping 

conip;inies that resupply Arctic ports. ‘1’21~ conipanics can route their ships to avoid severe ice 

conditions, reducing the risk of damage ant1 reducing the costs in time antl fuel. 

During 1979, the iZnc1ior;iges SFSS expanded its 

operation to provide 24-horir service to Alaska. ’4 

new tecliniqw to forecast the intensification of 

storni systems in the mid-Pacific and Gulf of Alaska 

was opet-ationally tested. Because of the limitations 

of numerical forecasting over the oceans, it is often 

difficult to locate, track, and forecast the development of storm in the mid-Pacific. This technique, 

developed at the Anchorage SFSS, iises satellite data 

to locate ant1 provide a quantitative estimate of the 

central pressure that can he used by NWS forecasters to estimate storm severity and issue weather 

and gale warnings. Of 81 operational cases, the 

SFSS surf;ice pressure forecast guidance ;ivcr:iged 

1.28 mi1lil)ars lower than the observed valiie; the 

numerical predictions of ccntrd pressures averaged 

15 to I9 millibars higher than observed values. 

Cloiitl imxges of the western Pacific Ocean from 

Japan’s Geostationary Meteorological Satellite are 

now available to forecasters at Honolulu and the 

K;ition;il ;\Icteorological Center. These pictures 

(‘over a large ;\rea of the Pacific not viewed by 

United States geostationary satellites; and they are 

;in important addition to observing upstream 

~ve;itlicr conditions over the open ocean. 

111 1979 an operational program was started to 

nie:isure natriral passive gamma radiation by flying 

instrrinientetl aircraft over selected areas of the 

nortlt-central P1;iiiis. This radiation information is 

iisctl to help estim;itc water content of snow cover. 

Wlieii irsctl with s;ttellitc information on the areal 

estent of snow cover, NWS has a powerful new tool 

to I)cttcr judge the thre;it of flooding from 

snolvmelt. 

Zk/crmi~i~7g Omin Conditi0n.r. The NO.L4 Sca- 

\;it I)rogr:im 1v;is siihjectcd to an intensive review 

inimctli;itcly following the satellite’s demise on Oc1ol)cr !), 1978. .-ldjiistments were made in the 

pl~ititied experiment program to account for certain 

data wliicli could not be collected. The result was 

c;incell;i tion of cert;iin experiments. hlajor emphasis 

ivas tlii.cctetl toward the surface truth areas where 

~~~~~C~IITCIII ship, aircraft, ant1 satellite data were 

collected during the 99-day Seasat lifetime. These 

rve1.e the r\’O.\;\-coordinnted Gulf of Alaska Seasat 

Esperimcnt, the Joint Air Sea Interaction experinieiit, oceanic tropical ;I nd extratropical storms, 

Giilf Stremi, polar ice and other areas where sigit ific;i n t surf:ic e trii tli was available. 

During its period of operation Sexsat covered 

most of the 1978 tropic;il storins. It made 126 passes 

over 21 hrirric;ities antl typhoons, 179 passes over 

20 tropical storms, ;itid 64 passes over tropical depressions. Sc:isat mc1;ir images were conip;ire(l with 

coincident srlrf;icc observations m;itlc IIY NO.Z.4 

during the Gulf of ;\l;iska experiment. The results 

indicate that s:itellite-l)orne imaging r;id;ii-s ait extremely ~~~ilii~il~le tools in the study of oceaii surf;ice 

;intl intei~ri;il I~X\YS, surf;ice currents, atid mesoscale 

;I tniosplicric disturbances. 

N0;l.i’~ Pacific ;\ lari ne Environmen ta 1 La bor;iI oq (PAlE I ,) provitletl the meteoro1ogic;il ana I !.si.s 

of con\~ention;il surface oherva tioiis for comparison 

with Seasat sc;itteronicter wind fields. The scattcronictcr potenti;illy is a useful tool for opeixtional 

metcoi-ology I)ec;iuse it can accurately locate low 

prcssiii~ centers, storm producing regions, and 

/oti;il hinds of high winds. 

KO.\,l’s N;ition;il Hurricane and Experimental 

\leteorolog> 1,aboratory ewlrl;ttctl the ~isef~ilness of 

wccllite-sciiml stirface o1)serv:itions in the vicinity 

of hurricanes to provide inform;ttion concerning 

the areal extettt of 1iurric;ine and gale force winds 

66 
and to provide initial data to hurricane forec;ist 

models and storm surge models. Data g-;itlicred tluring the 1978 hurricane season by the Seasnt microwave scattei-oinetei- system have been Iised in this 

study. Preliminnry i-csdts int1ic;ite that the satellite surface wind speeds, below g11e force, are overestimated by about 15 percent. .4lthorigh winds in 

the hurricnne's inner core are not ivcll i.esoIJ.etl, 

this method of remote sensing oRers great potential in obtaining ;I sn;ipcliot of the 1iurric;inc wind 

field. 

NO:I.,I's Wave Prop;ig;ition I,aboi.;i tor), tlcvcloped ;I computer program for estimating significant 

waveheight antl iiiean sea level using Seasat i.;icI;ir 

altimeter data. Conipai'isoiis with SOIIIWS of surface 

truth show agreeiiieiit for signi fica lit uxvclicigli ts 

up to 30 centinieteix PAIEI, ;iiitl Geodetic 1iese;ii~li 

and Development I,al,or;itory investig;itors conipleted the first definitive baseline expcrinient coinpiring s;~ tcllite-;iltiiiieter-deri~e~l ocean sui.fncc 

topography wi tli s1iipl)oard olxervations. Results 

show that the satellite ;iltimeter can inc;isurc surfac~ 

topogr;iphy within 10 ceiitinieters of th;it nipsiired with standard shiphoard occanogr;iphic 

measui-eiiien ts. 

In 1979, two niajor oceanographic cruises were 

conducted to obtaiii srirf;ice truth tlat;~ to siiplmrt 

the Niml)us 7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) 

experiments. The first cruise was condrictccl in 

;\larch 1979 in the Gulf of California. and the second cruise was conducted in Slay antl June 19X 

in the northwest Atlantic. The cruises were supplemented by two field trips to IScrmiidn to 0l)t-i' L 111 atmospheric transniittancc me:isureinents. Optical 

and biological incasiirements were ol)tainetl from a 

wide range of water niasses by scientists from NESS, 

PMEL,, Scripps Institution of Oceanogr:iphy, University of Southern California, University of Alianii, 

and San Jose State College. Results from these 

cruises provide the first comparisons hetween remotely sensed ocean color from the CZCS, surfacemeasured ocean coloi-, and the distribution of suspended particulate matter, especially that associated 

with biological activity. 

The Gulf Stream Analysis, which begin in 1973, 

continued to be pi-oducecl in 1979. Based 011 highresolution infrared images from the Tiros-N and 

GOES satellites, the weekly composite map shows 

the location of the Gulf Stream, warm and cold 

eddies, and the thermal interface between the slope 

and shelf waters. Since fish congreg;cte at thermal 

boundaries, fishermen use these charts to locate 

productive fishing grounds. A related product 

which describes only the north or west boundary of 

the Gulf Stream also was produced three times a 

week. The Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin, broadcast 

1Tvic.e tlail). over Coast Guard radio, gives a sec11iciice ol points that i.epresent the west or north 

~v;ill of the (;ulf Strcani. C;oast;il shipping interests 

iisetl rlii5 inforiii;ition to route their ships to take 

:idv:iiit:i,qe of tlic occ;in currents. 

.I tii-;igcnc), group conducted ;I study related to 

tlic tlcvelopiiieiit of ;I National Oce;iiiic Satellite 

5) ctciii (SOSS) ;ind formally piiblished its findings 

iii .\I;ii.ch 1979. This group, ivitli representation 

11 0111 Coninicrcc, N;.ISX, ant1 Defense, focused on 

tlic opci.:itioii:il needs of the civil and defense comI ii I I 11 i ti es req ti i ri ng occ:i nogix ph ic in forma t ion, and 

on the space ;iiitl gromd systeni that would be 

iiec.cwi.y to s;itisly those needs. SOSS would provitlc ;I liniitetl oper;itioii;il demonstration of the 

;ibility of s;itellitcs to sense occmic phenomena. 

Zk/c,i.rr,ini~g I.cikc Contlifioiz.s. The Great Lakes 

Ice .\ii:iI!,sis w;is 1xodricetl twice ~vcckly cliiring the 

ice wxson froiii ,J~iiiiiary tliroiigh April 1979. Visible 

Iiigli-resoltitioil satellite images from both the 

-1'ii os-S and GOES sLitellites were used to annlym 

tlic ice conditions in the lakes. Ice conditions were 

very se\~ci.e tliiiiiig the second half of Fcbrii:iry. Bet~vccn l~c1~1~11~1r~~ 17-22, 1979. all five Great Lakes 

nwe coiiipletcly froren except for a small area in 

wilt1inntci.n I~kc Ontario ;ind an area in central 

I .;ike ,\Iic~Iiifi;in. 'I'hcse ;inalyses provide inforination 

to .sliips na~.ig;itiiig- this vital waterway. 

Zk/c~r.rriining Hytlmlogirnl Conditions. Elements 

of NO.\.Z, N.\SLI, and the Department of Agricriltiire coopeixtctl in conducting two soil moisture 

field missions ;it the I,uverne, AIinnesotn, hydrologic test site in Noimiber 1978 and June 1979. 

.Iltliougli the groiintl data sets have been processed, 

aircraft ;iiitl satellite measurements have not yet 

Ixeii received. A nuclear-powered, combination 

\iioiv-~v;irci.-ecliii\.~il~iit ;iiitl soil-moisture pige was 

installed, and a ht;i Collection Platform will be 

modified to tr;insmit the d:i ta through the GOES 

Data Collection System 

NESS continued operational snowmapping from 

s;itellite data for thirty river basins in the United 

States and C;inad;i. Snowcover during the 1978-1979 

winter season was found to be slightly below average in the Pacific Northwest, average in California's 

Sicrix Nev;ida, and above average in the mountains 

of .Irizonn, Colorado, and Wyoming. Snowmapping 

of the Afissoriri River basin (40,700 sqwre kilometei-s) ;il)ove Helena, Aloiitana, ws begun during 

the 1958-1979 se;isoii at the request of the Department of Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service and 

the National Weather Service. Also, weekly satellitetlerived snow maps for hfghanistan and neighboring 1-Iiiii:iIayan nations were begun in April 1979 

at the request of Agriculture's Joint Agricultural 

Weather Facility. 

67 
The National Bureau of Standards has studied 

the electromagnetic scattering properties of snowpacks to provide technical data to NASA to develop 

new sensor systems for earth observation applications. 

Monitol-ing Agricicltirl-a1 Conditions. A new program was initiated by NESS in 1979 to provide dcdicatetl support to NWS ;rgricultural meteorologists 

in the states of Oregon, Washington, Californi;i, 

and Arizona. Satellite data are used to improve frost 

forecasts to prevent crop loss. Detailed analyses of 

satellite data from po1;worbiting and geostation;u-y 

satellites are made and disseminated to the agricultural meteorologists who arc in direct contact with 

the fruit growers. These analyses incorporate cloud 

cover, movement of clouds, and changes of intensity 

of clouds on ;I mesoscale in areas of coticcntrated 

agricrtltural activity. Further research is being conducted to correlate satelli te-derived temperature 

and ground-moistrire-level tneasiirements with surface-observed data so that future satellite analyses 

may be used to reveal actual readings. These readings will be used to establish the probability of frost 

with sufficient lead time to allow prodticers to take 

preventive measures to protect crops. 

From November 1974 until Novenilier 1978, 

NOAA, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and NL4S.4 

coopeixtetl in a Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (1,ACIE). The purpose of 1,ACIE was to 

determine if satellite crop monitoring and meteorological olxwrvations could he used with climate ;tnd 

crop-yield models to make timely and accurate estimates of friture crop production in the nia,ior wheatproducing countries of tlic world. 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys Throiigh Aerospace Remote Sensing) 

is a new pro,iect that began in 1979. AgRISTARS 

is a cooperative research effort among five Fetkral 

;igencies-Departinents of Commerce, Agiiculturc, 

and Interior, Agency for International Develop 

ment, and hT,4S.I. The objectives of AgRJSTARS 

are to develop an e;irly warning systeni able to 

detect conditions affecting crop production and 

quality and to provide techniques for more accurate 

forecasts of domestic and foreign commodity production. The AgRISTARS eRort will tlevclop and 

test techniques using advanced innote sensing (lata 

obtained from NO.4A and NASA satellites atid selected i-emote-sensing data from aircraft. Whilc the 

potentially most valriablc return of XgRISI~XRS research will accrue from improved iiifortnation coiicerning foreign crop prod tic tion, domes tic ngricit Ititre information also will be useful. Satellite data 

should me;iii better commodity information ;it the 

county ;ind regional level. 

Fishel-ics Monitol-ing. During 1970, NESS began 

issuing surface temperature maps of the ocean 

xr:i ten ;iclj:icent to .\l:iska. High-1-esolution infrared 

digital data fi-om Tiros-N are used. Analyses are 

prepared weekly for cloudfree areas, and they are 

tlistiil,iited to 35 locations by the National Weather 

Service A1;iskan facsimile network. The maps also 

are mailed to 25 other subscribers. Since the behavior of the sea surface temperature field of 

.\l;isknn watei's is relatively unknown, these maps 

allow researchers, commercial fishermen, and state 

:ind Federal ni;iiiagement personnel to study and 

coiwl;ite fish catch statistic ince the salmon, lialibtit, arid ct.;ih fisheries are the economic backbone 

of iiiost of co;ist;il Alaska, the value and support 

of this product among commercial and recreational 

fishermen continues to grow. 

7'hc N:i tional Fisheries Engineering Laboratory 

(NFEI.) , tlic National Weather Service, and NASA 

arc coopera ting to develop a small portable satellite 

comiiiitnic;t tions tominal for the me of government 

o1,scrvei.s st;itioned on foreign and domestic fishing 

~~cs~cls Tvithin tlic U.S. Fisheries Conservation and 

Al;iii;igement Zone (3%-kilometer limit). This will 

I)i-oi,itlc tlic observer with a means to relay weather 

(lata, c;itch, position, and other information to the 

1;incl on ;I nearly real-time basis. 

Th e 1 )i'o t ot y pc 1\ Li r i ne R I a m ma 1 Tra nsm i t ter de- 

~.clopcd for tt.:icking porpoise using the Nimbus 7 

Kantlom .\ccess hI;inagement System was tested in 

1979. Field tests of the instrument were conducted 

in Harc.aii;rn xva ters I>y attaching ti~;insniittei-s to 

H:iw:tiiati spotted dolphins and observing their 

nioveineiit. If thew esperimcnts are successful, opcration;il iinits will he procitred for further tagging 

cspcrinients in 1980. 

NFEI. has modified its effort to measure ocean 

srirf;icc circulation itsing scatterometer data because 

of the loss of Se;iwt. An experiment to determine 

~rti.l;icc layer ti.;insport in the Gulf of RIcsico is 

I)cing c-ontliictetl. lki thythermograpli data will be 

c.oiiil>inecl ivith coastal circulation and open ocean 

inotlcls 10 develop a complete interactive display 

of tlic Gitlf of Alexico's circulation. A grid of 78 

stcitions has I,cen estal,lished to determine contincntal shelf cii.citl;ition in homogeneous water masses 

to pt'ovitlc insight into the expected sea-level response to various wind fields. ;\Icnhaden and 

hi.itii1) tlnta are being obtained to correlate with 

tliew niotlels. The first imp1cment;ition of the 

c.o;ist;il circulation model for Gulf wters adjacent 

to I~~ttisiaiia ;itid Texis has been completed, showing ;I coi.rel;itioii between water circulation and 

shrimp yield. 

En 7~i t'o 11 r n t n 1 illo n it o 1-i n g CTsi ng Dn t n n 1 I oys. 

111 1979, the IVO.\A Data Buoy Office converted :ill 

22 of its tl;it:t buoys to transmit environmental and 

conimiinic~itions tl;it;i through the GOES satellites. 

Soiiic buoys were idocated to provide tnaxiiiiiim 
coverage of the most critical data-sparse marine 

areas. Six buoys are located in the Northeast Pacific 

and Gulf of Alaska, four are located in the Gulf of 

Mexico, ten are located in the Atlantic, and two 

are located in a new Great Lakes data buoy network. The Great Lakes network will be expanded 

to eight buoys over tlie next two years. Plans are 

also underway to incorporate the 12 Coast Guard 

large navigational buoys, located at the sites of 

former lightships, into the GOES Data Collection 

System. A prototype system now is in operation on 

the Columbia River Bar Navigltional Buoy. Both 

the data buoys and the navigational buoys provide 

meteorological data and surface water temperatures. 

Subsurface water temperatures and wave data are 

obtained from selected buoys. These data are used 

by the National Weather Service for forecasting 

and storm warning, by the Bureau of I.;ind hIanagement for continental shelf xsessment, and by 

various scientific programs with specialized marine 

data requirements. AI1 moored buoys are equipped 

with position-fixing systems which permit the Nimbus or Tiros-N satellite to locate them when they 

go adrift. Most buoys have been modified to use 

the Tiros-N Argos Data Collection System for position fixing. 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

International Cooperatiolz 

Global Weather Experimcnt. During the Operational Year (December 1, 1978 to November 30, 

1979) , NESS has archived satellite-derived observations of cloud-motion vectors, sea surface temperatures, and vertical temperature profiles on magnetic 

tapes that are sent to the Special Observing Data 

Centre in Sweden. Approximately 40,000 cloud motion vector5 per-month are derived from the GOES 

east and west satellites. About 1 million sea-surface 

temperatures and 40,000 atmospheric temperature 

soundings per month are obtained from the Tiros-N 

satellite. The European Space Agency provided the 

control and data handling functions of Goes 1, located over the Indian Ocean. The University of 

Wisconsin processed Goes 1 data to obtain wind 

fields over this area. The quantity and quality of 

satellite-derived meteorological observations are expected to greatly enhance the utility of the final 

data base obtained from the Global Weather Experiment. These data will be used in global atmospheric modeling research. 

Sharing Dala. More than 120 countries now avail 

themselves of tlie medium-resolution Automatic 

Picture Transmission services provided by the 

polar-orbiting Tiros-N system satellites, and at least 

16 countries now have the capability to receive 

High Resolution Picture Transmissions and Direct 

Sounder Broadcasts from which atmospheric temI'er"tiirc/liumitlity profiles may be generated. 

While the primary ;ippIications of these direct readout transmissions are in storm detection and aviation forecasting, these satellite observations also are 

supporting speci;il hydrologic, oceanographic, agricultural, and other operational and research progr;iins overseas. Sea-ice reconnaissance, snow accumulation ;tnd melt, agricultural weather forecasts, 

locust control activities, and pelagic fish migration 

;ind harvesting are among the many activities being 

supported by direct readout of satellite data. 

En 71i1.0 n tti c n t (1 1 Sate 1 lit e Assess nz e n 1 s. Preci pi t ation estimates from Tiros-N and GOES satellite 

images are used 11y the Environmental Data and 

Information Service to directly support the Departnient of State's Agency for International Developnieiit (AID) disaster assistance effort. These assessnients evaluatc the effects of weather variables on 

crops in the developing nations of Africa, Southeast 

Asia, and the Caribbean basin, alerting AID of 

potential droughts, floods, and other weatherinduced natural disasters. This support has enabled 

earlier shipments of food and improved efficiency 

in planning and implementing emergency operations. 

Domestic Activities 

Demog)xphic Slrtdies. The Census Bureau is using I,antIsat data to update its statistics on land and 

water areas of tlie United States for the 1980 Decennial Census. Digitized county boundaries are being 

fitted to screen-displayed Landsat images, and 

through interactive processing, land is separated 

from water. Area measurements are then extracted 

for both of these surfaces. This new technique is 

consitleral~ly more accurate and cost-effective than 

the conventional methods used in past census 

operations. 

Idandsat data also are being studied for a possible 

future census application under the terms of a 

NASA Applications Pilot Test agreement. In 1979, 

investigations tested the use of computer-processed 

Landsat data for showing land-cover changes and 

delineating urban zones around two sample metropolitan areas. Digital registration has been accomplished for Landsat scenes over several different 

years, and these are being processed to show any 

significant land-cover change. The results will be 

compared with interpreted changes detected on aircraft photography for the same time period. 
Determination of the Elmth's Shape and Grauity 

Field 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS), as a part of 

its mission to maintain a network of accurately 

positioned ground stations for geodetic surveying 

and mapping, continues its work with NASA to 

evaluate applications of space systems to geodesy 

and geodynamics. In its continuing investigations 

into Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) , a 

system based on interferometric observations of extragalactic radio sources, NOS is establishing a network of three observatories to regularly monitor 

polar motion and universal time. Two of the three 

required stations, located near Ft. Davis, Texas, 

and Westfoi-tl, ;2Iassachiisetts, are scheduled for test 

operations in 1980. This network should be capable 

of determining polar motion to 10 centimeters 

and universal time to 0.1 millisecond over 8 

hours. NOS continues to collect satellite Doppler 

data for pi-ecise positioning to compare with other 

newly tleveloped space technology, such as lunar 

laser ranging, satellite laser ranging, and VLBI. 

Satellite Doppler data also are used as inputs to 

the model of tlie Earth being refined by the Doppler oi~I)it:il comp~itations in tlie international 

polar motion experiment. 

Studies of ways in which the signals from the 

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites can lie 

used to incas~ii-e crustal movement antl in general 

surveying reqiiirements we being carried out by 

the National 13ureau of Standards (NBS) , the Jet 

Propulsion I,alloratory, the Nav~l Siirface Weapons 

Center, a joint Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Di-apel- Laboixtories group, and tlie National 

Geodetic Survey. The work at Geodetic Survey and 

NBS has shown theoretically that pliase-difference 

measui-emcnts on signals reconstructed from the incoming GPS signals are capable of accurately determining tlie baseline between the receivers with only 

two hours of observations per site. 

NOS also published a new glolial model for the 

Earth's gravity field based on the density layer 

method. Altimeter observations from the Geodynamics Experimental Ocean Satellite (Geos 3) 

antl gravity, Doppler, and satellite triangulation 

data were used. NOS began an analysis of altimeter 

data from Seasat and provided assistance to the 

Jet Propulsion I,aboi-atory in preparing data reduction progi-anis. Altimeter data have been used to 

obtain elevation variations over land. NOS also 

prepared a study on Gravsat, a proposed pair of 

low-a1 titude satellites that sense high-frequency 

variations in the gravity field. This study confirnied 

that at an altitude of 200 kilometers the system can 

recover gravity data within 3 milligals over onedegree blocks. 

Satellite Commzinications 

Public Service Satellites. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA) was instructed through the President's National Civil Slxice Policy to stimulate the aggregation of potential public service users of communications satellite services, drawing on technology 

already in existence, and to work with the Agency 

for Intei~national Development and the Department 

of Interior in translating tloiiiestic experience in 

public service programs into programs for less developed couiitrich ;iiitl remote tell-itoiies. The Interagenc)' Committee on Satellite Telecommunications Xpp1ic;itions (ICSTA), chaired by NTIA and 

repi.esenting 18 Federal agencies, has brought about 

progress in tlie first of these three missions, market 

:iggregation. With ICSTA guidance and support an 

olm'ational public service satellite and cable television network began service in October 1979. Initially offering 22.5 hours :[ week of accredited college coiii'ses and other public services to residents 

;inti educ;ition;il agencies in ,~ppal:icIii~i,n 1980 

this network will extend its services nationwide. 

In fillfilling its international mission in public 

service satellites, NTIA has established collaborative rel:itioiisl~ips with the .4gency for International 

Development (AID) and the Department of the 

Interioi.. The support is designed to provide basic 

telephone and broadcast programming to remote 

alas of lesser developed countries via communications satellites. 

Tcrknirnl Strfipo~t Ac/i7iify. NTIA's Institute for 

?'elecomiii~inic;itions Sciences (ITS) is currently undertaking :I series of studies to investigate the potenti;)] inipct of the operation of the envisioned Satellite Power System (SPS) upon the ionosphere and 

telecomrnii~iic;itions systems. SPS would be a geostationary s:itcllite system with solar collectors and 

is one of ;I numlier of alternative energy sources 

under investigation by the Department of Energy. 

The system ~vould involve the transfer of solar 

energy from geostationary satellites to the surface 

of the Earth. This energy transfer could lead to 

sul>st;intial heating of the ionosphere which could 

dversely affect the performance of telecommiinications systems. 

ITS has revielved tlie GOES satellite certification 

st:intl;irtls and recommended some revision to 

NOAA that are necessary since the GOES Data 

Collection Systein will be integrated into a worldwide network. ITS also witnessed certification tests 

at tlvo private contracting companies who have de- 

\.eloped new Dxta <:olleciion Plntlorm radio sets 

for use by local, state, and federal agencies. 

In(oxcilionci1 Cornmitnicntions Policy. NTIA's 

Office of International Affairs participates in the 

70 
development of international satellite policies and 

agreements. In addition to tlie traditional oversight 

th;it NT'I.\ exercises over Coincat's IN'I'E1,SAT 

activities, rcsponsil)ilitie\ pci'tinent to Conisat's 

participation in the International hlaritime Satellite Organization (INLIARSAT) also were assumed 

by tlie ;igency. NTI.\ cnsIIres that Conisat does 

not participate in ;I manner contradictory to U.S. 

telecommunications policy. 

NTIA hay continued its role ;is monitor and coordinator of the government's me of the radiofrequency spectrum. In that capacity, ITS-throitgh 

participation with the International Radio Consultative Committee, an agency of the International 

Te1ecommunic;itions Union, and the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee-contributed to 

the prepar;ition of the United States position relating to satellite communications for the 1979 General World Administrative Radio Conference. 

Comwm-ia/ Sa/clli/c Sei-riice. The International 

hlaritimc Satellite (INRIAIISAT) Organization 

was implementetl in 1979 by a commitment of 

funds from participating countries or entities. Tile 

Conisat C;ener;il Corpor~ tion hxs I)ecn designated in law to be the United States entity in INMARSXT. The U.S. Rlaritime Adniinistration and 

tlie Cmst Gii:iId :ire working with Coinsat to 

define :ippropriatc safety services for incorporation 

into INhfARSrZT. 

The hlaritime Administration successfully concluded its research and development program that 

provided compitter-assisted fleet management 

through RIxritime Satellite (XIARISAT) comniunications to ten US-flag ocean carrier companies. 

This effort provides a satellite communications 

network that links the corporate offices of the shipping companies directly with the ships. Future 

efforts will focus on the further development of 

shipboard management information needs and requirements that will provide the framework for INMARS AT uti 1 iza t ion. 

Satellifc Frequencies. The feasibility of using tlie 

Orbiting Standards Platform (OSP) satellite to accurately measure radiated fields and antenna properties of satellite communication links and components has been investigated jointly by the National 

Bureau of Standards (NBS), NASA's Goddard 

Space Flight Center, the Institute of Telecommunications Sciences, and Coinsat 1,al)oratories. 

Heavy use of the electromagnetic spectrum in the 

geostationary orbit lixi increased interference between different satellite systems ;tnd is providing 

the impetus for extensive frequency reuse. For this 

reason, and because of higher investment costs of 

satellite replacement and new satellite deployment, 

it was found that a standards satellite would serve a 

unique and cost-effective function in making critical measurements on geostationary satellites before 

;tiid after launch. 

Salclli/e Time So-vice. Distribution of National 

13rireaii of Stand;irds (NRS) -referenced time code 

;it 468 AIHz froin two of NOAA's Goes satellites 

W:IS continued ;ind improved during 1979. An NRStlevelopetl instrumentation system was installed at 

XO;\;\'s Command and Data Acquisition station, 

W;illops. Virginia. The new system provides more 

trli:tl,lc :ind stable timing signals for a variety of 

applica tions in navigation, communications, electric po~vei. iietrvork operations, and scientific data 

monitoring tlirortghout the Western Hemisphere. 

Space Support Activities 

Neasureme?zt and Calibration Services 

?'he National Riireaii of Standards (NBS) is 

~~oviding c;ilibr;itions and standards to support the 

Spice Shuttle program. This has included development of standards for near and vacuum ultraviolet 

priinary and transfer soitrces, including new instrunients for direct infliglit calibrations, for solar 

pli) sics I-atliomctry; con~tr~iction of an instrument 

for the tleteriiiin;1tion of ozone cross-section data; 

tlcvelopnient of research stanchrtls for lialocarbons 

and nitrous oxide; and devclopnient of ;I chamber 

to ca1iI)r;i te vacuum ultraviolet spectrometers. 

NUS has provided radiation data for space sliieldiiig requircntents. The longer duration of present 

;ind pl;innetl satellite missions and tlie increasing 

IISC' of i.atli;i tion-ccnci ti1.c niet;~I-oxitlc, semiconduclor tlei,itcs ni:ike it iiii1)oi tant to ltave ;icciir;Ite cstiiii;ite\ of i.;idi;i~ion dose levels inside sptcccrnft. 

. 

Applicatiotis of Space to Science and Technology 

111 prel~aration for the Space Shuttle program, 

NKS is investigating fundamental measurement 

prol~lcnis ~vhich may be studied in the micro-gravity 

environment of space. These include the mechaiiisins through which gravity interferes with nearly 

all nieasurements of equilibrium properties of fluids 

close to the liquid-vapor critical point; methods for 

control of convection effects during alloy solidification, including expected effects from micro-gravity; 

and methods for determining the thermophysical 

properties of reactive materials by use of containerless techniques possible in space. 

Experimental and theoretical studies are being 

c:irried out, as part of NASA's Lewis Research Center's Space Shuttle coml)ustion research program, 

to determine the effects of gravity on flame inhibition by halogens. Improved understanding of combustion mechanisms will provide information 
needed to better define the application of halocarbons as flame inhibitors both in the Space Shuttle 

and terrestrial environments. 

Solar Activity 

The I1ite1~ti;itiot1;11 Solar hlaximuni Year (ISAlY) 

program, began in August 1979, will continue 

through February 1981. This period coincides with 

the solar cycle maximum (sunspot surge). Constellations of satellites poised around the Sun and 

Earth will record detailed development of active 

regions on the solar surface, and arrays of Exrthsurface solar observatories will coordinate their 

viewing of the growth of these regions. In particular, scientists with experiments on board the Solar 

hfaximum hfission satellite, to be launched in early 

1!)XO, arc iexiving siipport fi.oin ;I Spice Environment Services (;enter (SESC:) unit cst;il)lished at 

Godtl:ii-tl Spice Flight Centel-. Data from the TirosN and the thi.ee Intei~natioti;il Sun-Earth Explorer 

satellites will be avai1;ible for oper;ition;il iise by 

SESC in late 1980. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Space Physics 

Zntcrfilnnctnry Physics. The effect of coron;il mass 

motion, initiated Iiy solar flares and other transient 

disturbances on the Srin, \V;IS es;iriiitied by NO.\:\'s 

Space Environment 1,aboratoi-y (SEI.) in cool~erntion with the N,-\SA hlarshall Space Flight Center, 

the Harvard College Obseivatory, and the University of Alabama, Huntsville. Major features of 

coronal transient events, such as their expanding 

bubble-like characteristics and the development of 

shock waves, were successfully tlescribcd by theoretical computer siniulations. i\dditional studies have 

been iii xlc o ti m 11 1 t i-di tne nsiona 1, ti me-de pende ti t 

simulations of the interplanetary consequences of 

these solar disturbances. 

Mngnc~/o.spl~c~ric Physics. Significant advances in 

the understanding of the dynamics of the ring current (produced by geomagneticall y trapped charged 

particles comprising the Van Allen radioactive 

belts) have been made by SEI, scientists. Following 

earlier 1aI)or:itory studies defining the importance 

of ions heavier than hydrogen, further study has 

indicated an important aspect of ring current enhancement during geomagnetic disturbances. A 

physically consistent theory of the production of 

magnetosphci.ic electric fields responsible for the 

acceleration of aurornl electrons has been formulated. 

The comprehensive data base provided by the 

two International Sun-Earth Explorer satellites 

now extends over inore than a year, providing long 

tinic, spatial, and energy icsolution data throughout 

tlie region surrounding the Earth out to its approxiinate apogee of 21 Earth radii. Analysis techniques have been developed which enable the motion of the magnetospheric boundary to be 

determined near satellite crossing. A wave structure 

;ilso has been found on that boundary which provides inforni;ition on the nature of the interaction 

and niomentum and energy transfer from tlie solar 

wind into the magnetosphere. The coupling of the 

solar wind and the niagnetosphere and the explosive cnergi7ation of charged particles in the inagnetospheric tail-responsible for auroral precipitation of energetic particles and for magnetospheric 

siiI)storin--;ire crucial to the understanding of the 

global dynaiiiics of the magnetosphere. 

Sfcllni. A ~~no.~fi//~w~. The National Bureau of 

Stantl;irds (NBS) has been developing the absolute 

radiometric calil~ration techniques and the spectroscopic ;inalysis methods for reliable measin-ement 

of physical properties (temperatures, densities, 

velocities, and niagnetic fields) in solar and stellar 

pl~isiii~is. Using &ita obtained from the Copernicus 

and Internntional Ultraviolet Explorer satellites, 

NBS is applying these methods to the analysis of 

iiItr;ivio1et spectra from the quiescent and flaring 

chroniosphei-es of single and close binary stars 

cooler than the Sun. X-r;iy observations with the 

Higli Energy Astronomy Olmrvatorics (HEAO 1 

and 2) are Ixing used to model the hot coronae in 

stars cooler than the Sun and to study stellar flares. 

Aeronaut ica I Programs 

Aeronazrtical Charting 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS), which publishes atid tlistiibrites the nation's tloiiiestic acronautical charts, has developed a new bound-volume 

lot~iiiat for Instrument Approach Procedure Charts 

(I.\PCs). These charts portray all aeronnutical data 

i'ecliiiretl to m;ike an instrument approach to airports in the contiguous United States, Pucrto Rico, 

ant1 the Virgin Islands. This rep1;ices the tradition;il loose-1e;if volume which pilots had to maniiall~~ riptlatc every 14 days. NOS now issues 15 

bound volumes containing all current Feder;il ,%viaiioii .\tliiiiiiisti.~itio~~ (~-.\.\)-~il)~~r(~ve[l I;\P<:s every 

56 (lays. C1i;inges in procedures, within the publicale, are issued in a single-volritne at the 28- 

thy ntitl point of the cycle. The next 56-tlny issue 

incorporates these changes and replaces a11 preceding volumes. 

72 
The expanded me of the National Airspace System has increased the demand for more controlled 

airspace and for ;ipplicaliIe aerotiaiitic;il charts arid 

services. At the request of the F;-\A, NOS began 

development of 20 Rlinimum Instrruncnt Flight 

Rule (IFR) iZltitirde Sector Charts, which provide 

air traffic controllers Ivitli minimum JFI< altitude 

information for ixlar vectoring and off-airway 01)- 

erations. NOS also has compiled ;I special-use 7.w 

minal Area Control Chart for the Saran;ic I,;rke, 

New l'ork, area to accommodate the liemy air tr;rffic expected for the 1980 Winter Olympics. 

Safety Services 

The National ISrireaii of Standaids (NIrS) has 

t1evelol)ed ;I modulation factor st;iIid;it-d to support 

the FALZ's Instiwment 1,mdi~~g Sj.stetrt (11,s). which 

provides Imding griitlmcc to aircraft when visual 

giiitlnnce is riot :iv~iil:ibIc. The NRS stant1;rrd fiirnishes the higlil~~ accur;ite (within 0.2 percent) test 

sign;rls for c;ifil)r:i ting the FAA's electrotiic ii1sti.umetits that are used to install ;itid maintain 11,s 

apparatus ;it airports. It will lie used by avionics 

manufacturers and commercial atid private carriers 

to ensure correct ol)er;ition of on-board instruments. 

KBS also Iias tlcvelopetl ph;isc-ariglc standartls for 

the calihation of test equipment for the VOR navigation system. 

Forecast Guidance 

The NWS National 1Ieteorologic;il Center 

(NAIC:) developed several forecast models to provide 

improved forecosts Ixisic to safe antl economic :i ircraft operations. During 19713 ;in optinium interpolation scheme was developed that updates the 

models by incorporating winds and temperatiires 

nie;isiiretl from high ;iltitude jet aircraft along 

stand;rrd routes. In ;itltlition, glolxil synoptic stratospheric analyses and predictions have enabled NMC 

to p'ovitle v;iIii:rble support to tlie ozone monitoritig piqtxiii. Striclics are being conducted to determine tlie ell'ccts ol c;il)in ozone on passengers and 

c~e~vs of sti.atosphcric flights. 

Azitoniatior~ of Airways Observatiom 

N\YS, in coopcr;ition with the FAA, has develoj)cd ;I \!\tern to tilexiire ;iiitomatically surface 

Iviiid ;iiitl ;rItinictci. settings and to generate ;I voice 

i.epoi.t xvlricfi is aiitoiiiatic:illy transmitted to the 

pilot tIit.oq$ :icrotiaiitical navigation aids. The 

~)i.ototj~e of this device, callctl Wind, Altimetei-, 

iiritl \'oice (WlzVE) , is being tested at Frederick, 

~1;ii~j~l;it1d. ,Zutom;tted weather ohsei.vntions have 

I)ccii m;itlc inore complete Iiy the addition of new 

( Iod c-eiliiig ;iiitl l.isil)ilit>, tiiciijiiritig ccliiipment at 

;I iqmrts. Seven of the new imp-ovcd automatic obWI'I ittioil st;rtions ~vere inst;illcd during 1979, as well 

;IS 16 ~~etiiotc, iiiitii;intietl, automatic weather obscr- 

\.;ition stations. We;itlier infomiation from the 

I:i[ier t\vo t!pes of :iiitotitatic oI,sen.ing stations is 

not it-;insniittetl directly to pilots brit is ;iddetl to 

the n;itional ;i~.i;ition rvcatliei- reporting system antl 

used by 1orec;istcr-s to monitor rapid weather 

t.1) ;I nges. 

Automated Roirte Forecasts 

NWS is cooperating with the FAA to develop 

;I 5ysteni to pi-ovitle automated route forecasts to 

I)ilots. 7'1iis is a Inrge effort that requires the development of ;I new data he of objective weather 

it1form;rtion. Operntion;illy, this grid data base 

~voiiltl I)e cotnl,iiter-se~irclied to provide specific 

roiite forecxsts which could be delivered to the pilot 

l)y tn~icIiitic-g-etier;rtetl voice. Important to this new 

s! ~t~m is tlic tlevclopment of a forecaster-computer 

inteif;ice so tlic data base can be continually 

~rpd;i tetl. 

73 
V Department of Energy 

Introduction 

Since the early 1960s, the Department of Energy 

(DOE) ant1 its predecessor agencies have tledicated 

their specializetl skills to the support of the United 

States spice program. The earliest Navy navigation 

satellite, 1;iunchetl in 1961, delivered a nicre 2.7 

watts of electric power derived from the decay heat 

of tlie radioisotope pIutoniuiii-238 acting upon 

tliermoclectric couples carried by the 2.3-kilogram 

unit. Hy contr‘;ist, the most recent outer planetary 

spacecraft launclietl by NASA in Ailgust-September 

1977 e:icli carried three multi-liundi-et1 watt generators supplying :I total of 475 watts of electric po\ver. 

The dr;ini;itic photographs transmitted from Voyagers I and 2, revealing liithe~~to unknown details 

of tlie topogr;iphy of ,Jupiter ant1 its moons, wei-c 

possihle only through the use of such space nuclear 

J>OTVeI’ systems. Continuing progress is being niadc 

in the directions of compactness, lighler weight, 

and improved efficiency md safety. 

Progress in Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

DOE provides sul~stantial support to the U.S. 

space program through its technology development 

antl production efforts on nriclear-powered electric 

generators for current and potential NASA antl 

Don misions. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) 

To achieve a state of readiness for the increasingly rigororis demands for safety and performance, 

continuing progress iiiiist be niade at many points 

along the frontier of technology. During 1979, the 

niiilti-l~iintl~~etl \v;itt geiicr;itor, ;iIre;itl>~ petfol.niing 

yeoman service on Don’s 1,incoln Experimental 

Satellites and on l>o;ird the Voyager 1 and 2 outer 

planetary spacecraft, vas upgraded by selection of 

an improved ii-itliuni-tungstcii alloy for the fuel 

capsules ant1 I)y application of composite fiber 

graphites in the heat soiircc aeroshcll. The more 

ductile and therm;ill y stable iridium c;ipsiile material will improve the safety index for the next missions. The composi te fiber graphite, shown by blast 

overpicssiii.e testing to be stronger than bulk graphite, also 1e;ttls to ;in improved safety index, as well 

as to ;I modest weight reduction. 

These iniprovetl heat source materials and coniponents entered the production phase for the 

N.\S,A C,;ilileo mission (Jupiter Orbitcr/Probe) 

sc~lietliilctl for launch in e;irly 1982. Unfortunately, 

selenitle-lxisetl thermoelcctric elcnients, expected to 

pmvitle ;ipprosiniately 10 percent conversion efficiency lor the C;;ilileo mission, failed to sliow deqwte \t:il)ility arid power output in prototype 

ground test generators. As n consequence, the decision \vas m;itle to reinstate iise of silicon-germanium 

coiiiwters, already lxl-forming reliably on the 

Don I,es 8!’!) ;ind NASA Voyager spacecraft. 

The sp:icecr:lft designer continually strives to 

siil)port ;I ni;ixiniiiin of scientific experiments or informttiottal ~n;ivig;itionnl systems at a minimum 

pa~~lo:id weight. The electric power-producing 

generator is vital to either of these fuiictions and it 

too niust be optimized at the maximum power output per unit of weight. The General Purpose Heat 

Soilrcc (GPKS) was tleveloped to provide a ver- 

’i:i tile, n~otl111;ir pli~toniuni-238 fueled unit suitable 

for niinieroiis slxice applications, yet showing impt‘ovcd specific power (watts per pound) and safety 

intlcr. ‘I’hc iniprovetl iridium-tungsten alloy and 

the coniposite fil)rous graphites already mentioned 

arc :ipplied in the construction of the fuel module 

( oniponcnts. Each niodiilc, fueled with four 62.5- 

tt~ci~~n~il-~v~itt ~~11itoni1i~i1-23~ fuel pellets, is designed 

to siiri.ivc potenti;il ;iccidental reentries and to imInct the Liidt rvi tli miniiiial consequences. 

l’he GPHS niotlules and the silicoti-gerinaniatn 

tlici.nioclcctric converter couples are specified for 

the N,.\S.\ Tntei~national Solar Polar Rlission. With 

c.ontinriing design refinements and analytical 

stiitlies, :ind liy planned improvenients to tlie power 

symm, the performance level of the generators 

should ;itt;iin a specific power of approximately 5.5 

wat~s per kilogram. The s1xicecr;ift 1.equircment for 

286 xvatts electric at Ixginning of life, ;ind 275 watts 

after two ~cirs of service, is expected to be met by 
a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) 

compi-ising 18 heat source modules, weighing in at 

52 kilogixms. This mission represents a new challenge in cooidination-to ensure compatibility of 

components with Iioth the NAS;\ and Eiiropean 

Sp;ice Agency (ESA) spicecraft as well as to acliiew 

appropri;ite trnjcctories in opposite directions 

tliroiigli the j)l;inc of the ecliptic antl over/iintler 

the poles of the Sun. 

Dynamic Isotope Power Systems 

In FI’ 1978, tlvo competitive i.atlioisotol)e-fiieled 

dynamic po~ver systems ~vei’e con~parecl. Fl‘hesc systemr lverc the Ikiytoii Isotope Power System and 

the Org;inic R;iiikine Cyle System. Both were designed to1vai-tl an output poiver of 1.3 electrical 

kilowatts. Ground demonstration tests were conducted on sytcms i.epi-esentiiig the crlrrent state-ofthe-art in ixitcrials selection, conilioncnt design, 

antl ol)er:ition:il controls. Upon critical cv;ilu;ition, 

the Orpiriic Ikiiikinc Cycle unit was selected for 

fwtlier tlc\.elopmcrit antl verification of performance, rcli:iI)ili1y, ;iiid longevity. 

The Dynamic Isotope Power Systcni was designed 

;rnd tested in anticipation of missions requiring 1-2 

kilowatts of power. Expected efficiencies in the 18- 

25 pei.ccnt range woriltl encourage consideration 

of the nuclear option for power output in this 

range, since compactness, longevity, and high perfoimancc were ;ittributes of these dynamic systems 

also. Stiitlics directed toward potential DoD applications were conducted in depth, with particular 

emphasis ripon the Nuclear Integrated hfiilti-hlission Spcecra f t. 

The Dynamic Isotope Power System originally 

was planned for operational testing in the Don 

sp:ice test program, to lie laiinclictl in late 1982 or 

early 1983. But during the groiind dernonstration 

activity in 1978, the DoD elected to defer the space 

test program antl to encourage instead a continued 

technology verification program which would improve efficiency of the con~ersion system and enhance the rc1i;tbility and performance level of 

selected components. This program is expected to 

continue through FY 1980, antl will include a 5000- 

hour endiirance test to validate the engineering 

antl design iiiiiwovcments. Upon completion of this 

test, further dynamic system activity is contingent 

upon the availability of appropriate mission models, 

DoD user agency schedules, and reimbursable 

funding. 

Space Reactor Technology 

On the basis of prior studies conducted by the 

Advanced Space Power Working Group, a joint 

DoD/DOE coiiiniittce to examine potential mission 

reqriirenients for ;I space reactor in the late 1980s, 

a tcchnology tlevelolmient program was initiated 

in FI’ 1!179. ‘I‘hc objective is to estnl)lish the technology I~asc for n high-temperatrire, compact space 

nuclear electric reactor system, producing power 

in the 10-100 kilowatt range. The five-year progixm is to coniplete tlevelopment of reactor component technology that will support a future system 

tlcnionstration to be scheduled and funded by the 

iiser agency. 

Xiiiong the app1ic;itions envisioned for this reactor s)mm are a power supply for spacebased 

~.;i[I;ir ol)eixtiiig ivitli \;itellitc power stations, electronic mail syctems, ad~.anced telci-ision coverage. 

hologi.;ipliic teleconferencing facilities, and other 

s! stems for potential civilian and military assignDuring FY 1979, a comprehensive report was issued by the I .os Alamos Scientific Laboratory, entitled “Selection of Power Plant Elements for 

Futiire I<e;ictor Space Electric Power Systems” 

(1,,\-7858) . In the preliminary design, these power 

plant clenients include a urnniiini-o?tide-fueieled reactor providing thernial power to an advanced sili- 

(011-gu ~ii;iiiiiiiii tlici.inocl:.cti.ic coiivertcr via niolybtlcnrini heat pipes, with sodium as working flnid. 

-1’lie ~~;itli;rtor system also employs heat pipes 

;inchorctl to ;I titanium structure, to dissipate the 

vu inctor 1ic;it into spice. 

Illents. 

Advances in Supporting Technology 

To meet the continuing escalation of requirenients for mission performance, reliability, and 

safety, cori~espontling advances must be achieved in 

fuel preparation, capsule production and welding, 

process control, quality assurance, and reliability 

evaluation. To this end, the Savannah River Plutonium Fuel Fabrication Facility is currently prodiiciiig ccraiiiic fuel spheres for the multi-hundred 

\vat1 generators for the NASA Galileo mission; to 

inci-case the specific power for this and subsequent 

heat so~~rccs, the assay of the pliitonium-238 oxide 

feed material has been increased. The Plutonium 

Experimental Facility, also at Savannah River, is 

carrying out preliminary experiments in the fabrication of the 62.5-watt pellets soon to be produced 

for the International Solar Polar Mission generators. ?’lie 62.5-watt fuel form, its fabrication process, design refinements, and encapsulation technology were originated by the Los Alamos Scientific 

Laboratory. 

Operational and reentry analyses performed by 

the Battelle Columbus Idahoratories assisted in the 

development of the GPHS module. Associated test75 
ing and evaluation activities were performed by the 

Air Force Weapons Laboratory, the Naval Nuclear 

Weapons Center, and tlie Applied Physics Laboratory of The Johns Hopkins University. The composite fibrous grapliitcs were tested for blast overpressure resistance by the 1,os .-\l;imos 1,aboratory 

with the Teletlync Energy Systems staff also fulfilling a significant role in the assessment of improved 

graphites. 

Reliability engineering requirements have been 

reviewed by the Snntlia 1,aliorntories ;ind DOE, ;md 

an updated pi-ogram requirements document was 

issued. The intent of tlie increasingly rigoroils reliability cfIort is to outline to contractors antl bidders the Ixisic practices which tiillst lie pwsiied to 

provide continued positive assiirance that rclinbility 

I-equircnicnts lor space missions will be met. 

Status of Prior Missions 

Data ti;itisiiiitt:ils lroni tlic I’ioiicer IO ;ind 11 

antl I’iking 1 antl 2 tclenietl-y systems indic;ite that 

tlie radioisotope generators are performing essentially ;is ;inticilx~tcd ;it this point in their life cycle. 

l’lie i~i~~lti-liiit~~li~c~l 1v;itt geiici :itoi.\ on 1)o;ird the 

hlAS.4 \’o)ager 1 and I! spicecraft provide tlie 

power for the scientific experinicnts. ;IS rvell ;IS the 

d:it;i ;itid p1iotogr;ipIiic transiiiitt;ils of tlic f;isciti;iting vieivs of Jiil)iter :iiid its moons rcccivctl diiring 

earlier niotitlis in 19i!). Similar f;ivor;il)le statiis has 

Imn reported lor the c.omniiinic.:itioiis s:itellitc s) stenis perforniing on the 1,cs 8/!) missions for Don. 

In siinim;iry, ;I re1i;ililc perforniance (lata 1x1s~ is 

well est;il)lishctl. presaging cqiiivalcnt or superior 

perforni:incc for iiuclc~ir-i,o~vei-cd s~);icecr:ift in tlic 

f 11 tiire. 

Satellite Power System 

The concept of ;I S;itellite Power Sy.stem (SI‘S) in 

geostationary orbit, eniploying ni;issive collectors to 

c;ipture sol:ir ciiergy, concentr;iting it, ;itid 1)caiiiing 

it to E;irtli antennas, has Ixen studied since 1968. 

In 1!)77, the DOE ;ind NXSA started :I S-year ;~sscssiiient of the SPS concept to Ixgin learning about 

the tcc1inic;il ;ind economic fc;isil,ility, the environmcnt;rl and soc.iet;il impacts, and the merits of SPS 

relative to other future energy options. r\ national 

team is making excellent progress tormi-d the 

study’s plannecl completion date in 1!)XO. 

NASA has specified ;I reference SPS ;irorintl which 

the assessment is Ixiiig in:itle. .\Is0 DOE h:is identified emerging teclinologic:il developments wliicli 

might be incorpor;itctl to SPS‘ adixnt;tgc. Experimental studies to determine the effects of microwaves (the iitc;iiis for transmitting the energy from 

tlie satellite to Earth) on biological systems-bees, 

rodents, birds, and ultimately on miin-have Iieen 

st;irtctl. The elfccts of the deployment and operation of the SI’S on the environment, on the atniosphere, ;iiid on sixice workers are being assessed. 

Expel-imcnts irie;tsriring the impact of tlie SPS 

niicrowive beam on teleconimiinications and electronic systems are tinderway. Some 40 generic systeiiis tliat c;in I)e imlxictetl are identified, including 

r~id~irs, iiiicrotvave links, computers, and satellitcs. 

A1itig;iting strategies for iiiost of these systems are 

:ire 1)ciiig stutlied. 

I ti t he societa 1 ;issessnien t, eligible rectenna sites 

arc 1)eing found, tentative materials requirements 

are Ilcing c~t;il~lislied, the U.S. institutional issues 

are Ixitig stritlietl. the international implications 

are 1)eiiig ;isscssetl, and the need for public involvement is being recognized and fostered. Preliminary 

aswssiiiciits of the costs, performance, health and 

safci). impacts, ;iiid 1;intI reqiiirements for SPS and 

otlicr fiitiire energ). ol)tions are being made. 

Nuclear Waste Disposal 

111 \iiI)l)ort of the N.\S.Z-T)<)E study of the potenii~il lor itiic1e;ii- 1v;istc tlisl)os;tl in spice, a Ixscline 

opei :itioii:iI scenario WAS selected during 1978, iising 

tlic Space Sliiittle to place waste into a long-tertii 

\table sol;ir orbit between Earth and Venus. In 

1 9i9, ~iltet~ii~itiv~ sp:ice concept definitions were 

fiirtlicr c\~;ilii;itetl to en;ible an early decision reg:irtli ng f utrire st iicl ics. 

Remote Sensing of Earth 

Scvci.:iI DOE pi~ogr;inis benefit from the data 

~)i.o~~itletl I)!, ;T.\S.~-de~-elo~~ed satellites that carry 

itisti.iintents sensing the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Examples of present activities include 

eiili:iticemcnt of cx1)lor;ition technology for liraiiiiiiii, n:itiir:iI $IS, ;iiitl oil: geological characterization of ~)otenti:il niiclcar uxstc disposal sites: and 

\iit-\.ey ol other potentin1 energy facility sites for 

eiir-ii.oiitiietit:iI ;iiid seismic sitit:il)ility. Increased 

IIW ol cl;it;i froni existing. pl;inned, atid future satellite pl;itforiiis in these ;ind other energy-related acti\,it ics is ;intic.ip;i ted. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

De~~elolmcnt ofsntcllitc-borne nucle;ir surveil1;iiic.e I)eg;iii in tlie c:ii.ly 1960s ;ind led to the Vela 

Hotel progr;~ 111. Ikc;i iise of its special iml knowlctlge 

of riiicle;ir esplosioll c1i;itacteristics ;ind calialiility 

to c1ctec.t :ind meiisiire output radiations, tlie 

76 
Atomic Energy Commission, one forerunner of the 

DOE, W:IS tasked to design and develop the detector 

instrument;itioii for the proposed satellites, while 

Don ni;in;igetl program activities and schedules. 

The Vela sitcllites were larinchctl into Earth oi-hits 

of about 112,000 kiloiiietcrs-far enough out so that 

one s;itcllitc coultl view nearly half the Earth‘s surface ;tiid most of outer space. Six pairs of Vela satellites were placed into ohit Iietween 1963 and 1970. 

Successive satellites carried improved instrrimentation for ~iuclear-ex~,losion surveillance. 

The nuclear surveillance mission of the Vela 

satellite prograni is now incorporated into other 

miilti-niission DOD spacecraft and DOE retains 

rcspoiisi1,ility for design, fabrication, test, calibration, ;ind I;iuiicli and operational support of the 

iristi.iinieiit;itioii sul,systems for nuclear test detection. 111 support of this responsibility, DOE conducts ;I vigorous rese;ii-ch and developinent program 

to meet c1i;inging detection requirements as well as 

10 tlcvelop ;I tletailetl understanding of the radiatioii ciivironiiient of space. 

77 
VI Department of the Interior 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior is responsible for 

administet-ing the nation's public lands and for 

maintaining ;I halance between the use and ronservation of natural resources on these lands. Effective resource m;in;rgcment and research require accurate and timely data, whether collected on the 

groitiid, from high- 01. low-altitride aircraft, or from 

satellites. In some invcstigntions data from various 

scnsoi's swli as multispectl-a1 scanners, cameras, and 

radars :ire useful. To collect data, the department 

relies on aircraft for ;icqiiiring aerial photographs, 

carrying experimental airhoriic instruments, and 

executing programs such ;IS selection of utility 

corridors. cnt1;istral s~irvcys, and resource inventoric s . The need for surveying ;ind repetitive monitoring 

of vast :ind often inncccssible areas has also created 

a growing interest in data obtained from Earthoi-biting s;itcllites, primarily from the experimental 

I.antlwt. system Ijccause of its synoptic, repetitive, 

and uniform coverage. Digital 1,andsat data have 

made possible the extraction of information by 

computeri7ed teclinic~ries. Eecause of the flexibility 

that digital data offer in collecting and managing 

1;it-g~ voliimcs of inform;ition, resource managers in 

seven I)iii.e;iiis of tlic dep;ii'tniettt are incorporating 

var),ing ;imoiints of this new technology into their 

I-outinc activities, such ;is estimating groiind water 

iise :ind tleterniining the movement of sea ice. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program 

The Earth Resources Observation Systems 

(EROS) Progr;im is administered for the Interior 

Departnierit 1)y the 1J.S. Geo1ogic;il Siirvey (USCS). 

The pi~qmse of the EROS program is to develop, 

denionstrate, and encoiiragc applications of remotely sensed data acqiiircd from aircraft and 

spacecraft. 

The key facility of the EROS program is the 

EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, which is the principal archive for remotely 

sensed data collected by USGS and National Aeroiiautics and Space Administration (NASA) aircraft, 

;ind by I,;intls;it, Skylab, A4pollo, and Gemini spacecraft. EDC: now serves as the national distributor of 

1,;indsnt products to all agencies of the Federal 

government ant1 the public. Sales for fiscal year 

(FY) 1!379 ;~inounted to about S3.4 million, about 

(i5 Ixi'cetit of wliicli was [.andsat data. 

Iniproz~ernents in Landsat Data Processing and 

Handling 

Digital ittiage processing systcms installed in 1978 

:it N:\Si\'s Gotltlnrtl Space Flight Center (GSFC) 

;ind ;it EDC were placed in production on February 

1, 1!17!1, ant1 have offered major improvements in 

the quality of I.antlsat data available to the user. 

In addition, ;I domestic satellite communications 

link (Domsat) hecame operational in May 1979, 

allowing tr;insfer of current Idandsat data from receiving stations in .\laska and California to GSFC, 

;ind from GSFC to EDC via a telemetry link instead 

of the post;il service. 

The EDC data Inse was improved by indexing 

(1)iit not archi\,ing) all 1,andsat data holdings ac- 

(jriiretl by reception stations in foreign countries. 

This is the first international Landsat data base 

in existence ant1 establishes in the United States a 

single worldwide point of contact for Landsat data. 

Currcn t participants in this data base integra tion 

include the Ellropean Space Agency (with processing centers in Italy and Sweden), Brazil, and Canac1:i. Data listings from Japan, Australia, India, 

.\i.gentiti:i, iind other locations will lie added in the 

11e:ll. flltulc. 

Continued improvements are planned for the 

next Jar, including modification of the digital image processing system at EDC to accept unresampled IAandsat data and to perform geometric 

(~ot~~ect ions. 

Training Programs 

Training in the form of workshops and courses at 

EDC is provitletl at cost for resource specialists and 

78 
land managers interested in remote sensing technology. Approximately 25 workshops are offered 

each year to ahout 500 scientists, both domestic and 

foreign. After 5 years of conducting 120 training 

sessions involving more than 2500 participants, the 

Center Iix noted :I shift in deinand ;irvay from general, introtli~cto~.y i'eniote sensing co~it~ses townrd 

courses tha t emp1i;isiie specific scientific disciplines 

or I-CSOIII~CC information ;rnd management techniques. 'The Center also cooperates with qualified 

universities in presenting workshops on techniques 

and on ;ipplications to specific disciplines. These 

workshops are offered to practicing professionals, 

through university extension programs. 

Applications am? Research 

In atltlition to data distribution and training. 

EROS activities include technical assistance antl 

rcse;ircIi in tlie :ipplic:ttions of i~cmotely sensed tl;tt;r 

to Eai-tli resources investigations. (=omputer-assisted 

image ;in;ilysis techniques are tleveloped, clemonstrated, and documented in the Dat;i Analysis I.ab 

oratory ;it EDC in i-csponse to the needs of user 

agencies. Coopera tivc tlemonstrations nntl research 

projects tlcvelop ant1 test tecliniques feasible for operational IISC. Following are some examples of 

promising new cooperative projects with potential 

for routine me in the dep;irtment. 

Land Usr and Lnnd Covcv- Mnps. In late hIarch 

1979, a nuclear accitlent occurred at tlie Three hlile 

Island power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 

The location of this power plant on the Susqiiehanna River, 16 kilometers from the state capital, 

raises the question of where such plants should be 

located in terms of the hazards to nearby urban, 

industrial, antl ;igricultural areas. To aid in evaluating and I-ecommentling solutions for control of such 

hazards, a special land use and land cover map, 

keyed to political units and census statistical areas. 

was digiti/etl from higli-altitude aircraft data by a 

computer-driven plotter. The computer-di.awn map 

was then placed over a standard USGS topographic 

quadrangle at tlie same scale of 1: 100,000. Nineteen 

detailed land use categories were identified by colors 

and shading patterns. Rings at %kilometer intervals and place names were ;idded for evaluation 

of potential hazards and for site planning. The 

remotely sensed digital dnta used in constructing 

this land use and land cover map were obtained 

from a data Ixtse conipiletl in 19'78 ;is ;I cooperative 

effort between the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources and the Geological Survey. 

Awheology. The National Park Service (NPS) , 

working in close cooperation with EROS and several other Federal agencies and major universities, 

ij iisiiig rclirotel!. sensed thta, priniarily from air- 

( I :if( I)ut sttpplcinc~itetl I)? 1,:indwt. to identify and 

c~:iI~iate historic :ind prehistoric c~~ltural resources 

in tlie n;ition;il p:it.ks. In the S;tn Juan Basin Regional Ui.aniiim Study, sponsored ly the Bureau of 

1ntli;in .lfI';tirs, imiotcly sensed data from aircraft 

and Iandsat arc I)cing used to assess the effects of 

iitxnitini csplora tion antl development upon the 

l):ii.ks :ind ;~i~clieologicnl sites ant1 iipon the culture 

of tlic iV:ir.;~jo 1ntli;ins living in the region. 

G1~)rij7tl II'(i[(v. irw. The USGS lix the rcsponsi1)iIity to cstini;ite the quantity of W;ICCI' our nation 

iises :innmi11y for indtistrial, domestic, and agricultural p~~rposes. :In important part of this responsil)ility is to tletei-mine the g~oand-water pumpage 

for ii~ig;ition of crops. Techniques have been de- 

\~lopcd to iitiliie 1,antlsat data to determine the 

:ti.e:is of (~01)s ii.rig;rtetl ant1 to iisc these dnta in 

conjiinctiori Ivitli selective sampling of pimipage at 

n.cll Iic;~ds to estimate the total quantity of water 

p~i~npcd. Kesirlts from tlemonstration projects in 

the Siiw;inec Rivet. MT;itei- Xlanagement District, 

l~loi%l;i, ;inti an eiglit-county site in the tri-State 

AIXYI of (:oloi.:itlo, Nebraska, and Kansas, indicate 

11i:i~ the inclusion of 1.andsat data improves the 

i~cIi:ibility of the \v:iter-iise estimates, shortens the 

time Coi. ;Inalysis, and costs less than estimates hased 

iiI)on coni.ention;il nietliotls alone. 

Alonicoring Snow~nclt Runoff. The USGS participitcd nit11 N:\S.I, the Kational Oceanic and Atniospheric: .\tlniinistration (NOAA) , and the Salt 

River Project. .\riTona, in developing methods to 

nionitoi. i.:ipkIly changing snow conditions and to 

I)redict snowmelt I-unoff quantities using satellite 

imagery ;ind r;rtlio-transtnitted hydrologic data reI;iyccl 1)y s;itellite to ground receiving stations. 

Tliccc cl;it;i were made available to officials of the 

Salt Ri\.er Project antl wci-e used for near real-time 

niaii;igcnient decisions involving reservoir operation. Use of the satellite relayed data and satellite 

imagery has improred the accuracy of short-term 

i~inoff prediction and the eficiency of reservoir 

opet.a t ions. 

Scn Icc. Froin data ol)tnined during the Nimbus 5 

experiment, the USGS prodiiced a remarkable timelapse movie covering several years' collection of 

satellite microwave images of the Arctic Polar Region. The movie dramatically displays the growth, 

tlisti-il)rition, and breakup of sea ice. This clear 

c1emonstr;ition of the dynamic nature of the Beaufort Sea should be of value to navigitors of ships, 

geologists interested in offshore petroleum exploration, ;ind planners of logistic operations. 

79 
Monitoring the Environment 

Land lnventories 

EDC and the U.S. Fish ant1 Wildlife Service are 

cooperating in ;I project to tlcnionstrate the use of 

I,;indsat t1at;i in ;in inventory of the vegetation and 

land cover of wildlife 2i;il)it;its. 

EDC is also cooperating with the Bureau of Land 

hIanagcment (RTAI) in a denionstration project to 

evaluate the application of remote sensing technology to mapping and inventorying vegetation on 

BLhI lands. Alriltispectrnl scanner digital data acquired hy 1,andsat and digital terrain data were 

used to classify approximately 100 square kilonieters in northwestel-ii Arizona into nine land cover 

types using the interactive image analysis system at 

EDC. 1,arge-scale aerial photographs were used to 

determine the vegetation type of selected picture 

elements. Results showed that integration of digital 

1,antlsat data arid terrain data can significantly improve the accuracy of \regetation classification. 

Scientists from the U.S. Forest Service Northern 

Forest Fire Idahoratory are also attempting to use 

digital I.andsat data ;ind terrain data to identify 

forest vegetation classes that can be used to map 

forest fire fuels over large areas. The data will then 

be met1 for iii;cti;igmicnt actions to ret1irc.c fire 

hazards. 

The NPS completcd a project for the Everglades 

National Park with the assistance of EDC. ’4 hydrologic model for Sliark Slough TWS tlevcloped that 

required information on water depth, volume, and 

temporal changcs in the water margins of the 

slough. I%y using data from 1,andsat and 76 measiirement stations, water depth antl volume were 

determined. One of the more interesting findings 

was that a 10-fold decrease in the witer volume 

ha1 vet1 the slough margin. 

The NPS also iisetl enhanced Idandsat images in 

their New :lre;r Studies Program. The images were 

photograph ica I ly enlarged and manua I ly interpreted to provide general vegetation, land use, 

Iandforni. tlrain;ige, and other land cover information. ’1 significant aspect of these projects was that 

they wcrc a11 completcd in two or three weeks at a 

cost of only a few thousand dollars. 

Environmental lmpact of Fuels Exploration and 

Development 

The Bureau of hIines, Office of Surface Mining, 

;ind EROS provided support for the tlcvelopmcnt 

of minicomputer digital equipment and analytical 

tccltniqucs for monitoring surf;icc mining oper;~- 

tions iisiiig 1,;intls;it data. 1,owcost s)stcnis \\.ere tlevcloped and inst;ilIetl at Stanford University and at 

the Technology Application Center of the University of New Mexico. Field investigations using these 

systenis were conducted in New hIexico, Oklahoma, 

;111d South ~~;lrolin~l. 

The Conservation Division of the USGS, working 

with the EROS program, has been closely monitoring the blowout from Mexico’s Pemex oil well Ixtoc 

1 in the Gulf of hIexico. The monitoring has been 

done in collaboration with the U.S. Coast Guard 

;ind NASA. I,andsat data were used to detect and 

delineate oil floating westward from the well in 

thc kiy of Cinipeche to the coastline between Vera 

Crriz atid l’anipico and then northward into Texas 

witel-s between Brownsville and Galveston. A 

mosaic of four 1,;rndsat images, prepared by the 

Survey, was used ;IS a guide for July flights of the 

Coast Guard (2-130 Airborne Oil Surveillance System aircraft to oil-contaminated areas and to aid 

NO.-LA’s scientific support coordinator and the 

Co;tst Gu;irtl‘s oil-scctie coordinator in predicting 

iv1icn oil from the riinar~~y well would reach U.S. 

\va te 1’s. 

Alaska 

Nc:ir-re;il-tinte satellite data are being used in the 

Quick-I .ook Project to produce sea-surface temperature maps for the fishing industry, analyses of seaice conditions for personnel working offshore on 

the ire in the Beaufort Sea, and images showing the 

location of fires. I’hc project uses data from the 

Defense AIetcorological Satellite, N0,4A satellites, 

and 1,;indsnt. Information provided by the images 

led to thc ev;rcuatioii of a drill rig on ice in the 

1kiufoi.t Sea antl Imxliction of an outburst from a 

gl;icier-daminetl lake west of Anchorage. 

131.hl antl several other agencies have been using 

;I llcteor Burst Con~miinications System (transmission of short messages over ionized trails left by 

meteors entering the upper atmosphere of the 

Ihrth) in A\l;tsk;i over the past few years. RLM will 

I)c testing iiictcor 1)iirst coiiiniunications in conjunction with aircraft on-board naviption systems 

to ;iiitoniatically relay aircraft positions from remote areas independently of aircraft elevation or 

terrain. This system will greatly enhance the safety 

ant1 dispatch capability of flights in inaccessible 

areas. 

Dnta Acquisition through Satellite Relay 

TIIC USGS continiietl to expand the nnmber of 

platforins transmi tting environmental data thrortgli 

the Geostatiomry Operational Environmental 

Satellite (Goes). An increase to 150 platforms was 

80 
in part necewry because the use of 1,andsat to relay 

data \vas discontinuetl. The USGS has also con1,;inds;ic images was used to identify promising areas 

for inore cletailetl geologic mapping and geochemitractetl with Coniwt Genei.;il Coip to test ;I 

pilot rc:il-time information service involving 75 

hydro1 ogic tla t;i -cot lec t ion pl a t foims. Tli is pi lot tes t 

service lvill begin olxration in late 1980. 

The 1%1,;11 is concliitling a project with the U.S. 

Forest Service to provide standat-d Remote .\titomatic Weather Stations for Fire Alanagement by 

rclnying tl;it;i tlirorigh the Goes satellite. 

The Water and Po~vcl- Resources Service began 

consti-uction of its H~tlromct and Xleteorological 

Sin-face 0l)serv;i tion n’et1voi.k (Mesonet) system 

and contr;ictetl with Colorado State University 

(CSU) to an;iIye cloiid systems by the IISC of satellite hta. ~l’lie I Iylroniet s)jteni Tvill c-ollect hylrologic ant1 meteorologic (lata from sensors on 70 data 

collect ion pI a t forms a ntl t 11 en tra nsm i t these tla ta 

via the Goes satellite to a receiving antenna in 

Boise, Itlalio. ~leson~t is a solai.-poweretl network 

of I50 poi~talile meteoi-ological stations that iisc a 

Goes satellite-coniliiiter link to en:il)lc scientists to 

monitor weathci. developments in greai detail even 

thoiigli they occur over large areas many miles 

The weather c1;it;i will be i-el;iyetl to ;I groiind 

receiving station ;it M’;illops Island, Viiginia. The 

CSU stiitly \vi11 suppoi-t two Rure;iu research pmjects: the High Plains Cooperative Project in grow 

ing-season rainfall m;in;igcnient, antl the Sien-a 

Coolmxtivc Pilot Project in winter snowfall enlia ncemen t . 

Geology 

Mineral Exploration 

1,andsat imagery antl aerial photographs are 

used by the tlepirtnient as ;I tool for mineral esploration ;ind to improve the c1ii;ility ;itid speed of 

mineral resoiirces mapping. 

In the southern Poivtlcl. liivcr Ikisin, Wyoming, 

many of the uranium producing areas arc obscured 

by vegetation that covers 50-75 percent of the 

ground. :Z 1,antlsat coinl~iiter-enhancement technique WIS tlevelopetl to map the regional vegetation 

variations that reflect subtle changes in lithology. 

chiefly tlie proportions of sandstone and mudstone. 

By this technique it w;is discovered that iii.aniuni 

deposits are ;issoci;ited with a particular lithology 

that has ;in intermediate sandstone/in~idstorie ratio. . 

Lineament analyses were used to dcvclop a model 

for the influx of ur;~iiiruii-heariiig groundwater into 

the basin and subsequent deposition of uranium. 

In a jointly funded United States-hIexico experimental project in northern Sonora, Rlexico, analysis 

of linemients and limonitic occurrences seen in 

c:iI surveys. Strike-frequency -Ynalysis of mapped 

Iinc;imencs indicated the presence of two statistically significant trends, northeast and northwest. 

.\t 1c;ist four nortlieast-trending lineament zones 

\VCI.C tlefinccl ;ind ;ire inteq,i.ctcd to Ix structural 

/ones tliat were tlie primary regional control of minei,:i1i/:ition in the porphyry copper deposits of northc1.n Soiioi,a. .\lthougli northwest-trending structures 

;I Iso :ippea~. to have influenced the localization of 

ore deposits, these are pervasive structures which 

;ire not rlscflli ;IS iqqionnl prospecting guides. In 

contr:i\t, the nortlicast-trending lineament zones are 

loc;ili/etl ant1 s).stematic ;ind are characterized by 

concentixtions of limonitic hydrothermally altered 

i.ocks. occuixnces of known copper deposits, and 

:inom:iloiisly higli Icxl content in stream sediment. 

Wicw data, along with other geochemical and geo1)Ii>sic:i1 d:it;i, Iixve resulted in the identification of 

sevci.;iI ai~is of csception;il economic potential, and 

tIii5 approach Iixs become an integral part of the 

initieixI appraisal sti.idies being conducted by the 

Field iiivcstigations in the Williamsport Valley, 

Peiins) Ivani;i, to identify lineaments shown on 

1 ,:iiidsat i’etiiim beam vidicon images revealed the 

1)i‘cwiice of six tlisci-etc 1;iiilt zones Tvliose strike is 

siil~~~ar~illel to tlic trend of the Appalachian folds. 

Tliese /ones range from 0.5 to 1.75 kilometers in 

xvidth and from at least 10 kilometers to more than 

:io kilometers in length. Xlaiiy thrust faults of only 

a few centinieters displacement are present within 

c;icli ioiie and OCCIII‘ at low angles in the beds of 

.pe” folds. The extreme degree of faultiicisc-type structures may indicate fractii1.c porosity traps for pis and oil at depth. 

Oilier progr;ims using remote sensing techniques 

iiicliitle niiclear wtsie disposal, mineral resource appi.aisal, gcot1ierni;il studies, and volcanic hazards. 

clc~,:\rtlncnt. 

Lumr and Planetnq Studies 

Studies of the moon and of data from the two 

siiccessful Viking missions to Mars are continuing, 

I)iit the flybys of Voyagers 1 and 2 past Jupiter and 

the mapping of the Venusian surface using the 

Pioneel. rad;ir a1 tinieter have provided the most 

significant findings. Preliniinary studies of the four 

large Galilem satellites of Jupiter indicate a great 

divei.sity in surface composition and morphology. 

Dark areas on Io may be flows of molten sulfur, and 

volcanic eruptions were actually observed. Europa 

Iias ;I system of long, linear structures. Ganymede is 

pro1);iI)ly composed of ;in ice-rock crust over a dominantly water mantle. Callisto possessed an enor81 
nioiis mu1 ti-ring impact basin. On Venus, the 

Pioneer satellite is pro~~itling (lata for a radar map 

of 70 percent of the surface of the planet. E;dy 

results indicate the presence of active volcanoes and 

some Itigli mounti' ins. 

Cartography 

Studies to develop techniques for applying satellite kitit to c;ii.tograpliy concentrated on the me of 

1,iintls;it 3 t1at;i. C;omputcr programs were prepared 

that iisc tlie Hotine Oblique Mercator (HOAI) and 

Slxice Oblique hfercatol- (SON) projections for 

1,:itids;it (1;it:i. These programs compute geographic 

1;ititiide aiitl longitude coordinates from the HOAI 

or SOll coordinates or vice versa. Additional in- 

\.estigir tions produced the specifications of map 

projections for other satellite applications. Geometric consic1er;itions for ;I mapping satellite system 

~vtw 51 ritlictl. 

I~ndsnt Image Maps 

F.xpcrinienta1 image maps of the coal-rich areas 

of Afontana and Mi>.oming were prepared from 

1.andsnt data. [I unique map combining 1,andsat 

AISS imiig.ery n-it11 line-map data for the Wenachee, 

Washington, I" ~2" quadrangle was printed at a 

1 :?50.000 scale. This map meets national map acciir:ic\ ~tatitlaixls Tot. the :~ccitracv of 1ioriront:il positions at that scale and was selected as a prototype 

for iise in areas of Latin America where data for 

larger scale inaps are not available. 

A program of high-altitude aerial photography 

ma p pi ng ad mi nis tered by the U.S. Geological Survey for several government agencies has as its goal 

complete coverage of the conterminoiis United 

States. A solicitation for bids for photographs of 

ahont one-fifth of the country was issued near the 

end of 1979. The photographs will be acquired 

simultaneously with two different focal-length cameras and will be on bot11 color-infrared and blackand-white film. The scales of the negatives will be 

npproxitnately 1 : 60,000 and 1 : 80,000, respectively. 

International Activities 

Under the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act, USGS 

Ixirticipates with the Agency for International Developnient (AID) in ;I technical assistance program 

to aid tlciclopiiig coiiiici.ica in Eaidi-science and 

engineering applications. These countries frequently reqricst assistance in remote sensing as the 

most feasiblc way of solving some of their environmental and resource problems. 

Four-week interna tiona 1 remote sensing workshol)s ;II.C given at EDC twice a year as part of this 

program. In FV lW9, 3i scientists frotn 18 foreign 

countries attentled the woi.l;sliops. EDC also coort1in;itcd ;I training course in remote sensing under 

the auspices of the Circum-.Pacific Council in Honolulu, Hawaii, for some GO scientists from Pacific and 

Fai. E;ist coiintries. ;2 remote-sensing training workshop ivx held in the People's Republic of China 

tlui.ing Jiine 1979 at the Scientific Research Institiite for Pctrolcuni Esploration and Development, 

RIinistry of Petroleum. 

Ad\anced training courses in geologic interpretation, land use planning and environmental applicaLions, and digital image processing were conducted 

for foreign participants by the USGS Center for 

.\strogeology in Flagstaff, Arizona, during the year. 

A new coiiix for foreign Earth scientists, covering 

tlie Ixisic piinciples of digital image processing, is 

to be held at the USGS National Center in FY 

1980. 

;\nother international activity of USGS is cooperation in scientific research and the exchange of 

information. Landuat imagery is an important component of several ongoing tasks under a long-term 

LJSGS cooperative agreement with Saudi Arabia. 

Digitally enhanced imagery is used extensively in 

geologic interpretation and as a base for geologic 

and geographic maps and mosaics at scales ranging 

from 1: 100,000 to 1:2,000,000. 

In addition, USGS scientists participate in many 

assistance prograins and consultations in the developing countries. A current AID-sponsored project 

in Tunisia, for example, is developing skills in 

production and interpretation of satellite imagery 

for investigations in geology, hydrology, pedology, 

erosion, desertification, and pollution. 

A remote sensing project, led by USGS, is part of 

the International Geological Correlation Program, 

which is jointly sponsored by United Nations Educaion;il, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and 

the 1iitcrnation;il Union oC Geo1ogic;il Sciences. 

82 
Department of Transportation 

Introduction 

The Department of Transportation, through its 

aviation component, the Federal Aviation Administration (FXA4) , eng;igcs in extensive ;ieron;iutical 

research, development, test, and evaluation activities. These support the basic responsibilities of 

FAA to regulate air safety, ensure the safe and cfficient utilization of the nation's airspace by both 

civil and military usei-s, and foster the development 

of civil aeronautics and air commerce. 

Aviation Safety 

FAA's research, development, and engineering 

programs in aviation safety are designed to dcnionstrate the technical, operational, and economic feasibility of improving aircraft performance and raising the Im'forniance standards for pilots and other 

airmen. During 1979, FAA continued to work in 

concert with NASA and the Department of Defcnse 

to improve the safety of both fixed-wing and rotortype aircraft; major emphasis was placed on postcrash fires, airframe crashworthiness, turhineengine ingestion, and icing. New means of 

preventing or deterring acts of terrorism or other 

violence aboald aircraft and at airports were vigorously pursued. In the area of aviation medicine, 

F.AA sought to identify and eliminate biomedical 

factors in aviation accidents and to improve the 

performance, health, and safety of pilots, ground 

personnel, and passengers. The knowledge acquired 

in all of these programs enables F.4A to improve 

contemporary and future aircraft and ensure the 

issuance of appropriate new standards, certification 

criteria, and regulations. 

Fire Safety 

FAA continued to work toward improving the 

chances of aircraft occupants surviving an impactsurvivable crash involving a fuel-fed fire. Largesc;ile fire tests werc contliictctl that siniu1;ite what 

actually happens inside an aircraft fuselage during 

various types and stages of fires. These tests, utilizing a C-133 fuselage to simulate a full-scale, wideI)ody .jet, were conducted at the National Aviation 

3: ~i .'I' iiies . 

New Jersey. The tests were designed to measure 

cai.bon monoside levels, smoke intensities, and heat 

rc1e;isetl inside the fuselage from a fire fed by an 

exterior 1)urning fuel without any contribution 

from interior cabin materials. Similar tests will incliitle burning interior materials to establish their 

contribution. 

Fuel-fed fires can kill all the survivors of an impact-siirvivable aircraft accident. Fuel spewed from 

ruptiirctl tanks forins fine mist-like particles that 

1-ex1ily ignite and then create an all-consuming fire 

ball. In attacking this problem, FAA directed its 

elforts toward the development of a fuel additive 

that would minimize the formation of the mist-like 

fucl particles md thereby reduce the possibilities 

of ;I fire Ix111 being creiited. Numerous small and 

initl-si/ctl tests simiilating spillage from a ruptured 

fuel tank in the presence of an ignition source were 

conducted diiring 1979. Varying amounts of additive ant1 levels of ignition intensity were used in 

order to establish parameters for the large-scale 

tests, ~vliich were conducted during the latter part 

of the )eat-. 

Such consitlerations as the stability of the modified fucl in stor;ige and handling and during transport within the various aircraft systems were also 

invcstiptcd. A sirnillation test was conducted to 

tleicrmine how well the modified fuel could pass 

t Iirough an aircraft system; the test results were 

promising. The compatibility of the modified fuel 

with engine conipoiieiits is being determined in a 

joint effort between FAA and NASA. All aspects of 

this investigation to date have been encouraging. 

FAA was also engaged during the year in improving and expanding a mathematical model 

developed by the FAA to simulate aircraft cabin 

fire. The model is being validated by comparing its 

results with those obtained from on-going FAANAS.-Z cal)iii-fire tests. The validated model will be 

used to evdm te concepts to improve cabin-fire 

safety through compartmentation, and the agency 

Experimental Center, in Atlantic City, 

83 
plans to sponsor n workshop to encourage and facilitate nsc of the completed model by industry. In 

concert with this effort, improved evacuation techniques are being developed for incorporation into 

existing and futui-e aircraft designs. 

Finally, FAA made good progress during the year 

tow;ird a “combined hazard index” identifying 

cabin interior materials that will not contrilmte to 

the Ii;i/;iids 01 ;I fi1.e. I’liic index tiikes laboratoryscale tl;ita generated from I,ui.ning small samples of 

material and, by using ;I mathematical model, identifies the fhininability, smoke, and toxic pis emission characteristics of the materials. 

Aviation Secuvity 

Efforts to deter acts of terrorism and sabotage 

aboard aircraft antl at airports concenti-ated on improving techniques for detecting explosives in 

checked bagg~ge antl other items. A transportable 

baggige homl) dctector was consti-ucted and readied 

for airport testing. Enforcement officials were provitlctl with the vapor characteristics of a broad 

range of explosives for use in evaluating screening 

units in an olxmtional airport environment. 

Small :iniin;ils continued to be tested for their 

potential in detecting the minute quantities of 

vapors emanating froin explosives. The behavior 

of these ;inini;ils UYIS ;issessetl iintlei. ;ictual :iirpoi.t 

operating conditions. The aniimls’ performance is 

being compared with that of electronic vapor detectors. Atltlitionally, tlie characteristics of a screcning system employing dual-energy x-ray techniques 

(incliitling compii ter-aided tomography) were developed :ind inatle avail;ilile to users. 

Airport Pavement 

Airport pavements must be evaluated periodically for their strength c1i;iracteristics and loadcarrying c;ipabilities. Conventional testing methods 

call for cutting test pits measuring 1.2 square meters 

into the airport pavement, conducting plate-bearing 

tests, antl s;inipling m;iterials. This method is both 

costly and time-consuming and iquires shutting 

down tlie runway or taxiway. L\n alternative, nondestructive testing method has been developed, however, which eliminates digging pits and niininiizes 

the time i~iinways arc shut down. Vibration is applied to the pavement, its deflection is measured, 

and its strength and load-carrying capability is 

c;ilculated by ;I computer. Seminars explaining this 

technique were held ;it four airports, aid the details 

of this nicthotl were pro\~ided to airport operators. 

In another development, FAA continued to determine the optimuni groove configuration to improve runway traction during wet weather. 

<;i.ooviiifi coiifigiiixtions. installed while bituminous 

surfaces were still plastic, were tested during 1979. 

‘I’hese tests hare now been completed. 

Attiation Medicine 

As aviation technology expands and grows in 

coniplesity, advances in air safety depend increasingly iipon ;I Ironder understanding of human 

c:ij):il)iIities and limitations and of the relationship 

I)ctnmn the ol~crator and tlie machine in the aeronautical environment. Assessing and improving the 

performance of the human operator, whether in 

the cockpit or in the control tower, therefore, is a 

primary area of exploration for the FAA medical 

i.cse;ircli progimn. 

T;,\,% recently applied simulation theory to all 

pli:iscs of air ti~~ffic controller selection, assessment, 

jol) striic~ tiring, ;ind training. The objective of the 

pi‘ogi‘;ini n~is to develop ;I performance-hased system 

10 cvalii;itc ;I conti.oller from initial selection as a 

c;intlitl;ric through his or her progression as a 

tixinee to full proficiency. A’eiv selection tests were 

tlcvclopctl aiitl ;idministered experimentally to 

stiltlent5 entering ti.;iining ;ind to personnel on the 

jol) at opcixtion;il facilities. These tests produced a 

Iiigliei. correlation with air traffic controller success 

tlian any other tests used in previoiis evaluation 

stiidics. They promise to he significantly better for 

screening applicants. 

Kew skill tests were also developed and used, 

along lvith iiistiwctor evaluations, to measure how 

n~ll stritlcnts applied knowledge and skills during 

the first months of training. Data collected from 

these me;iSui~enients were used to assess and improve 

the qii;ility of training and to evaluate candidates 

;it the end of their course. The net result has been 

;I continuing intei-nal self-improvement system that 

iniproIm ti.;iining and selection and promises to 

provide qualit). controllers at lower cost. 

Other Safety Deafelopments 

111 other safety develoiiments. FAA 

Continued to invcstipite the new technologies 

eniployctl in the new generation of energyefficient tr;iiisport aircraft that use active conti.01 s!.stenis aiitl digital avionics. Fixed-wing 

;tii.ci.;ift s)stems were valitlated in 1979 using 

siiniilation methods. 

De\~elopetl helicopter crash scenarios to investigiitc the feasibility of using general aviation 

ci~;isli~~oi~tIiincss models for helicopters. 

1kg;iii :I .joint progr;ini with the U.S. Army to 

cst;il)lisli piranieters upon which icing criteria 

for helicopter certification could be based. 
Continued research on general-aviation pilot 

training and certification, general-aviation aircraft cockpit standardization, and crash-impnct 

design standards for general-aviation aircraft. 

Factors relating to the recognition of stall and 

spin were identified, and the next phase of pilot 

judgment training was begun. Experirnental 

training syllabi were developed for both flight 

instructors and student pilots; the goal is to 

produce better and safer civil pilots by cxposing them to a structured judgment training 

program. 

Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation 

Discrete Address Beacon System 

FAA currently uses the existing Air Traffic Control Ratlnr Bc;icon System (ATCRRS) as the pi-imary means of tracking and surveillance in air 

traffic control ;iutoniation oper;itions. In this system, when an airborne transponder is triggered by 

ground interrogators, it responds Iy transmitting 

the aircraft’s identity ;ind altitude. ;ZTCRRS, however, has one scrioits sliortconiing--;i liniitetl ability 

to seprate transponder replies coming from aircraft 

in the same immediate vicinity. Air Traffic Control 

Radar I3e;icon transponders respond indiscriminately to all ground station interrogations; this 

causes overlapping and garbling of transponder 

replies and seriously limits the system’s ability to 

meet the demands of the automated air traffic control system. 

To overcome this difficulty, FAA has developed 

an improved ATCRHS, the Discrete Address 

Beacon System (DABS), which assigns a unique 

address code to each aircraft. The airborne DXRS 

transponder will respond only if an iiitcrroption 

contains this code. This ability to interrogite discretely makes the Discrete Address Beacon System a 

natural digital data link between the ground-based 

air traffic control system and aircraft. DABS also 

has the capability to provide an automatic groundderived traffic advisory and separation assurance not 

available with the ATCRRS. Transition from the 

Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System to the 

Discrete Address Beacon System will require between 10 to 15 years to complete. 

FAA has ordered three engineering models of the 

discrete system. Two models were delivered in 

1978; the third, delivered in April 1979, possesses 

the ground-based separation assurance capability. 

The three inodels have been installed in the vicinity of FAA’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center, where they are currently undergoing 

test and evaluation. 

Alicrownce Lnriding System 

,\c.ti\.itics lvitli ;I Alicroivave 1,:iticIing System 

(11 I .s) IN ot ectletl :I\ ~~lietl~~letl. F.LZ has developed t1ii.c~ \.ci.siotis of ;I ,\Iicroiv;ive I.;inding System: ;I Ixisic. lvitlc :I~CI.~IIIY, ;I Insic. narrow aperture, 

:iiid ;I siii;111 coninriinit)~ s! stein. Tlie Ixisic narrow 

:ijmt~i~e ;itid w1;111 coniniunity systenis have been 

tcstctl ;iiitl e\.;ilii;itctl. I‘csting of ;I basic \vide systciti, ititended 101. 1;irge aiipoi-ts, 1v:15 begun during 

I!G!) ;it h‘.\%\’s Wa1lops Flight <:enter. Alemiwhile, 

or lie^. clloi is \vei.c tlii-wtetl toiv;ircl (1) the developniciit ;itid ititei.n:itioiiaI approv:il of International 

Cii\,iI ,\viation Oi.g;iniz;ition (IC.10) Standards 

;itid I<cconinicntletl Pr;icticcs, (2) drafting impletiiciit;itioii ;itit1 ti~;~iisition plaiis, and (8) cstablishiiig fin;il ptditc tion specific;iiions for basic narrow 

;t~id small conimiinity systenis. 

The Systems Test and Evaliiation Program 

(STEP) currently underway provides user communities xvith “liancls on” experience with an hlLS and 

I)etmiits the gathering of “live” operational data 

for use in developing hnndliooks, siting standards, 

;I ntl fliglit inspection procedures. During the first 

pIi:ise of the progrnni, small community systems will 

be inst;illetl ;it Pliiladelphia International Airport, 

W;ishingtoii N;~tionnl Airport, and Bader Field 

(,\tl;intic City) early in 1980. A basic narrow system 

Iias :ilrc:idy been installed ;It Washington National 

.Iirport: tests and calibration flights began in late 

1!)79. Pl;inning for the second phase of the program 

i ncl des the procurement of 16 microwave 

sytetiis-cigli( small community and eight basic 

11;i t3~O\V. 

1Vitzd Shear 

FA.\’s wind s1ie;ir program is designed to detect 

;I ntl forecast Ii;iz;irdous wind-shear conditions and 

;issisc pilots in coping with them. The major portion of this prograin is scheduled to be completed 

in 1980. 

Flight profile simulations, conducted in cooperation with NASA, have been completed and have 

formed the basis for an Advance Notice of Proposed 

Ritlcniaking, issued by FAA in May 1979. The adv:iiice notice proposes to require that passengercarrying aircraft be equipped with devices that will 

display wind-shear information to the pilot. Many 

airlines have already incorporated the results of 

these simulation studies in their standard training 

procediires. 

As part of the effort to mitigate the effects of 

low-lcvel wind shear on aircraft terminal operatioiis, FAA developed and tested the Low-Level 

Wind Shear Alert System (LLWSAS). The system 

consists of renioted anemometers mounted between 
6 and 12 meters above the ground in the approach 

and departure corridors of a number of the nation’s 

busiest airports. Wind data from the remoted 

anemometers are reported to a central airport location (normally the air traffic control towers) for 

processing and comparison with data sensed by the 

centerfield anemometer. When a vector difference 

of at least 28 kilometers per hour is detected, an 

alert is displayed in the air traffic control tower 

cab. Installation and commissioning of these systems I)epiti in Scpteml)et- 1978. Dc\rclopment of 

forecasting tccliniqiies lor predicting low-level wind 

shear conditions is cotitiiiuiiig. 

Electronic Tabular Display System 

Although ;I significant degree of ;tiitomation has 

been introduced in the 20 air route traffic control 

centers located in the contiguous 48 states, many 

routine functions are still being performed maniially by air traffic controllers-es~,cci~illy the updating ;ind posting of flight progress strips in controller 

consoles and the manual entry of new flight chta 

into the en route computers. 

In January 1979, FAA awarded a contract to develop an engineering model of an Electronic Tabular Display System (ETABS). Its design objective 

is to provide a more efficient method of displaying 

and iipchting flight plan data, thereby eliminating 

the need for piper flight-progress strips. The potential payoff is sigiiificantly improved control-team 

efficiency ;iiitl productivity. Diiring 1979, an intleptli cvnluatioii of ETARS was conducted hy a 

team of experienced field personnel to judge its iiiipact on operations and m:iinten:incc in field fiicili ties. 7’11 e eva 1 iia t i on t cam strongly s 11 11 por tctl the 

opera t iom 1 concept a ntl iden t i fietl f;ictors that will 

be consitlet-et1 during impletiientation pl;itining to 

minimiic the impact on field facilities. 

Terminal Information Processing System 

The I’ermiiial Information Processing System 

(TIPS) is ;in air traffic control terminal automation 

progr;im that has the potential for increasing the 

productivity of the terminal controller. Through 

the autotn:itetl features of the TIPS computer and 

associated electronic displays, terminal controllers 

will be provided with an improved system for processing and distributing flight data and other essential operational information. Today these tasks are 

performed manu;illy ;it the terminals; flight data 

:ire tlistribated by means of paper flight progress 

strips tlia t are crtmbersome to handle and require 

m:itiwiI updating. 

A procurement contract has been awarded for 

the development of ;I prototype TIPS system. The 

prototype will be installed in the terminal test bed 

;it the National Aviation Facilities Experimental 

(kilter iri 1!)80 lot. te5t ;tiid ev;ilii:itioti. 

Airport Surface Traffic Control 

The goal of this research and development program is to develop aritoniation and surveillance aids 

for airport surface traffic control to minimize surface traffic delays and provide safer airport operations under all we:itlier conditions. A major eleiiicttt iit titis tlc\.clopiiietit activity is :I iteiv radar- 

.lirport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE-3), 

\vliicIi will provide improved aircraft detection during log ;itid rain. A protot)’pe ,4SDE-3 was delivered 

to the National Facilities Experimental Center 

it1 .\itgiist l!)i!) :ind is tiow utitlergoing test and 

c\ :ilii:itioii. 

Vortex Advisory System 

l’he Vortex iltlvisory System (VAS) is designed 

to permit 1)etter iitiliiation of airport capacity by 

tiiininii/ing the iniixict of ti,ailing wake vortices on 

the seqitcii( ing and spicing of aircraft in arrival 

atid tleprtiire corridors. This system deploys a 

net~vork of anemometers located in the runway ap1>1~0;ic11 /ones to me~isiti~e wind conditions, the major 

clenictit infliiencing vortex stability. These data 

:ire fed into ;I processor, where the conditions are 

:iiiiily/ed ;iiitl sent to the air traffic controller, who 

then cst;il)lishes aircraft separation parameters. The 

5ytetii is currently being evaluated at Chicago’s 

0’H:it.e Intcriiational Airport and is scheduled to 

be commissioned early in 1980. 

On-going ;ind future work includes development 

01’ tecliniqiies to select improved locations for 

\vcatIier sensors, refinements to the algorithms, asseswient of the possibility of decreasing departure 

~pacitig, atid ;I mantied flight simulation to assess 

the vortex li:i/~itd as it relates to aircraft spacing 

and altitiide of encounter in the approach corridor. 

86 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1957 .................. 

1958 .................. 

1959 .................. 

1960 .................. 

1961 .................. 

1962 .................. 

1963 .................. 

1964 .................. 

1965 .................. 

1966 .................. 

1967 .................. 

1968 .................. 

0 

5 

9 

16 

35 

55 

62 

69 

93 

94 

78 

61 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

'1 

0 

0 

' This Earth escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is 

included in the Earth orbit success totals . NOTES: The criterion of success or failure used is the attainment 

of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than a judgment of mission 

success . 

~ ~~ 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1969 .................. 

1970 .................. 

1971 .................. 

1972 .................. 

1973 .................. 

1974 .................. 

1975 .................. 

1976 .................. 

1977 .................. 

1978 .................. 

58 

36 

45 

33 

23 

27 

30 

33 

27 

34 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

8 1 

3 0 

8 1 

8 0 

3 0 

1 0 

4 0 

1 0 

2 0 

7 0 

1979 .................. 18 0 0 0 

Total ............. 941 129 79 15 

This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating countries 

"ESCAPE" flights include all that were intended to go to at least an 

which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles . 

altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth . 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year 

1957 ................... 2 ........................................... ....... ........... 

1958 .................. 5 1 ................................................................................... 

1959 ................. 10 3 ................................................................................... 

1960 ................. 16 3 ................................................................................... 

1961 ................. 29 6 ............................................................................. 

20 ............................................................................. 

17 ............................................................................. 

30 ................................................................................... 1965 ................. 63 48 ........... 1 ....................................................................... 

1966 ................. 73 44 ........... 1 ....................................... ........... ........... 

1967 ................. 57 66 ........... 2 .......... ............................................................. 1968 ................. 45 74 ................................................................................... 1969 ................. 40 70 .................................................. ............ 

1970 ................. 28 81 ........... 2 ......... '1 .......... .................................................. 1971 ................. 30 83 ........... 1 .........' 2..........2................................1..............

1972 ................. 30 

1973 ................. 23 

1974 ................. 22 

1975 ................. 27 

1976 ................. 26 ........... 

1977 ................. 24 98 ................................. 2 ................................................. 

Total ........... 743 

' Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft . spacecraft . Some launches did successfully orbit multiple 

NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft . 

87 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-I979 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

__ 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

eauator 

Remarks 

(dhgrees) 

Ian. 30 

Scatha (STP P78-2) 

7A 

Delta 

Feb. 18 

Sage (AEM B) 

13A 

scout 

Feb. 24 

Solwind (STP P78-1) 

17A 

Atlas F 

Mar. 16 

Defense 

25A 

Titan IIID 

Mar. 16 

Defense 

25B 

Titan IIID 

May 4 

Fltsatcom 2 

38A 

Atlas-Centaui 

May 28 

Defense 

44A 

Titan I1 I B- Agena 

Objective: To place satellite into a highly elliptical orbit 

of sufficient accuracy to allow the spacecraft to achieve 

its final elliptical orbit. Satellite carried 12 experiments 

to identify and measure sources of electrical charge 

buildup on the spacecraft. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape, 1.7 m in diameter and 

1.8 m high. Three 3-m booms, one 2 m, and one 7 m, 

all for deployment of experiments; and a 100-m tip-totip electric field antenna. Weight at liftoff: 658.8 kg, 

and 343 kg after jettison of the apogee motor. 

Objective: To develop a satellite-based remote sensing 

technique for measuring stratospheric aerosols and 

ozone, to map vertical extinction profiles of stratospheric aerosols and ozone, to investigate the impact of 

natural phenomena such as volcanoes and tropical 

storms, and investigate the sources and sinks of stratospheric ozone and aerosols. 

Spacecraft: Consists of an instrument module containing 

the Sage (Stratospheric Aerosol Gas Experiment) sensor and its supporting equipment and a base module. 

Base module contains all the subsystems necessary to 

support and control the total satellite. Two solar paddles are mounted on the satellite structure. SAGE sensor is a four spectral channel radiometer which measures the extinction of solar radiation during solar 

occultation. Weight: 147 kg. 

Objective: To gather data on solar wind, sunspots, solar 

flares, electron build-up in polar regions, and distribution of aerosols and ozone in the atmosphere. 

Spacecraft: Carries gamma ray spectrometer, particle 

counter, coronagraph, extreme-UV monitor, extremeUV spectrometer, solar x-ray spectrometer/spectroheliograph, x-ray monitor, and aerosol monitor. 

Weight: 1331 kg. 

technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology . 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into successful transfer 

orbit. 

Spacecraft: Hexagonal shape, composed of payload 

module and a spacecraft module, 6.7 m high. Weight 

at liftoff: 1867 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 

1005 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

43,214 

27,581 

1416.2 

7.8 

661 

548 

96.7 

54.9 

60 1 

576 

96.2 

97.6 

246 

170 

88.5 

96.3 

625 

616 

97.0 

95.7 

35,829 

35,753 

1436 

2.6 

292 

144 

88.7 

96.4 

U.S. Air Force/NASA spacecraft successfully orbited by NASA launch 

vehicle. Apogee kick motor fired Feb. 

2, placing satellite in correct orbit. 

Spacecraft returning data. Still in 

orbit. 

Successfully launched by NASA. First 

instrument sunrise/sunset events 

taken Feb. 21. Scientists, using Sage 

sensor, tracked material deposited in 

stratosphere by volcano La Soufriere 

on St. Vincent in the Caribbean, 

which erupted April 13. 14. and 17, 

ejecting ash and volcanic gases into 

the surrounding atmosphere. Ozone 

and aerosol measurements provided 

by Sage agree with ground-truth 

observations. Worldwide distribution 

of concentration of stratospheric aerosols currently being measured. 

Air Force test program flight for Naval 

Research Laboratory with Defense 

Research Projects Agency instrument. 

Successfully placed in correct orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed Sep. 29, 1979. 

Still in orbit 

Second of five planned satellites, successfully launched by NASA for the 

Navy and the Dept. of Defense. 

Apogee kick motor fired May 6. 

Satellite despun May 7. Spacecraft 

placed in desired synchronous orbit at 

23' west longitude. All spacecraft 

systems turned on and operating 

nominally. Still in orbit. 

Decayed Aug. 26, 1979 

88 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I979 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

June 2 

Ariel 6 

47A 

scout 

Objective: To place satellite in successful orbit. Spaceto investigate cosmic radiation. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical body, 130.8 cm high, 69.6 cm 

in diameter; spin stabilized. Spacecraft power supplied 

by four solar arrays mounted on deployable booms, 

with a span of 274 cm. Scientific payload consists of 

three experiments: cosmic ray detector and two x-ray 

experiments. Weight: 154 kg. 

(UK 6) 

June 6 

AMs-4 

50A 

Thor-Burner 2 

June 10 

Defense 

53A 

Titan IIIC 

June 27 

Noaa 6 

57A 

Atlas F 

Aug. 10 

Westar 3 

72A 

Delta 

Objective: To support the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. 

Spacecraft: 1.2 m wide, 5.9 m long. Has solar arrays. 

Is 3-axis stabilized. Has visual and IR day and night 

imagery in resolutions of 3.7 and 22 km, scanning an 

area 2964 km wide as it moves along its orbit. Also has 

temperature/moisture sounder, precipitating electron 

spectrometer, and a density sounder. Transmits both 

in real time and from tape. Weight: 476 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a Sun-synchronous 

orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable spacecraft to accomplish its operational mission requirements. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration, including the apogee 

boost motor, is 371 cm high and 188 cm in diameter. 

Solar panels deploy in orbit. Spacecraft structure composed of four major elements: reaction control equipment support structure (RSS); equipment support 

module (ESM); instrument mounting platform (IMP); 

and solar array. The basic structure is identical to the 

DMSP Block 5D2. Instruments include: Advanced 

Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). Data 

Collection and Location System (DCS), Space Environment Monitor (SEM), Total Energy Detector (TED), 

Medium Energy Proton Electron Detector (MEPED), 

High Energy Proton-Alpha Detector (HEPAD); and 

the Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) composed of three instruments: High Resolution Infra Red 

Sounder (HIRS/Z). Stratospheric Sounding Unit 

(SSU): and the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU). 

Identical instruments carried on Tiros-N launched 

Oct. 13, 1978. Weight: 723 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous transfer orbit. Satellite to provide transmission of television, 

voice, and other data throughout the continental 

United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped cylinder 156 cm high and 191 

cm in diameter, a 153-cm-wide circular directional 

antenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. 

Provides 12 color TV channels, 600 two-way telephone 

calls, or millions of bits of high-speed data for commerical users in the U.S. Weight at launch: 576 kg. 

(degrees) 

658 

596 

97.3 

55.8 

838 

827 

101.4 

98.7 

36,260 

35,800 

1448.0 

1.9 

826 

810 

101.3 

98.8 

35,794 

35,780 

1436.2 

0.0 

Sixth satellite in cooperative U.S./ 

United Kingdom program. Spacecraft 

launched successfully by NASA. 100th 

launch of Scout booster. Turned over 

to the United Kingdom on June 2. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit 

Successfully launched by a USAF 

launch team for NASA and NOAA 

using a reconditioned booster supplied by the Air Force. Noaa 6 was the 

first NOAA-funded operational 

spacecraft of the Tiros-N series. 

Joined Tiros-N as part of a twosatellite system. Apogee kick motor 

fired June 27. Spacecraft turned over 

to NOAA for operation July 16. 

-bird in a series of three satellites, successfully launched by NASA for 

Western Union Telegraph Company. 

Apogee kick motor fired Aug. 11 and 

satellite placed in stationary 

equatorial synchronous orbit in a 

storage mode at 91' west longitude, 

due south of New Orleans and above 

the Galapagos Islands. 

89 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I979 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data Remarks 

(d6grees) 

Sept. 20 

HEAO 3 

82A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Oct. 1 

Defense 

86A 

Titan IIIC 

Oct. 30 

Magsat (AEM C) 

94A 

scout 

Nov. 21 

DSCS 11-13 

98A 

Titan IIIC 

Nov. 21 

DSCS 11-14 

98B 

Titan IIIC 

Objective: To study amma ray emmissions, with high 

sensitivity and resoyution, over energy range of 0.06 

MeV to 10 MeV; to measure the isotopic composition 

of cosmic rays from lithium through iron; to measure 

the composition of cosmic rays heavier than iron; and 

to operate the spacecraft and acquire scientific data for 

at least 6 months. 

Spacecraft: Similar in design to HEAO 1 and 2. Hexagonal experiment module approximately 3.35 m long 

and 2.7 m in diameter. Octagonal equipment module 

83.8 cm high and 152.4 cm in diameter. Three experiments carried on experiment module: High Spectral Resolution Gamma Ray Spectrometer, Isotopic 

Composition of Primary Cosmic Ray Experiment, and 

Heavy Nuclei Experiment. Weight: 2898 kg, including 

I314 kg of experiments and a 37.6-kg separation 

system. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To obtain accurate, up-to-date, quantitative description of the Earth's magnetic field, develop 

worldwide vector magnetic field model, compile 

crustal magnetic anomoly maps, interpret anomolies in 

conjunction with correlative data of Earth's crust, increase understanding of the origin and nature of the 

geomagnetic field and its temporal variations. 

Spacecraft: Consists of instrument module comprised of 

optical bench, star cameras, attitude transfer system, 

magnetometer boom and gimbal systems, scalar and 

vector magnetometers and precision Sun sensor: base 

module contains the central column, 8 trusses, thermal 

control louvers, forward and after honeycomb decks, 

four double-hinged solar panels, electrical power supply system, command and data handling system. 164 cm high, 874 cm with trim boom extended; 77 cm in 

diameter with solar panels and magnetometer boom 

extended; 722 cm length along flight pathmagnetometer boom and solar array deployed. 

Spacecraft 3-axis stabilized. Weight: 183 kg. 

Objective: Military communications. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped 2.7 m in diameter, 1.8 m high, 

with two dish antennas 1.1 m each, giving an overall 

length of 4 m. Solar cells provide 535 watts at launch. 

Communications repeater in X-band has 410 MHz 

bandwidth, 1300 circuits, power output of 20 watts 

from each of two traveling wave tubes. Has both Earth 

coverage and narrow coverage antennas. Weight: 565 

kg. 

Objective: Military communications 

Spacecraft: Same as preceding. 

501 

486 

94.5 

43.6 

41,497 

30,443 

1445.5 

7.5 

351.9 

578.4 

93.90 

96.79 

35,789 

35,609 

1431.0 

2.5 

36,375 

35,788 

1451.0 

2.5 

Spacecraft successfully placed in orbit 

by NASA. Third in a series of three 

High Energy Astronomical Observatories. One of two primary tape 

recorders failed, backup recorder 

switched into operation and is performing satisfactorily. Data being received. Satellite surveyed the galactic 

plane for gamma rays by the end of 

the year. 

Still in orbit. 

Launched successfully by NASA. Third 

in a series of low-cost modular designed satellites, designated Applications 

Explorer Missions. Star cameras turned on and vector magnetometer 

measurements begun next day. Nov. 1 sensor boom deployed to planned 

length of 6 m, and scalar 

magnetometer measurements initiated. 

Still in orbit 

Still in orbit 

90 
APPENDIX A-34ntinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1979 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

Remarks 

(dggrees) 

Dec .7 

RCA 

lOlA 

Delta 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into successful transfer 

orbit. Satellite to provide television, voice communications, and high-speed data transmission to all 50 states. 

Spacecraft: Box shape, 120 cm by 162 cm for the baseplate and 117 cm for main body height. Each bifold 

solar array is 155 cm by 226 cm. Solar panels fold 

against transponder body during launch. Fourreflector antenna. Three axis-stabilized. Weight: 895 

kg. 

36,124 Third in a series of satellites, success166.3 fully launched by NASA for RCA 

637 American Communications, Inc. 

Spacecraft supposed to be placed over 

equator at 132O west longitude. Con- tact with satellite lost when apogee 

boost motor fired Dec. 10. Subsequent 

attempts to locate spacecraft have 

been unsuccessful. 

23.8 

91 
APPENDIX B-I 

US. Applications Satellites 1975-1979 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mav 7. 1975 

Ma; 2e, 1975 

Aug. 27, 1975 

Sep. 26, 1975 

Dec. 13, 1975 

Jan. 17, 1976 

Jan. 30, 1976 

Feb. 19, 1976 

Mar. 15, 1976 

Mar. 26. 1976 

Apr. 22, 1976 

May 13, 1976 

June 10, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

July 22, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Jan. 28, 1977 

Mar. 10, 1977 

May 12, 1977 

May 26, 1977 

Aug. 25, 1977 

Dec. 15, 1977 

Jan. 7, 1978 

Feb. 9, 1978 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Mar. 31, 1978 

Apr. 7, 1978 

May 11, 1978 

June 29, 1978 

Nov. 19, 1978 

Dec. 14, 1978 

Dec. 16. 1978 

May 4, 1979 

Aug. 9, 1979 

Nov. 21, 1979 

Dec. 2, 1979 

Feb. 6, 1975 

June 12, 1975 

Oct. 16, 1975 

July 29, 1976 

June 16, 1977 

July 14, 1977 

Nov. 23, 1977 

May 1, 1978 

June 16, 1978 

Oct. 13, 1978 

Oct. 24, 1978 

June 6, 1979 

June 27, 1979 

Jan. 22, 1975 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Apr. 26, 1978 

Anik 3 (Telesat 3) 

Intelsat IV (F-1) 

Symphonie 2 

Intelsat IV-A (F-1) 

RCA-Satcom-l 

CTS 1 

Intelsat IV-A (F-2) 

Marisat 1 

LES 8/9 

RCA-Satcom 2 

NATO IIIA 

Comstar I 

Marisat 2 

Palana 1 

Comitar 2 

Marisat 3 

NATO IIIB 

Palapa 2 

Intelsat 1V-A (F-4) 

Sirio 

Sakura 

Intelsat IV-A (F-3) 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

Intelsat IV-A (F-6) 

BSE 

OTS 2 

Comstar 3 

NATO IIIC 

DSCS 11-11,12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS 11-7,s 

DSCS II-13,14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

SMS 2 

Nimbus 6 

Goes 1 

Noaa 5 (ITOS-H) 

Goes 2 

Himawari 

Meteosat 

AMS 3 

Goes 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

AMs-4 

Noaa 6 

Landsat 2 

Landsat 3 

HCMM (AEM-1) 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIlC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Launched for Canada. 

Eighth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the Atlantic. 

First of a new series double the capacity of its predecessors. Positioned 

over the Atlantic. 

Launched for RCA as first of their communications satellite series. 

Positioned over the Pacific. 

Canadian-U.S., most powerful experimental satellite. 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over the Atlantic. 

Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. 

Second of three. 

First of new series. 

Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over the Pacific. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Placed south of the United States for AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

Second of a new series. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Positioned over At Ian t ic . Italian experiment. 

Japanese experiment. 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of a new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; named 

European Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite. 

Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. 

Final one of this military series. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Second of a new DoD series. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

amateur radio communications. 

Yuri; domestic satellite. 

munications links. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION* 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese geosynchronous satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor- Burner 2 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research Program. 

First fully operational synchronous-orbit weather satellite. 

Second generation operational satellite. 

Second of this series. 

European Space Agency geosynchronous satellite. 

A DoD meteorological satellite. 

Third of this series for NOAA. 

First of a third generation for NOAA. also experimental satellite for 

Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

A DoD meteorological satellite. 

Like the current DoD meteorological satellites. 

NASA. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second experimental Earth resources technology satellite. Acquired 

synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in 

such disciplines as agriculture and forestry resources, mineral and 

land resources, land use, water resources, marine resources, mapping 

and charting, and the environment. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Third experimental Earth-resources satellite. 

Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping mission for Earth resources. - 

* Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch. 
APPENDIX B-1--Continued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1975-1979 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

June 27, 1978 

Apr. 9, 1975 

May 4, 1976 

Oct. 12, 1975 

Sep. 1, 1976 

lune 23, 1977 

Oct. 28, 1977 

Feb. 22, 1978 

May 13, 1978 

Oct. 7, 1978 

Dec. 11, 1978 

Geos 3 

Lageos 

Tip 2 

Tip 3 

NTS 2 

Seasat 1 

Transit 

Navstar 1 

Navstar 2 

Navstar 3 

Navstar 4 

Atlas F Proof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. 

GEODESY 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. 

NAVIGATION 

To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

scout 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Transit Improvement Program. 

Transit Improvement Program. 

Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System. 

Developmental model. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1975-1979 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

May 7, 1975 

June 21, 1975 

Aug. 9, 1975 

Oct. 6, 1975 

Nov. 20, 1975 

Mar. 15, 1976 

May 22, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

Apr. 20. 1977 

Aug. 12, 1977 

Oct. 22, 1977 

Jan. 26, 1978 

July 14, 1978 

Aua. 12, 1978 

SAS-C (Explorer 53) 

Os0 8 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 54) 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 55) 

Solrad HiA/HiB 

COS-B 

P-76-5 

SESP 74-2 

Geos 

HEAO 1 

ISEE 1,2 

IUE 

Geos 2 

ISEE 3 

Oct. 24, 1978 Cameo 

Nov. 13, 1978 HEAO 2 

Jan. 30, 1979 Scatha 

Feb. 18, 1979 Sage 

Feb. 24, 1979 Solwind 

June 6, 1979 Ariel 6 

Sep. 20, 1979 HEAO 3 

Oct. 30, 1979 Magsat 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor - Del t a 

Titan IIIC 

scout 

Titan IIID 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

Measure x-ray emission of discrete extragalactic sources. (ItalianTo study minimum phase of solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satellite.) 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure spatial 

Measure radiation and particles at close to 120,000 km circular. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measurements up to 8000 km. 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields from geosynchronous orbit (not attained.) 

X-ray and gamma ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and European 

Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geoEuropean studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun libralaunched.) 

distribution of ozone. 

Space Agency respectively). 

synchronous orbit. 

tion point. 

Barium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of Nimbus 7 launcher. 

High-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. 

Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. 

Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, 

Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed current description of Earth’s magnetic field and of sources of 

and ozone. 

variations. 

93 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Lauched Space Probes 1975-1979 

Date 

Aug. 20, 1975 

Sep. 9, 1975 

Jan. 15, 1976 

Aug. 20, 1977 

Sep. 5, 1977 

May 20, 1978 

Aug. 8, 1978 

Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Viking 1 

Viking 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer Venus 1 

Pioneer Venus 2 

Titan IIIE-Centaur Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, while 

Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to 

Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, while 

Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to 

Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and rook measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of the Sun. 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload 

had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus a 

cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Was to swing around Jupiter in July 

1979 and arrive at Saturn in 1981, possibly going on to Uranus by 

1986. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, was to 

swing around Jupiter in Mar. 1979 and arrive at Saturn in Nov. 1980. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and 

data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

94 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr, 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman E. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

1 h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 min. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital 

Suborbital: capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space: within 5 km of Vostok 5 

First 3-man crew. 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3. 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

260 h 9 min. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneuvers in 

21 -min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 

Extravehicular activity: rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

orbit. 

with Agena target rocket). 

then Agena 8). 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1372 km). 

h 37 min). 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21. 1968 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of Moon; first manned 

departure from Earths sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and take-off from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the 

lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to Earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to Earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight without actually docking. Each conducted certain 

experiments, including welding and Earth and 

celestial observation. 

Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 241 h 1 min. 

Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 192 h 3 min. 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 195 h 9 min. 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 118 h 50 min. 

95 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 

soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 

Apolio 14 Jan. 31, 1971 

soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 

soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

soyuz 18 

soyuz 19 

Apollo 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16. 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 6, 1976 

Sep. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb 7, 1977 

Oct. 9. 1977 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell. Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Vladislav Nikolayevich 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly. I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kenvin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarafanov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Georgiy Grechko 

Vasiley Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Petr Klimuk 

Vitaliy Sevastiyanov 

Aleksey Leonov 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris Volynov 

Vitaliy Zholobov 

Valeriy Bykovskiy 

Vladimir Aksenov 

Vyacheslav Zudov 

Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Yuriy Glazkov 

Vladimir Kovalenok 

Valeriy Ryumin 

Dobrovolskiy 

Volkov 

244 h 36 min. Second manned lunar landing. Continued manned exploration and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

111 spacecraft which landed in Ocean of Storms 

on Apr. 19, 1967. 

142 h 55 min. Mission aborted due to explosion in the service 

module. Ship circled Moon, with crew using 

LEM as “lifeboat” until just prior to reentry. 

424 h 59 min. Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 17 

days 16 h 59 min. 

216 h 2 min. Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched Apr. 19. Crew recovered 

Apr. 24, 1971. 

570 h 22 min. Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied 

s ace station for 22 days. Crew perished during 

fkal phase of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on 

June 30, 1971. 

47 h 46 min. 

295 h 12 min. Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo ‘3’’ 

series mission which carry the Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 min 12 s 

was performed during return trip. 

265 h 51 min. Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

301 h 52 min. Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

627 h 50 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

1427 h 9 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

47 h 16 min. 

2017 h 16 min. Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

Checkout of improved Soyuz 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h 12 min. 

142 h 24 min. 

709 h 20 min. 

20 min. 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources exDocked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

periments. 

space station for over 14 days. 

a 29-day flight. 

after abort. 

1511 h 20 min. Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station during 

142 h 31 min. Target for Apollo in docking and joint experi217 h 28 min. Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

a 63-day mission. 

ments ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

1182 h 24 min. Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during 

189 h 54 min. Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

48 h 6 min. Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

425 h 23 min. Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station during 

48 h 46 min. Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

49-day flight. 

system. 

18-day flight. 

96 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

~ 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

Mar. 2. 1978 

June 15, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Feb. 25. 1979 

Apr. 10, 1979 

June 6, 1979 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Georgiy Grechko 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Oleg Makarov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir Kovalenok 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Petr Klimuk 

Miroslaw Heraszewski 

Valeriy Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jahn 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Valeriy Ryumin 

Nikolay Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Flight time Highlights 

898 h 6 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; 

crew duration 2314 h. 

1514 h. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; 

crew duration 142 h 59 min. 

190 h 17 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was 1st Czech cosmonaut to orbit. 

1911 h 23 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

crew duration 3350 h 48 min. 

190 h 4 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Heraszewski was 1st Polish 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

1628 h 14 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

crew duration 188 h 49 min. Jahn was 1st German Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

2596 h 24 min. Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

crew duration 4200 h 36 min, or 175 days. 

47 h 01 min. Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

1770 h 17 min. Docked with Salyut 6, later served as a ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

97 
APPENDIX D

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust Max. Max . Payload (kg) (in 

Propellant' kilo- dia' Height 555-km cape First Vehicle Stages 

newtons) (m) (m) orbit launch 

Scout ............... 1. Algol IIIA ......... .Solid ........... 481.0 

2 . Castor IIA ......... .Solid ........... 281.0 

3 . Antares I11 ......... .Solid ........... 83.1 

4 . Altair 111 .......... .Solid ........... 26.2 

Thor-Delta 2900 series . 1 . Thor ulus 9 TX LOX/RP-1 ..... 911.9 

Atlas F/TE 364-4 . 

Atlas-Agena ..... 

Titan IIIB-Agena . 

Titan IIIC ....... 

Titan III(23)D 

Titan III(34)D 

Titan III(34)D/IUS 

Thor LV-2F 

Thor SLV-ZA/Block 

5D-2 ........... 

... 

.. 

354-5 ............. Solid ........... 

2 . Delta (DSV-3) ....... N204/Aerozine ... 

3 . TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... 

sustainer .......... LOX/RP-1 ..... 

2 . TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... 

(SLV/SA) ......... LOX/RP-1 ..... 

2 . Agena ............. IRFNA/UDMH .. 

2 . LR-91 ............ .N,04 /Aerotine ... 

3 . Agena ............. IRFNAAJDMH .. 

3.05-m dia ........ .Solid ........... 

2 . LR-87 ............. N20, /Aerozine ... 3 . LR-91 ............. N,04 /Aerozine ... 

4 . Transtage .......... N,04 /Aerozine ... 

3.05-m dia ........ .Solid ........... 

2 . LR-87 ............. N204/Aerozine ... 

3 . LR-91 ............ .N204 /Aerozine ... 

3.05-m dia ........ .Solid ........... 

2 . LR-87 ............. N,04 /Aerozine ... 3 . LR-91 ............. N204/Aerozine ... 

3.05-m dia ........ .Solid ........... 

3 . LR-91 ............ .N,04 /Aerozine ... 

5 . IUS 2nd Stage ...... .Solid ........... 

. 1. Thor .............. .LOX/R P-1 ..... 

2 . TE364-4 ........... Solid ........... 

3 . TE 364-15 ......... .Solid ........... 

. 1 . Atlas booster & 

. 1 . Atlas booster & 

. 1. LR-87 ............. N204/Aerozine ... 

. 1. Two 5-segment 

. 1. Two 5-segment 

. 1. Two 5%-segment 

. 1. Two 5s-segment 

4 . IUS 1st Stage ....... .Solid ........... 

. 1. Thor plus 3 LOX/RJ-1 ...... TX 354-5 ......... Solid ........... 

2 . TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... 

3 . TE 364-15 ......... .Solid 

440.4' 

45.8 

66.7 

1970.6 

66.7 

2237.5 

71.2 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

10413.3 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

1041 3.3 

2353.1 

444.8 

11555.6 

2353.1 

444.8 

11555.6 

2353.1 

444.8 

191.3 

71.2 

756.2 

66.7 

44.5 

756.2 

689.5' 

66.7 

44.5 

1.12 

2.44 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

2.44 

2.44 

. 

' The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a Due east launch . 

21.95 

35.36 

25.91 

40.54 

48.46 

40.54 

46.94 

49.13 

48.00 

23.77 

24.23 

1 8ii4 

1769' 

1497' 

27224 

3614 

. 

11, 1826 

12. 545' 

1818' 

512'' 

653'' 

38.6' 1972(60)' 

47V 1973(60)' 

1977(60)' 

454' 1968(60)' 

?1727~ 1966 

1464' 1965 

1971 

1981 

181 8' 1981 

1976(66)' 

1980(63)' 

. 

date in parentheses for the initial version . ' Polar launch 185 km . ' Set of 3 . Polar 185 km (nominal) . 7 Synchronous equatorial (nominal). 

'Iar 185 km (Current estimate)' 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid Oxygen 

and a modified Kerosene - Lox/RP, RJ. Solid propellant combining 

in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid: Inhibited Red 

Fuming" Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine . 

IRFNA/UDMH; Nitrogen Tetroxide and UDMH/N2H4 -",O, / 

Aerozine . 

SPchrOnOu equatorial (current estimate) . 

'' Polar 833 km (from WTR) . 

90 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the US. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(In millions of dollars) 

NASA 

Defense Energy :zi Interior ture Fiscal Year 

Total Space' 

1959 .................. 

1960 .................. 

1961 .................. 

1962 .................. 

1964 .................. 

1965 .................. 

1966 .................. 1967 .................. 1968 .................. 

1969 .................. 

1970 .................. 

1971 .................. 

1972 .................. 1973 .................. 

1974 .................. 1975 .................. 

1976 .................. 

T.Q. ................ 

1977 .................. 

1978 ................. 

1979 .................. 

1980 bt. .............. 

1981 Est. .............. 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1824.9 

3673.0 

5099.7 

5249.7 

5174.9 

4965.6 

4587.3 

3990.9 

3745.8 

3311.2 

3306.6 

3406.2 

3036.9 

3229.1 

3550.3 

931.8 

3817.8 

4060.1 

4595.5 

5266.9 

5514.6 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1796.8 

3626.0 

5016.3 

5137.6 

5064.5 

4830.2 

4430.0 

3822.0 

3547.0 

3101.3 

3071.0 

3093.2 

2758.5 

2915.3 

3225.4 

849.2 

3440.2 

3622.9 

4030.4 

4696.6 

4989.1 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1298.2 

1549.9 

1599.3 

1573.9 

1688.8 

1663.6 

1921.8 

2013.0 

1678.4 

1512.3 

1407.0 

1623.0 

1766.0 

1892.4 

1983.3 

460.4 

241 1.9 

2728.8 

3211.3 

4003.4 

4910.7 

34.3 ... 

43.3 ... 

67.7 ... 

147.8 50.7 

213.9 43.2 

210.0 2.8 

228.6 12.2 

186.8 26.5 

183.6 29.3 

145.1 28.1 

118.0 20.0 

102.8 8.0 

94.8 27.4 

55.2 31.3 

54.2 39.7 

41.7 60.2 

29.6 64.4 

23.3 71.5 

4.6 22.2 

21.7 90.8 

34.4 102.8 

58.6 98.4 

54.2 90.7 

50.8 92.9 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

.2 

.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.1 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.1 

15.7 

... 784.7 

.1 1065.8 

.6 1808.2 

1.3 3294.8 

1.5 5434.5 

3.0 6831.4 

3.2 6955.5 

3.2 6969.8 

2.8 6709.5 

3.2 6528.9 

1.9 5975.8 

2.4 5340.5 

2.4 4740.9 

2.8 4574.7 

2.6 4824.9 

1.8 4640.3 

2.0 4914.3 

2.4 5319.9 

.6 1340.5 

2.4 5982.8 

2.4 6508.7 

2.4 7419.2 

2.4 8872.1 

2.4 10073.7 

' Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

T.Q. -Tra mitional Quarter. 

U. S. Space Budget-Budget Authority 1970-1981 

(May not add due to rounding) 

BILLIONS OF DOL LARS 

10.1 

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 T.O.1/ 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 

EST. EST. 

I/ 1.a. TRANSITIONAL OUARTER 

a EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AN0 BUDGET 

m OTHER 

.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::? ........ DEFENSE 

0 NASA&' 

.......... 

........ ........... 

......... 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1979 1980 1981 1979 1980 1981 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Bt. Est. 

Federals ace ro ams: .................................... 4696.6 4989.1 3743.9 4471.4 4675.1 

Defense .................................... 321 1.3 4003.4 4910.7 2891.8 3472.7 4277.3 

Energy .................................... 58.6 54.2 50.8 54.7 58.4 50.7 

Commerce ................................. 98.4 90.7 92.9 97.4 89.8 91.9 

Interior .................................... 9.9 11.7 12.1 9.9 11.2 11.8 

NASA P pgr 4030.4 

NSF ...................................... 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

Agriculture ................................ 8.2 13.1 15.7 8.2 13.1 15.7 

Total ................................... 7419.2 8872.1 10073.7 6808.3 8119.0 9124.9 

NASA: 

Space flight ................................ 2432.6 2846.9 3135.7 2216.8 2745.1 2945.7 

Air transportation ........................... 519.1 570.3 525.5 443.3 528.3 537.5 

Space science, applications, and technology ...... 1224.2 1415.3 1403.7 1153.1 1315.8 1309.5 

Supporting operations ....................... 382.9 437.3 452.8 383.3 413.4 423.0 

Less receipts ................................ - 9.3 - 2.9 - 3.1 - 9.3 -2.9 -3.1 

Total NASA .............................. 4549.5 5266.9 5514.6 4187.2 4999.7 5212.6 

' Excludes amounts for air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority 

1979 1980 1981 

Actual Est. Est. 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA' ............................................................... 519.1 570.3 525.5 

Department of Defense' ................................................. 2239.7 2223.2 2149.1 

Department of Transportation' ........................................... 90.8 92.0 87 .O 

Total .............................................................. 2849.6 2885.5 2761.6 

' Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research 

and Program Management. 

Research, Development, Testing and Evaluation of aircraft and 

related equipment. 

' Federal Aviation Administration Research and Development, 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

100 
APPENDIX F 

White House Fact Sheet 

November 20, 1979 

Management of U.S. Civilian 

Remote Sensing Activities 

The President today announced the designation of the Commerce Department’s 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to manage all operational civilian remote sensing activities from space. This designation is one of several 

policy decisions announced today after a review of civilian space policy mandated by a 

Presidential Directive in October, 1978. 

Early in his administration, the President directed a comprehensive review of 

space policy. The review, completed in May, 1978, resulted in a Presidential Directive 

that established a national space policy framework. It created a Policy Review Committee on Space, chaired by the Director of the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy, Frank Press. One of the tasks of the Policy Review Committee has been to assess 

the Nation’s future civil space remote sensing requirements. That review was the basis 

for the policy decisions announced today. 

Designation of a single agency, NOAA, to manage all civil operational satellite 

activities will lend itself to further integration and potential cost saving in the future. 

NOAA’s experience in successfully operating and managing three generations of 

weather satellites prepares it to assume the responsibility for land remote sensing in addition to its ongoing atmospheric and oceanic activities. NOAA’s first action will be to 

develop a transition plan in coordination with other appropriate agencies for moving 

to a fully integrated satellite-based land remote sensing program. 

Initially, our operational land remote sensing efforts will rely on experience derived from the Landsat program. Landsat was begun in 1972 by NASA as a satellite 

effort specifically designed to observe surface features of the earth. 

The President’s decision establishes a three-part framework to serve remote sensing activities: 

-Integration of civilian operational activities under NOAA. 

-Joint or coordinated civil/military activities where both parties’ objectives can 

-Separate defense activities which have no civilian counterpart. 

Other space policy decisions developed by this review and announced today are: 

-The Commerce Department will seek ways to further private sector opportunities in civil land remote sensing activities, through joint ventures with industry, a 

quasi-government corporation, leasing, etc., with the goal of eventual operation of 

these activities by the private sector. 

-We will continue the policy of providing Landsat data to foreign users, and 

promoting development of complementary and cooperative nationally operated 

satellite systems so as to increase benefits for all nations. 

-The Department of Commerce will establish and chair a Program Board for 

continuing federal coordination and regulation of civil remote sensing activities. The 

involved federal organizations will be represented (i .e., the Department of Defense, 

Interior, Agriculture, State, Transportation, and Energy, and NASA, CIA, AID, and 

EPA). The National Governors’ Association and the National Conference of State 

Legislatures will be invited to participate. 

be best met through this approach. 

101 
-Separate weather programs for the military and civil sectors will be maintained 

under the Departments of Defense and Commerce because of their differing needs. 

We will continue procurement of current spacecraft until development of a new 

system design is justified. Future polar orbiting satellite development and procurement will be jointly undertaken by Defense, Commerce and NASA to maximize 

technology-sharing and minimize cost. 

-Ocean observations from space can meet common civil and military data requirements. Accordingly, if we decide to develop ocean satellites, joint Defense/Commerce/NASA management of the program will be pursued. 

102 
APPENDIX G 

The United Nations Moon Treaty 

The Moon Treaty has been under discussion since late 1971 when the General 

Assembly adopted resolution 2779, in which it took note of a draft treaty submitted by 

the U.S.S.R. and requested the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS) and its legal Subcommittee (LSC) to consider the question of the elaboration of a draft international treaty concerning the Moon on a priority basis. 

The draft Moon Treaty is based to a considerable extent on the 1967 Outer Space 

Treaty. Indeed, the discussion in the Outer Space Committee confirmed the 

understanding that the Moon Treaty in no way derogates from or limits the provisions 

of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. 

The draft Moon Treaty also is, in its own right, a meaningful advance in the 

codification of international law dealing with outer space, containing obligations of 

both immediate and long-term application to such matters as the safeguarding of 

human life on celestial bodies, the promotion of scientific investigation and the exchange of information relative to and derived from activities on celestial bodies, and 

the enhancement of opportunities and conditions for evaluation, research, and exploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies. 

The General Assembly, by concensus, opened the treaty for signature on 

December 5, 1979. 

This appendix presents the text of the draft treaty in the left column on each 

page; in the right column, opposite the appropriate seqtions of the text, are some comments by the Department of State on the attitude of the United States regarding 

particular provisions. 

103 
Treaty Text 

Draft agreement governing the activities of States on 

the moon and other celestial bodies. 

The States Parties to this Agreement, 

Noting the achievements of States in the exploration 

and use of the moon and other celestial bodies, 

Recognizing that the moon, as a natural satellite of 

the earth, has an important role to play in the exploration of outer space, 

Determined to promote on the basis of equality the 

further development of co-operation among States in 

the exploration and use of the moon and other 

celestial bodies, 

Desiring to prevent the moon from becoming an 

area of international conflict, 

Bearing in mind the benefits which may be derived 

from the exploitation of the natural resources of the 

moon and other celestial bodies, 

Recalling the Treaty on Principles Governing the 

Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer 

Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial 

Bodies, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, 

the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects 

Launched into Outer Space, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, and the Convention on Registration of Objects 

Launched into Outer Space, 

Taking into account the need to define and develop 

the provisions of these international instruments in 

relation to the moon and other celestial bodies, having 

regard to further progress in the exploration and use 

of outer space, 

Haue agreed on the following: 

Article I 

1. The provisions of this Agreement relating to the 

moon shall also apply to other celestial bodies within 

the solar system, other than the earth, except in so far 

as specific legal norms enter into force with respect to 

any of these celestial bodies. 

2. For the purposes of this Agreement reference to 

the moon shall include orbits around or other trajectories to or around it. 

3. This Agreement does not apply to extraterrestrial materials which reach the surface of the earth 

by natural means. 

Commentary by Department of State 

There has been considerable discussion of Article I 

of the draft treaty. The United States accepts the 

Outer Space Committee’s conclusions as to this article-namely, first, that references to the moon are 

intended also to the references to other celestial bodies 

within our solar system other than the earth; secondly, 

that references to the moon’s natural resources are intended to comprehend those natural resources to be 

found on these celestial bodies; and, thirdly, that the 

trajectories and orbits referred to in Article I, 

paragraph 2, do not include trajectories and orbits of 

space objects between the earth and earth orbit or in 

earth orbit only. In regard to the phrase “earth orbit 

only”, the fact that a space object in earth orbit also is 

in orbit around the sun does not bring space objects 

which are only in earth orbit within the scope of this 

treaty. 

104 
Article II 

All activities on the moon, including its exploration 

and use, shall be carried out in accordance with international law, in particular the Charter of the United 

Nations, and taking into account the Declaration on 

Principles of International Law concerning Friendly 

Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, adopted 

by the General Assembly on 24 October 1970, in the 

interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international co-operation and 

mutual understanding, and with due regard to the 

corresponding interests of all other States Parties. 

Article III 

1. The moon shall be used by all States Parties exclusively for peaceful purposes. 

2. Any threat or use of force or any other hostile act 

on the moon is prohibited. It is likewise prohibited to 

use the moon in order to commit any such act or to 

engage in any such threat in relation to the earth, the 

moon, spacecraft, the personnel of spacecraft or manmade objects. 

3. States Parties shall not place in orbit around or 

other trajectory to or around the moon objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of 

mass destruction or place or use such weapons on or in 

the moon. 

4. The establishment of military bases, installations 

and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons 

and the conduct of military manoeuvres on the moon 

shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for 

scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes 

shall not be prohibited. The use of any equipment or 

facility necessary for peaceful exploration and use of 

the moon shall also not be prohibited. 

Article ZV 

1. The exploration and use of the moon shall be the 

province of all mankind and shall be carried out for 

the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific 

development. Due regard shall be paid to the interest 

of present and future generations as well as to the need 

to promote higher standards of living conditions of 

economic and social progress and development in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. 

Article I1 reaffirms the application of the Charter of 

the United Nations and of international law to outer 

space. While the Charter predates man’s entry into 

space, its principles and provisions, including those 

relating to the permissible and impermissible uses of 

force, are as valid for outer space as they are for our 

seas, land, or air. The United States welcomes the international community’s reaffirmation in the Moon 

Treaty of this essential point. 

Article 111 contains a statement of the principle that 

the celestial bodies and those orbits around them and 

to them are only to be used for peaceful-i.e., nonaggressive -purposes. 

Paragraph 2 of Article 111 spells out in some detail 

some of the consequences to be drawn from Article 11. 

Specifically, paragraph 2’s purpose is to make clear 

that it is forbidden for a party to the Moon Treaty to 

engage in any threat or use of force on the moon or in 

other circumstances set forth in paragraph 2 if such 

acts would constitute a violation of the party’s international obligations in regard to the threat or use of 

force. 

105 
2. States Parties shall be guided by the principle of 

co-operation and mutual assistance in all their activities concerning the exploration and use of the 

moon. International co-operation in pursuance of this 

Agreement should be as wide as possible and may take 

place on a multilateral basis, on a bilateral basis, or 

through international intergovernmental organizations. 

Article V 

1. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General 

of the United Nations as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of their activities concerned with the exploration and use of the moon. Information on the time, purposes, locations, orbital 

parameters and duration shall be given in respect to 

each mission to the moon as soon as possible after 

launching, while information on the results of each 

mission, including scientific results, shall be furnished 

upon completion of each mission. In case of a mission 

lasting more than 60 days, information on conduct of 

the mission including any scientific results shall be 

given periodically at 30 days’ intervals. For missions 

lasting more than six months, only significant additions to such information need be reported thereafter. 

2. If a State Party becomes aware that another 

State Party plans to operate simultaneously in the 

same area of or in the same orbit around or trajectory 

to or around the moon, it shall promptly inform the 

other State of the timing of and plans for its own 

operations. 

3. In carrying out activities under this Agreement, 

States Parties shall promptly inform the SecretaryGeneral, as well as the public and the international 

scientific community, of any phenomena they discover 

in outer space, including the moon, which could endanger human life or health, as well as any indication 

of organic life. 

A~tzcle VI 

1. There shall be freedom of scientific investigation 

on the moon by all States Parties without discrimination of any kind, on the basis of equality and in accordance with international law. 

2. In carrying out scientific investigations and in 

furtherance of the provisions of this Agreement, the 

States Parties shall have the right to collect on and 

remove from the moon samples of its mineral and 

other substances. Such samples shall remain at the 

disposal of those States Parties which caused them to 

106 
be collected and may be used by them for scientific 

purposes. States Parties shall have regard to the 

desirability of making a portion of such samples 

available to other interested States Parties and the international scientific community for scientific investigation. States Parties may in the course of scientific investigations also use mineral and other 

substances of the moon in quantities appropriate for 

the support of their missions. 

3. States Parties agree on the desirability of exchanging scientific and other personnel on expeditions 

to or installations on the moon to the greatest extent 

feasible and practicable. 

Article VII 

1. In exploring and using the moon, States Parties 

shall take measures to prevent the disruption of the existing balance of its environment whether by introducing adverse changes in such environment, its harmful 

contamination through the introduction of extraenvironmental matter or otherwise. States Parties shall 

also take measures to prevent harmfully affecting the 

environment of the earth through the introduction of 

extraterrestrial matter or otherwise. 

2. States Parties shall inform the Secretary-General 

of the United Nations of the measures being adopted 

by them in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article 

and shall also to the maximum extent feasible notify 

him in advance of all placements by them of radioactive materials on the moon and of the purposes of 

such placements. 

3. States Parties shall report to other States Parties 

and to the Secretary-General concerning areas of the 

moon having special scientific interest in order that, 

without prejudice to the rights of other States Parties, 

consideration may be given to the designation of such 

areas as international scientific preserves for which 

special protective arrangements are to be agreed in 

consultation with the competent organs of the United 

Nations. 

Article VZIZ 

1. States Parties may pursue their activities in the 

exploration and use of the moon anywhere on or below 

its surface, subject to the provisions of this Agreement. 

2. For these purposes States Parties may, in particular : 

(a) Land their space objects on the moon and 

launch them from the moon: 

Article VI1 contains important protections for the environment of celestial bodies. The United States endorses the Committee’s understanding that the 

language of this article is not intended to be read in 

such a way as would result in prohibiting the exploitation of natural resources to be found on celestial 

bodies but, rather, that any such exploitation is to be 

carried out in such a manner as to minimize, insofar as 

possible, disruption of or adverse changes in the environment. 

107 
(b) Place their personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations anywhere on 

or below the surface of the moon. 

Personnel, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations may move or be moved freely 

over or below the surface of the moon. 

3. Activities of States Parties in accordance with 

paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article shall not interfere 

with the activities of other States Parties on the moon. 

Where such interference may occur, the States Parties 

concerned shall undertake consultations in accordance 

with article XV, paragraphs 2 and 3. 

Article IX 

1. States Parties may establish manned and unmanned stations on the moon. A State Party establishing a 

station shall use only that area which is required for 

the needs of the station and shall immediately inform 

the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the 

location and purposes of that station. Subsequently, at 

annual intervals that State shall likewise inform the 

Secretary-General whether the station continues in use 

and whether its purposes have changed. 

2. Stations shall be installed in such a manner that 

they do not impede the free access to all areas of the 

moon of personnel, vehicles and equipment of other 

States Parties conducting activities on the moon in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement or of 

article I of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer 

Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial 

Bodies. 

Article X 

1. States Parties shall adopt all practicable 

measures to safeguard the life and health of persons on 

the moon. For this purpose they shall regard any person on the moon as an astronaut within the meaning of 

article V of the Treaty on Principles Governing the 

Activities of States on the Exploration and Use of 

Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial 

Bodies and as part of the personnel of a spacecraft 

within the meaning of the Agreement on the Rescue of 

Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return 

of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 

2. States Parties shall offer shelter in their stations, 

installations, vehicles and other facilities to persons in 

distress on the moon. 

108 
Article XI The common heritage concept, which was initially 

1. The moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind, which finds its expression in 

the provisions of this Agreement and in particular in 

paragraph 5 of this article. 

2. The moon is not subject to national appropriation by any claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means. 

3. Neither the surface nor the subsurface of the 

moon, nor any part thereof or natural resources in 

place, shall become property of any State, international intergovernmental or nongovernmental 

organization, national organization or nongovernmental entity or of any natural person. The 

placement of personnel, space vehicles, equipment, 

facilities, stations and installations on or below the surface of the moon, including structures connected with 

their surface or subsurface, shall not create a right of 

ownership over the surface or the subsurface of the 

moon or any areas thereof. The foregoing provisions 

are without prejudice to the international regime 

referred to in paragraph 5 of this article. 

4. States Parties have the right to exploration and 

use of the moon without discrimination of any kind on 

a basis of equality, and in accordance with international law and the terms of this Agreement. 

5. States Parties to this Agreement hereby undertake to establish an international rkgime, including 

appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of 

the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation 

is about to become feasible. This provision shall be implemented in accordance with article XVIII of this 

Agreement. 

suggested by Argentina, but formally proposed by the 

United States in 1972, is set forth in Article XI, 

paragraph 1, which makes it clear that its meaning, 

for purposes of the Moon Treaty, is to be found within 

the Moon Treaty itself. Likewise, its meaning in the 

Moon Treaty is without prejudice to its use or meaning 

in any other treaty. 

Article XI, paragraph 5, makes it clear that the parties to the treaty undertake, as the exploitation of the 

natural resources of the celestial bodies other than the 

earth is about to become feasible, to enter into 

negotiations to establish a mutually acceptable international regime to govern the exploitation of those 

mineral and other substantive resources which may be 

found on the surface or subsurface of a celestial body. 

Each of the participants in a rigime conference will, of 

course, have to evaluate any treaty that emerges from 

the conference in the light of its own national interests. 

For the United States, this would require a conclusion 

that the treaty is balanced and reasonable and would 

then, as a constitutional matter, require submission to 

the Senate for its advice and consent, just as we have 

sought and obtained advice and consent to United 

States ratification of the four outer space treaties now 

in force. 

6. In order to facilitate the establishment of the international rkgime referred to in paragraph 5 of this 

article, States Parties shall inform the Secretary109 
General of the United Nations as well as the public 

and the international scientific community to the 

greatest extent feasible and practicable of any natural 

resources they may discover on the moon. 

7. The main purposes of the international rkgime 

to be established shall include: 

(a) The orderly and safe development of the 

(b) The rational management of those resources; 

(c) The expansion of opportunities in the use of 

(d) An equitable sharing by all States Parties in the 

benefits derived from those resources, whereby the interests and needs of the developing countries as well as 

the efforts of those countries which have contributed 

either directly or indirectly to the exploration of the 

moon shall be given special consideration. 

natural resources of the moon; 

those resources; 

8. All the activities with respect to the natural 

resources of the moon shall be carried out in a manner 

compatible with the purposes specified in paragraph 7 

of this article and the provisions of article VI, 

paragraph 2, of this Agreement. 

The draft Moon Treaty, as part of the compromise 

by many delegations, places no moratorium upon the 

exploitation of the natural resouces on celestial bodies 

by States or their nationals, but does provide that any 

exploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies 

be carried out in a manner compatible with the purposes specified in paragraph 7 of Article XI and the 

provisions of paragraph 2 of Article VI. The United 

States views the purposes set forth in paragraph 7 as 

providing both a framework and an incentive for exploitation of the natural resources of celestial bodies. 

They constitute a framework because even exploitation which is undertaken by a State Party to the Treaty 

or its nationals outside of the context of any such 

rkgime either because the exploitation occurs before a 

rkgime is negotiated or because a particular State may 

not participate in the international r6gime once it is 

established, will have to be compatible with those purposes set forth in Article XI, paragraph 7, of the Moon 

Treaty. 

This same paragraph is also an incentive. By setting 

forth now the purposes governing exploitation of 

natural resources, uncertainty is decreased and both 

States and private entities may now find it possible to 

engage in the arduous and expensive efforts necessary 

if exploitation of the natural resources of the celestial 

bodies is ever to become a reality. Eipecially vital in 

this regard is the fact that Article XI(7)(d) recognizes 

that an equitable sharing of the benefits derived from 

the natural resources of celestial bodies necessitates 

giving special consideration to those who have contributed directly to the exploration of the moon, as 

well as to the needs of developing countries and those 

who have indirectly contributed to the moon’s exploration. This language also reflects the international 

cooperation that exists today in telecommunications 

and other practical applications of space -for example, Intelsat, Intersputnik and Inmarsat, where those 

States who have expended large resources, either 

public or private, to develop space systems to exploit 

these applications have equitably shared the benefits 

with the international community. 

Article XI, paragraph 8, not only covers and sets the 

standards for the general right to exploit natural 

resources (in a manner compatible with Article XI(7)) 

but also is intended to ensure that the unrestricted 

right to collect samples of natural resources is not infringed upon and that there is no limit upon the rights 

of States Parties to utilize in the course of scientific in110 
vestigations, such quantities of those natural resources 

found on celestial bodies as are appropriate for the 

support of their missions. 

Article XII 

1. States Parties shall retain jurisdiction and control over their personnel, vehicles, equipment, 

facilities, stations and installations on the moon. The 

ownership of space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations shall not be affected by their 

presence on the moon. 

2. Vehicles, installations and equipment or their 

component parts found in places other than their intended location shall be dealt with in accordance with 

article V of the Agreement on Assistance to 

Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return 

of Objects Launched into Outer Space. 

3. In the event of an emergency involving a threat 

to human life, States Parties may use the equipment, 

vehicles, installations, facilities or supplies of other 

States Parties on the moon. Prompt notification of 

such use shall be made to the Secretary-General of the 

United Nations or State Party concerned. 

Article XIIl 

A State Party which learns of the crash landing, 

forced landing or other unintended landing on the 

moon of a space object, or its component parts, that 

were not launched by it, shall promptly inform the 

launching State Party and the Secretary-General of 

the United Nations. 

Article XZV 

1. States Parties to this Agreement shall bear international responsibility for national activities on the 

moon whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and 

for assuring that national activities are carried out in 

conformity with the provisions set forth in the present 

Agreement. States Parties shall ensure that nongovernmental entities under their jurisdiction shall 

engage in activities on the moon only under the 

authority and continuing supervision of the appropriate State Party. 

2. States Parties recognize that detailed arrangements concerning liability for damage caused on 

the moon, in addition to the provisions of the Treaty 

on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the 

Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the 

Moon and Other Celestial Bodies and the Convention 

111 
on International Liability for Damage Caused by 

Space Objects, may become necessary as a result of 

more extensive activities on the moon. Any such arrangements shall be elaborated in accordance with the 

procedure provided for in article XVIII of this Agreement. 

Article X V 

1. Each State Party may assure itself that the activities of other States Parties in the exploration and 

use of the moon are compatible with the provisions of 

this Agreement. To this end, all space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations and installations on the moon 

shall be open to other States Parties. Such States Parties shall give reasonable advance notice of a projected 

visit, in order that appropriate consultations may be 

held and that maximum precautions may be taken to 

assure safety and to avoid interference with normal 

operations in the facility to be visited. In pursuance of 

this article, any State Party may act on its own behalf 

or with the full or partial assistance of any other State 

Party or through appropriate international procedures 

within the framework of the United Nations and in accordance with the Charter. 

2. A State Party which has reason to believe that 

another State Party is not fulfilling the obligations incumbent upon it pursuant to this Agreement or that 

another State Party is interfering with the rights which 

the former State has under this Agreement may request consultations with that Party. A State Party 

receiving such a request shall enter into such consultations without delay. Any other State Party which requests to do so shall be entitled to take part in the consultations. Each State Party participating in such consultations shall seek a mutually acceptable resolution 

of any controversy and shall bear in mind the rights 

and interests of all States Parties. The SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations shall be informed of the 

results of the consultations and transmit the information received to all States Parties concerned. 

3. If the consultations do not lead to a mutually acceptable settlement which has due regard for the 

rights and interests of all the States Parties, the parties 

concerned shall take all measures to settle the dispute 

by other peaceful means of their choice and appropriate to the circumstances and the nature of the 

dispute. If difficulties arise in connexion with the 

opening of consultations or if consultations do not lead 

to a mutually acceptable settlement, any States Party 

may seek the assistance of the Secretary-General 

without seeking the consent of any other State Party 

112 
concerned, in order to resolve the controversy. A State 

Party which does not maintain diplomatic relations 

with another State Party concerned shall participate in 

such consultations, at its choice, either itself or 

through another State Party or the Secretary-General, 

as intermediary. 

Article X VI 

With the exception of articles XVII to XXI, 

references in this Agreement to States shall be deemed 

to apply to any international intergovernmental 

organization which conducts space activities if the 

organization declares its acceptance of the rights and 

obligations provided for in this Agreement and if the 

majority of the States members of the organization are 

States Parties to this Agreement and to the Treaty on 

Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon 

and Other Celestial Bodies. States members of any 

such organization which are States Parties to this 

Agreement shall take all appropriate steps to ensure 

that the organization make a declaration in accordance with the foregoing. 

Article XVII 

Any State Party to this Agreement may propose 

amendments to the Agreement. Amendments shall 

enter into force for each State Party to the Agreement 

accepting the amendments upon their acceptance by a 

majority of the States Parties to the Agreement and 

thereafter for each remaining State Party to the 

Agreement on the date of acceptance by it. 

Article X VIIl 

Ten years after the entry into force of this Agreement, the question of how the review of the Agreement 

shall be included in the provisional agenda of the 

United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, 

in the light of past application of the Agreement, 

whether it requires revision. However, at any time 

after the Agreement has been in office for five years, 

the Secretary-General of the United Nations, as 

depository, shall, at the request of one third of the 

States Parties to the Agreement and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, convene a 

conference of the States Parties to review this Agreement. A review conference shall also consider the 

question of the implementation of the provisions of article XI, paragraph 5, on the basis of the principle 

referred to in paragraph 1 of that article and taking 

into account in particular any relevant technological 

developments. 

113 
Article XIX 

1. This Agreement shall be open for signature by 

all States at United Nations Headquarters in New 

York. 

2. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification 

by signatory States. Any State which does not sign this 

Agreement before its entry into force in accordance 

with paragraph 3 of this article may accede to it at any 

time. Instruments of ratification or accession shall be 

deposited with the Secretary-General of the United 

Nations. 

3. This Agreement shall enter into force on the 

thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the fifth 

instrument of ratification. 

4. For each State depositing its instrument of 

ratification or accession after the entry into force of 

this Agreement, it shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of any such instrument. 

5. The Secretary-General shall promptly inform all 

signatory and acceding States of the date of each 

signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of 

ratification or accession to this Agreement, the date of 

its entry into force and other notices. 

Article XX 

Any State Party to this Agreement may give notice 

of its withdrawal from the Agreement one year after its 

entry into force by written notification to the 

Secretary-General of the United Nations. Such 

withdrawal shall take effect one year from the date of 

receipt of this notification. 

Article XXI 

The original of this Agreement, of which the 

Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and 

Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited 

with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who 

shall send certified copies thereof to all signatory and 

acceding States. 

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being 

duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed this Agreement, opened for 

signature at New York on 

114