Aeronautics 

and 

Space Report 

of the 

President 

1988 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

1988 

Activities 

1990 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 
Contents 

Summary .................. ........ ............. v 

Department of Defense ... 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration .......... v 

Department of Commerce .......................................... xiii 

Department of Energy ................................................ xiv 

Department of the Interior .... 

Federal Communications Commission .......... 

Department of Transportation 

... 

Department of Agriculture ..................... ............. xv 

Federal Aviation Administration .. 

Commercial Space Transportation ...... 

Environmental Protection Agency ............................. xvii 

National Science Foundation ........ 

Smithsonian Institution .............................................. xvii 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ................. xviii 

United States Information Agency ........................... xviii 

Department of State ......... ........ ............... XVll 

... 

... 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1 

Space Science and Applications .................................... 1 

Space Station ................................................................ 31 

Commercial Programs .................................................. 36 

Space Operations ......................................................... 42 

Space Research and Technology ............................... 58 

Exploration ................................................................... 66 

Space Flight .................................................................. 23 

Aeronautics Research and Technology ....................... 44 

Department of Defense .......................................... 71 

Space Activities ............................................................ 71 

Aeronautical Activities ................................................. 75 

Other Technologies ..................................................... 80 

Department of Commerce ..................................... 85 

NOAA Satellite Operations .......................................... 85 

National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration ......................................................... 91 

National Institute of Standards and Technology ........ 92 

NOAA Application of Satellite Observations .............. 86 

Department of Energy ............................................ 97 

Nuclear Detonation Detection .................................. 104 

Space Nuclear Power Systems ..................................... 97 

ii 
Department ofthe Interior .................................. 107 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and Processing 107 

Remote Sensing Applications ... .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 

Department of Agriculture .................................. 123 

Federal Communications Commission . .. . . . ... . . . .E9 

Communications Satellites . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 

Department of Transportation ............................ 135 

Federal Aviation Administration ...... . .... . . ... , . . ... .. ... .. . .. 135 

Aviation Safety ............................................................ 135 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ...................... 141 

Commercial Space Transportation ...... .. . . . . ... . . ... . . . . .. . ,146 

Environmental Protection Agency . .................... 151 

National Science Foundation . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . , . . . . . . , . .155 

Smithsonian Institution . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 

Department of State ............................................... 162 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .......... 164 

Appendixes 

A-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ... 169 

A-2 World Hecord of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond .............. 170 

A-3 Successful U.S. Launches-1988 ...................... 171 

B-1 U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

B-2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1988 ......... 176 

C U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

U.S. Space Launch Activities ............................. 184 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget Summary-Budget 

Authority ......... . . .. .. . . . . ... . . . . ..... . . . ... .. . . . ... . . .. ... .. . . . 185 

Chart: U.S. Space BudgetBudget Authority FY 1971-1988 ....................... 186 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ..................................... 187 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget ........................................... 187 

F-1 Presidential Directive 

on National Space Policy .............................. 188 

Space Initiative to Begin the Next Century .. 194 

1982-1988 ....................................................... 173 

1982-1988 ....................................................... 175 

1961-1988 ........................................ 

D 

E-1 

F-2 The President’s Space Policy and Commercial 

United States Information Agency .... .. . . . ... . .... . ... .166 

iii 

Summary 

Nineteen eighty-eight marked the United States’ 

return to space flight with two successful space shuttle 

launches in September and December, as well as six 

successful expendable rocket launches. Meanwhile, 

many other less spectacular but important 

contributions were made in aeronautics and space by 

the 14 participating government organizations. This 

chapter summarizes the accomplishments of each of 

these participating organizations. The remaining 

chapters of this report provide more detail on each 

organization’s aeronautics and/or space activities for 

the year. 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Space Science and Applications 

The NASA space science and applications program 

uses space-based technology 1) to study the universe 

including Earth, the sun, and the planets; 2) to solve 

practical problems on Earth; and 3) to provide the 

scientific research foundation for expanding human 

presence beyond Earth into the solar system. Scientific 

disciplines include the following: astrophysics, solar 

system exploration, space physics, Earth science and 

applications, life sciences, microgravity science and 

applications, and communications and information 

systems. 

Astrophysics 

The NASA astrophysics program studies the origin 

and evolution of the universe, the fundamental laws of 

nature, and the birth of stars, planets, galaxies, and 

ultimately, life. The program research uses space 

observatories, supported by a ground research base of 

instrument developments, suborbital research activities, 

data analysis, and theoretical studies. 

Supernova 1987a. NASA and its international 

partners continued to study Supernova 1987a in 1988 

using spacecraft and radio observatories, as well as 

rocket, balloon, and airborne campaigns from the 

Southern Hemisphere. The observations enabled 

researchers to determine the composition, average 

expansion velocity, and other important characteristics 

of this body. 

Hubble Space Telescope. Assembly and retesting 

of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the first of the 

four Great Observatories, was scheduled for completion in early 1989, with launch expected in 1990. HST 

is an optical telescope that will enable astronomers to 

see distant objects about ten times more clearly than 

can be seen from even the best Earth-based observatories. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. Construction of the 

Gamma Kay Observatory (GKO) continued in 1988, 

with three of its four scientific instruments being 

installed on the spacecraft. Like the Hubble Telescope, 

the GKO is scheduled for launch in 1990. GKO will be 

used to study extraterrestrial gamma rays, the highest 

energy radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility. In 1988, 

NASA selected TKW, Inc. to be the prime contractor for 

the development and integration of the Advanced XKay Astrophysics Facility (AXAF). TKW immediately 

began work on the facility’s High Kesolution Mirror 

assembly. The AXAF is designed to observe celestial 

sources of x-rays, key to answering many of astronomy 

and astrophysics’ most important questions. 

studies of the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIKTF) 

were made in 1988. These studies included analyses of 

the spacecraft and telescope systems. Expected to be 

the fourth of the Great Observatories, the SIKTF will be 

used for astrophysical studies in the scientifically 

critical infrared spectral region. A major focus will be 

the study of cosmic birth, including that of our solar 

system. 

Solar System Exploration 

evolution and nature of the planets and other bodies, 

and why the “terrestrial” planets are so different from 

one another. 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility. Detailed 

NASA’s solar system exploration program studies the 

V 
Pioneer Venus. In December 1988, the Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter completed 10 years of successful 

observation and data gathering at Venus. 

The Interplanetary and Interstellar Medium 

The Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft are still providing 

valuable science data on the interstellar medium. 

Following its encounters with Jupiter, Saturn, and 

Uranus, Voyager 2 continued its journey toward 

Neptune. Voyager 1 has left the solar system. 

Mars Observer. During 1988, the Mars Observer 

was descoped to bring the estimated cost of the 

mission within budget. The Mars Observer will obtain 

images of the surface and atmosphere of Mars during 

the four seasons of one Martian year. 

Magellan. The Magellan spacecraft completed 

development and was shipped to the Kennedy Space 

Center for pre-launch processing in 1988. Launch of 

the spacecraft was planned for 1989. Magellan will 

provide global maps of the geological features of 

cloud-shrouded Venus. 

Galileo. Development of the Galileo spacecraft 

continued toward a planned launch in October 1989. A 

combined orbiter and atmospheric probe, Galileo will 

make a detailed exploration of Jupiter and its moons. 

Ulysses. During 1988, development of the Ulysses 

continued, aiming at an October 1990 launch date. 

Ulysses is a joint NASMEuropean Space Agency 

program designed to observe the sun’s corona, the 

solar wind, and other solar events. 

Space Physics 

The NASA space physics program investigates the 

origin, evolution, and interactions of particulate matter 

and electromagnetic fields in a wide variety of space 

plasmas. Its studies focus on the upper atmospheres, 

ionospheres, and magnetospheres of the Earth and 

other planets, the sun, and plasmas throughout the 

solar system and galaxy. 

International Solar Terrestrial Physics 

Program Implementation of this program continued 

with the participation of Japan and the European 

vi 

Space Agency. This umbrella program will include 

extensive studies of the sun and its plasma and 

interaction with that of Earth. The major U.S. contribution will be the Global Geospace Science program, 

which will study the transfer of energy in the interactive geospace system. 

Explorer Missions. In 1988, the International 

Cometary Explorer (ICE) continued its operations, 

making solar wind measurements and collecting other 

data. The Dynamics Explorer conducted two tests to 

collect data about the Earth’s magnetic field. The 

Charge Composition Explorer collected samples of 

solar magnesium and sulfur for the first time, leading 

to new clues about how the solar wind is produced. 

Astromag. Further work to define and design the 

Astromag facility for the space station occurred in 

1988. Astromag will be a superconducting magnet 

attached to the space station to analyze the highest 

energy cosmic rays from our galaxy and beyond. 

Earth Science and Applications 

tions program is to develop a scientific understanding 

of how Earth and its environment work as a system. 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite System 

The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite WARS) 

critical design review was completed in early 1988. 

The spacecraft was undergoing construction and the 

instruments were being assembled and tested. The 

UAKS will provide a data base necessary to understand 

the dynamics and chemistry of the Earth’s upper 

atmosphere, the effects of solar activity, and the impact 

of changes in key constituents such as ozone. 

Operational Satellites. NASA continued to support 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

(NOAA) operational weather satellite program in 1988. 

The program includes both geostationary and polarorbiting spacecraft. 

Research. NASA continued a number of atmospheric, 

oceanic, and geological studies in 1988. These studies 

The purpose of NASA’s Earth science and applicaAtmospheric, Oceanic, and Geological 
included work to assess the status of the ozone hole 

over the Antarctic, other studies of stratospheric and 

tropospheric chemistry, assessment of land processes 

using Landsat Thematic Mapper data, terrestrial ecosystems research, and crustal dynamics research. 

Earth Observing System During 1988, the Earth 

Observing System (EOS) progressed to the definition 

and preliminary design phase of activity. Over 450 

instrument and research proposals were received and 

evaluated. EOS is an interdisciplinary Earth system 

science mission that will enable a better understanding 

of the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, 

cryosphere, biosphere, and solid Earth. The mission 

will include a series of orbiting satellites and groundbased research. An international program, EOS involves participants from the United States, Japan, the 

European Space Agency, Canada, and other nations. 

Life Sciences 

The NASA life sciences program pursues two goals: 

1) understanding of the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the universe; and 2) development of 

countermeasures and life support systems that will 

enable humans to live and work productively in space. 

Kesearch in these areas is conducted on the space 

shuttle, on other space-based Facilities, and in groundbased facilities. 

tested for their effectiveness in combatting space 

motion sickness. Work continued on the development 

of exercise and other countermeasures to the physiological deconditioning that occurs in space. Other 

research focused on crew nutrition and environmental 

health factors such as air and water quality. Planning 

for the Life Sciences Extended Duration Orbiter 

Medical Program began in order to support crew stays 

in space of up to 16 days beginning in 1992. NASA 

also continued planning for the space station crewrelated systems. 

the payloads that would be flown on the Spacelab Life 

Space Medicine. During 1988, several drugs were 

Spacelab Life Sciences. In 1988, NASA confirmed 

Sciences (SLS) module in mid-1990. SLS-1 will be the 

first space shuttle mission dedicated to life sciences 

investigations; experiments will focus on cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and neurovestibular adaptation to 

space. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

The goals of the NASA microgravity science and 

applications program is to use the unique environment 

of space to: 1) advance the understanding of fundamental processes on Earth; 2) understand the influence 

of gravity on Earth-based processes; 3) pursue limited 

in-space production of materials with enhanced 

properties; 4) encourage commercial production of 

materials in space; and 5) explore the possibiIity of 

processing extraterrestrial materials. Related scientific 

disciplines include the fundamental sciences, materials 

science, and biotechnology. During 1988, microgravity 

experiments were flown on the STS-26 shuttle mission. 

These investigations involved protein crystal growth 

and other materials science activities. 

Space Flight 

Throughout 1988, NASA focused on returning the 

space shuttle to flight, which it accomplished in 

September with the successful Discovery mission (STS26). Moreover, the agency moved vigorously to 

establish a mixed fleet capability which assures access 

to space using both the shuttle and expendable 

(unmanned) launch vehicles (ELVs). Another major 

activity has been NASA's efforts to assist in the commercialization of space use and to encourage private 

sector investment in space transportation systems as 

called for by the President's National Space Policy of 

January 1988. Finally, the agency continued its ongoing 

studies of an advanced space transportation infrastructure to support future national requirements, including 

manned and unmanned exploration of the solar system 

and the permanent presence of human beings in 

space. In sum, NASA continued the process of maintaining and improving a strong, safe and reliable U.S. 

space transportation capability. 

vii 
Orbiter. An extensive review and analysis process 

undertaken following the Challenger accident identified 226 changes for the orbiter alone. Of these, 107 

were considered mandatory for the September Discovery mission. Two hundred sixty-one alterations to 

Discovery had been completed in total by July. 

rocket motor (SW) was directly responsible for the 

explosion that caused the Challenger accident, so it 

was carefully and extensively redesigned. The redesigned SRM received intense scrutiny during 1988 and 

was subjected to a thorough certification process to 

verify that it works properly and to qualify the motor 

for manned flight. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine. Although the space 

shuttle main engines have never experienced a problem during a shuttle flight, NASA used the flight 

downtime to undertake an intensive reexamination and 

safety margin improvement program for the main 

engines. As with the solid rocket booster, the focus 

was on testing the main engines to insure their readiness for the return to flight. 

1988 ELV Launches. The expendable launch 

vehicle (ELV) program also had a perfect launch 

record in 1988-4~ for six: one Delta, four Scouts, and 

one Atlas-E expendable launch vehicles. 

The Mixed Fleet Strategy. NASA’s mixed fleet 

strategy, codified by the President’s January 1988 

National Space Policy, calls for manifesting civilian 

missions on ELVs whenever the unique capabilities of 

the shuttle are not required. 

Phase I of the strategy covers launches in the 1988- 

92 time-frame and allows for the acquisition of launch 

services either through DOD or commercially. Specifically, four near-term payloads previously intended to 

fly on the shuttle (KOSAT, EWE, CKKES, and Mars 

Observer) have been designated to launch on ELVs 

during Phase I. 

services from the commercial sector, NASA also 

Solid Rocket Booster. A flawed joint in the solid 

In addition to arranging for the purchase of launch 

followed the President’s space policy by taking steps to 

divest itself of an adjunct ELV capability and by 

making NASA-owned ELV property and services 

available to the private sector. During 1988, NASA 

finalized a barter agreement with General Dynamicsnegotiated over 15 months-that gives the company 

ownership of NASA’s Atladcentaur flight and nonflight assets. In exchange General Dynamics will 

provide the agency with two Atladcentaur launches in 

the future at no charge. 

Furthermore, in May 1988, the agency transferred 

accountability for Delta Launch Complex 17 at Cape 

Canaveral to the USAF. Finally, NASA signed enabling 

agreements with McDonnell Douglas, Martin Marietta, 

and LTV to allow those companies to negotiate directly 

with NASA centers for access to NASA ELV property 

and services. 

of the unmanned, free-flying orbital maneuvering 

vehicle (OMV) continued in 1988, and a preliminary 

design review was completed in October. Additionally, 

NASA’s Office of Space Flight undertook in 1988 a joint 

study with NASA’s Space Station Office to determine 

the feasibility of resupplying the station using ELVs 

and the OMV. Also, a study on man-rating the OMV 

was completed. 

Spacelab. During 1988, replacement of Spacelab’s 

on-board computers with units similar to the updated 

orbiter computers continued. Also, the changes 

recommended by the Spacelab recertification board 

continued to be carried out. 

Additionally, management of the Hitchhiker program was consolidated to reduce costs under the 

responsibility of the Goddard Space Flight Center. The 

Hitchhiker system creates a simple interface between 

small experiments and the shuttle thereby making 

integration for flight easier and less costly. Finally, the 

development of the Spacelab enhanced pallet was near 

completion at the end of 1988. 

devoted in 1988 to examining various next-generation 

Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle. The development 

Next Manned Launch Vehicle. Attention was 

viii 
manned launch vehicle concepts. Three possible 

directions were under consideration: shuttle evolution, 

a personnel launch system, and an advanced manned 

launch system. Preliminary studies, conducted primarily in-house, on all three possibilities proceeded in 

1988. 

Assured Crew Return Capability. NASA continued assessing the need and concepts for a capability to 

transport space station crew back to Earth in case of an 

emergency. During 1988, NASA completed an in-house 

Phase A (conceptual) study to explore various possibilities. 

a definition (Phase B) study. 

Space Station 

Development of a permanently manned space 

station was mandated by President Reagan in 3984. He 

reaffirmed the national commitment to the station in 

1988 in his National Space Policy, and in July christened the station “Freedom.” Space Station Freedom 

will be a versatile facility to support research in a 

broad spectrum of technical disciplines, and may 

evolve to support other potential roles, such as 

manned missions to the moon and Mars. 

The program at NASA moved from the definition 

phase into the design and development phase in 1988, 

making schedule adjustments where necessitated by 

revised funding profiles. Hardware design and development contracts were signed for the four work 

packages and the Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) 

was signed by representatives of the United States, 

Canada, Japan, and the participating European countries. Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) were also 

signed by NASA with its counterpart agencies in 

Canada and Europe, establishing cooperative arrangements for station design, development, operation and 

utilization work. A similar MOU will be signed with 

Japan after ratification of the IGA by the Japanese Diet. 

By the end of 1988, program requirements had been 

verified and agreements between the work package 

Shuttle-C. Studies continued in 1988, and included 

contractors had been implemented to simplify program 

integration and management. 

Utilization and operations planning proceeded 

steadily, and NASA revised its commercial guidelines 

and implemented procedures to accommodate 

proposals. 

Commercial Programs 

America’s space program has embarked on a new 

beginning. Beyond the efforts leading to the space 

shuttle’s return to flight, there is a strong emphasis on 

the commercial development of space as a national 

economic asset. 

NASA has established Centers for the Commercial 

Development of Space (CCDS), which are a nationwide network of unique research organizations which 

combine industrial interest, university talent, and 

government sponsorship to investigate and develop 

areas of commercial potential. Participation and 

interest has steadily risen since 1985, with the number 

of CCDS industrial affiliates now totaling well over 100. 

Businesses. A growing number of small business 

concerns are initiating new commercial products in 

many fields as a result of K&D funding through NASA’s 

continuing Small Business Innovation Kesearch (SBIK) 

Program. Many of the results and products are being 

utilized in NASA programs and several have been 

successfully commercialized. 

Assuring a highway to space by fostering growth of a 

U.S. commercial launch industry is another key initiative of the President’s new National Space Policy. 

NASA’s efforts to advocate and encourage development of an expendable launch vehicle (ELV) industrial 

base have helped make commercial space transportation services a reality. 

on ELVs, NASA moved toward the commercialization 

of space use in 1988 by playing an integral role in the 

initiation of two new cooperative ventures with the 

capitalizing on New Ideas from Small 

Expendable Launch Vehicle Commercializatioon 

In addition to procuring commercial launch services 
private sector: the Commercially Developed Space 

Facility and Spacehab. 

The Administration initiated the Commercially 

Developed Space Facility program in February 1988 as 

part of the Commercial Space Initiative. This program 

would involve the private sector developing an orbital 

facility for both government and commercial users. 

Spacehab, another venture focused upon in the 

February 1988 Commercial Space Initiative, is a 

pressurized module for the space shuttle payload bay 

that is being developed and financed by a private 

company (SPACEHAB, Inc.). The module will increase 

the amount of pressurized volume available in the 

middeck, and thus allow for more commercial ventures 

and research activities requiring man-tending. 

Further Enorts. NASA is also working closely with 

industry to explore the potential commercial uses 

associated with the Space Station Freedom. In November 1987 and in October 1988, workshops were held 

where NASA officials met with more than 200 corporate executives, representing diverse industries, to 

discuss how the Space Station Freedom can best meet 

future industry needs. 

Technology Utilization. In 1988, the economic 

impact of some of the NASA-derived spinoffs or 

applications reported in the NASA Spinoff publication 

were assessed. These NASA spinoffs have resulted in 

economic benefits from contributions to sales or 

savings approximately $27 billion since 1978. 

Getting U.S. industry into space with the best 

prospects for long-term commercial success requires 

laying a sound foundation on the ground. NASA’s 

efforts in 1988 were focused to support private sector 

commercial space division and contribute to the 

overall economic strength of the country. 

Space Operations 

A vital element of the infrastructure needed to 

conduct research and science in aeronautics and space 

is the capacity to communicate with and receive, 

distribute, and process information from space vehicles 

and aircraft. 

The NASA Space Operations program provides 

planning, development, acquisition, and operations of 

worldwide tracking, data acquisition, data processing 

and communications systems facilities, and operational 

support to meet NASA flight-program requirements. A 

portion of Space Operations’ on-going operational 

communications support was reactivated to meet the 

needs of our return to shuttle flight. The Tracking and 

Data Kelay Satellite3 (TDKS-3) was deployed in 

September 1988 to join TDKS-1 in providing low-Earth 

orbit operational support to space missions. TDKS-4 

will be added to the geosynchronous satellite network 

in March 1989 (STS-29), bringing to fruition NASA’s 

goal of a space-based tracking capability for low-Earthorbiting missions, as well as to space missions government-wide. During the past year, the Tracking and 

Data Kelay Satellite in space continued its excellent 

support of the Landsat, Solar Mesospheric Explorer, 

Earth Kadiation Budget Satellite, and Space Shuttle 

missions. The TDKS replacement spacecraft program, 

to replace the satellite lost in 1986, has continued and 

will ensure continuity of service in the mid-1990s. 

The Deep Space Network is preparing for a major 

challenge when the Voyager 2 spacecraft encounters 

Neptune in August 1989. During 1988, a number of 

modifications to the Deep Space Network were under 

way to improve its sensitivity to prepare for the 

Neptune encounter and support of several new 

spacecraft launches. These launches include the 

Galileo mission to Jupiter and its moons, the Magellan 

Venus mapping mission planned for 1989, and the 

Mars Observer mapping mission planned for 1992. 

Basic elements of the Communications and Data 

Systems program form the vital link between the data 

acquisition stations and the users, and include communications, mission control, and data capture and 

processing. Communication services were fully activated and all systems supported the shuttle return-toflight launch in September 1988. 

X 
Aeronautics Research and Technology 

NASA conducts fundamental disciplinary and 

vehicle-specific research and technology programs to 

improve the nation’s economic competitiveness, to 

help ensure a safe and productive national aviation 

transportation infrastructure, and to contribute to our 

national defense. To accomplish these goals, NASA 

works closely with industry, the Department of Defense, and the Federal Aviation Administration to 

conduct research and develop technology for subsonic 

aircraft, rotocraft, high performance military aircraft, 

supersonic cruise aircraft, and hypersonic vehicles. 

tions of basic engineering sciences applicable to a 

broad spectrum of vehicle classes. Kesearch efforts 

include conducting computational and wind tunnel 

aeronautical experiments and flight tests; determining 

the physical phenomena of turbomachinery operation; 

developing the material and structural technologies for 

advanced, cost-effective airframes; exploring emerging 

technologies to improve cockpit management, crew 

coordination and decision-making processes; and 

addressing issues of flight safety arising from natural 

phenomena and flight operations. 

Vehicle-specific research is focused on those 

emerging technologies which have the potential to 

enhance the performance and capabilities of specific 

aircraft classes. Research in the transport category 

includes both subsonic and supersonic cruise vehicles 

and is focused on development of those technologies 

that will provide efficient, safe, and affordable operation within the National Airspace System and will 

maintain U.S. leadership in the highly competitive 

world aviation marketplace. To recognize a major 

contribution in this important area the NASMIndustry 

Turboprop Team was presented the 1987 Kobert J. 

Collier Award for the conception, development, and 

flight verification of advanced turboprop propulsion 

systems. 

cal issues, such as structural dynamics, acoustics, and 

Disciplinary research is characterized by investigaResearch activities in rotocraft address those technipropulsion, that will expand the utility and community 

acceptance of this vehicle class. NASA’s high performance aircraft research develops high-risk technologies 

to enhance the agility, performance, and reliability of 

military aircraft. The hypersonics research program 

focuses on the enabling technologies, such as propulsion and materials and structures, that will potentially 

result in the development of a hypersonic flight 

research vehicle. 

In addition to its aeronautical research, NASA 

operates a unique set of experimental and analytical 

research facilities. The health and productivity of these 

national aeronautical research facilities are crucial to 

the continued success of civil and military aeronautics 

research and development programs. In 1988, NASA 

initiated a major five-year revitalization program to 

ensure that these critical national facilities will continue 

to be able to meet the needs of the Nation’s aviation 

community. 

Space Research and Technology 

Through the space research and technology program, the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology 

(OAST) is developing a wide range of advanced 

capabilities that will enable future space missions and 

ensure continued U.S. leadership in space. To achieve 

this goal, NASA is committed to providing a technology base that effectively supports future needs for 

human and robotic exploration of the solar system, for 

Earth and space science, for space stations, and for 

transportation systems. NASA’s technology efforts 

range from feasibility research to technology validation, and include flight experiments to demonstrate 

proof of concept. OAST is also committed to developing technical strengths in the engineering disciplines 

within industry and academia while maintaining a 

strong in-house capability at the NASA research 

centers. 

The space research and technology program 

consists of two complementary program areas, the 

research and technology base and focused programs. 

xi 
The research and technology base (R&T base) program 

conducts fundamental research in promising and 

innovative advanced technologies in 10 technical 

disciplines: aerothermodynamics, space energy conversion, propulsion, materials and structures, space data 

and communications, information sciences, controls 

and guidance, human factors, space flight, and systems 

analysis. The R&T base provides expertise and facilities 

to ensure that NASA has cutting-edge capability to 

meet future technology requirements over a range of 

timeframes. The R&T base also supports university 

engineering research programs to expand and enhance 

the capabilities of the Nation’s engineering community 

to participate more effectively in the U.S. civil space 

program. Through the R&T base, and usually in the 

environment of the laboratory, scientists and engineers 

evaluate the potential applicability, usefulness, and 

overall benefit associated with the new technologies. 

Once the usefulness of the new knowledge is documented, decisions are made to carry selective discoveries into the next stage of technology developmentwhich is called focused technology. 

the Civil Space Technology Initiative (CSTI) whose 

goal is to restore technical strength and provide 

options for future Earth orbit high-priority civil space 

missions, and the Pathfinder Program, which will 

develop critical capabilities to enable future human 

and robotic missions that will expand human presence 

and activities beyond Earth orbit into the solar system. 

The CSTI program will address high-priority national 

and agency needs of the 1990s. The program includes 

research in technologies to enable efficient, reliable 

access to, and operations in Earth orbit and to support 

science missions. The program’s technology thrusts are 

divided into three categories: Transportation, Science, 

and Operations. 

The Pathfinder Program, begun in 1988, implements 

the new national space policy directing that we start 

planning for potential exploration missions beyond the 

Two focused programs have recently been initiated, 

turn of the century. Pathfinder is conceived as a 

partnership between NASA, industry, and academia 

and will add to our Nation’s ability to maintain leadership in space. The Pathfinder Program will develop a 

broad set of technologies in five major areas: surface 

exploration, in-space operations, humans in space, 

space transfer vehicles, and mission studies. 

two new areas of future activity. The first is aimed at 

expanding the in-space experiments program to take 

full advantage of the opportunities that will be provided with the deployment of the Space Station 

Freedom. The second area of emphasis will increase 

research and technology activity in support of future 

programs associated with monitoring Earth’s global 

climate change. 

Exploration 

Since its establishment in June 1987, the Office of 

Exploration has led NASA-wide studies to analyze how 

to expand human presence into the solar system. The 

intent of this effort is to develop a better understanding 

of opportunities and options and identify appropriate 

investments in both near- and long-term NASA programs. 

for study of the moon and Mars, the office identified 

three potential strategies for study in 1988. The first 

strategy, expeditionary trips to the Mars system, 

emphasized a visible effort to establish the first human 

presence on another planetary body. The second 

strategy emphasized advancing scientific knowledge by 

establishing a science outpost on the moon. The third 

strategy, evolutionary expansion, would sustain a 

methodical, step-by-step program to open the inner 

solar system for exploration, space science research, 

extraterrestrial resource development and ultimately, 

permanent human presence. Key factors in the development of case studies to analyze these strategies 

included the results of trade studies and other assessments, opportunities to advance science and scientific 

In 1988, increased planning efforts were directed in 

To organize and examine a full spectrum of options 

xii 
applications and both near-term and long-term programs, plans, and budgets. 

The four case studies evaluated in 1988 were: 

Human Expeditions to Phobos, Human Expeditions to 

Mars, Lunar Observatory, and Lunar Outpost to Early 

Mars Evolution. The two expeditionary studies focused 

on sending humans to the Mars system as soon as it 

was feasible. The Lunar Observatory case study was 

analyzed to evaluate the scientific benefit of establishing astronomical facilities on the lunar surface. The 

fourth 1988 case study, Lunar Outpost to Early Mars 

Evolution, examined an evolutionary strategy establishing a lunar base that would become a staging base for 

a journey to Mars. 

Department of Defense 

Nineteen eighty-eight could be signified as the year 

of recovery for the Department of Defense (DOD) in 

the space area. Notable space achievements included 

the successful launch of Atlantis with a DOD mission 

in December 1988 and the first launch of the Titan I1 in 

September. Also 1988 saw the initiation of a joint 

DOD/NASA space booster technology effort known as 

the Advanced Launch System. 

maintaining a robust military satellite communications 

systems through a combination of government-owned 

and contractor-leased satellites. The DOD initiated 

concept work on the Defense Satellite Communications 

System (DSCS) follow-on, while paying increased 

attention to the development of common, interoperable, anti-jam, super high-frequency modem for DSCS 

terminals. The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) made 

tremendous strides during 1988, especially in the 

program’s organizational maturity and in the number 

of technology options, culminating in a successful 

Defense Acquisition Board (DAB) review of the Phase 

I systems. 

In the aeronautics area, the DOD completed delivery of all 100 B-lBs, saw the roll-out of the first B-2 in 

November, continued development efforts associated 

The DOD continued to place high priority on 

with the Advanced Tactical Fighter program, and 

completed airframe and electronic flight critical design 

reviews for the C-17. Assembly of the first C-17 started 

in August. 

In the advanced technology areas, the initial flight 

of the F-15 Short Takeoff and Landing/Maneuver 

Technology Demonstrator occurred in September, 

Phase I1 of the Advanced Flight Technology Integration 

F-16, which will demonstrate a two-ship internetted 

attack and manual night attack capability, began in 

December. Nineteen eighty-eight saw the start of a 

follow-on program for the highly successful X-29 

(forward swept-wing) program, which will evaluate X29 agility at high angles of attack. The National AeroSpace Plane Program continued to make major advances in the areas of material characterization, 

computerized fluid dynamics calculations, critical 

engine and airframe component fabrication and 

testing, and development of engine test facilities up to 

Mach 8. 

Department of Commerce 

Throughout 1988, NOAA, of the Department of 

Commerce, was responsible for both polar orbiting 

and geostationary operational satellites. Also, NOAA 

provided the government management of the Nation’s 

land remote sensing program-Landsat, conducted by 

the Earth Observation Satellite Company. The principal 

users of the operational data are the Nation’s weather 

and climate services-for routine weather forecasting, 

in climatic evaluation models, and in studies of severe 

storms and hurricanes. Improvements in accuracy of 

temperature and moisture soundings were made 

during this ninth year of operation. Other elements 

from remote sensors were applied to global and 

regional studies of vegetation, and to severe weather 

research for aviation. Major efforts continued in studies 

of ozone and accurate calibration of its observation 

because of the importance for climate change studies. 

NOAA developed techniques for accurately positioning instrument platforms and set up a global 

xiii 
positioning system network. For fisheries applications, 

satellite observations provided synoptic information for 

studying the effects of ocean environments on tracking, distribution, and location of fish populations. 

Commerce’s National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration participated in the World 

Administrative Radio Conference on the use of the 

geostationary satellite orbit and planning of space 

services using it. The PEACESAT-designed to provide 

two-way voice, data, and slow-scan video services in 

the Pacific-was being reestablished. 

Commerce’s National Institute of Standards and 

Technology had projects for studying a special lamp 

used in the space telescope and evaluating special 

materials to be used in spacecraft. In space and 

atmospheric research, there were ongoing studies in 

water vapor amounts and in measuring atmospheric 

and electromagnetic parameters around stars. 

Department of Energy 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides 

nuclear power sources for National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) space missions. These 

have included the Voyager and Pioneer missions to the 

outer planets and the Apollo lunar landings. Program 

descriptions and 1988 progress summaries are described below. 

Program produces power sources that directly convert 

heat from the decay of Plutonium-238 to electricity. 

Under this program, 34 units were used in 19 spacecraft launches from the 1960s through 1988. Progress 

in 1988 saw issuance of the Final Safety Analysis 

Report for the October 1989 Galileo mission, completion of over 35,000 hours of heat source testing, and 

over 6,000 hours of life testing of a more efficient 

power unit. A contractor was selected to develop a 

rotating turbine/alternator system that would produce 

energy efficiencies of 18-25 percent in the Turbine 

Energy Conversion System Program, and the Closed 

The Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) 

Brayton energy conversion system was selected as the 

conversion medium. 

The SP-100 Space Reactor Program is intended to 

develop and demonstrate technology for space power 

in the 10s and 100s of kilowatts electric power range. 

Progress highlights in 1988 include fabrication of 

almost half of the fuel for the ground unit test and 

achievement of about 85 percent burnup in a fuel test. 

The Multimegawatt Space Reactor Program is 

intended to provide power in the 10s and 100s of 

megawatts electric range for DOD and NASA. Progress 

in 1988 saw selection of six contractors and definition 

of concepts. 

The Thermionic Fuel Element Verification Program, 

which like thermoelectrics converts heat directly to 

electricity without moving parts, has the potential of 

higher energy conversion efficiencies with smaller 

radiators. Progress in this program included component testing. 

An additional DOE responsibility is providing 

satellite equipment for continuous monitoring for 

nuclear detonations anywhere within the Earth’s 

atmosphere or in neighboring interplanetary space. 

This program supports treaty verification, intelligence 

gathering, and military goals. 

Department of the Interior 

The Department of the Interior (DOI) uses data 

acquired by satellite and aircraft sensors to inventory 

natural resources and monitor changes on lands under 

its management, and maintains an active program of 

research and technique development in remote 

sensing. In 1988, the DO1 continued to archive, 

process, and distribute Landsat and Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer satellite data. The National 

Aerial Photography and Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

Programs acquired data over priority U.S. areas. Major 

land-management applications of remote sensing 

included wildlife habitat mapping, land-use/land-cover 

mapping (especially in Alaska), wildfire damage 

assessment, and irrigated lands inventory. Hydrologic 

XiV 
applications included near realtime snow mapping to 

support operational snow cover area monitoring, and 

mapping of reservoir surface water parameters. 

Oceanographic applications included studies of major 

ocean circulation patterns and the forms, seasonal 

distribution, and movement of sea ice. Geologic 

applications included detecting and identifying mineral 

deposits with airborne imaging spectrometers; determining the relationship between geological lineaments 

interpreted from Landsat data and ground hazards in 

underground mines; designing, monitoring, and 

reclaiming surface coal mines; and radon hazard 

assessment. Cartographic applications included satellite 

image mapping and digital image processing research. 

Planetary studies were conducted to support the 

Magellan Mission to Venus (1989) and the Mars 

Observer Mission (1992). Global change research was 

conducted in several areas, including global ice 

monitoring; studies of coastal erosion processes and 

sea-level change; and regional vegetation condition 

monitoring. International programs were carried out in 

Africa, the Middle East, Latin America, the People’s 

Republic of China, and Iceland. 

Department of Agriculture 

Airborne and space-based remote sensing systems 

provided vital information to agencies of the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) for agricultural 

assessment and resource management. Significant 

achievements during 1988, in addition to ongoing 

applications research, included use of satellite data for 

drought and flood impact analysis, testing and development of satellite electronic positioning equipment 

for forest management, and implementation of geographic information systems which use digitized 

remotely sensed data as a primary component. 

Federal Communications Commission 

Pan American Satellite Corporation’s (PanAmSat) 

“Simon Bolivar” (PAS-I) satellite provides services to 

Europe, the Caribbean, and Latin America. It was 

launched aboard an Arianne IV rocket and placed in 

orbit at 45 degrees West Longitude on June 15, 1988. 

The Commission granted authority to the Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) to participate in 

the launch of the International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) V-B (F-13) satellite 

which was on May 17, 1988. By the end of 1988, 

INTELSAT maintained 13 satellites in geosynchronous 

orbit. The Commission also authorized the construction 

and launch of nine new and 10 replacement domestic 

fixed-satellites, increasing the total number of authorized in orbit domestic satellites to 42. Twenty-nine 

domestic satellites were in orbit and located between 

69 degrees West Longitude and 143 degrees West 

Longitude on the geostationary orbital arc. Three 

domestic satellites were launched in 1988, one of 

which was not in its proper orbit. 

INMARSAT operated the MAKECS B-2 in the Atlantic 

Ocean region, and the Maritime Communications 

Subsystem (MCS) satellite packages on the INTELSAT V 

(F-8) in the Pacific Ocean region, and the INTELSAT V 

(F-5) in the Indian Ocean region, all under lease 

agreements. Second-generation satellites were being 

built and would have a capacity about triple that of the 

already leased satellites. INMAKSAT’s four secondgeneration spacecraft were being constructed with 3 

megahertz of bi-directional bandwidth in the Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service (R) band. Aeronautical 

Radio, Inc. is pursuing international aeronautical 

services via INMARSAT. In addition, a consortium of 

eight qualified applicants for domestic mobile-satellite 

service, the American Mobile Satellite Consortium, 

submitted a technical proposal and joint operating 

agreement. The AMSC also proposed to provide 

aeronautical service on its system. 

Satellite (DBS) authorizations were filed in 1988, and 

the Geostar Positioning Corporation began to provide 

start-up radiodetermination satellite service. 

Six additional applications for new Direct Broadcast 
The concluding Second Session of the World 

Administrative Radio Conference on the Use of the 

Geostationary-Satellite Orbit and the Planning of the 

Space Services Utilizing It (WAKC-OKB[21-88) was 

concluded in 1988. Also, the international procedures 

used to provide orderly access to the geostationarysatellite orbit in other frequency bands were improved. 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration 

During 1988, the Department of Transportation’s 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) engaged a wide 

range of research and development activities designed 

to promote civil aviation and enhance its safety and 

security. The agency made progress under its National 

Airspace System Plan, an evolving strategy for modernizing air navigation and air traffic control. In June 1988, 

for example, the last of 20 Host Computer Systems 

began operation, upgrading the efficiency of en route 

air traffic control while providing the computer capacity for further improvements. In another major step, the 

FAA awarded an acquisition contract for an Advanced 

Automation System to equip controllers with wholly 

new workstations and automated capabilities. In 

addition to such measures to enhance the groundbased air traffic control system, the agency continued 

to develop the airborne Traffic Alert and Collision 

Avoidance System. 

FAA engaged in multiple activities that included an 

operational demonstration of a prototype Precision 

Kunway Monitor to facilitate simultaneous approaches 

to parallel runways. The FAA also used a variety of 

approaches to reduce the aviation problems caused by 

adverse weather. Examples included the commissioning of the first two expanded-network Low Level Wind 

Shear Alert Systems, an operational evaluation of a 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar, and continued 

development of an airborne windshear detection 

system. 

Continuing its drive to improve airport capacity, the 

Many other safety research projects addressed such 

diverse issues as aircraft crashworthiness, toxicity from 

burning materials, new detection systems for airport 

security checkpoints, and the role of human factors in 

preventing accidents. Efforts to foster aviation included 

programs to improve runway design and to promote 

rotocraft and power lift vehicles. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

The Department of Transportation’s Office of 

Commercial Space Transportation (OCST) during 1988 

adapted its programs to prepare for the commercial 

launch operations that were to begin in 1989. To 

support this, OCST continued to enter new areas and 

break new ground to create the foundations for 

guiding privately conducted U.S. launch activities. 

In 1988, OCST issued two launch licenses: one to 

Conatec, Inc., covering two sub-orbital microgravity 

payloads to be launched from the White Sands Missile 

Range in New Mexico; and one to McDonnell Douglas 

Corp. for the launch of a telecommunications satellite 

(INSAT 1-D) from Cape Canaveral, FL. 

OCST also established insurance requirements for 

four companies. The office issued both third-party 

liability and government property insurance requirements to Conatec, Inc. The office also completed the 

analytical work upon which to base government 

property insurance requirements for the three major 

launch firms-Martin Marietta, McDonnell Douglas, 

and General Dynamics. 

In June 1988, OCST and NASA jointly sponsored a 

highly successful symposium, “Future of the U.S. Space 

Transportation Industry,” and in October 1988, OCST, 

NASA, and the Air Force jointly sponsored the “Commercial Space Risk and Insurance Symposium.” This 

symposium was targeted to the insurance community 

for the purpose of describing OCST’s technical approach to the risks associated with space transportation. 

xvi 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

through its Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV, routinely conducts research and 

technical support using both satellite and aircraft-based 

remote sensing as part of an overall environmental 

monitoring program. Large-scale aerial photography is 

collected and interpreted to support the provisions of 

the Resource Conservation and Kecovery Act and the 

Comprehensive Environmental Kesponse, Compensation, and Liability Act; medium-scale photography is 

collected and interpreted to support non-point pollution studies, wetlands protection, coastal zone studies, 

and forest ecosystem decline due to acid deposition; 

and high altitude photography is interpreted for broad 

area studies in the coastal zone and to contribute landuse/land-cover information in risk assessment studies. 

Airborne and satellite multispectral scanner data are 

collected and interpreted to support water quality, 

non-point pollution, hazardous waste, and acid 

deposition investigations. Airborne laser systems are 

developed which contribute to air and water monitoring, and a geographic information system is used to 

integrate multiple data sets in support of environmental risk assessment and the development of 

alternative actions for remediation and pollution 

prevention. 

National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation is the principal 

supporter of academic research in atmospheric sciences and ground-based astronomy. Major 1988 

activities in atmospheric sciences included the development of the world’s most powerful sodium resonance lidar system at the University of Illinois, Urbana; 

verification of a new meteorological phenomenon-the 

“downburst”-as a serious hazard to aircraft; and 

installation of a network of stations for monitoring 

ultraviolet radiation at the Earth’s surface under the 

Antarctic “ozone hole.” 

In astronomical sciences, significant events in 1988 

included the discovery of evidence for the existence of 

gravitational lenses by optical and radio astronomers; 

the development and implementation of array detectors that provide infrared images of galaxies; the 

detection of the first visible light echo ever observed 

from a supernova; and the discovery of one of the 

fastest rotating pulsars, located in an eclipsing binary 

system. 

Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to the 

national space program through basic research conducted at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in 

Cambridge, MA, and the Center for Earth and Planetary 

Studies at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) 

in Washington, DC. NASM’s exhibits, lectures, and 

education programs also contribute significantly to the 

public understanding of space research and exploration. A new Laboratory for Astrophysics was established at NASM in 1988 for research concerning the 

interpretation of infrared observations made from both 

the ground and space. In November the 10th anniversary of the launch of the Einstein (HEAO-2) X-ray 

Observatory was celebrated with a special symposium 

reviewing the results of x-ray astronomy during the 

previous decade. Other highlights of the year included 

the obtaining of extremely high-resolution x-ray 

images of the sun with a rocket-borne camera; the use 

of the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite to 

observe both rare, star-forming galaxies and the 

Supernova 1987a; the development of a novel method 

for improving the stability of the atomic clocks used in 

space tracking experiments; and the geologic mapping 

of regions on Jupiter’s satellite Ganymede and on 

Mars, with the latter compared to similar areas on 

Earth. 

Department of State 

The Department of State represents the United 

States Government in international negotiations with 

xvii 
other governments concerning space issues, in international organizations involved in space, and in foreign 

countries. The Department advises the President on 

international space matters, and is responsible for 

evaluating and advancing U.S. foreign policy interests 

in the context of space activity. 

The most significant demonstration of international 

cooperation in space this year was the signing at the 

Department of State in Washington, DC, on September 

29, 1988, of the Space Station Freedom agreements 

with European, Japanese, and Canadian representatives. The State Department, NASA, and other interested agencies worked closely to develop agreements 

which could serve as models of international cooperation. 

The Department participated with other agencies in 

formulating the new U.S. space policy signed by 

President Reagan on January 5, 1988. The Department 

and NASA continued to work on arrangements with 

other nations to provide emergency landing facilities 

for the space shuttle. An agreement between the 

United States, France, Canada, and the Soviet Union 

concerning the international search and rescue satellite 

system (COSPAS-SARSAT) was signed on June 30, 

1988. Nineteen eighty-eight was the 30th anniversary 

of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space (COPUOS) which was established on the basis 

of a proposal presented by the United States and 19 

other states. Issues studied in COPUOS during the year 

included remote sensing and nuclear power sources in 

space. 

During 1988 the International Telecommunication 

Union held the Second Session of the Space Services 

World Administrative Radio Conference at which 

various improved procedures were agreed upon. 

During the year both INMARSAT and INTELSAT 

satellites moved towards broader international services 

in space. 

xviii 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

(ACDA) has an indirect role in the U.S. civil space 

program largely concentrating on arms control considerations of space weapons systems, both defensive and 

offensive. Among other things, ACDA explains and 

defends the President’s Strategic Defense Initiative in 

multilateral and bilateral fora. ACDA represents the 

United States in space arms control negotiations at the 

bilateral US.-Soviet Nuclear and Space Talks in 

Geneva. ACDA also leads the U.S. delegations involved 

in multilateral considerations of space arms control 

issues at the First Committee of the United Nation’s 

General Assembly in New York and at the Conference 

on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva. The CD’s ad hoc 

committee on outer space, established for the first time 

in March 1985 and renewed in 1987, is the venue for 

multilateral examination of issues relevant to the 

prevention of an arms race in outer space. Its nonnegotiating mandate is designed to encourage discussion on any proposals that may be made on outer 

space issues and to review the current space legal 

regime. 

US. Information Agency 

Despite the enforced lull brought on by the Challenger disaster, the U.S. Information Agency (USIA) 

conducted an active overseas information program 

promoting U.S. achievements in space during 1988. Of 

particular note were four live WORLDNET television 

interviews on NASA’s role in ozone layer research and 

USIA media’s coverage of the Discovery launch. Given 

foreign interest in most everything related to U.S. space 

activities, USIA finds a ready audience for its programs 

and products. USIA has various ways to bring messages on space to the world: It can use its daily 

WORLDNET TV broadcasts, various Voice of America 

programs, telephone interviews, and Wireless File 

stories and statements; it also uses exhibits, video 

tapes, books, and cultural center and library programs 

to show U.S. advances in space exploration and 

technology. 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), established in 1958, is responsible for 

planning, conducting, and managing civilian research 

and development activities in aeronautics and space. 

Other federal agencies, state, local, and foreign 

governments, as well as educational institutions and 

private industry, also share in NASA’s programs. 

NASA’s mission continues to reflect the intent of 

Congress in creating the agency; that is, to explore 

space for peaceful purposes with international cooperation, for the benefit of all humankind. Technological advances have resulted in significant economic and 

social benefits for the United States and other nations, 

and remain the catalyst for national pride, progress, 

and achievement. The continued success of NASA’s 

programs will allow the United States to maintain its 

leadership status in aeronautics and space. 

Space Science and Applications 

The NASA Space Science and Applications Program 

has a broad mandate to use space-based technology 

for the following: 1) to study the universe, including 

the sun, the planets, and Earth itself; 2) to solve 

practical problems on Earth; and 3) to provide the 

scientific research foundation for expanding human 

presence beyond Earth into the solar system. Space 

science and applications disciplines include astrophysics, solar system exploration, space physics, Earth 

science and applications, life sciences, microgravity 

science and applications, and space communications 

and information systems. 

Astrophysics 

Study of the Distant Universe. The NASA Astrophysics Program studies the origin and evolution of the 

universe, the fundamental physical laws of nature, and 

the birth of stars, planets, galaxies, and, ultimately, life. 

Kesearch in these areas requires observations at 

wavelengths absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, and 

therefore must be made from instruments carried into 

space. The program is centered around a series of 

space observatories, supported by a research base 

The Kuiper Airborne Observatory, a Lockheed C-141 

aircraft modified to carry a 36-inch diameter telescope, 

flies above most of Earth’s atmosphere at 4145,000 feet 

to perform astronomical observations of the planets and 

stars at the infrared wavelength. 

consisting of instrument developments, suborbital 

research activities, data analysis, and theoretical 

studies. The four Great Observatories-the Hubble 

Space Telescope, the Gamma-Kay Observatory, the 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, and the Space 

Infrared Telescope Facility-are intended to provide 

significantly improved sensitivity and resolution over 

their selected regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Smaller spacecraft in the Explorer series are used for 

exploration, all-sky surveys, specific studies, or unique 

investigations inappropriate for the Great Observatories. As part of the suborbital program, rockets, 

balloons, and aircraft provide the means to make 

preliminary observations, conduct selected low-cost 

investigations, test instrumental concepts, and nurture 

groups capable of developing instruments for future 

space missions. 

Supernova 1987a. NASA and its international 

partners continued to study Supernova 1987a (SN 

1987a) in 1988 through use of existing spacecraft and 

radio observatories, as well as rocket, balloon, and 

1 
airborne campaigns from the Southern Hemisphere. 

These observations included two Kuiper Airborne Observatory campaigns with a total of 26 flights flown 

from Christchurch, New Zealand. These flights resulted 

in the following: 1) spectrometers and photometers 

measured the line and continuum spectrum of SN 

1987a between 1.5 um and 100 um; 2) variations in the 

line intensities from ionized hydrogen and iron 

showed the changes of the temperature, density, and 

state of ionization in the emitting region between 

October 1987 to April 1988; 3) high resolution measurements of line shapes indicated an average expansion velocity of 3,000 km/s and possible inhomogeneities of the expanding material; 4) measurements of line 

emission from iron and cobalt allowed for a determination of'the total masses of these heavy elements; and 

5) the data showed the reemergence of continuum 

emission which may be indicative of an echo from 

circumstellar material. The International Ultraviolet 

Explorer (IUE) spacecraft discovered the remnant shell 

from the red supergiant stage of SN 1987a, as well as 

the changing properties of the ejecta from continuum 

observations, and made the best determination of the 

light curve and its implications concerning the nature 

of the energy source. Gamma-ray spectrometers 

observing SN 1987a on the Solar Maximum Mission 

spacecraft and balloon flights made a precise determination of the gamma-ray light curve for the 847 and 

1,238 kiloelectron volt lines from cobalt 56 decay; 

measured the width of nucleosynthesis lines with high 

resolution spectrometers; and improved theoretical 

models (enhanced mixing in the mantle and envelope) 

to fit the observed gamma-ray line and continuum 

emission. 

Hubble Space Telescope. Assembly and retesting 

of the first of the four Great Observatories, the Hubble 

Space Telescope (HST), was projected to be completed 

in 1989. Serviced by the space shuttle, HST is designed 

to be a long-term, major observatory that will extend 

our vision of the universe by allowing scientists to see 

astronomical objects about 10 times more clearly than 

2 

can be seen with existing instruments. By looking back 

in time and space, HST may provide information 

concerning how galaxies evolved in the initial period 

after the Big Bang (the hypothesized primal explosion 

creating the universe). Used to observe the solar 

system, it could provide the first images of the surfaces 

of Pluto and its moon, Charon. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. Construction continued 

for the Gamma Kay Observatory (GKO) which was 

projected to be launched by the space shuttle in 1990. 

GKO will carry four instruments to explore extraterrestrial gamma rays, the highest energy radiation in the 

electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays cover the 

energy range from 0.1 million to 30,000 million electron volts. After completing assembly and testing of the 

four scientific instruments, three of the four were 

installed onto the observatory in 1988. The fourth 

instrument was planned to be installed in 1989. Then 

all observatory systems and instruments would be fully 

tested and integrated and the observatory would be 

prepared for launch in 1990. 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility. The 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) is the 

third of the Great Observatories and is to be a spacebased facility designed to observe celestial sources of 

x-rays. AXAF will address fundamental questions in 

astronomy and astrophysics based upon the knowledge that many of the most exciting and fundamental 

sources and processes in the universe radiate in x-rays. 

In 1988, TRW, Inc., was selected by NASA to be the 

prime contractor for the construction and integration of 

the AXAF. Development of the high resolution mirror 

assembly, which is central to the grazing-incidence 

telescope, began in 1988. This mirror assembly will 

focus the x-rays on a complement of science instruments whose development was planned for 1990. 

AXAF is designed to be launched by the space shuttle 

in 1997. 

be the fourth of the Great Observatories, the Space 

Infrared Telescope Facility (SIKTF) is a meter-class 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility. Expected to 
cryogenically-cooled observatory for astrophysical 

studies in the scientifically critical infrared spectral 

region. A major scientific theme of the SIKTF program 

will be the study of cosmic birth. Kegions and phenomena that the facility will explore include the 

following: small bodies in the solar system into which 

the history of the formation of our planetary system 

may literally be frozen; regions within our galaxy 

where the cosmic gas and dust are condensing into 

new stars and planetary systems; and infrared-emitting 

extragalactic objects, including protogalaxies (galaxies 

in formation), that lie at such distances from Earth as 

to be close to the edge of the observable universe. 

Detailed studies have been made of the spacecraft and 

telescope systems, including analysis of the thermal 

and dynamic performance of the primary mirror, 

supporting structure, and chopping secondary mechanism. The instrument definition teams have demonstrated excellent performance for the critical focal 

plane arrays. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories. Analysis 

of data from the three missions in this series of x-ray 

and gamma-ray astronomy projects, known as the High 

Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAOs), continued 

in 1988, with emphasis on activities about creating 

permanent archives of the most essential data products. In particular, work continued on assembling a 

source catalog based on the several thousand sources 

detected with the HEAO-2 (Einstein) satellite. The 

source catalog will constitute a valuable resource for 

the broader astronomical community and will provide 

specific support for such NASA missions as the Koentgen satellite (U.S. observational program), Astro-D, and 

AXAF. Data from the HEAOs, now part of the Astrophysics Data Program archives, remained in active use 

by the astrophysics community in 1988. The HEAO 

data represents the best data set spanning the x-ray 

through gamma-ray portion of the electromagnetic 

spectrum. 

tional Ultraviolet Explorer (WE) was in its eleventh 

International Ultraviolet Explorer. The Internayear of operation. More than 1,000 U.S. astronomers 

have used this orbiting facility to observe objects at 

distances ranging from inside the solar system to the 

edge of the universe. IUE continued to observe 

Supernova 1987a, discovering the remnant shell from 

the red supergiant stage of the supernova as well as 

determining the changing properties of the ejecta from 

continuing observations, and made the best determination of the light curve and its implications concerning 

the nature of the energy source. 

Cosmic Background Explorer. Development 

neared completion for the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) mission, scheduled for launch in 1989 

on a Delta expendable launch vehicle. COBE is 

designed to sensitively measure microwave and farinfrared radiation in the sky thought to come from the 

Big Bang that may have marked the creation of the 

universe. Precisely measuring the spectrum and 

smoothness of this fossil radiation and by searching for 

signs of the earliest stars, the COBE mission is expected to show us how matter may have begun to be 

organized into StdrS, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies 

following the Big Bang. In 1988, instrument development was completed, flight hardware was delivered, 

and the observatory integration was completed. 

Explorer Platform Missions. The Explorer 

Platform is a reusable spacecraft, designed for the 

servicing and replacement of science payloads in orbit 

using the space shuttle or the space station. The 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), the first payload 

to use the platform, was scheduled for launch on a 

Delta expendable launch vehicle in 1991. EUVE will be 

used to study celestial sources emitting radiation in the 

wavelength region between x-rays and ultraviolet light, 

called the extreme ultraviolet. EUVE will be a twophase mission, with the first 6 months devoted to 

scanning the sky to locate and map sources emitting 

radiation in the extreme ultraviolet range, and the 

remainder of the mission (about 24 months) devoted 

to detailed spectroscopy of sources located during the 

first phase. 

3 
During 1988 the University of California at Berkeley, 

the EUVE science instrument developer, completed the 

design of the science instruments, began fabrication, 

and the assembling of the first of four telescopes 

making up the instrument package. Also during 1988, 

the design of the Explorer Platform was completed and 

its fabrication begun. The second user of the Explorer 

Platform, the X-Kay Timing Explorer (XTE), was 

scheduled for launch on the space shuttle in 1994. 

While in orbit, the space shuttle crew will remove the 

EWE payload from the Explorer Platform and replace 

it with the XTE payload. XTE will investigate physical 

processes in black holes, quasars, and x-ray pulsars 

that are revealed in variations of their x-ray luminosity 

in time scales as short as microseconds and as long as 

years. During 1988, the three instrument developers 

(Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of 

California at San Diego, and NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center) continued their definition phase studies 

anticipating initial development in 1990. 

Small- Class Explorer Program with the release of an 

Announcement of Opportunity on May 17, 1988. A 

total of 51 proposals were received and reviewed for 

acceptance into the flight program. This is an aggressive program designed to provide an opportunity for 

quick flights of small free-flyers to conduct focused 

investigations that complement major missions, prove 

new scientific concepts, or make significant contributions to space science. 

Other Explorer Activities 

Sun Marco-D. The San Marco-D mission was a 

cooperative activity in which the United States provided a Scout launch vehicle, technical advice, and 

instruments to Italy (University of Kome) for integration with its San Marco-D spacecraft. The spacecraft 

was successfully launched from the Italian San Marco 

launch platform located off the coast of Kenya, on 

March 25, 1988, and reentered on December 6, 1988. 

Small-Class Explorer Program. NASA initiated its 

The mission was a success and data analysis was 

continuing. 

Astro-D. The Astro-D mission, which is a new 

cooperative flight project with Japan, was in the 

definition phase, with plans for launch in 1993 from 

Kagoshima Space Center, Japan. The spacecraft was 

planned to be a small satellite devoted to x-ray astronomy and spectroscopy. This mission would include a 

lightweight x-ray telescope and a spectroscopic x-ray 

detector, both built in the United States. Activities 

during 1988 have been the scientific definition of the 

Astro-D payload and design of the instruments. The 

US.-built components were planned to be delivered to 

Japan during 1991. 

Roentgen Satellite. The Koentgen satellite 

(KOSAT), a cooperative flight project with West 

Germany, will provide a full-sky, x-ray survey with unprecedented sensitivity. KOSAT was originally manifested on the space shuttle, but was reconfigured to be 

boosted into orbit in 1990 by a Delta-I1 expendable 

launch vehicle supplied by the United States. During 

1988, the West Germans completed the integration of 

the scientific instruments into the spacecraft and started 

both structural and environmental testing. One of the 

x-ray focal plane instruments, the High Resolution 

Imager, supplied by the United States, was integrated 

into the spacecraft. 

Infrared Astronomical Satellite. Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IUS) was one of the most successful 

space astronomy missions ever conducted. Discoveries 

made from the IRAS data have produced major advances in astronomy and astrophysics, particularly in 

our understanding of ultraluminous infrared galaxies. 

In the three years since the original IKAS data products 

were released, there have been more than 400 papers 

published using IKAS data. Scientists continue to 

process the IKAS data to produce new archival information and to support an extensive program involving 

members of the original IRAS science team and a large 

number of guest investigators (approximately 70 

4 
groups per year). The catalog for faint sources at high 

galactic latitudes was published at the end of 1988-it 

more than doubled the number of cataloged extragalactic infrared sources. 

Solar System Exploration 

The goals of NASA’s solar system exploration 

programs include the following: 1) to determine the 

present nature of the solar system, its planets, and its 

primitive bodies in order to understand how the solar 

system and its objects formed, evolved, and (in at least 

one case) produced environments that could sustain 

life; 2) to better understand the planet Earth by determining and understanding why the “terrestrial” planets 

of the solar system are so different from each other; 

and 3) to establish the scientific and technical data 

base required for understanding major human endeavors in space, by surveying near-Earth resources, 

characterizing of planetary surfaces, and searching for 

life on other planets. To accomplish these goals, the 

solar system exploration program is involved in a 

number of projects, which are described below. 

Pioneer Venus. In December 1988, the Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter completed 10 years of successful 

operation and scientific data-gathering at Venus. With 

one exception, all science instruments were still 

functioning; however, slowly declining solar cell 

electric output required that instruments be operated in 

a time- sharing mode to conserve power. During 1988, 

investigation of the interaction of the solar wind with 

the Venus upper atmosphere and ionosphere continued, with particular attention being directed to understanding the chemical and physical processes occurring 

in the planet’s nightside atmosphere. Fourteen guest 

investigators were added to the Pioneer Venus science 

team in April 1988; each is pursuing a particular 

scientific investigation based on the extensive mission 

dataset not available to the community at large. 

The Interplanetary and Interstellar Medium. 

Pioneer 10 and 11 were still functioning well as they 

moved away from the solar system and provided 

valuable data on the interstellar medium. Pioneer 10 

was beyond 45 astronomical units (AU) from the sun 

(an AU is the distance between the sun and Earth) and 

was receding at the rate of 2.8 AU/year. Pioneer 11 

was moving in the opposite direction from Pioneer 10 

and was 25 AU from the sun and was receding at 2.2 

AU per year. To appreciate the distance, it should be 

noted that at 45 AU, it takes nearly 6 hours for a radio 

signal from the spacecraft to reach Earth. Both spacecraft are powered by radioisotope thermoelectric 

generators and their declining power levels are forcing 

power sharing between the various instruments; 

however, both spacecraft are projected to be capable 

of acquiring and transmitting valuable science data 

well into the 1990s. The major objective of the continuity of the Pioneer missions is the location and definition of the actual boundary of our solar system (the 

sun’s magnetic influence) and the definition of the 

properties of interstellar space. Voyager 1 and 2 also 

continued to provide valuable science data on the 

interplanetary and interstellar medium because they 

are heading out of the solar system in different directions than the Pioneers. 

Mars Observer. During 1988, the Mars Observer 

payload, still in the design phase, was descoped to 

bring the estimated cost of the mission back within 

budgetary guidelines. To accomplish this, one science 

instrument, the Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, was deleted from the mission, and another, 

the Mars Observer Radar Altimeter Radiometer was 

replaced by the Mars Observer Laser Altimeter. Another major change was the dccision to launch on thc 

Titan 111 expendable launch vehicle, thus removing the 

requirement for dual launch vehicle capability. Also, as 

a result of US.-Soviet negotiations on cooperation in 

space, the Mars Observer will carry Soviet/Frenchprovided radio-relay hardware to relay data from 

balloons that were planned to be deployed on Mars in 

1995 by the Soviets. During 1988, the design phase of 

the Mars Observer spacecraft systems and payload 

continued. Preliminary design reviews of several major 

5 
spacecraft subsystems were completed and the balance 

of the subsystems were scheduled for review completion in 1989. Preliminary design reviews were also held 

for all science instruments. Interface control documents 

were prepared for all the science instruments. 

Voyager. Following unprecedented scientific 

discoveries from the successful Jupiter, Saturn, and 

Uranus encounters, Voyager 2 continued its epic 

journey through the solar system. It will make its last 

encounter with a solar system planet, Neptune, on 

August 25, 1989. 

Voyager 1 was already leaving our solar system 

since its trajectory was bent in a northerly (upward) 

direction after the Saturn encounter; in mid-1988, it 

was 36.5 astronomical units from the sun and receding 

from Earth at 3.6 astronomical units per year. Voyager 

1 was continuing to gather valuable scientific data from 

the northern half of the celestial sphere. 

During 1988, preparations continued for Voyager 2’s 

encounter with Neptune. The Neptune encounter 

presented even more technical challenges than previous encounters, because of its greater distance from 

the sun and increased communication distances from 

Earth. Significant changes in the operational utilization 

of the Voyager hardware, necessitated by both of these 

factors, were completed in 1988. These changes 

included reprogramming the computers to permit 

longer exposure times for the imaging system; changing the operating modes of the spacecraft’s control 

system to minimize smear during the extended imaging 

exposures; and upgrading the ground antennas from 

64 meters to 70 meters to cope with the increased 

communication distances. 

Nine of 10 new computer loads necessary for the 

encounter were completed and passed ground simulations and tests. Major tests involving the spacecraft and 

the ground system to test the required new capabilities 

were satisfactorily conducted in 1988. 

Magellan. Development of Magellan continued 

toward a 1989 launch on a shuttle/inertial upper stage 

combination. In 1988, the spacecraft was shipped to 

6 

the Kennedy Space Center for final pre-launch processing, and it was scheduled to be mated with the Shuttle 

Orbiter Atlantis in early 1989. 

The Magellan mission is designed to provide global 

maps of the landforms and geological features of the 

cloud-shrouded surface of Venus. Using a synthetic 

aperture radar to penetrate the planet’s opaque 

atmosphere, Magellan could achieve a resolution high 

enough to identify small-scale features and to address 

fundamental questions about the origin of the planet, 

the evolution of its surface, and the similarities and 

differences between it and similarly sized Earth. 

Magellan is planned also to obtain altimetry and 

gravity data to accurately determine the planet’s gravity 

field as well as the internal stresses and density 

variations within it. With these data, the evolutionary 

history of Venus can be closely compared with that of 

Earth. 

Galileo. The Galileo mission, a combined orbiter 

and atmospheric probe, is designed to make a detailed 

exploration of the giant planet Jupiter and its large 

family of diverse moons. The mission is comprised of a 

comprehensive science payload that could extend our 

scientific knowledge of this system far beyond the 

breakthrough discoveries made during the earlier 

flybys of the Pioneer and Voyager missions. During its 

planned 22 months of operation around Jupiter, 

Galileo is designed to inject an instrumented probe 

into Jupiter’s atmosphere to make direct analyses. The 

orbiter could make long-term observations of Jupiter 

itself and could also make as many as 10 close encounters with various moons of Jupiter. 

launch in 1989, using a shuttlehertial upper stage 

combination. To reach Jupiter, the spacecraft must 

make three gravity-assist flyby maneuvers, one with 

Venus in 1990 and two with the Earth-moon system in 

1990 and 1992. The spacecraft is also planned to make 

close-up observations of two asteroids before arriving 

at Jupiter in 1995. 

Galileo development continued toward a planned 
Ulysses. The Ulysses mission is a joint program 

between NASA and the European Space Agency to 

explore the sun. The spacecraft is designed to carry 

instruments to make detailed observations of the sun’s 

high latitudes in order to understand the sun’s corona, 

the origin and acceleration of the solar wind into 

space, and the composition and acceleration of 

energetic atoms from the sun in solar flares and other 

violent solar events. Ulysses was being developed for a 

1990 launch on a shuttleAnertia1 upper stage, with 

payload assist module-S, combination. To reach the 

sun, the spacecraft must first be launched toward 

Jupiter to make a gravity-assist swingby around that 

planet that would head it toward a 1993 flyby over the 

sun’s south pole. 

Space Flight Operations Center. This new 

multimission project, the Space Flight Operations 

Center, successfully completed a major development 

milestone in 1988 by delivering a baseline operational 

system to support the Magellan mission launch. To 

meet this milestone, the project produced five major 

software deliveries that were on schedule and within 

budget. This new generation, state-of-the-art, ground 

data processing system has demonstrated its operability 

and stability in extensive testing at the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory. The Space Flight Operations Center is the 

next generation of ground data systems for present and 

future needs. 

Flight Mission Support. In 1988, the Flight Project 

Support Office at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory continued to provide operations support to the Voyager and 

Pioneer spacecraft on their journeys toward the limits 

of the solar system. Other activities included preparations to launch the Magellan spacecraft toward Venus 

in 1989 and the Galileo spacecraft toward Jupiter in 

1989. Preparations were begun for Voyager 2’s initial 

encounter with Neptune in late June 1989 leading to a 

close flyby of the planet in late August 1989. Modern 

equipment was purchased for the multimission data 

records system and general-purpose computer facility, 

while the multimission image processing system was 

modified for Venus and Neptune imaging support. 

Modifications were also made to the Ulysses real-time 

telemetry processor. 

Space Physics 

The NASA Space Physics Division supports investigations concerning the origin, evolution, and interactions of particulate matter and electromagnetic fields in 

a wide variety of space plasmas. Its studies focus on 

the upper atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres of Earth and other planets; the sun as a star 

and as a source of solar system energy, plasma, and 

energetic particles; and the acceleration, transport, and 

interactions of energetic particles and plasmas throughout the solar system and the galaxy. Observations, 

theory, modeling, simulations, laboratory studies, 

interactive data analysis, instrument development, and 

active experiments are all important aspects of the 

program. 

International Solar Terrestrial Physics 

Program In 1988, the implementation of a major 

international program in solar and space physics 

continued with participation by NASA, the Japanese 

Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences, and the 

European Space Agency. The U.S. contribution to this 

effort is NASA’s International Solar Terrestrial Physics 

Program. 

A systematic deployment of a group of satellites was 

planned for the early to mid-1990s by these agencies to 

measure and test models for the study of the interior 

and corona of the sun, the origin of the solar wind, the 

cause-and-effect relations of the flow of energy in 

Earth’s key magnetospheric plasma source and storage 

regions, and the microphysics of plasma interactions in 

Earth’s magnetosphere. 

The Collaborative Solar Terrestrial Research 

(COSTK) Program supports NASA participation in 

international cooperative missions as part of the 

International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) Program. 

In particular, this initiative enables NASA to support 

the Japanese Institute of Space and Aeronautical 

7 
Sciences in providing a GEOTAIL satellite mission to 

monitor the energy storage in Earth’s magnetic tail 

region. In 1988, the United States continued to develop 

instruments for GEOTAIL. The COSTK Program also 

supported collaborations with the European Space 

Agency (ESA) on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), which was planned to conduct solar 

seismology and coronal diagnostics at the Earth-sun 

Lagrangian point. Additionally, ESA and NASA were 

planning a CLUSTEK mission which is a group of four 

satellites providing three-dimensional measurements of 

magnetospheric microphysics processes. Four selected 

U.S. investigations for these missions were to start their 

Phase B studies for a science confirmation review in 

1989. ESA had released its call for proposals for 

constructing the spacecraft. 

Under the Global Geospace Science Program of the 

ISTP Program, approved as a new initiative in the 1988 

budget, NASA was to provide a WIND spacecraft 

mission to monitor the solar wind input and a POLAR 

spacecraft mission to monitor the ionospheric plasma 

source region. The WIND and POLAK spacecraft 

mission contractor (GE-ASTKO/East Windsor, NJ) was 

selected in 1988 and the investigations were confirmed 

for flight. These two missions, in conjunction with the 

NASMDepartment of Defense Combined Kelease and 

Kadiation Effects Satellite in the equatorial storage 

region of the magnetosphere and the GEOTAIL 

mission, would make simultaneous measurements in 

different regions of geospace to understand geospace 

as a system. 

GEOTAIL on expendable launch vehicles, and SOHO 

on the space shuttle; CLUSTEK would be launched by 

ESA on an Ariane V development flight. NASA, the 

Japanese Institute of Space and Aeronautical Sciences, 

and ESA would share instruments and tracking support. In 1988, NASA and ESA jointly selected investigations for the SOHO and CLUSTER missions and began 

definition studies. 

NASA planned to launch WIND, POLAK, and 

Solar Maximum Mission. NASA decided not to 

attempt any type of repair or recovery effort for the 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), predicted to fall from 

orbit because of atmospheric drag in late 1989. This 

decision was based on restrictions of the shuttle 

mission opportunities in that time period. The SMM 

was launched in 1980, but suffered a failure of its 

attitude control system only 9 months later. It was 

repaired in orbit in 1984 by the space shuttle astronaut 

crew. The SMM investigator groups will continue to 

operate this mission until it decays from orbit, and 

then conclude data archiving and in-progress analysis 

projects. In the meantime, a sixth opportunity for 

participation in the SMM guest investigator program 

was planned for release in 1989. 

nated stereo observations between NASA’s SMM and 

TEREK, a solar x-ray imager/coronagraph experiment 

on the Soviet Phobos mission, while Phobos was on its 

transit orbit to Mars. This opportunity was largely lost 

when Phobos 1 ceased operation shortly after an 

otherwise flawless launch and orbit injection. However, a limited amount of coordinated data were taken 

and joint study by U.S. and U.S.S.R. scientists has been 

initiated. 

SOLAR-A Program. Progress on the joint Japanese/ 

NASA mission, SOLAK-A, proceeded satisfactorily in 

1988, and launch was scheduled for 1991. The flight 

mirror for the joint Japanese/NASA Soft X-ray Telescope was delivered from the manufacturer and tested 

successfully. The Japanese were to develop two 

instruments entirely on their own, while a third was to 

be provided by the United Kingdom. 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory. In 1988, the Phase B 

study of the Orbiting Solar Laboratory (OSL) continued 

satisfactorily. The objectives of OSL (which derives 

from its predecessor known as the High Kesolution 

Solar Observatory) are to study the detailed magnetic, 

hydrodynamic, and radiative processes in the sun’s 

photosphere and chromosphere. The main effort in 

1988 was to redefine the completed observatory as a 

The Soviets and the Americans agreed upon coordi8 
free-flying polar orbiting satellite, expected to consist 

of up to four main optical units: a diffraction-limited, 

meter-class telescope (provided by industry); a coordinated instrument package (provided by U.S. and 

German science institutions); and at least one, but 

preferably two, additional “strap-on’’ co-observing 

instruments. One of these may be provided by NASA, 

and the other provided by the U.S. Air Force Geophysics Laboratory with possible Italian collaboration. 

Tethered Sutellfte System Work continued in 

1988 on the scientific instrument systems for the first 

Tethered Satellite System mission scheduled for 

operation on the shuttle in 1991. This mission is shared 

with the Italians who supply the satellite to be tethered 

from the shuttle by a 12-mile wire. The mission is 

planned to examine the electrodynamics effects of 

large, conducting space systems. 

Advanced Studfes. The major new mission for 

space physics was the Solar Probe Mission, which 

measures the plasma physics of the sun’s inner corona. 

This priority was established in 1987 by the Committee 

on Solar and Space Physics of the National Academy of 

Sciences’ Space Science Board in a report entitled, “An 

Implementation Plan for Priorities in Solar-System 

Space Physics.” A science working group has held one 

meeting, and expected to continue to meet. In the 

June 1, 1988 communique, the United States and the 

Soviet Union agreed to add to the April 1987 space 

cooperation agreement the study of possible joint 

missions. Information about a possible cooperative or 

joint solar probe mission will be exchanged in April 

1989 at the second U.S./U.S.S.R. Joint Working Group 

for Solar Terrestrial Physics in Moscow. The NASA 

strategy calls for the Solar Probe Mission to be started 

sometime in the mid-1990s. 

During 1988, NASA initiated a feasibility study for a 

Mercury orbiter mission. Such a mission would complete the global mapping of the Mercury surface and 

make measurements of the interactions of Mercury 

with the very intense solar wind. 

Further work to define and design the ASTROMAG 

superconducting magnet facility for the space station 

occurred in 1988. ASTROMAG is a superconducting 

magnet to be attached to the space station to analyze 

the highest energy cosmic rays from our galaxy and 

the nearby universe. Proposals for instruments to use 

this facility were undergoing evaluation. 

Explorer Mfssfons. In 1988, the International 

Cometary Explorer (ICE) continued operations in a 

heliocentric orbit at 1 astronomical unit from Earth. 

Correlative solar wind measurements were made with 

IMP-8. Analysis of previous ICE data sets from Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner and Earth’s geotail region continued. 

The Dynamics Explorer (DE) spacecraft conducted 

two campaigns (DE-1 and DE-2) to provide detailed 

imaging of the atmosphere with simultaneous sounding rocket launches that released large volumes of 

water to simulate the existence of “snowy comets” 

postulated by scientists at the University of Iowa. 

Reviews of Geophysics (May 1988) published summaries 

of results and contributions during the first 5 years of 

DE operations. Analysis of near simultaneous measurements by DE-1 and DE-2 along the field lines at two 

different altitudes provided the most definitive evidence yet for the existence of electric fields aligned 

along these magnetic field lines, long postulated as the 

driving mechanism for the aurora. 

Charge Composition Explorer (CCE) has detected 

samples of solar magnesium and sulfur in the solar 

wind for the first time. Knowledge of the amounts of 

these and other chemical elements in the solar wind 

provides clues to how the solar wind is produced in 

the sun. Measurements with the CCE and the Ion 

Release Module, an on-board instrument, discovered 

pressure pulses in the solar wind and showed that 

these pulses cause Earth’s magnetic field to “ring” with 

disturbances seen all the way to Earth’s surface. 

Instruments on the CCE defined for the first time the 

region in space far out on the night side of Earth in 

which geomagnetic storms occur, and in which they 

9 
accelerate the energetic particles that subsequently 

spread to fill the magnetosphere. 

Sounding Rocket Program. Sounding rockets 

offer an inexpensive means to perform space-borne 

experiments; the main advantages of using sounding 

rockets are that the experiments can be conceived, 

built, and flown in one or two years, and they can 

often be recovered and reflown. Thus, the sounding 

rocket program offers a unique opportunity for universities to train graduate students for advanced experimental research. When Supernova 1987a was reported, 

the sounding rocket program was able to respond 

quickly, enabling NASA to carry out meaningful 

measurements of this new phenomenon in a timely 

manner. The NASA sounding rocket program supported about 35 to 40 launches a year. Depending on 

weight and other requirements of the experiments, 

these launches included small rockets of the Nike class 

to large ones of the Aries class. The sounding rocket 

program is managed and operated by NASA Goddard 

Space Flight Center at Wallops Flight Facility (WFF). 

During 1988, discussions began and initial plans 

were drawn up to comply with the Administration’s 

directive for “commercialization” of flight services. 

Since the sounding rocket program is an efficient, 

level-of-effort program that allows the science community to fly payloads from many different rocket ranges 

around the world, WFF has been serving as the prime 

contractor for these activities. Plans were being formulated so that qualified launch services vendors could 

be identified and given responsibility for launch 

activities without significant impact to the on-going 

program. 

record success in 1988. A total of 46 balloon flights 

were conducted with only one failure of the balloon 

system. Four of the science investigations failed 

because of instrument or operation problems or both. 

The program included three southern hemisphere 

campaigns to observe Supernova 1987a from Australia. 

One of these involved two long duration test flights 

10 

Balloon Program The balloon program achieved 

that were terminated in Brazil after traveling half-way 

around Earth. An additional foreign campaign was 

carried out from Canada, in order to study low energy 

cosmic rays at high latitudes during the period of solar 

minimum activity. 

Following a 1988 reevaluation of balloon safety, 

severe constraints have been placed on flights from the 

National Scientific Balloon Facility in Palestine, TX. 

These changes resulted from a better understanding of 

the hazards associated with flight termination and from 

the increased population density, especially within a 

few hundred miles of Palestine and in the flight 

corridor east of the Mississippi River. Consequently, 

beginning in September 1988 flights were permitted 

from Palestine only if they had trajectories toward the 

west, where they could be terminated in sparsely 

populated regions. Palestine could no longer be used 

for flights during the winter months or during the 

turnaround seasons in April-May and SeptemberOctober, which are the prime times to launch science 

flights requiring float times of a day or more. In the 

immediate future, Fort Sumner, NM, would be used as 

a semi-permanent launch site for turnaround flights, as 

well as for flights conducted in the winter months. 

Earth Science and Applications 

Applications Program is to obtain a scientific understanding of the entire Earth system by describing how 

its component parts and their interactions have 

evolved, how they function, and how they may be 

expected to continue to evolve on all time scales. To 

accomplish this goal, the Earth Science and Applications Program was involved in number of programs, 

which are described below. 

Znterdisciplfnary Research. NASA issued a 

research announcement for participation in the interdisciplinary research program in 1988. In this announcement the program was broadened into three 

principal study topics to understand long-term physical, chemical, and biological changes in Earth’s enviThe overarching goal of NASA’s Earth Science and 
ronment. The first topic is the role of the hydrological 

cycle in atmosphere-surface interactions including the 

fluxes of water and energy between these two boundaries that influence the behaviors of the climate system. 

The second topic is to determine the fluxes of trace 

gases from ecosystems and their fate in the troposphere in order to understand the contribution of landsurface biology to a changing atmospheric greenhouse 

effect. The third topic is research into how to detect 

global changes that will specifically distinguish between changes in the climate system caused by the 

man-made “greenhouse effect” and changes caused by 

other natural processes that alter the climatic state of 

Earth. 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. The 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UAKS) is designed to provide the global data base necessary for 

understanding the coupled chemistry and dynamics of 

the stratosphere and mesosphere, the role of solar 

radiation in driving their chemistry and dynamics, and 

the susceptibility of the upper atmosphere to long-term 

changes in the concentration and distribution of key 

atmospheric constituents, particularly ozone. 

program in upper atmosphere research, a program 

initiated in response to concerns about stratospheric 

ozone depletion. This satellite may provide, for the 

first time, global scale, long-term measurements of the 

concentrations of key source, sink, and reactive free 

radical species, direct measurements of winds, and simultaneous measurements of energy input from solar 

ultraviolet and energetic particle bombardment. 

The UARS observatory critical design review was 

successfully completed in early 1988. The observatory 

primary structure was fabricated and assembled and 

was undergoing acceptance testing. All 10 of the UARS 

instruments completed critical design review. Two 

instruments completed acceptance testing and the 

remaining eight were in various phases of final assembly and testing. All instruments were planned to be 

delivered to observatory integration and testing by the 

The UARS is a crucial element of NASA’s long-term 

end of 1989. The first phase of the Central Data 

Handling Facility was in place. Remote analysis 

computers for the principal investigators were connected to this Facility, and the instrument teams were 

developing ground-based software to be used in 

processing and analysis of flight data. Launch was 

scheduled for late 1991. 

Operational Meteorological Satellites. NASA 

continued to support the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Operational Weather 

Satellite Program by procuring the satellites and 

instruments needed to acquire the desired environmental observations. Acting as NOAA’s agent, NASA 

also arranged for the launch of these satellites and 

conducted on-orbit check out before handing them 

over to NOAA for routine operations. On September 

24, 1988, NOAA-H was launched on an Air Force AtlasE launch vehicle into an 870-kilometer sun-synchronous orbit with a local data acquisition time of 1:40 

pm. Upon achieving a successful orbit, this spacecraft 

was redesignated NOAA-1 1 and became the operational afternoon satellite on November 8, 1988. NOAA10, launched on September 17, 1986, continued to 

function as the morning satellite. NOAA-D was being 

prepared to replace NOAA-10. It was planned to be 

ready for launch in 1990. An additional five satellites 

beyond NOAA-D were under contract. These satellites 

were projected to provide global polar-orbit coverage 

through the year 1997. 

from its nominal East-Coast position of 750 degrees 

west to a mid-U.S. position in anticipation of a failure 

of GOES-6, the operating West-Coast satellite. GOES-6 

was launched on April 28, 1983 and had already 

continued to function beyond its 5-year design life. 

Because of the launch failure of GOES-G in May 1986, 

there would be no spacecraft available to replace the 

aging GOES-6 until the launch of GOES-I in 1990. Five 

additional spacecraft (GOES-I through -M) were under 

contract. These satellites would be launched on Atlas/ 

Centaurs under a commercial launch services contract. 

The GOES-7 geostationary satellite was maneuvered 

11 
They are designed to provide geostationary orbit 

coverage of the Western Hemisphere through the year 

2000. 

Atmospheric Science Program Two major 

scientific assessments were completed in 1988: the 

Upper- Atmosphere Research Program’s report to 

Congress and to the Environmental Protection Agency 

(Part 11, NASA Ref. Pub. 1208), and the Report of the 

International Ozone Trends Panel. The Congressional 

report, entitled “Present State of Knowledge of the 

Upper Atmosphere 1988: An Assessment Report,” 

summarizes evidence for changes in the chemical 

composition and structure of the stratosphere, in 

particular the abundance and distribution of ozone. 

This report also contains a critical review of the 

photochemical processes believed to be important in 

the stratosphere, as well as results from an international group of scientists using theoretical models of 

the stratosphere to predict future levels of ozone. In 

these calculations the chemistry of the atmosphere is 

predicted to change in response to the increasing 

atmospheric abundances of trace gases, primarily 

chlorofluorocarbons, halons, methane, carbon dioxide, 

and nitrous oxide. 

The International Ozone Trends Panel was convened in 1987 to critically assess whether the chemical 

composition and physical structure of the stratosphere 

had changed over the last few decades and whether 

our understanding of the influence of natural phenomena and human activities was consistent with the 

observed changes. The review of the panel report 

began in 1987, with a major panel review in January 

1988. The executive summary was released on March 

15, 1988. 

In September 1988, the Upper Atmosphere Theory 

and Data Analysis Program sponsored a comparison of 

multi-dimensional models of stratospheric chemistry. 

The week-long workshop was the largest and most scientifically extensive comparison of stratospheric 

models to date. The meeting included participation by 

many of the international research groups involved in 

12 

two- and three-dimensional modeling of stratospheric 

ozone. The theoretical modeling community contributed model results for a well-defined specific set of numerical experiments on the following: l) fundamental 

photochemistry, 2) dynamical motions and mechanistic 

tracer studies, 3) current atmospheric chemistry, and 

4) predictions of future ozone change. 

The goal of the model comparison was to identify 

the causes of differences among the models, with the 

intent of using this information to understand why the 

models differ in their predictions of stratospheric 

change for the assessment of future ozone levels. 

Differences in the chemical or transport formulation 

between models were identified as having an impact 

on specific predictions of the models as tested by the 

four experiments listed above. The model comparison 

was planned to continue, with the next major international workshop possibly in 1990. 

In 1988, NASA successfully completed a major 

tropospheric chemistry experiment in Alaska during 

the peak summertime period for biogenic production 

of methane and other “greenhouse” gases from the 

tundra, one of the world’s major natural sources of 

methane. Data were being analyzed for first public 

presentation in 1989. Preliminary analysis of the data 

indicated that the experiment, which involved aircraft 

and ground-based measurements supported by satellite 

meteorology, was an operational success and would 

likely yield an important new data base on the atmospheric chemistry of this important source region for 

one of the key “greenhouse” gases. 

Land Processes. NASA’s Land Processes Program 

consists of the following four interrelated elements: 

studies of terrestrial ecosystems, the hydrologic cycle, 

geology, and remote sensing science. The focus was 

on the Earth sciences using currently available systems 

and airborne prototypes for future systems, with some 

attention given to the development of new instruments 

and techniques for future scientific and applied use. 

A special 3-year program to apply Landsat Thematic 

Mapper (TM) data to basic scientific research in 
geology, hydrology, and biology was completed in 

1988. TM data proved to be extremely useful in such 

diverse studies as mapping the extent of past glaciation 

and volcanism in the Andes, classifying snow according to grain size and water content classes, documenting changes in vegetation growth patterns in the Sahel, 

estimating organic carbon and iron concentrations in 

paleosols in the Pacific Northwest, and inferring 

nitrogen mineralization in sagebrush ecosystems. 

a prototype sensor, was flown on NASA’s ER-2 research aircraft for a variety of science users. This was 

the second year of sensor evaluation flights for this 

instrument. Another prototype, the Synthetic Aperture 

Radar, was successfully placed into operation on the 

NASA DC-8 research aircraft. Both research and 

evaluation flights were conducted. An advanced 

passive microwave system, the Electronically Steerable 

Thinned Aperture Radiometer, made its initial engineering flights. There was also considerable research 

use of other sensors such as the Thermal Infrared 

Multispectral Scanner, Advanced Solid State Array 

Spectroradiometer, and several thematic mapper 

simulators. 

tems research in 1988 focused on the use of remote 

sensing to study biogeochemical cycling processes, 

biotic contributions to the global energy balance, and 

changes in vegetation state and dynamics. Specific 

activities included the following: 1) analysis of patterns 

and rates of deforestation in the Amazon Basin using 

the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

vegetation index and thermal data; 2) modeling of net 

primary productivity and evapotranspiration for a 

regional watershed using remotely sensed model 

inputs; 3) development of linked canopy radiative 

transfer, soil process, and ecosystem dynamics models; 

4) initial investigation of the components of canopy 

structure contributing to the radar response of forested 

ecosystems; and 5) use of ground methane flux measurements and remotely sensed landscape units to 

The Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer, 

Terrestrial Ecology Program. Terrestrial ecosysestimate regional methane production on the North 

Slope of Alaska. Compilation of an internally consistent, global vegetation index data set continued, and 

the first examination of global interannual patterns of 

productivity and vegetation phenology were planned 

for 1989. 

Geology Program. Geologic studies in the Wind 

River Basin have developed techniques for detailed 

geologic mapping and structural interpretation from 

remotely sensed data. Satellite and airborne sensor 

data were used to construct a stratigraphic section of 

the Wind River Basin which compares very closely to 

that constructed by geologists mapping in the field. 

The rocks of the Wind River Basin were deposited as 

sediments over 60 million years ago in a continental 

margin setting. Because the rocks are characteristic of 

certain depositional environments, it is possible to infer 

the basin’s depositional history from the sequence of 

rocks preserved therein. The post-sedimentary deformational history of the Wind River Basin can be 

reconstructed from the present geometry of rock 

sections observable on a grand scale with satellite 

imagery and checked with existing seismic data. 

Geodynamfcs. In 1988, the NASA Crustal Dynamics 

Project completed the upgrades to their satellite laser 

ranging stations to achieve 1-centimeter accuracies and 

started cooperative upgrade programs with participating groups in the Federal Republic of Germany, The 

Netherlands, Israel, France, England, and Australia. 

Similarly, upgrades to the very-long baseline interferometer (VLBI) systems and analysis techniques have 

achieved 1-centimeter accuracies for baselines of many 

thousands of kilometers in length. New stations in 

China and Australia were added to the VLBI network 

surrounding the Pacific “King of Fire,” so named 

because of the abundant volcanos and frequent 

earthquakes along the edge of the Pacific plate. Recent 

analysis of the data from the global laser and VLBI 

networks have produced much more accurate plate 

motion velocities and deformations of the boundaries 

of the colliding plates. The deformations were being 

13 
studied in more detail with space geodetic techniques 

using the Global Positioning System. Special campaigns were conducted in California, Mexico, Central 

America, South America, and the Caribbean. 

Earth Observing System The Earth Observing 

System (EOS) Program is an interdisciplinary Earth 

science mission to provide long-term observations and 

the supporting information system necessary to 

develop a comprehensive understanding of the way 

Earth functions as a natural system. This understanding 

includes the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, 

cryosphere, biosphere, and solid Earth. The comprehensive global approach to the study of these processes in an integrated context is called Earth System 

Science and has a strong focus on developing the 

capability to accurately predict the evolution of the 

Earth system on time scales of decades to a century. 

The EOS Program includes space- and groundbased research and a distributed information system 

and global data base. The EOS Program involves 

participants from the United States, the European 

Space Agency (ESA), Japan, Canada, and other nations. 

U.S. participants include the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National 

Science Foundation (NSF), and the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) among others. The space elements 

associated with the EOS Program include elements 

within the framework of the Space Station Program 

(the first NASA Polar Orbiting Platform [POP], the first 

ESA POP, and space station attached payloads), and 

elements foreseen to be outside of the Space Station 

Program (the second NASA POP, the second and 

subsequent ESA POPS, the first Japanese POP, and 

other Earth-observation related elements. 

During 1988, the EOS Program progressed to the 

definition and preliminary design phase (Phase B). In 

January 1988, the EOS Announcement of Opportunity 

was released. Proposals were received in June and 

July, and the peer review process completed in 

November. A total of 457 proposals were received in 

14 

three categories: interdisciplinary research proposals, 

team memberheam leader proposals for facility class 

instruments, and proposals for design and development of principal investigator instruments. 

Interagency agreements between NASA and USGS 

and between NASA and NOAA were negotiated during 

1988. The NASA-USGS agreement was finalized and 

the NASA-NOM agreement was under discussion. The 

agreements allow for phased transition of data acquired within the EOS Program from NASA short-term 

archives to USGS and NOM long-term, permanent 

archives. 

Phase A or Phase B studies. NASA EOS facility class 

instruments included the following: 1) Moderate 

Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS), including 

MODIS-Tilt and MODIS-Nadir; 2) High Resolution 

Imaging Spectrometer; 3) Geodynamics Laser Ranging 

System; 4) Synthetic Aperture Radar; 5) Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder; and 6) the Atmospheric Infrared 

Sounders. Phase B definition contracts were awarded 

for MODIS-Nadir, and Phase A contracts were awarded 

for the Geodynamics Laser Ranging System during 

1988. MODIS-Tilt, the High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer, and the Synthetic Aperature Radar were inhouse projects being executed by the NASA Goddard 

Space Flight Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 

During 1988, the Earth Observation International 

Coordination Working Group was chartered and three 

meetings were held to address EOS principal investigator instrument selection, planning scenarios for payloads on each platform, common instrument interfaces, 

and EOS data policy. 

attention was given to the possibility of global climate 

changes associated with "greenhouse" warming caused 

by increasing quantities of trace gases added to the 

atmosphere. Many of the tools and improved scientific 

understanding developed by NASA will help the nation 

assess and monitor potential climate changes caused 

by man-made and natural effects. Since it was estabAll NASA-provided EOS instruments were either in 

Climate Research. During 1988 much public 
lished by NASA as a separate scientific discipline in 

1977, NASA’s Climate Research Program has focused 

on studies of the radiation processes which influence 

climate and its predictability. The centerpiece of the 

climate observing system continues to be the Earth 

Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), which has been 

collecting data since 1984 on the global distribution of 

solar radiation absorbed by Earth and infrared radiation emitted to space. These measurements, acquired 

by ERBE instruments carried by a dedicated NASA 

research satellite and two NOM operational meteorological satellites, were providing new insight into how 

Earth stores and transports energy. Research continued 

on the degree to which clouds contribute to the 

cooling or heating of Earth. Further evidence acquired 

by ERBE confirmed the earlier conclusion that global 

cloudiness tends to cool the planet. 

Mesoscale Atmospheric Processes. During 1988, 

effort was directed toward the planning and design of 

a networked remote sensor image acquisition, distribution, and processing system called “WetNet.” WetNet 

will be used to make quantitative estimates of global 

precipitation over land and water, water in liquid and 

vapor forms within clouds, ice distributions, seasurface wind stress, a microwave vegetation index, a 

wet-dry evaluation of surface moisture conditions, and 

some estimates of snow cover depth and water 

content. The team of investigators would receive 

global maps of selected parameters one day after 

satellite observation via network transmissions directly 

to their desktop personal computer, which in turn 

could process the data and display it in color maps for 

study of regional variations, global trends, or catastrophic local phenomena. The hardware for data 

acquisition, networking, and local analysis was scheduled to be available for system implementation in 

1989. 

Global Scale Atmospheric Processes. This 

research program stresses the development of advanced remote sensing instruments for observing 

meteorological parameters in Earth’s atmosphere, 

advanced analysis techniques to improve the utility of 

existing meteorological satellite data, and improved 

numerical models capable of both atmospheric diagnosis and prediction. During 1988, the fabrication of a 

pulsed carbon dioxide lidar system for airborne use 

was completed. This lidar system will figure prominently in a large-scale aircraft and ground-based 

measurement program being planned to refine our 

knowledge of the distribution of aerosols in the lower 

atmosphere. This information is needed for the design 

of a spaceborne laser system that will use Doppler 

frequency shifts of the backscattered laser energy from 

aerosols moving with the wind to observe those winds. 

Remote sensing algorithms for several meteorological 

parameters like temperature and moisture profiles and 

cloud amounts were improved, and new techniques 

for retrieving average rain rate and surface pressure 

from specific satellite observations were developed. 

Simulated numerical experiments were carried out that 

determined that the measurement of tropospheric wind 

profiles and their assimilation into atmospheric models 

have the potential for significantly improving weather 

prediction capability. 

Oceanic Processes. NASA’s oceanography program is focused on obtaining and analyzing remotely 

sensed satellite data for studying ocean circulation, 

atmospheric forcing of the ocean surface, biological 

productivity, and sea ice. NASA planned for a system 

of satellite sensors to be ready by the early 1990s to 

support several global experiments including the 

Tropical Ocean/Global Atmosphere (TOGA) experiment, the World Ocean Circulation Experiment 

(WOCE), and the Global Ocean Flux Study. Under 

auspices of the World Climate Research Program, the 

results of these experiments would help explain the 

role of the global oceans in Earth’s climate. In focusing 

on these experiments, NASA worked closely with the 

National Science Foundation, the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, the Navy, and a number 

of international partners. 

15 
NASA pursued two remote sensing space flight 

projects to support studies like WOCE and TOGA. 

These projects both measure the surface topography 

over periods of several years, allowing scientists to 

better understand ocean currents and begin to learn 

how they are related to changes in Earth's climate. 

The Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEW 

POSEIDON) is an international venture with the French 

Space Agency to develop a satellite system capable of 

measuring the surface topography of the oceans with a 

single-pass tracking accuracy of about 10 centimeters. 

For the TOPEWPOSEIDON mission, NASA will provide 

the satellite, the prime sensor-a radar altimeter, and 

several supporting sensors. The French Space Agency 

will provide an experimental radar altimeter, a supporting sensor, and the Ariane IV rocket launcher. The 

satellite system was scheduled for launch in mid-1992 

and the prime mission would be conducted for 3 

years. During 1988, significant progress was made in 

the design of the satellite and the various sensor 

subsystems, as well as in the scientific arena where the 

U.S. and French teams began planning their collaborative research projects. 

The NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) is a special 

microwave radar designed to measure the global 

surface wind velocity field, a primary driving force for 

ocean currents. During 1987, the Navy Remote Ocean 

Sensing System Satellite was cancelled; and in 1988, 

NASA proposed to fly the NASA Scatterometer on the 

Japanese Space Agency Advanced Earth Observing 

System (ADEOS) scheduled for launch in 1995. Because of uncertainty regarding the host satellite, NSCAT 

instrument development was slowed in 1988. However, late in 1988, NASA was notified that NSCAT had 

been selected to proceed into hardware definition 

studies for flight on ADEOS. These studies would be 

performed in 1989 with a corresponding increase in 

the flight hardware development to follow. 

To support polar research, NASA assisted the 

National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, CO, in 

establishing a processing and archive center; this 

center will give the scientific community access to 

global sea-ice information derived from the Special 

Sensor Microwave Imager that was launched in June 

1987 aboard one of the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program spacecraft. Looking to the future, 

NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of 

Alaska were developing the Alaska Synthetic Aperture 

Radar Facility in Fairbanks. Synthetic aperture radar 

observations, capable of providing a detailed view of 

the Arctic ice pack, would come from the European 

Space Agency's First European Remote Sensing Satellite, the Japanese First Earth Resources Satellite, and 

the Canadian Radarsat. During 1988, the 10-meter 

antenna, receivers, and a high-density tape recorder 

were installed in Fairbanks. 

Life Sciences 

Life sciences research extends from basic research 

to applied clinical practice. It is focused on the development of countermeasures and life-support systems 

that will enable long-duration human exploration 

missions and knowledge of the origin, evolution, and 

distribution of life in the universe. Major subjects of 

study include space medicine, space biology, biospherics, exobiology, and controlled ecological life-support 

systems. Investigations are conducted in ground-based 

and space facilities, on space shuttle missions, and on 

Soviet biosatellite flights; future flight opportunities 

include extended duration orbiter missions, a recoverable reentry satellite, the Soviet Mir space station, and 

Space Station Freedom. 

research, clinical studies, and flight programs, NASA's 

Life Sciences Division is investigating the nature and 

mechanisms of physiological and psychological 

adaptation, physiological deconditioning, and other 

risks associated with exposure to space. Knowledge 

gained from these activities will help life scientists to 

develop protective measures that will ensure the crew 

health and productivity during long-duration space 

missions. 

Space Medicine. Through basic and applied 

16 
Preparations are being made for missions on space 

shuttle flights over the next several years to be focused 

on researching cardiovascular and neurosensory 

changes. During 1988, ground-based and KC-135 

aircraft tests of antimotion-sickness drugs-promethazine, scopalamine, and D-amphetamine-showed that 

they may help to control space motion sickness. 

Another antimotion-sickness initiative that made 

progress in 1988 is the Preflight Adaptation Trainer. 

Investigations proceeded using a tilt-translation device 

and a graviceptor stabilization device designed to 

simulate the rearrangement of stimuli in a spacecraft 

that alters relationships among visual, vestibular, and 

somatosensory signals. In a simulated space flight 

environment, astronauts may be able to preadapt to 

the stimulus rearrangement of the microgravity environment. 

Planning for a Life Sciences Extended Duration 

Orbiter (EDO) Medical Program began in 1988 to 

support extended duration flights of up to 16 days 

beginning in 1992. The program was intended to 

ensure crew health and safety during extended duration missions by determining whether any aspects of 

physiological adaptation to microgravity might become 

more pronounced as missions grow longer, hinder 

crew operations, or affect performance during entry, 

landing, and egress. Development and testing of 

countermeasures to physiological deconditioning 

would be an important feature of this program. The 

ED0 Medical Program would also monitor occupational health factors such as radiation exposure, air and 

water quality, surface contamination, and waste 

management to determine whether extended missions 

would require enhanced personal hygiene and food 

systems. In addition, an Extended Duration Crew 

Operations Program was in the works to permit 

medical certification of crew members for assignments 

of 6 months or more on Space Station Freedom. 

In 1988, two NASA research announcements were 

released soliciting proposals for biomedical experiments to be flown on Soviet Cosmos biosatellite 

missions in 1989 and 1991 and for experiments to be 

flown on Spacelab missions in a joint US.-French 

Rhesus Research Facility. Peer reviews of proposals 

were completed in 1988 and experiments were selected for further definition. One problem to be 

addressed in some of these investigations is how 

cosmic radiation may affect life in space. For longduration flights, radiation exposure may be the ultimate limiting factor unless effective protection methods 

are developed. 

Biology Program are to determine whether plants and 

animals undergo normal development and life cycles 

in microgravity and to define how the microgravity 

environment can be used as a laboratory to study 

biological phenomena. Space biology research focuses 

on cell biology, gravity perception, biological development, and biological adaptation. Cellular growth, 

development, and function are all affected by exposure 

to weightlessness. Recent accomplishments in space 

biology include identification and characterization of 

the gene in a yeast strain that is involved in the 

process of chromosomal segregation during cell 

division, identification of an inhibitor that interdicts 

gravitropic reception in maize, and demonstration that 

simulated microgravity changes the ability of vertebrate 

embryonic cells to mature and to communicate with 

each other. 

Exobiologv. NASA's exobiology research concentrates on thepathways of the biogenic elements from 

the origin of the universe to the evolution of living 

systems. Studies focus on major epochs in the evolution of life: the cosmic evolution of the biogenic 

compounds, prebiotic evolution, early evolution of life, 

and the evolution of advanced life. To pursue its goal, 

the Exobiology Program was sponsoring ground-based 

research and developing flight experiments for observational and exploratory space missions. 

for the Exobiology Program's major ground-based 

initiative, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

Space Biology. The goals of the NASA Space 

A project initiation agreement was approved in 1988 

17 
(SETI) Microwave Observing Project. The SETI Microwave Observing Project, which would search for radio 

signals of extraterrestrial intelligent origin, would be 10 

billion times more comprehensive than all previous 

searches combined. A multichannel spectrum analyzer 

was being developed for the SETI system; it would be 

able to scan 10 million radio frequency channels 

simultaneously using an ultra-high-speed digital signal 

processing chip developed by Stanford University 

researchers for the project. A prototype had already 

been tested, and a second-generation prototype was 

being developed. 

Biospherlcs. The goal of NASA’s Biospherics 

Program is to understand how biological and planetary 

processes interact. Biospherics research focuses on the 

contributions of specific ecosystems to the biosphere: 

eastern U.S. wetlands, temperate forests, and tropical 

forests. Biogenic gas production and transport, nutrient 

flux, and air pollution effects are some of the subjects 

of study. 

experiment in Alaska to measure nitrogen, sulfur, and 

carbon cycling in the tundra. Discussions were begun 

on a joint US-U.S.S.R. biogenic gas (methane) experiment to be conducted in the Soviet Arctic with investigators from NASA and the National Science Foundation. 

Biospherics investigators arranged for aircraft 

overflights of the Yellowstone forest fires of 1988 to 

acquire remote sensing images. The resulting information was made available to fire control personnel in 

real time, and it was being analyzed to evaluate how 

forest fires may affect regional weather patterns and 

possibly global climate. 

The NASA Biospherics Program also sponsored a 

malaria project, which uses aerial remote sensing data 

to define the type of environment where malariabearing mosquitos breed. Predicting the time and place 

of mosquito outbreaks is key to the control of malaria 

epidemics, and the malaria project was intended to 

develop this capability. In 1988, NASA negotiated an 

18 

In 1988, a wetlands research team completed a field 

agreement with Mexican authorities to conduct further 

studies of areas in Mexico affected by malaria. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems. A 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) will 

ultimately be necessary to produce food, air, and water 

for crews on long-term missions without major resupply, by recycling wastes. Bioregenerative life support 

systems have the potential to meet long-term human 

needs in space. They can provide food by photosynthesis of plant products in a controlled environment, 

breathable air through photosynthetic release of 

oxygen and fixation of carbon dioxide, and clean 

water by plant transpiration of water that can be 

condensed for drinking. 

A workshop was held at Ames Research Center in 

1988 to initiate planning for a “CELSS salad machine” 

that would produce fresh salad vegetables for crews 

on Space Station Freedom. CELSS program officials 

reached agreement in principal last year with officials 

of Rutgers University (cook College, Departments of 

Food Technology and Agronomy) to develop tomato 

crop science and technology appropriate for a salad 

machine. Experiments with light-emitting diodes for 

plant illumination in a CELSS indicated that lowenergy, low-heat light-emitting diodes could cut power 

requirements for Space Station Freedom. 

NASA’s Life Sciences Division resumed flight investigations intended to support human health and well-being 

in space and to address fundamental biological questions about life on Earth and in space. STS-26 included 

several small-scale life sciences investigations to 

measure crew members’ metabolic, cardiovascular, and 

neurovestibular function in microgravity and to study 

pharmacokinetics in space. Future shuttle missions will 

include similar types of investigations. 

In 1988, payload confirmation occurred for Spacelab 

Life Sciences-1 (SLS-11, to be launched in 1990. SLS-1 

would be the first space shuttle mission dedicated to 

life sciences investigations; experiments would focus 

on cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and neurovestibuFlight Programs. With shuttle mission STS-26, 
lar adaptation to space. The rebuilding of a Research 

Animal Holding Facility to be used on SLS-1 was 

completed in 1988. Work on a General-Purpose Work 

Station for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1) was also 

completed and the hardware was shipped to Kennedy 

Space Center. 

Also in 1988, concept studies were completed for a 

Recoverable Reentry Satellite to be called LifeSat for 

life sciences missions. LifeSats would carry plant and 

animal experiments for 30 to 60 days in orbits not 

accessible by the space shuttle, in order to study 

radiation exposure and microgravity-induced changes 

that worsen or only become apparent during missions 

longer than shuttle flights. And concept studies were 

completed in 1988 for a 1 %meter diameter centrifuge, 

sized to fit in a Spacelab module, that would fly on 

shuttle missions in the mid-1990s. Scientists would use 

the centrifuge for variable-gravity experiments with 

plants and animals. 

US.-Soviet Cooperation US.-Soviet cooperation 

in life sciences was advanced in 1988 through meetings of the US.-Soviet Joint Working Group on Space 

Biology and Medicine. Joint US.-Soviet experiments 

were proposed for a Soviet Cosmos biosatellite mission 

1989. U.S. and Soviet scientists also agreed to share 

tissue samples from shuttle and Cosmos missions. A 

step toward greater interagency cooperation was taken 

in 1988 by forming a NASA-National Institutes of 

Health Interagency Working Group on Biomedical 

Research. 

Space Station Experfments. Planning continued 

in 1988 for the array of experimental hardware that life 

scientists would need on Space Station Freedom. Space 

Station Freedom would feature a Health Maintenance 

Facility (HMF), which would be a compact, combination walk-in clinic and emergency room. A prototype 

surgical work station for the HMF has been thoroughly 

tested in microgravity on KC-135 low-gravity aircraft 

flights. Phase A concept studies also proceeded in 1988 

for a cosmic dust collection facility that would fly as an 

attached payload on Freedom and for a gas-grain 

simulation facility that would be installed on board 

Freedom for exobiology investigations. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

fosters the development of near-Earth space as a 

national resource by exploiting the near microgravity 

environment in an orbiting spacecraft. The goals of the 

program are the following: 1) to advance understanding of the fundamental science that governs processes 

on Earth, in the solar system, and in the universe; 2) to 

increase understanding of the influence of gravity on 

Earth-based processes, leading to better control 

strategies to improve such processes; 3) to pursue 

limited production of high-value materials with enhanced properties to serve as benchmarks for comparison with Earth-produced materials or for highly 

specialized applications; 4) to evolve processes for the 

eventual commercial production of certain high valueadded products in space; and 5) to explore the possibility of processing extraterrestrial materials. 

To achieve these goals, it is necessary to develop 

the requisite infrastructure to facilitate the efficient use 

of the near-Earth space environment by researchers 

from the academia, government agencies, and industry. 

The microgravity science and applications program 

sponsors research in the following areas: 1) fundamental sciences, which includes the study of behavior of 

fluids and of transport phenomena in microgravity, and 

experiments that use the enhanced measurement 

precision possible in microgravity to measure physical 

properties and to challenge contemporary theories of 

relativity and condensed matter physics; 2) materials 

science, which includes the processing of electronic 

and photonic materials, metals, alloys, composites, 

glasses, ceramics, and polymers, to obtain a better 

understanding of the role of gravity-induced effects in 

the processing of such materials with the goal of 

effecting better control strategies here on Earth; and 

3) biotechnology, with emphasis on the growth of 

The microgravity science and applications program 

19 
protein crystals and the development of separation 

techniques for biological materials. 

science investigations were flown on the STS-26 

mission in 1988. These investigations were the following: 

1. the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace, 

designed to process four magnetic alloy samples by 

directional solidification in the classic Bridgeman 

mode; 

2. the Protein Crystal Growth apparatus, designed to 

produce larger, more perfect crystals of selected 

proteins in space than possible on Earth. The goal is 

to use these space-grown crystals to determine the 

molecular structures of the proteins to a finer 

resolution than possible with crystals grown on 

Earth; 

3. the Isoelectric Focusing in Space experiment, which 

is a type of electrophoresis experiment that separates 

proteins in an electric field. This experiment was 

designed to distinguish between electro-osmosis and 

electro-hydrodynamic effects by varying the surface 

to volume ratio of the focusing cells; 

clarify the roles of gravity and other forces in the 

separation or partitioning of biological substances. 

The experiment consisted of a transparent module 

with 18 chambers of two-phase systems, each 

differing in various physical parameters (e.g., 

viscosity, volume fraction, and interface potentials). 

The Phase Partitioning Experiment was configured to 

study two methods of phase separation (natural 

coalescence and surface tension), and allowed 

variations in interfacial tension, phase volume ratio, 

phase system composition, and added particles; and 

5. the Aggregation of Ked Blood Cells experiment. This 

experiment was configured to provide information 

on the formation rates, structure, and organization of 

red cell clumps, and to investigate the potential 

beneficial role of microgravity in clinical research 

and diagnostic testing. 

Microgravity Science on STS-26. Five Microgravity 

4. the Phase Partitioning Experiment, designed to 

20 

Preliminary analysis of the data received from some 

Protein Crystal Growth: Sixty different experiments 

of these experiments is as follows: 

in protein crystal growth using the vapor diffusion 

method were performed on STS-26. Included among 

these were 11 different proteins, selected because they 

all display typical crystal growth problems under 

normal gravity conditions. For example, five droplets 

of the enzyme reverse transcriptase were flown on this 

mission. The reverse transcriptase enzyme is specifically responsible for the multiplication-and therefore 

spread-of the AIDS virus. Without this enzyme, it 

appears that the AIDS virus will not reproduce in the 

human body. It is therefore critical to understand this 

enzyme and its structure; Earth-grown crystals have 

proven totally inadequate. Presumably, space-grown 

crystals will allow important advances in understanding 

the enzyme’s action and will point the way to the 

development of drugs much more effective than 

today’s best therapy. While attempts to grow reverse 

transcriptase were unsuccessful on this flight, results 

indicated that better purification of the samples would 

be needed before crystal growth would be possible. 

We will continue our efforts on future flights. However, initial x-ray diffraction results indicate that the 

crystals obtained for four of the other proteins flown 

display a structural order better than crystals of the 

same materials obtained on Earth. 

support findings on STS-11 experiments was obtained, 

indicating that the major source of convective turbulence is due to an electro-hydrodynamic effect, not 

electro-osmosis. Fluid protein behavior in focusing, 

although not fully explained, indicated even more 

turbulent behavior than observed in terrestrial controls. 

The onset of this turbulence was not synchronized 

with acceleration surges of the shuttle. 

Ground-Based Facilities. The ground-based test 

facilities continued to play a vital role in the microgravity science and applications program. Drop towers and 

drop tubes can subject material samples and experiIsoelectric Focusing in Space: Additional evidence to 
men1 packages to brief periods of near-zero gravity 

conditions during freefall. Special aircraft flying 

parabolic trajectories provide reduced gravity conditions for 15-20 seconds. All of these faciIities enable 

timely and cost-effective science research and provide 

testbeds for evaluation and refinement of prototypical 

flight hardware. 

tube has been a valuable asset for studying containerless processing. Approximately 600 test drops were 

made in this facility during 1988. During the same 

period, over 650 research drops were performed in the 

2.2-Second Drop Tower at the Lewis Research Center 

in support of 15 projects involving combustion science 

and fluids. The inventory of experiment drop packages 

had increased from four to 15. Technological advances 

such as on-board computers, laser sources, and video 

cameras and recorders were implemented to upgrade 

data acquisition. In the 5-Second Zero-Gravity Facility, 

six drop vehicles were in use, and 135 test drops were 

performed in support of six projects in 1988. Major 

milestones were reached as test drop number 8,000 

was executed in the 2.2-Second Drop Tower, and test 

drop number 2,000 was performed in the 5-Second 

Zero-Gravity Facility. Also, 10 visiting scientists participated either independently or jointly with NASA 

investigators in the performance of NASA-sponsored 

research. 

NASA operates two specially modified aircraft as 

platforms for microgravity science research. A Learjet, 

based at Langley Research Center, was flown in excess 

of 55 hours, providing approximately 75 low-gravity 

parabolic trajectories in support of over 5 research programs during 1988. A larger KC-135, based at the 

Johnson Spaceflight Center, accommodated an average 

of 7 experiments simultaneously, and provided over 70 

flight hours of support to the Microgravity Science 

program. 

Plans for the Future. NASA’s Microgravity Science 

and Applications Division was planning a vigorous 

science program consisting of both ground- and spaceNASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center 100-meter drop 

based research. The Division continued to manage the 

development of over 30 pieces of flight hardware 

which would be flown aboard the space shuttle. 

Several of these facilities are multi-user, and can 

accommodate experiments by different principal 

investigators. Other flight experiments under development were highly specialized and were being designed 

for specific investigations. The flight hardware being 

developed may provide a valuable data base, both in 

science and technology, which may help the Division 

prepare for space station facilities. 

Major opportunities for flight will be provided on 

the four U.S. Microgravity Laboratory (USML) missions, 

the four International Microgravity Laboratory (IML) 

missions, and the U.S. Microgravity Payload (USMP) 

missions. In 1988, much effort was devoted to the 

preparation of an Announcement of Opportunity 

which will solicit investigations for the USML-1, IML-1, 

and IML-2 missions planned for the early 1990s. 

Space Station-Based Experiment Facilities. 

NASA was continuing to define requirements and 

develop conceptual designs for the six multiuser 

facilities for the space station: the Space Station 

Furnace Facility, Modular Containerless Processing 

Facility, Advanced Protein Crystal Growth Facility, 

Biotechnology Facility, Modular Combustion Facility, 

and Fluid Physics/Dynamics Facility. All six of the 

multiuser facilities were approved to proceed to 

“Conceptual Design Reviews,” at which point scientific 

justification, conceptual designs, costs, and schedules 

for the facilities would be thoroughly evaluated. 

Communications and Information Systems 

focuses on developing the high-risk microwave, 

optical, and digital technologies needed to increase the 

capacity, flexibility, and interconnectivity of future 

space communications systems. The goal of the 

program is to maintain U.S. technological and economic preeminence in space communications and to 

enable innovative services in support of the satellite 

The NASA Communications Research Program 

21 
communications industry, NASA’s needs, and the needs 

of the public sector. 

The program is structured around the development 

of advanced technology to more effectively use 

frequencies and the geosynchronous orbit. This 

research reduces adoptive risk by industry and improves its competitive posture in the world marketplace. The use of sophisticated communications 

technology also enables new scientific advancement 

through extremely efficient wideband space communications. Scientific advancement, in turn, enables and 

enhances future near-Earth and space exploration 

missions. The communications program also develops 

positions and supports U.S. and NASA interests in 

international and domestic communications regulatory 

forums. The program uses NASA’s resources to provide 

consultation, perform system studies, and plan and 

conduct space experiments in support of other government agencies. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite. The year 1988 was one of programmatic change 

for the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

(ACTS) program. Responding to Congressional direction to “cap” the program costs, NASA successfully 

restructured the ACTS program. Changes to the 

contractual arrangements and the assumption of a 

more proactive management role by NASA were made, 

while the momentum in the ACTS development 

activities continued toward achieving the scheduled 

shuttle launch readiness date in 1992. Delivery of 

several engineering and flight model components and 

the completion of many critical design reviews signaled the shift in emphasis from design to development. Development activities included the engineering 

model integration and test and the flight model 

component manufacturing. Great strides were made in 

1988 to stabilize the ACTS program, thereby assuring 

that the technological advancements that ACTS promises would be available in the 1990s and beyond. 

with U.S. industry and other government agencies 

22 

Mo&ile Satellite. The joint mobile satellite program 

would provide two-way, satellite-assisted communication with cars, trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft within 

the next four or five years. Such a system, offering nationwide voice and data communications, is especially 

important for mobile users in rural and remote areas of 

the United States. A significant milestone was reached 

with the allocation of international frequencies for this 

application. Licensing approval by the Federal Communications Commission was expected. Preliminary 

aeronautical mobile satellite experiments were about to 

begin using NASA-developed hardware. 

Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT satellite 

search-and-rescue system completed its sixth year of 

operation in 1988. Over 1,100 lives have been saved as 

a result of the use of this system. NASA provided 

technical advice to support rule-making by the regulatory agencies for increasing use of the distress beacons 

by new classes of ships and aircraft. Cooperation with 

foreign partners continued and resulted in the installation of terminal equipment in several additional 

nations. Technical efforts to reduce the delay between 

activation of the distress beacon and its detection were 

in two areas: geostationary satellite system and interferometer experiments. 

Development. In close coordination with its advisory 

groups, NASA continued to develop the key technology and systems to address future space communications needs and the increasing demand for communication bandwidths. The agency was developing 

technologies that would build on the Advanced 

Communication Technology Satellite, support future 

requirements of the U.S. commercial space communications industry, and contribute to the technology base 

needed to support future NASA requirements in nearEarth and deep-space communications. Technologies 

and systems under study and development included 

optical communications for high bandwidth; interference-free transmission of data from both near-Earth 

and deep-space scientific satellite missions, robotics, 

and lunar and planetary exploration bases; and large, 

Advanced Technology and Systems 
space-based antennas for Earth sensing and communications applications. The latter would be tested and 

calibrated using the space station and its near zerogravity environment and subsequently would be 

transported to their final positions in space. 

Infomzation Systems. The NASA Information 

Systems Program supports NASA Space Science and 

Applications flight projects and science programs by 

operating large-scale computational resources used for 

data analysis; working with specialized programs to establish data centers for managing and distributing data; 

and developing computer networks and exploiting 

advanced technologies to access and process massive 

amounts of data acquired from successful space 

missions. 

NASA missions, in the next decade, may obtain 

unprecedented volumes of new data with fine grain 

temporal, spectral, and spatial resolution. Ultimately, 

all space science data must flow into a permanent 

archive. The National Science Space Data Center 

(NSSDC) has initiated a vigorous policy of establishing 

project data management plans from flight mission 

data. These plans specify formats, policies, and schedules to ensure the orderly flow of data into the archive, 

while satisfying mission data system optimization 

concerns. The NSSDC has extended these efforts to 

researchers who produce value-added or analyzed data 

sets as well. 

Space Statlon Actlvltles 

The Space Station Freedom may provide unprecedented opportunities for scientific research in space, 

especially for materials, life, and Earth sciences. After 

beginning the design, development, and fabrication 

phase of the space station in late 1987, the first major 

activity in 1988 was the preliminary requirements 

review. To represent user interests and planned and 

potential science payloads, NASA’s Office of Space 

Science and Applications produced an integrated set of 

science requirements for the baseline station and polar 

platform, which took into account planned Space 

Station and Space Transportation System capabilities. 

These requirements were used by the Space Station 

Program in the preliminary requirements review to 

identify accommodations issues and areas needing 

study. Many of these studies were initiated in 1988 and 

were expected to be completed in time to influence 

station design decisions. Considerable work was done 

during 1988 on planning for payloads that could use 

the station manned base during its assembly phase. 

Attached Payloads was released to the national and 

international science community in July 1988, and 72 

flight and concept proposals were received in response 

to this solicitation. 

A number of advanced utilization and accommodation studies were initiated in areas of contamination, 

small and rapid response payloads, servicing, launch 

site payload processing and logistics, and payload 

pointing systems to guide the planning for use of the 

manned base. Also, an important activity was begun 

on international joint science utilization of the pressurized modules, with participation by the international 

partner science representatives, to look at possibilities 

of sharing of common facilities and some instrumentation among science users. In 1988, the Space Station 

Science and Applications Advisory Subcommittee was 

created under the auspices of the NASA Advisory 

Council to continue the work of the former Task Force 

on Scientific Utilization of the Space Station, to advise 

NASA on the most effective utilization of the new 

capabilities to be made available by the space station 

program. 

An Announcement of Opportunity for Space Station 

Space Flight 

By developing space transportation capabilities and 

carrying out space flight operations NASA helps 

implement the goals of U.S. space transportation 

policy. These goals, as articulated in the President’s 

National Space Policy in January 1988, are as follows: 

the achievement and maintenance of safe and reliable 

access to, transportation in, and return from space; the 

23 
exploitation of the unique attributes of manned and 

unmanned launch and recovery systems; the encouragement of U.S. private sector space transportation 

capabilities; and the reduction of the costs of space 

transportation and related services. 

Throughout 1988, NASA focused on returning the 

space shuttle to flight, which it accomplished in 

September with the successful Discovery mission (STS26). Moreover, the agency moved vigorously to 

establish a mixed fleet capability which would better 

assure access to space using both the shuttle and 

expendable (unmanned) launch vehicles (ELVs). Also, 

the agency formulated a comprehensive flight schedule 

(manifest) showing full shuttle and ELV utilization in 

the future. Another major activity has been NASA’s 

efforts to assist in the commercialization of space use 

and the encouragement of U.S. private sector space 

transportation systems as called for by the President’s 

National Space Policy. Finally, the agency continued its 

ongoing studies of an advanced space transportation 

infrastructure to support future national requirements, 

including manned and unmanned exploration of the 

solar system and the permanent presence of human 

beings in space. In sum, during 1988 NASA continued 

the process of maintaining and improving a strong, 

safe, and reliable U.S. space transportation capability. 

Return to Flight of the Space Shuttle 

Following the January 1986 Challenger accident, 

NASA halted shuttle operations, reviewed the entire 

space shuttle program, and initiated a “return to flight” 

effort. This effort focused on fixing the solid rocket 

motor field joint, which had failed during the Challenger mission, and using the available downtime to 

improve other shuttle hardware and to add new 

features for extra safety. Moreover, NASA strengthened 

its space flight organization by establishing central 

authority and improving internal communications. It 

also increased the level of safety awareness throughout 

the agency-especially within the NASMindustry team 

that builds the shuttle. This thorough, meticulous 

24 

return-to-flight effort proved to be worthwhile when 

NASA successfully returned to flight with two shuttle 

launches in 1988. 

was the completion of all the changes in the space 

shuttle system that had been deemed necessary for a 

safe return to flight. An extensive review and analysis 

process undertaken following the Challenger accident 

had identified 226 changes for the orbiter alone. Of 

these, 107 were considered mandatory for the September Discovery mission. By July 1988, 261 alterations to 

Discovery had been completed. 

One significant change to the orbiter initiated and 

completed in 1988 was the crew escape pole. NASA’s 

Office of Space Flight selected the pole in April to be 

the final part of the crew escape system, which also 

includes a method for cutting the cabin to allow 

controlled venting and a capability to jettison the port 

side hatch and tunnel. Tests conducted during February and March in a C-141 aircraft simulating the orbiter 

demonstrated that in certain emergency situations, 

occurring during launch or re-entry, the pole would 

allow the crew to swing free of the orbiter and parachute to safety. 

Another significant change to the orbiter completed 

over this past year was the redesign of the 17-inch 

quick-disconnect valve. This valve between the orbiter 

and the external tank was redesigned because there 

were indications that it could close shut inadvertently 

during launch, cutting off the flow of fuel to the main 

engines. Developmental testing of the redesigned valve 

was completed in February 1988, and qualification and 

certification tests for STS-26 were performed from 

November 1987 through September 1988. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The solid rocket motor 

(SRM) is the major portion of the solid rocket booster 

and powers the space shuttle into space along with the 

space shuttle main engines. A flawed joint in the SRM 

was directly responsible for the explosion that caused 

the Challenger accident, so it was carefully and 

extensively redesigned. The redesigned SRM (RSRM) 

Orbiter. Perhaps NASA’s toughest challenge in 1988 
received intense scrutiny during 1988 and was subjected to a thorough certification process to verify that 

it worked properly and to qualify the motor for 

manned flight. 

The testing program included five full-scale firings 

of the RSKM during 1987-88. The final test, Production 

Verification Motor-1 (PVM-I), occurred in August. 

Severe artificial flaws were intentionally introduced 

into the test motor to make sure that the redundant 

safety features implemented during the redesign effort 

worked as planned. This rigorous final pre-launch test 

was necessary to demonstrate the performance of 

various design elements under less than optimum 

conditions, and was a major confidence builder for the 

program. 

Space Sbuttb Main Engine. Although the space 

shuttle main engines (SSMEs) have never experienced 

a problem during a shuttle flight, NASA used the flight 

downtime to undertake an intensive reexamination and 

safety margin improvement program for the main 

engines. As with the SKB, the focus was on testing the 

SSMEs to insure their readiness for the return to flight. 

The SSME ground test program was thorough; the 

engines were fired for 320,000 seconds in total-the 

equivalent of 205 shuttle launches. Moreover, an 

August test lasting 2,017 seconds was the longest SSME 

firing ever and broke the world record for test-firing a 

rocket engine set over 20 years ago. The SSME testing 

program for STS-26 exceeded the preparation for the 

first shuttle launch STS-1 in April 1981. 

Consultation With Other Groups. NASA’s Office 

of Space Flight received assistance from various groups 

throughout its return-to-flight effort. The Rogers 

Commission validated NASA’s own self-assessment and 

provided specific recommendations for action. The 

National Research Council (NKC) monitored important 

parts of the redesign and testing efforts-especially 

those relating to the RSRM-thereby providing NASA 

the benefit of the NKC’s considerable expertise. The 

NKC’s “Panel on Kedesign of Space Shuttle Solid 

Rocket Booster” submitted a letter to NASA Administrator James Fletcher in September 1988 confirming that 

the KSKM was ready for a September launch. Moreover, NASA’s own Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance (SKM&QA) was a 

major participant in the successful and safe return to 

flight. After the loss of Challenger, the SRM&QA chief 

was elevated to the Associate Administrator levelserving directly under the NASA Administrator, and 

was thus able to play an integral role in decisionmaking leading to the successful STS-26 mission. 

1988 Shuttb Missions. On September 29, 1988 the 

Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-26) successfully lifted off 

from Kennedy Space Center in Florida and the United 

States was back in space. Discovery flawlessly accomplished its primary task-the deployment of a tracking 

and data relay satellite (TDKS-C)-on the first day of 

the mission. NASA successfully conducted its second 

1988 shuttle launch when Atlantis lifted off in December carrying a classified DOD payload. 

Future of the Space Shuttle 

effort did not end with the Discovery launch. Other 

shuttle enhancements that will provide greater safety, 

reliability, and performance for future flights were also 

under way in 1988. Foremost among these improvements is the advanced solid rocket motor (ASRM) 

which will replace the RSRM. The ASRM will be based 

on a better design than the old rocket motor, contain 

more reliable safety margins, and utilize automated 

manufacturing techniques. Moreover, the ASRM will 

enhance shuttle performance by providing the capability to launch additional payload into orbit. 

In March 1988, NASA submitted the “Space Shuttle 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor Acquisition Plan” to 

Congress. This plan reviewed procurement strategy for 

ASKM and discussed implementation plans and schedules. In July, NASA announced that Yellow Creek-a 

Tennessee Valley Authority property in Mississippiand the agency’s own Stennis Space Center, also in 

Mississippi, would be the government-owned sites 

Improvements Under Way. NASA’s return-to-flight 

25 
available as locations for the new rocket motor production and test facilities, respectively. Finally, in 

August the agency issued a request for proposals (RFP) 

to design, develop, test, and evaluate the ASRM. NASA 

received the proposals from the various competing 

companies on October 31, and a contract award is 

anticipated in early 1989. The first flight utilizing the 

new rocket motor is targeted for 1994. 

Another major shuttle improvement activity in 1988 

was the extended duration orbiter (EDO). The ED0 

will have equipment installed that will extend mission 

duration from seven to 16 days. One of the principal 

benefits provided by the ED0 will be the ability to 

carry out new science experiments not possible on a 

seven-day mission. During 1988, long-lead items were 

ordered. Also, proposals were requested and received 

for both the regenerative carbon dioxide collection 

system and the improved waste collection system. 

Design work on the necessary orbiter modifications 

was initiated, and the hardware production is scheduled to begin in 1989. The first ED0 flight is planned 

for 1992. 

Finally, significant long-term improvements to the 

SSME progressed during 1988. The technology test bed 

program at Marshall Space Flight Center successfully 

accomplished its first test in September. This program 

provides an independent means to evaluate technology 

programs and technical advances arising from the 

development program and to test alternate pumps. 

Separately, the alternate turbopump development 

program (ATD) has been under way for two years and 

component testing is scheduled to begin in mid-1989. 

Replacement Orbiter. Work on the new orbiter to 

replace Challenger (the replacement orbiter, OV-105) 

proceeded smoothly during 1988, and the new vehicle 

is scheduled to be delivered by Rockwell International 

to NASA within the 45 months originally estimated for 

its completion. Importantly, the new orbiter will 

incorporate some added features such as a drag chute, 

an external SSME heat exchanger, and a 14-inch 

disconnect valve. 

26 

In March 1988, NASA initiated a program encouraging school children to participate in naming the new 

orbiter. All of the other orbiters were named after 

famous ships of exploration. By July, 15,000 schools 

across the nation had responded to NASA’s invitation 

to help select a new name. Entries were due by the 

end of the year and NASA planned to select the name 

of the new orbiter from among the responses in May 

1989. The orbiter naming program is designed to 

enhance student interest in and enthusiasm for science 

and space exploration. 

Landing Sites. In March, the United States signed 

an agreement with Gambia allowing NASA’s use of that 

African nation’s Banjul International Airport as an 

emergency landing site for the shuttle. At the same 

time, NASA began preparing to bring on line another 

new abort landing site-this one near Ben Guerir, 

Morocco. Both sites will be used as contingency 

landing facilities should a transatlantic abort ever 

become necessary during a shuttle flight. 

Expendable Launch Wehlcles 

(ELV) program also had a perfect launch record in 

1988: six for six. In February, a Delta ELV lifted a 

classified DOD payload into orbit. San Marcos DL, a 

NASA-Italian scientific mission, was launched on board 

the smaller ELV Scout during March. In April, another 

Scout put up the SOOS-111, a Navy navigation satellite. 

And in June, yet another Scout carried the NOVA-11, 

the third in a series of improved Navy transit navigation satellites, into space. The final Scout launch of the 

year transported a fourth SOOS mission in August. And 

finally, in September, an Atlas-E launched NOAA-H, a 

National Weather Service meteorological satellite. 

The Mixed Fleet Strategy. NASA’s mixed fleet 

strategy, codified by the President’s January 1988 

National Space Policy, calls for manifesting civilian 

missions on ELVs whenever the unique capabilities of 

the shuttle were not required. The strategy involves 

two phases, and in 1988 both were well under way. 

2988 Launches. The expendable launch vehicle 
Phase I of the strategy covers launches during the 

1988-92 and allows for the acquisition of launch 

services either through DOD or commercially on a 

non-competitive (or sole-source) basis. Four near-term 

scientific payloads previously intended to fly on the 

shuttle (KOSAT, EUVE, CKKES, and Mars Observer) 

have been designated to launch on ELVs during Phase 

I. Two Delta 11s have been ordered through DOD to 

launch the KOSAT and EUVE, an KFP was issued for 

Titan 111 commercial launch services to support Mars 

Observer, and a letter contract was issued to procure 

Atlas/Centaur commercial launch services for the 

CKKES mission in 1990. 

During Phase 11, covering the period after 1992, 

NASA will procure ELV launch services competitively 

from the commercial sector whenever feasible. Launch 

services that are not available commercially, but are 

under DOD contract, would be acquired through 

DOD. Launch service ordering agreements have been 

established in four performance classes: small, medium, intermediate, and large. Goddard Space Flight 

Center plans to release KFPs for the small and medium 

class procurements in 1989. The release date for the 

intermediate-class KFP has not yet been determined. 

Finally, large-class launch services will be acquired 

through DOD rather than from the private sector 

because no large vehicles (Titan IV) are commercially 

available. Importantly, NASA, acting as NOAA’s agent, 

awarded a firm, fixed-price contract to General Dynamics for ELV launch services for the GOES I, J, and 

K missions with an option for GOES L and M. The 

contract, awarded in April 1988, was the first commercial ELV launch service competitively procured by the 

U.S. Government. 

In addition to arranging for the purchase of launch 

services from the commercial sector, NASA also 

followed the President’s space policy by taking steps to 

divest itself of an adjunct ELV capability and by 

making NASA-owned ELV property and services 

available to the private sector. 

During 1988, NASA finalized a barter agreement 

with General Dynamics that gave the company ownership of NASA’s Atladcentaur flight and non-flight 

assets. In exchange, General Dynamics will provide the 

agency with two Atladcentaur launches at no charge. 

A contract had been signed for the first launch 

service-supporting the FLTSATCOM F-8 Navy mission. Moreover, a letter contract was completed for a 

second launch service to support the NASMDOD 

CKKES mission. 

In addition, NASA transferred its Delta vehicle 

program to the U.S. Air Force. In May 1988, the agency 

transferred accountability for Delta Launch Complex 17 

at Cape Canaveral to the USAF. A similar approach was 

taken to transfer accountability for Atladcentaur 

Launch Complex 36 to the USAF. 

Finally, enabling agreements were completed to 

allow ELV companies to negotiate directly with the 

appropriate NASA field center. During 1988, NASA 

Headquarters signed enabling agreements with 

McDonnell Douglas in September, Martin Marietta in 

October, and LTV in November. The next step was for 

the company to sign a subagreement with the NASA 

field center to allow for use of specific property and 

services. The Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and General Dynamics consummated a subagreement in March 

1988 which allowed General Dynamics to take over 

maintenance and operational responsibility for Launch 

Complex 36. Three additional subagreementsinvolving KSC/Martin Marietta, KSC/McDonnell 

Douglas, and GSFC/McDonnell Douglas-were under 

final negotiation as 1988 drew to a close. 

Upper Stages 

Inertial Upper Stage. The inertial upper stage 

(IUS) is a USAF-developed vehicle that can transport 

payloads from low to high (geosynchronous) Earth 

orbit. The IUS can be used on the shuttle, the Titan 111, 

and the Titan IV ELV. NASA ordered three inertial 

upper stages from the Air Force to accommodate the 

planetary missions-Galileo, Ulysses, and Magellan27 
that were previously scheduled to be boosted by 

shuttle-Centaur upper stages. It was an IUS that 

successfully lifted TDKS-C into high Earth orbit on STS26 in September 1988, and inertial upper stages will 

support the additional TDKS missions scheduled in the 

future. 

(TOS) developed commercially by the Orbital Sciences 

Corporation, is designed to place payloads into 

geosynchronous transfer orbit or other high energy 

trajectories. It can be used with either the shuttle or 

Titan 111. In 1988, NASA was in the process of procuring two TOS vehicles to support the Mars Observer 

and ACTS mission, and production continued during 

the year. 

Orbital Maneuverlng Vehicle 

reusable, unmanned free-flying spacecraft designed to 

perform a variety of missions including deploying, 

retrieving, reboosting, deboosting, servicing, and 

viewing spacecraft. It will be carried into orbit by the 

shuttle or an expendable launch vehicle and will be 

remotely controlled from the ground during rendezvous and docking. A preliminary design review for the 

OMV was completed in October, with a critical design 

review scheduled for late 1990. In 1988, NASA’s Office 

of Space Flight undertook a joint study with NASA’s 

Space Station Office to determine the feasibility of 

resupplying the space station with logistics elements 

delivered to orbit by ELVs, with the OMV used to 

transfer these elements to the station. Also, a study on 

the feasibility of man-rating the OMV was completed. 

Solid Propulsion Integrity Program 

The Solid Propulsion Integrity Program (SPIP) is 

working to establish the engineering capability necessary for improving the success rate of US.-built Solid 

Kocket Motors (SKMs). The program seeks to 

strengthen the scientific foundation for SKM design, 

manufacture, and evaluation. During 1988, SPIP 

completed the bulk of the work on a Solid Motor Test 

28 

Transfer Orbit Stage. The transfer orbit stage 

The orbital maneuvering vehicle (OMV) is a small, 

Bed, and this national facility is scheduled to be 

availahle and ready for testing in January 1989. Also, 

SPIP focused on an examination of motor bondlines 

and nozzles during 1988. For example, in July the 

program conducted the most highly instrumented SRM 

nozzle test ever. 

Spacelab 

Spacelab is a reusable science observatoryAaboratory flown in the shuttle payload bay. Developed by 

the European Space Agency, it includes a pressurized 

module that provides a shirt-sleeve environment for 

the crew, as well as an unpressurized platform pallet 

for research activities not requiring man-tending. 

During 1988, replacement of Spacelab’s on-board 

computers with units similar to the updated orbiter 

computers continued. Changes recommended by the 

Spacelab recertification board were also carried out. 

Additionally, management of the Hitchhiker program was consolidated to reduce costs under the 

responsibility of the Goddard Space Flight Center. The 

Hitchhiker system creates a simple interface between 

small experiments and the shuttle, thereby making integration for flight easier and less costly. Finally, the 

development of the Spacelab enhanced pallet was near 

completion at the end of 1988. Another important 1988 

activity was mission planning and integration required 

for the resumption of Spacelab missions in 1990. 

Tethered Satellite System 

The tethered satellite system (TSS) is a satellite 

anchored to the space shuttle by a tether up to 62 

miles long that would be deployed into areas of space 

that are otherwise difficult to reach. This satellite 

would be able to perform unique “in situ” science. TSS 

is a cooperative program between NASA and Italy’s 

space agency. 

In 1988, manufacture and qualification of the flight 

subsystems continued. The 12-meter deployer boom, 

reel motor, and on-board computer were all qualified 

and delivered. Also, manufacture of the deployer 

structure was initiated, and the tether control mecha- 
nisms were functionally tested. Importantly, a test 

program was completed for the satellite structural and 

engineering models. The flight satellite structure was 

due for delivery in early 1989. Development of the 

scientific instruments continued, with delivery of flight 

satellite instruments scheduled for early 1989. The first 

TSS mission is scheduled for 1991. 

Advanced Programs 

Advanced programs focus on the future of space 

transportation, including improving current and future 

space transportation operations through the introduction of more advanced technologies and processes, 

and on servicing and protecting U.S. space assets. The 

Civil Needs Data Base (CNDB), a compilation of civil 

space mission needs from 1990 to 2010, is a key tool 

for advanced program planning. 

Next Manned Launch Vehicle. Attention was 

devoted in 1988 to examining various next-generation 

manned launch vehicle concepts. Three possible 

directions were under consideration: shuttle evolution, 

a personnel launch system, and an advanced manned 

launch system (Ah4LS). The evolution concept refers to 

the option of improving the current shuttle design 

through the incorporation of upgraded technologies 

and capabilities. The personnel launch system would 

be strictly a people carrier and have no capability to 

launch payloads into space. Finally, AMLS represents 

the most dramatic possibility as it would take an 

entirely new approach and devise a “next generation” 

manned transportation system. Preliminary studies on 

all three possibilities proceeded in 1988, and were 

planned to continue for a few years in order to develop sufficient technical data to support a future 

decision on which path or paths NASA should choose. 

Assured Crew Return Capability. NASA continued assessing the need and concepts for an assured 

crew return capability (ACKC) to transport space 

station crew members back to Earth in case of an 

emergency. During 1988, NASA completed an in-house 

Phase A (conceptual) study to explore various possibilities and planned to initiate a contracted follow-on 

study in 1989. 

Shuttle-C. Shuttle-C is a concept for a large, unmanned launch vehicle that would make maximum 

use of existing shuttle systems with a cargo canister in 

place of the orbiter. Studies continued in 1988, including a Phase B definition study to be concluded in 

1990. Results to date indicate that Shuttle-C could be 

developed by the mid-1990s. 

System (ALS), a joint NASMDOD effort, is a systems 

definition and technology advanced development 

program aimed at defining a new family of launchers 

for use after 2000, including a new heavy-lift vehicle. 

President Keagan signed a report to Congress in 

January 1988 that officially created the program. Within 

this DOD-funded program, NASA manages the liquid 

engine system and advanced development efforts. 

Advanced Upper Stages. Advanced missions in 

the future would require even greater capabilities to 

move from low to high Earth orbit and beyond. During 

1988, activity in the advanced upper stages area 

focused on the space transfer vehicle (STV) and the 

possibility of upgrading the existing Centaur upper 

stage. The STV concept involves a cryogenic hydrogen/oxygen vehicle that would be capable of transporting payloads from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit or the lunar surface, as well as for unmanned planetary missions. The STV concept could 

potentially lead to a vehicle capable of supporting 

human exploration missions to the moon or Mars. 

Advanced Operations. The Advanced Operations 

effort, initiated in 1987, seeks to identify and demonstrate new and enhanced processes and technologies 

that can be applied to ground, flight, and on-orbit 

operations to reduce the operations costs of space 

transportation systems while ensuring that safe and 

reliable operations are maintained. The selective 

application of expert systems, robotics, automation, 

and other technologies to labor-intensive and hazardous operations has been the major thrust of advanced 

Advanced Launch System The Advanced Launch 

29 
operations. During 1988, advanced operations techniques and approaches continued to be studied with 

emphasis on demonstrating expert and autonomous 

systems technologies for current and future space 

transportation vehicles. 

Satellite Servicing. The servicing of existing (and 

future) space assets is perhaps as important as creating 

new hardware. Thus, in 1988, NASA continued definition of systems and procedures for on-orbit satellite 

servicing using the shuttle and the planned orbital 

maneuvering vehicle. Satellite servicing is an emerging 

capability in the early stages of development, and 

NASA submitted a report to Congress in March 1988 

describing the current scope of its servicing activity. 

Other 1988 activities included the definition of tankers, 

couplings, telerobotic servicing aides, and servicing 

procedures to support on-orbit servicing. An early 

definition study (pre-Phase B) on a satellite servicer 

system was under way during 1988. 

Transportation Services 

Transportation services is the arm of NASA that 

schedules and oversees the integration of payloads on 

the space shuttle. This is a complex job because the 

many payloads involved have wide-ranging schedule 

and performance requirements. To satisfy the requirements of a diverse group of users, their unique needs 

must be matched with the capabilities of the available 

launch systems. Developing a manifest assigning 

payloads to specific missions is an essential part of this 

process. Another important task is the planning and 

engineering necessary to accommodate the payload in 

the transportation system and to integrate its operational requirements into the flight plan. Finally, if the 

payload is owned or sponsored by a foreign or 

commercial entity, NASA negotiates a detailed agreement with the customer covering services to be 

provided, the responsibilities of each party, and the 

reimbursements to be paid. 

the space shuttle returned to flight and the mixed fleet 

30 

All of these activities gained momentum in 1988 as 

concept was implemented. The latest manifest in 1988 

was released at the end of August 1988, superceding 

the one published in March 1988. The August manifest 

showed seven flights in 1989 and a total of 50 shuttle 

missions by the end of 1993, as well as many ELV 

flights. The timing of the scheduled missions reflects 

the high priority given to both civil space science and 

applications payloads and important Department of 

Defense missions. 

Commercial Activities 

on ELVs, NASA moved toward the commercialization 

of space use in 1988 by playing an integral role in the 

initiation of two new cooperative ventures with the 

private sector: the Commercially Developed Space 

Facility (CDSF) and Spacehab. 

The Administration initiated the commercially 

developed space facility (CDSF) effort in February 1988 

as part of the commercial space initiative. The CDSF 

concept called for the private sector to design, build, 

test, integrate, and operate the CDSF for government 

and commercial users. According to this plan, the 

government would mitigate the risk to the private 

sector by leasing up to 70 percent of the facility’s 

capability over the first five years of operation. 

Initially, the President’s decision directed NASA to 

develop and issue an RFP, select a source for the lease, 

and negotiate a contract within 150 days. However, 

later in the year Congress decided that further consideration of the concept was necessary before taking 

action. Committees with NASA oversight in both the 

House and Senate directed NASA to contract independent studies with the National Research Council and the 

National Academy of Public Administration to provide 

a basis for making subsequent CDSF program decisions. Further CDSF program progress was on hold at 

the end of 1988 pending decisions on the studies, 

which were scheduled for completion in 1989. 

Spacehab, another venture focused upon in the 

February 1988 Commercial Space Initiative, is a 

In addition to procuring commercial launch services 
pressurized module that is being developed by a 

private company (SPACEHAB, Inc.) for flight in the 

space shuttle payload bay. The module will increase 

the amount of pressurized volume available in the 

middeck, and thus allow for more commercial ventures 

and research activities requiring man-tending. Shuttle 

crew members will enter the module through a tunnel 

between the shuttle middeck and the module. In 

August 1988, NASA and SPACEHAB, Inc. signed a 

Space Systems Development Agreement that provided 

for six flights of the module on the shuttle beginning 

in 1991. The company initiated final design and 

construction and was marketing access to the module 

and its support facilities on a commercial basis. 

Space Fiightppace Station Integration 

During 1988, NASA continued to focus on the 

important task of preparing for the integration of the 

Space Station Freedom into the space transportation 

support system. In 1988, the agency undertook several 

significant projects to support deployment, assembly, 

and operation of the station. For example, a NASA 

report to Congress entitled “Space Transportation for 

the Space Station” examined transportation capabilities 

and identified areas that need improvements in both 

the National Space Transportation System (NSTS) and 

Space Station Programs. As a follow-up to this report, 

NASA initiated studies to investigate the role of expendable launch vehicles and orbital maneuvering 

vehicles in supporting the space station manned base’s 

logistics requirements. 

Space Station 

During 1988 NASA made great strides toward the 

development of the permanently manned space station 

mandated by President Reagan in 1984. The President 

reaffirmed the national commitment to the station in 

his National Space Policy, revised in January 1988, and 

in July he christened the station “Freedom.” NASA 

signed hardware design and development contracts for 

the four work packages in September. The same 

month, the Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) was 

signed by representatives of the United States, Canada, 

Japan, and the participating European countries, and 

Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) were signed by 

NASA with its counterpart agencies in Canada and 

Europe, establishing cooperative arrangements for 

station design, development, operation and utilization 

work. The Japanese MOU will be signed in 1989, 

following ratification of the IGA by the Diet. By the 

end of 1988, program requirements had been reviewed 

and agreements definitized between the work package 

contractors to simplify program integration and management. In summary, 1988 marked the movement of 

the Space Station Freedom program from the definition 

phase to design and development. 

Program Description and Goais 

support research in a broad spectrum of technical 

disciplines. For science, the space station will offer 

laboratories for studying the life sciences, materials 

sciences, and many other fields where space provides 

unique research opportunities. In addition, the space 

station will support research in such areas as astrophysics and the Earth sciences with instruments 

looking out at the universe and back at Earth. For 

technology development, Freedom will be a testbed 

for evaluating technologies and design approaches for 

potential application in future space systems, and will 

also support the development and perfection of new 

products and processes for application here on Earth. 

In the longer term, Space Station Freedom may evolve 

to meet additional national requirements as they are 

defined. For example, support for manned missions to 

the moon and Mars could be an important role for the 

space station in the first quarter of the next century. 

Supporting on-orbit spacecraft assembly and servicing 

is another potential function of Space Station Freedom 

that could someday be important. 

The program’s overarching goals have remained 

largely unchanged since 1984 but are continually 

clarified as progress is made. 

Space Station Freedom will be a versatile facility to 

31 
They are: 

Assure U.S. and Free World leadership in space 

during the 1990s and beyond; 

I-’i-ovide a versatile facility for space science and 

applications; 

Stimulate the development of advanced 

technologies; 

Provide options for future exploration of space; 

Promote international cooperation; 

Develop the commercial potential of space. 

Configuration 

The Revised Baseline Configuration established in 

1987 did not change in 1988. However, the assembly 

sequence was revised to allow early man-tended 

capability. Because of the one-year program schedule 

delay resulting from budget shortfalls, it was critical to 

assure significant user capabilities at the earliest 

possible time. Program plans at the end of 1988 call for 

the U.S. Laboratory Module to be launched partially 

outfitted on the fourth assembly flight in the fourth 

quarter of 1995, and to be fully outfitted on the sixth 

assembly flight. An Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) 

would be used for the seventh assembly flight (second 

quarter of 1996), enabling the astronauts to perform 

experiments aboard the man-tended station. This 

change would allow meaningful research to be performed aboard Space Station Freedom very early in its 

development. 

Program Status 

The Space Station Freedom program moved from 

the definition phase into the design and development 

phase in 1988, making schedule adjustments where 

necessitated by revised funding profiles. Program 

requirements were reviewed and refined, hardware 

design and development contracts were signed and 

associate contractor agreements were put in place to 

simplify program integration. 

The Program Requirements Document WKD) was 

signed by the Associate Administrator for Space Station 

in February. This top level document contains require32 

ments for station design, assembly, utilization, schedule, safety, evolution, management, and cost. In May, 

the Program Requirements Keview (PKK) began at the 

Program Office and was completed at the four work 

package centers by the end of the year. The PRK 

provided a foundation to begin the detailed design and 

development process by verifying program requirements and insuring that those requirements could be 

traced across all levels of the program and could be 

met within the available technical and fiscal resources. 

The program specification document was also examined to assure that it was complete and consistent. 

from definition to design and development. Contracts 

for each of the four work packages were signed in 

September 1988. Boeing will develop Work Package 1, 

which consists of the laboratory and habitation modules and subsystems (Environmental Control and Life 

Support, Internal Thermal Control and Internal Audio 

and Video). Work Package 2, consisting of the transverse truss, mobile transporter, airlocks, external 

thermal control, data management, communications 

and tracking, guidance, navigation and tracking, 

propulsion and the shuttle attachment, will be developed by McDonnell Douglas. Parts of Work Package 3, 

the U.S. polar platform and attached payload accommodation, will be developed by General Electric. 

Kocketdyne is responsible for the development of 

Work Package 4, the power system. 

The Flight Telerobotic Servicer (ITS) is part of Work 

Package 3. Phase B definition studies were completed 

by Grumman and Martin Marietta in August and a nonadvocate cost review was held in September. The 

Phase C/D (detailed design and development) request 

for proposals (KFP) was issued in November, and 

contractor selection is expected in 1989. 

Contractor Agreements (ACA) were established between the contractors late in 1988 to simplify intersite 

deliveries and place accountability for program success 

at the lowest level. These agreements establish obligaContract activity in 1988 focused on moving forward 

In addition to the work package contracts, Associate 
tions such as open exchange of data, coordination and 

resolution of problems, and engineering and integration support post-delivery among the work package 

contractors, while maintaining the appropriate level of 

NASA responsibility and control through a formal 

management system. 

documentation, beginning with the completion of the 

first Capital Development Plan in April. This plan will 

be updated annually. It included the estimated cost of 

all direct research and development, space flight, 

control and data communications, construction of 

facilities and research and program management. 

Another cost- related report, the “Space Station Program Kesponse to the Fiscal Year 1988 and 1989 

Kevised Budgets,” was submitted to the Congress in 

April in accordance with the FY 1988 Appropriations 

Measure. 

More detailed program documentation was also 

produced in 1988. The Program Definition and Kequirements Document (PDKD) was intensively reviewed and revised as part of the Program Kequirements Keview process. The PDKD contains the technical requirements, including functional requirements 

and derived “design to” requirements, schedules and 

plans for implementation of the cooperative program. 

The Program Plan, which details the management 

structure of the Freedom program, neared completion. 

This document clearly delineates the work breakdown 

structure down to Level V of the program. 

Because of Freedom’s anticipated 30-year lifetime, it 

is essential that both life-cycle costs and development 

costs be considered in the design phase of the program. The program has been developing a total cost 

model which would be used to determine the impact 

of design requirements and changes to the program. 

This would ensure that life-cycle cost implications are 

taken into account as appropriate in all major design 

decisions. The program also began working in 1988 on 

examining station hardware with the goal of increasing 

Considerable progress was made on program 

commonality and maintainability, thereby reducing 

future logisitics support requirements and costs. 

Operations and Utilization Planning 

Station Freedom remained a high priority in 1988. A 

great deal of attention is being paid to these areas in 

the early years of the program in order keep costs 

down and maximize the station’s potential. 

In the area of operations, the program worked 

toward refining the concepts contained in the April 

1987 report of the Space Station Operations Task Force 

which explored space-based and ground-based 

operations and support systems. Considerable effort 

was also devoted to developing procedures and tools 

for the operational era of the station, as well as 

defining facilities requirements for utilization and 

operations. 

Station requires cooperative planning between the 

Space Station program and other organizations, both 

within and outside of NASA. To this end, discussions 

with NASA’s Office of Space Flight were initiated on 

the possibility of sharing/coordinating logistics considerations for the Shuttle and Space Station programs. 

Meetings held with the Department of Defense have 

allowed the program to gain insight from DOD on 

operations and logistics activities in space. Space 

Station program personnel continued working with the 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite 

(IPOMS) group to develop an international approach 

to meteorological data using the NASA and ESA polar 

platforms. In 1988 a commonality study for the polar 

platforms was initiated with ESA in the context of the 

IPOMS group. 

Part of the utilization effort is aimed at defining the 

user environment. The Space Station Microgravity 

Environment report submitted to Congress in July 

described the microgravity characteristics expected to 

be achieved in the U.S. Laboratory and compared 

Planning for the operations and utilization of Space 

Maximizing utility and minimizing cost for Freedom 

33 
these characteristics to baseline program operations 

and utilization requirements. 

A great deal of the utilization activity of the Freedom program is focused on cooperation with and 

support of the NASA offices that represent station 

users. These offices include the Office of Space 

Science and Applications (OSSA), the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology (OAST), and the Office 

of Commercial Programs (OCP). In 1988 these offices 

named permanent representatives to a variety of Space 

Station Freedom program panels and boards where 

they are working cooperatively to see that user needs 

for the program are met. During the summer NASA 

also began a multilateral utilization study with its 

international partners to coordinate utilization planning. 

In 1988 the Space Station Freedom program supported and participated in a variety of workshops 

sponsored by other NASA offices and advisory groups. 

The OSSA sponsored a workshop in Guntersville in 

January that focused on updating payload requirements for Freedom Station and preparing input for the 

PKK trial payload manifest. A broad range of science 

utilization and operational issues was examined at the 

Space Station Science and Applications Advisory Subcommittee (SSSAAS) workshop in Hyannis, MA in 

June-a formal report was presented to NASA in 

September. Some utilization and operations issues, 

including potential conflicts between materials science 

and life science research, were discussed at the 

National Kesearch Council Committee on Space 

Station’s November workshop in Irvine, CA. 

Evolution Planning 

The February 11, 1988 Presidential Directive on 

National Space Policy stated that the “Space Station 

will allow evolution in keeping with the needs of 

station users and the long-term goals of the US.” This 

Presidential directive reaffirms the NASA approach to 

design and build a space station that is capable of 

expanding capabilities and incorporating improved 

34 

technologies to meet future needs. The space station 

design reflects consideration of an extended operational lifetime in support of a changing and growing 

user community. Therefore, planning for evolution is 

taking place in parallel with the design and development of the baseline space station. 

Accomplishments in 1988 include incorporating 

various evolution design requirements in the top-level 

baseline program documentation. These requirements 

preserve the capability for station growth and evolution. Preliminary work has also begun to define 

reference evolution concepts that would accommodate 

potential future initiatives, including expansion of 

research and development activities on-board the 

space station, Mission to Planet Earth, and manned and 

unmanned planetary exploration. NASA and the 

international partners are coordinating their respective 

evolution studies in an international working group. 

During 1988, the Office of Space Station’s advanced 

development program began fostering and demonstrating technologies that could enhance baseline capabilities with an emphasis on increasing productivity and 

reliability, reduce operations costs and enable evolution by providing mature technology in areas required 

to support advanced missions. The advanced development program focused on maturing technologies in the 

areas of advanced automation, knowledge-based 

systems, and robotics. 

International Cooperatlon 

Negotiations with NASA’s international partners on 

cooperation during design, development, operations 

and utilization were completed in June. In September 

1988, the agreements were signed. The multilateral 

Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) was signed by 

Secretary of State George Shultz and representatives 

from Canada, Japan, and the nine European countries 

participating through the European Space Agency 

(ESA). Bilateral Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) 

were signed by Deputy Administrator Dale Myers with 

ESA and the Canadian Ministry of State for Science and 
Technology; the Japanese MOU will be signed in 1989 

after the Japanese Diet ratifies the IGA. 

Under these agreements, all the partners will 

provide flight hardware and supporting ground 

elements. 'The following hardware will be provided: 

Canada: Mobile Servicing System 

ESA: Attached Pressurized Module, Polar Platform, 

Japan: Japanese Experiment Module UEM), 

Man-Tended Free Flyer 

including a pressurized laboratory, an exposed 

f. acility, ' ' and experiment logistics modules. 

In addition, all partners will participate in the 

management of the station, with the manned base 

operating as an integrated unit and the free-flying 

elements operating more autonomously. Crew members will be provided by each of the partners, and 

operating costs will be shared. 

The international management structure for the 

Freedom program has been established and is operating. Design and development activities will be managed bilaterally, while operation and utilization activities will be managed multilaterally. The MOUs establish management bodies that coordinate and make 

decisions on the cooperative activities of the partners. 

Consensus decision-making is the goal; however, 

where consensus cannot be achieved, NASA is authorized to make decisions necessary for a safe, efficient, 

and effective program. 

Commercial Participation in Freedom 

NASA will foster commercial participation in the 

development, operation, and utilization of Freedom 

Station. NASA will ensure that the space station's 

design, development, and operations are appropriately 

influenced by commercial considerations and will 

encourage commercial investment in ventures which 

use and support the station. 

provision for commercial participation in the Freedom 

program. Commercial participation is possible through 

two distinct avenues: commercial utilization and comThe 1988 National Space Policy mandates the 

mercial infrastructure. Commercial utilization will 

involve commercial users of Freedom who will conduct space-based research and development activities. 

Commercial infrastructure involves commercial provision of selected space station-related systems and 

services on a commercial basis to NASA and space 

station users. The 1988 Commercial Space Initiatives 

directed NASA, in coordination with OMB, to clarify 

and strengthen the Federal commitment to private 

sector investment in the Space Station Freedom 

program by revising the guidelines on commercialization. This has been done, and procedures to implement these guidelines have been established. In 

addition, NASA has established procedures and criteria 

to evaluate proposals for commercial infrastructure 

participation in Freedom. 

To inform industry of commercial utilization and 

infrastructure opportunities, the Office of Commercial 

Programs and the Office of Space Station co-sponsored 

several Space Station Freedom workshops in 1987 and 

1988. 

Conclusion 

The Space Station Freedom program completed the 

transition from definition to design and development 

activities in 1988. Contracts were signed for hardware 

development in each work package, and arrangements 

between contractors were refined to facilitate integration. NASA and its international partners signed 

agreements for cooperation on the development, 

operations, and utilization of Freedom Station and 

began coordination work. Utilization and operations 

planning proceeded steadily. The program revised 

NASA's commercial guidelines and implemented 

procedures to accommodate proposals. In summary, at 

the end of 1988 the Freedom program was well on its 

way to developing a permanently manned research 

facility in space. 

35 
Commercial Programs 

America’s space program has embarked on a new 

beginning. Beyond the efforts leading to the Space 

Shuttle’s return to flight, there is a renewal of our 

commitment to leadership, and a strong new emphasis 

on the commercial development of space as a national 

economic asset. 

Fiscal year 1988 opened with a transition to new 

management in the Office of Commercial Programs 

(OCP). After a decade of pioneering commercial space 

manufacturing at McDonnell Douglas Astronautics 

Corporation, Mr. James T. Kose returned to NASA and 

was appointed to serve as Assistant Administrator for 

Commercial Programs. 

In February, the Commercial Programs Advisory 

Committee (CPAC) was formally created and Mr. 

Edward Donley, Chairman of the Executive Committee, 

Air Products and Chemicals, Incorporated, was named 

to serve as its chairman. A distinguished group of corporate chief executive officers and their university 

counterparts agreed to serve as members of CPAC. The 

first two meetings of the group were held in July and 

October. As a subcommittee of the NASA Advisory 

Council, the new group will assist NASA by reviewing 

policies and programs and recommending strategies to 

implement the national space policy goals to promote 

greater investment and participation by the U.S. private 

sector in America’s civil space program. 

development of a strategic plan for the next quarter 

century. This comprehensive plan, primarily aimed at 

meeting the needs and interests of U.S. industry over 

the next 25 years, is being prepared with the assistance 

of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and a steering committee composed of senior 

research executives representing diverse industries. 

Commercial Development 

The year 1988 saw an expansion of the NASAindustry partnership with the signing of new cooperative agrecrnents. In August, NASA and SPACEHAB, 

36 

Another key management initiative of 1988 was the 

Incorporated, signed a Space Systems Development 

Agreement to provide six shared Space Shuttle flights 

for the firm’s privately developed and financed middeck augmentation module. The agreement allows the 

company to pay NASA for standard services on a 

deferred basis. The SPACEHAB module is a truncated 

cylinder designed to fit in the Shuttle’s cargo bay and 

expand the pressurized volume of the orbiter. 

SPACEHAB will provide customers with a variety of 

locker and rack accommodations, with associated 

support and integration services. Commercial ventures 

and sponsored research requiring man-tended access 

to the space environment will provide the primary 

target market. 

Unocal, which in 1988 continued its cooperative 

research and development effort with NASA’s John C. 

Stennis Space Center (SSC) under a Proprietary Work 

Agreement, initiated discussions with OCP on a 

proposed Joint Endeavor Agreement UEA). The firm, 

which is working on the development of a remote 

sensing instrument to assist the search for energy 

resources, has expressed interest in development 

flights aboard both the Space Shuttle and the Space 

Station Freedom. 

Another agreement was signed in 1988 with Corabi 

International Telemetrics, Incorporated, to support 

commercial development of telemedicine services for 

Space Station Freedom. Under the agreement, NASA 

and Corabi will cooperate in the firm’s efforts to adapt, 

for Space Station Freedom use, Corabi’s terrestrialbased technology. The technology enables medical 

specialists to remotely review and analyze biological 

and other materials via high-resolution video images. 

The Joint Endeavor Agreement (JEA) is a noexchange-of-funds arrangement under which NASA 

sponsors space flight opportunities for companies that 

invest corporate resources to test and develop commercially promising concepts. To facilitate early flight 

experiment opportunities for the NASA Centers for the 

Commercial Development of Space (CCDS) and their 
industrial participants, work began this year on the 

creation of a new agreement mechanism-a pre-JEA. 

NASA also negotiated a Technical Exchange Agreement with Amoco, an industrial affiliate of the Center 

for Advanced Materials located at Battelle Columbus 

Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio. 

On June 1, 1988, NASA published in Commerce 

Business Daily an invitation for the U.S. private sector 

to express interest in commercially using the Space 

Shuttle’s jettisoned external tanks. The notice was the 

first step in implementing one of the specific actions 

included in the President’s Commercial Space Initiative. 

Proposals remaining after initial screening reviews are 

currently undergoing thorough technical, safety, and 

business evaluations. 

Before the President’s Commercial Space Initiative 

was announced, two companies had approached 

NASA expressing interest in using the Space Shuttle’s 

external tanks. In December 1988, NASA signed an 

agreement with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Kesearch, Boulder, Colorado, supporting their 

efforts for commercial use of the intertank space within 

five external tanks for suborbital experiments. The 

second company, Global Outpost, Incorporated, 

Alexandria, Virginia, is currently negotiating an agreement with NASA to exchange information on externaltank technology. 

Laying a Sound Foundation 

prospects for long-term commercial success requires 

laying a sound foundation on the ground. NASA has 

established CCDSs, which are a nationwide network of 

unique research organizations which combine industrial interest, university talent, and government sponsorship to investigate and develop areas of commercial 

potential. 

These CCDSs serve as incubators for future commercial space ventures, enabling their industrial affiliates to 

explore the economic value of space in a program 

where financial and technical risks are shared. Seven 

Getting U.S. industry into space with the best 

new CCDSs were started in 1988: the Center for 

Advanced Space Propulsion, University of Tennessee 

Space Institute, Tullahoma, Tennessee; the Space 

Power Institute, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama; 

the Center for Autonomous and Man-Controlled 

Kobotic and Sensing Systems, Environmental Kesearch 

Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; the Center 

for Cell Kesearch, Pennsylvania State University, 

University Park, Pennsylvania; the Center for Bioserve 

Kesearch, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, 

Colorado; the Center for Materials for Space Structures, 

Case Western Keserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; and 

the Center for Space Power, Texas A&M University, 

College Station, Texas. 

A new management initiative undertaken this year 

seeks to establish a closer linkage between the CCDSs, 

and enhance the interactions with NASA field installations. CCDS Directors are now serving on a Commercial Programs Management Council. 

The efforts in 1988 of a team of industrial researchers affiliated with the Center for Macromolecular 

Crystallography, University of Alabama-Birmingham, 

Birmingham, Alabama, clearly evidence the value and 

potential of this program. The team’s experiment 

aboard STS-26 performed research that could lead to 

commercial, in-space production of tiny protein 

crystals. High-quality crystals were obtained from most 

of the protein and enzyme samples flown, and new 

knowledge regarding the samples was obtained. Four 

of five of the samples grew crystals of exceptional size 

and quality. Protein crystals grown in space could 

become vitally important research tools for scientists 

who are working to develop powerful new drugs to 

combat cancer, high blood pressure, organ transplant 

rejection, rheumatoid arthritis, and many other diseases. 

opment in Space, University of Alabama-Huntsville, 

Huntsville, Alabama, is leading efforts to conduct 

materials processing research aboard a commercially 

Another CCDS, the Consortium for Materials Devel37 
provided sounding rocket. The sounding rocket, 

scheduled for launch in the first part of 1989, will carry 

a payload of instruments to perform materials processing experiments in the low gravity environment of 

space. In keeping with the Commercial Space Launch 

Act, the consortium plans to award a competitive 

contract for launch services. 

CCDS accomplishments include some 615 drop 

tubehwer microgravity experiments conducted, 21 

KC-135 microgravity flight experiments, involvement in 

4 Space Shuttle flights, 1 series of Lear Jet flights, and 5 

experiments prepared for a sounding rocket flight. 

Approximately 58 CCDS payloads have been identified 

for repetitive materials processing testing. 

Since initiation of the program in 1985, participation 

and interest has steadily risen, with the number of 

CCDS industrial affiliates now totaling well over 100. 

Capitaiizing on New Ideas from Smaii Business 

OCP launched an effort in 1988 to identify new 

opportunities for American small businesses to capitalize on their innovative ideas by developing commercial 

applications of space research. Ways to increase small 

business participation in the commercial development 

of space are also being actively explored. 

A growing number of small business concerns are 

initiating new commercial products in many fields as a 

result of research and development funded through 

NASA’s continuing Small Business Innovation Kesearch 

(SBIK) Program, a program administered by OCP. 

Since 1983, NASA has spent or committed $175 million 

for 755 Phase I and 299 Phase I1 SBIK contracts placed 

with 446 small businesses in 40 states, territories, and 

the District of Columbia. 

During FY 1988, NASA announced the selection of 

SBIK research proposals resulting in 204 Phase I 

contract awards from the 1987 Program Solicitation and 

85 Phase I1 awards for continuations of Phase 1 projects initiated the previous year. Also during FY 1988, 

OCP completed a comprehensive review assessing the 

results of Phase I1 SBIK projects completed to date. 

38 

Many of the results and products are being utilized in 

NASA programs and several have been successfully 

commercialized. 

Expendabie Launch Vehicle Privatization 

and Commercialization 

Assuring a highway to space by fostering growth of 

a U.S. commercial launch industry is another key 

initiative of the President’s new National Space Policy. 

Over the past few years, NASA’s efforts to advocate 

and encourage development of an ELV industrial base 

have helped make commercial space transportation 

services a reality. 

There has been a rapid succession of agreements 

between NASA and the private sector concerning 

commercial expendable launch vehicle (ELV) development. NASA signed an agreement in 1986 with Space 

Services, Incorporated, a small firm located in Houston, 

Texas, for commercial ELV support at the NASA 

Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island, Virginia. 

NASA’s 1987 agreement with General Dynamics 

marked the first transference of a government-developed ELV (Atlas Centaur) to the private sector. This 

achievement was followed in 1988 by an agreement 

with LTV Aerospace and Defense Company, Missiles 

and Electronics Group, for privatization of the Scout 

Launch Vehicle Program, as well as agreements 

between NASA and Martin Marietta Commercial Titan, 

Incorporated, and McDonnell Douglas Astronautics 

Corporation, for NASA facility support to the commercial Titan and Delta launch vehicle programs, respectively. 

In addition to NASA’s provision of support to 

commercial ELV firms, NASA stands to become an 

important customer of commercial launch services. In 

1988, NASA and the Department of Commerce made 

history with their award of a $200 million contract to 

General Dynamics for the acquisition of a commercial 

launch service “package” for the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s family of Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellites. This marks the 
first U.S. Government procurement of a commercial 

launch service. Further support to the commercial ELV 

industry comes from NASA’s adoption in 1988 of a 

mixed-fleet plan, in which unmanned launches, 

purchased by NASA as a commercial service, will 

complement Space Shuttle operations. A need has 

been identified for 30 such commercial launch services 

through 1994. 

NASA and the Consortium for Materials Development in Space, a CCDS in Huntsville, Alabama, 

awarded a commercial launch services contract to 

Space Services, Incorporated (SSI). Under the contract, 

funded through a NASA grant to the CCDS, SSI will 

launch a materials science experiment payload aboard 

their sounding rocket vehicle in March 1989. The flight 

will be the first commercial launch of the firm. 

Further Efforts 

NASA is also working closely with industry to 

explore the potential commercial uses associated with 

the Space Station Freedom, an orbiting complex of 

modules to be assembled in the 1990s. In November 

1987, NASA officials met with more than 200 corporate 

executives, representing diverse industries, to discuss 

how the Space Station Freedom can best meet future 

industry needs. Input from this conference is being 

used in formal NASA reviews of Space Station Freedom 

user requirements as work proceeds toward detailed 

design and development of the orbital facility. 

A second Space Station Freedom Commercial 

Workshop was held in October 1988. Of the 225 

attendees, more than 150 representatives from industry 

participated in workshop activities which included 

panel discussions on Space Station Freedom policy and 

procedural matters, as well as technical discussions on 

the commercial applications relative to life sciences, 

materials processing in space, and commercial Earth 

and ocean observations. Attendees from academia, 

industry, and other government organizations were 

very impressed by the program, the selected exhibits, 

high-level management interest, and opportunities for 

commercial space activities which were presented at 

the workshop. 

New policy and planning initiatives to review 

pricing policies, commercial participation in the 

development of space infrastructure, and criteria for 

assessing proposed commercial ventures were also 

begun in 1988. These activities will continue into FY 

1989 to further develop NASA’s capabilities to respond 

to commercial interest in space. 

l’otential commercial applications of remote sensing-the process in which satellite or airborne sensors 

detect various types of radiation emitted by, or reflected from, objects on Earth-continue to increase. In 

1988, NASA selected for funding some 20 applications 

projects in this area, 9 of which will be managed by 

the NASA Stennis Space Center Earth Resources 

Laboratory. This lab is currently exploring ways to use 

existing remote sensing technology in new commercial 

products and services and is also helping users develop their own technology. 

Technology Utilization 

For 25 years, NASA’s Technology Utilization Program has been dedicated to promoting and facilitating 

the application of NASA-developed technologies in the 

public and private sectors. Building on a solid record 

of accomplishment in technology transfer, the NASA 

program is well prepared to meet the challenge of a 

new federal emphasis on increasing the transfer of 

government-funded technologies to the private sector 

as a means of improving U.S. industrial competitiveness. 

Recent congressional legislation and Executive 

Orders have directed Federal agencies to heighten 

their efforts to move new technologies into the U.S. 

private sector. One of NASA’s first responses was to 

conduct a thorough review of its program, which has 

already produced thousands of successful aerospace 

and nonaerospace “spinoffs” ranging from improved 

medical care to energy conservation. From that review, 

a new strategic plan has emerged to serve as a guide39 
line for present and future NASA technology transfer 

activities. 

Major steps were taken in 1988 to strengthen and 

expand the scope of NASA’s technology transfer 

network and the various mechanisms which comprise 

it. In addition, a series of new initiatives were implemented by the Technology Utilization Division to 

ensure further progress in advancing the objectives of 

specific congressional and executive actions mandating 

more active and consistent technology transfer efforts 

throughout the Federal Government. 

A Nationwide Network 

has provided thousands of industrial, university, and 

government clients with access to NASA-derived 

technology, information, and personnel, producing 

thousands of successful spinoffs. These spinoffs have 

resulted in new and improved goods and services for 

the American public, stimulating our economy through 

the generation of new jobs and dollars. 

Today, this network reaches into virtually every 

state of the Union. NASA’s group of 10 Industrial 

Application Centers (IAC) and their affiliates form the 

heart of this system. Recognizing this, NASA sought in 

1988 to significantly increase the capabilities of these 

IACs, which disseminate NASA-developed technology 

to a broad range of industrial clients by providing them 

access to nearly 100 million scientific and technical 

documents in the NASA data bank. IACs are also 

provided access to more than 600 other computerized 

data banks, as well as NASA scientific and technical 

personnel. 

links with state-sponsored institutions throughout the 

country, the NASA Technology Utilization Program 

entered into a blanket agreement with the Federal 

Laboratory Consortium connecting IACs and their 

affiliates to the consortium’s network of 500 K&D 

laboratories and its clearinghouse. This agreement has 

made it possible for U.S. industries and entrepreneurs, 

40 

Over the years, NASA’s technology transfer network 

In addition to expanding the IACs’ reach to include 

using access points within their home states, to find 

out what federal technology, relevant to their needs, is 

available in Federal laboratories throughout the Nation. 

Additionally, NASA plans to make the IAC network 

accessible to clients of other Federal and state-supported industry assistance activities, including the more 

than 500 Small Business Development Centers, Economic Development Agency Centers, and the proposed Hollings Centers under the aegis of the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology. 

Other recent highlights of the progress of these IACs 

include a contract signing with Southern University, 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana, to operate an IAC and provide 

dissemination/information services primarily in Louisiana and Mississippi, marking the first minority university to join the IAC network. 

Although no overall price tag can be placed on the 

value of the services provided by IACs, an example of 

their benefit is evident in $1.25 million saved by the 

city of Albuquerque, New Mexico, when it utilized the 

services of the Technical Application Center (TAC), an 

IAC which specializes in remote sensing and imaging 

technologies. The TAC provided the city with aerial 

photographs of an area where a bridge was to be built. 

The photos allowed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

who designed the bridge, to shorten it by 500 feet, 

thereby reducing its cost. 

An ADA software repository and software valueadded capability are also being developed in cooperation with the Department of Defense’s Joint Projects 

Office and the Department of Commerce. A technology 

transfer component will adapt ADA software for 

application in such areas as flexible computer integrated manufacturing, automation and robotics, and 

artificial intelligence. 

Spreading the Word 

NASA’s Tech Briefs, a publication containing concise 

descriptions of innovations arising from NASA R&D 

efforts, has long been a key component of the technology transfer network. Distributed to some 200,000 
subscribers annually, it identifies and highlights 

information on new aerospace technologies which 

appear to have potential nonaerospace uses. 

one-page “Flash Sheet” describing new technologies, 

has evolved into a commercially produced magazine 

which has published nearly 13,000 new technology 

rcports since its inception. In response to published 

Tech Brief, more than 1-1/2 million requests from 

readers have been submitted for Technology Support 

Packages which provide more detailed information on 

specific technologies. Reader feedback indicates that 

dollar savings to industry and government clients are 

running in the millions. To respoild to increased 

demands, beginning in 1989, the number of issues 

published per year will increase from 10 to 12. 

Likewise, the scope and significance of NASA 

Spiriofls, an annual publication, continues to grow and 

enhance the technology transfer network. The publication reported some 50 new spinoff items this year, with 

more than 600 highlighted since its inception. 

ogy spinoffs is also increasing, as evidenced by 

numerous trade and media articles and the recently 

inaugurated Spinoff Hall of Fame in Colorado. Sponsored and managed by the U.S. Space Foundation, the 

Spinoff Hall of Fame was officially opened in 1988 

with the selection of five NASA technologies. 

Supporting Technology Applications 

NASA directly supports technology application 

efforts, which are geared toward the solution of public 

and private sector problems that have been identified 

by user organizations at the federal, state, and local 

levels. Currently, some 60 technology application 

projects are under way at 9 NASA field installations in 

a variety of disciplines including: automation and 

robotics, bioengineering and biotechnology, advanced 

materials and composites, electronics and semiconductors, and rehabilitation. 

One such project initiated in 1988 is a joint effort 

The publication, which began as a NASA-produced 

The public visibility of NASA’s many space technolbetween NASA and the Johns Hopkins Wilmer Eye 

Institute to use space technology to develop a device 

designed to improve the sight of millions of people 

with low vision. 

Applications projects were first established in 1970 

to provide direct NASA assistance and primary funding 

to promote secondary use of aerospace technology. 

They involve cooperative efforts to build and test 

prototype hardware if the industrial partner agrees to 

provide partial funding and is prepared to complete 

marketing of the transfer. To date, more than 150 

projects have been initiated and 75 successful transfers 

have been completed. 

Responses to New Legislative Challenges 

As a long time leader among U.S. Government 

agencies in technology transfer efforts, NASA has 

welcomed the recent Federal emphasis in this important area. 

To further respond to the recent congressional 

legislation and executive direction regarding technology transfer, NASA officials implemented in 1988 a 

series of new initiatives aimed at further compliance 

with the recent mandates. The initiatives were developed following a review of the program which was 

conducted not only to determine how best the agency 

could comply, but also how it could retain its traditional leadership status among Federal agencies in the 

area of technology transfer. 

Highlights of accomplishments made toward further 

compliance with recent legislation include: 

Participation in the Federal Laboratory Consortium 

for Technology Transfer, as well as transfer of 

NASA funds to support the project. 

Establishment of the Ames University Consortium, 

created to provide reciprocal use of services, 

personnel, equipment, and facilities between 

NASA’s Ames Kesearch Center, Moffett Field, 

California, and member institutions, presently 

including relationships with 136 universities 

nationwide. 

41 
Cooperation with KIMTECH (Research Institute for 

the Management of Technology), a consortium of 

technology-based businesses in southern 

California organized to provide systematic access 

to the technology of NASA’s Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory, Pasadena, California. 

and former NASA employee/inventors and 

distributing a share of these funds to appropriate 

NASA field installations. 

Granting of 167 awards, to date, to NASA and 

NASA contractor personnel for scientific and 

technical contributions which have “significant 

value in the conduct of aeronautical and space 

activities.” Some of these were directly influenced 

by the degree of technology transfer and 

commercialization achieved for nonaerospace 

industrial purposes. 

Expansion of cooperative efforts for technology 

transfer with other organizations, including many 

of the initiatives mentioned above, as well as 

participation in the Technology Share Project and 

the establishment of a High Temperature 

Superconductivity Working Group. The 

superconductivity group will coordinate ongoing 

NASA superconductivity research at NASA field 

installations, assess the impact of new 

superconducting material on aerospace technology 

and missions, and determine and recommend to 

NASA its role in this emerging field. The group is 

also coordinating its activities with other major 

Federal agencies. 

Assessing the Impacts 

In addition, an effort was undertaken in 1988 to 

assess the economic impact of some of the NASAderived spinoffs or applications reported in the NASA 

Spirzoffpublication between 1978 and 1986. Although 

tangible statistics on the economic impact of technology transfer are often difficult to measure or summarize, researchers tracing nearly 350 applications 

42 

Distribution of patent royalty income to present 

Tracking and data acquisitions functions. 

publicized in Spinoff annual reports have obtained 

estimated revenues and cost savings that may be 

attributed in part or in whole to NASA programs. These 

NASA spinoffs have resulted in economic benefits from 

contributions to sales or savings approximating $27 

billion since 1978. While work on the study is still in 

progress, findings thus far dramatically illustrate the 

benefits of technology transfer to both industry and the 

Nation at large. 

Space Operations 

The Space Operations Program continued to 

provide planning, development, acquisition, and 

operations of worldwide tracking, data acquisition, 

data processing and communications systems facilities, 

and operational support to meet NASA flight-program 

requirements. 

The Space Operations Task Force, which was 

established in March 1987 to develop options for a 

space operations implementation and organizational 

structure, completed its study. Its recommendations 

and findings were under review by NASA. 

Space Network 

The transition which began with the first Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) from a ground-based 
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-3) ready for 

release from STS-26 on September 29, 1988. 

tracking network to a space-based tracking capability 

for low-Earth orbital missions continued in 1988. 

Shuttle operations resumed on September 29, 1988, 

with the successful deployment of TDKS-3, which 

joined TDKS-1 already in orbit. TDKS-4 was scheduled 

for launch in 1989. The ground-based tracking network 

was retained to support low-Earth orbital missions until 

the TDKS system became operational. The TDKS 

system will be fully functional when three spacecraft 

are in geosynchronous orbit, and the spacecraft and 

the ground system have completed integrated acceptance tests. 

During 1988, the Tracking and Data Kelay Satellite 

in space continued its excellent support of the Landsat, 

Solar Mesospheric Explorer, Earth Radiation Budget 

Satellite, and Space Shuttle missions. TDKS-3 was fully 

functional and supported the STS-27 launch in early 

December. 

The TDKS replacement spacecraft program, to 

replace the satellite lost in 1986, has continued and 

will ensure continuity of service in the mid-1990s. 

The General Electric Company was selected in 

October 1988 to develop, fabricate, install, and test the 

communications hardware and software to implement 

the Second TDKSS Ground Terminal (STGT) at White 

Sands, NM. The STGT is not only necessary to eliminate the first ground terminal as a critical single point 

of failure, but it will also provide the capability to 

operate more Lhan LWO TDKSs in orbit, and will allow 

the first ground terminal facility to be modernized with 

no interruption of activity. Operational readiness for 

this facility was planned for 1993. 

Ground Networks 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN), the 

Deep Space Network (DSN), and the Aeronautics, 

Balloon, and Sounding Rocket (AB8rSK) programs 

continued to provide support services to all NASA 

science and engineering missions for vehicles in highEarth orbit and in deep space. 

The Deep Space Network is preparing for a major 

challenge when the Voyager 2 spacecraft encounters 

Neptune in August 1989. During 1988, a number of 

modifications to the DSN were under way to improve 

its sensitivity to prepare for the Neptune encounter and 

support of several new spacecraft launches. These 

launches include the Galileo mission of Jupiter and its 

moons, the Magellan Venus Mapping mission planned 

for 1989, and the Mars Oliserver mapping mission 

The ground-based tracking and data networks, the 

43 
planned for 1992. lhe 64-meter antennas at each of 

the DSN sites were increased to 70 meters, with work 

completed at the Madrid, Spain, and Canberra, Australia, sites in 1987 and at the Goldstone, CA, site in 1988. 

Modifications to non-NASA antennas in New Mexico, 

Australia, and Japan were also under way in 1988 to 

provide increased signal-reception capability for 

electronic arraying with NASA antennas for the Voyager/Neptune encounter. Image reception from 

Neptune will travel over the longest television relay 

ever attempted, with signals requiring more than four 

hours to reach Earth from the point of Voyager’s 

closest approach to Neptune. 

provided near-Earth support in 1988 for shuttle 

launches and TDKSS deployment. Support was also 

provided to the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 8 

(1MP-8), International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), 

NIMBUS-7, Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites (GOES) 4, 5, 6, 

and 7, Dynamic Explorer 1 (DE-I), Solar Mesospheric 

Explorer (SME), Landsat-4 and -5, Earth Kadiation 

Budget Satellite (EKBS), and National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 9, 10, and 11 

missions. The STDN will continue low-Earth orbit 

support until the Space Network becomes operational. 

Communications and Data Systems 

The basic elements of the Communications and 

Data Systems program form the vital link between the 

data acquisition stations and the users and include 

communications, mission control, and data capture and 

processing. 

Communication services were fully activated and all 

systems supported the shuttle return-to-flight launch in 

September. During 1988, the Program Support Communications Network (PSCN) continued serving the 

agency’s institutional and programmatic voice and data 

requirements. The Communications and Data Systems 

program continued conceptual design studies and 

testing in 1988 in preparation for the Cosmic Back44 

The Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network stations 

NASA Space Operations Tracking Networks. 

ground Explorer (COBE), Upper Atmospheric Research 

Satellite (UAKS), and the Hubble Space Telescope 

(IIST) launches in 1989 and 1990. Definition studies 

continued for advanced data handling and command 

and control systems to meet the challenges of new 

missions in the mid-1990s. 

Aeronawtics Research and Technology 

The goal of the NASA aeronautics program is to 

conduct effective and productive aeronautical research 

and technology development to benefit future U.S. civil 

and military aviation programs. In 1988, NASA’s aeronautical research and technology (K&T) efforts continued to expand the nation’s capabilities and contributed 

significantly to U.S. world aviation leadership and the 

national security. These efforts range in scope from 

fundamental disciplinary research in the laboratory to 

experimental aircraft flight testing. 

The U.S. aviation industry is unique because of its 

positive contribution to the national balance of trade, 

its importance to national security, and its role as a 

symbol of American technological strength and national pride. The United States has been the world’s 
Flight line at the Ames-Dtyden Flight Research Facility. 

leader in the development and application of aviation 

technology since the late 1940s with the breaking of 

the sound barrier. This leadership is the result of a 

solid national technology base and rapid progress in 

aeronautics research. In recent years, however, the U.S. 

dominance in commercial transportation has been 

challenged by foreign competitors. Foreign aircraft 

now dominate the feeder airline/medium-size aircraft 

market and significant thrusts have been made into 

major commercial airline markets, especially by the 

European consortium’s Airbus series of transport 

aircraft. 

In 1985, the White House Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP) published a report entitled 

“National Aeronautical K&D Goals: Technology for 

America’s Future” which outlined opportunities for 

significant advances in aeronautics that could reshape 

civil and military aviation by the turn of the century. In 

February 1987, the OSTP published a sequel titled 

“National Aeronautical K&D Goals: Agenda for 

Achievement” which presented a cohesive strategy and 

an eight-point action plan to achieve the national goals 

and retain U.S. leadership in the world aviation 

marketplace. NASA has been redirecting its aeronautics 

program toward many of the technologies mentioned 

in the first report generally along the lines of the action 

plan outlined in the sequel. Aeronautics research is 

now more focused on emerging technologies which 

offer the potential for order-of-magnitude advances in 

aircraft capabilities. The major objectives are to provide 

technology results well in advance of specific application needs and to conduct long-term, independent 

research. 

NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC, directs the 

overall aeronautics research and technology program. 

The research is conducted at the three aeronautical research centers: Ames Kesearch Center at Moffett Field, 

CA and Ames Kesearch Center’s Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards AEB, CA; Langley Kesearch 

Center in Hampton, VA; and Lewis Research Center in 

Cleveland, OH. These three centers comprise the most 

comprehensive and unique set of aeronautical research 

and test facilities in the world and remain an essential 

resource for aeronautics research and development in 

the United States. 

productivity of our national facilities which are crucial 

to civil and military R&D programs. For several years 

there had been a growing concern about the deteriorating condition of the NASA wind tunnels. In 1987, an 

extensive, independent study was conducted to assess 

the condition of NASA’s major wind tunnels and their 

ability to meet a growing demand. The conclusion was 

that NASA must revitalize these critical wind tunnels as 

soon as possible. In response, a comprehensive fiveyear program was initiated to upgrade the wind 

tunnels considered critical to aeronautical research and 

to U.S. development programs. In 1988, work began 

on the first three wind tunnels selected for the revitalization program: the Ames 12-foot Pressure Wind 

Tunnel, the Lewis 10-x-10-foot Unitary Plan Tunnel, 

and the Langley Hypersonic Complex. 

The Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology at 

NASA is firmly committed to assuring the health and 

45 
12-foot Pressure Wind Tunnel at Ames Research Center, 

one of the facilities being updated in the Wind Tunnel 

Revitalization Plan. 

NASA's research program includes both fundamental 

disciplinary research and vehicle specific research. 

Disciplinary research may be generically applied to all 

classes of vehicles, whereas vehicle specific research is 

focused primarily on technology which has the potential for increasing the capabilities of specific classes of 

vehicles-subsonic transports, rotorcraft, high performance military aircraft, supersonic cruise aircraft, or 

hypersonic vehicles. The NASA program has long 

provided a foundation in the traditional aeronautical 

disciplines (including aerodynamics, propulsion, 

structures, and controls), but now NASA is also making 

significant progress in the application of new disciplines (such as artificial intelligence and advanced 

computational simulation) and in the integration of 

disciplines (such as flight and propulsion control 

systems). In addition to the K&T base efforts, NASA 

has placed additional emphasis on the following 

specific areas: transatmospheric K&T, numerical 

aerodynamic simulation, low noisehibration rotorcraft, 

composite materials and structures, high angle-of46 

Cray Super Computer at Ames Research Center's 

Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation Facility. 

attack and supermaneuverability research, aircraft 

automation and safety, computational fluid dynamics 

code verification, advanced short takeoff and vertical 

landing aircraft studies, supersonic fan research, highspeed transport studies, small engine technology, and 

advanced high-temperature engine materials. 

Disciplinary Research and Technology 

seek to improve the understanding of basic physical 

phenomena and provide the technological base for 

new concepts and ideas necessary for future advances. 

The research includes efforts in aerodynamics, propulsion, materials and structures, information sciences and 

human factors, and flight systems. 

Aerodynamics. The Fluid Mechanics Laboratory at 

the Ames Research Center has now completed a full 

year of service and significant progress has been made 

toward the initial goal of developing sophisticated 

facilities and computers for integration of aerodynamic 

theory and experiment. The laboratory enhances Ames' 

NASA's disciplinary aeronautical research activities 
Natural laminar flow glove being flight tested on a Variable 

Sweep Wing F-14. 

position as an internationally recognized center for 

innovative research that exploits emerging technologies in the simulation of increasingly complex viscous 

flows. In particular, the laboratory is engaged in 

fundamental studies of transitional and turbulent 

boundary layers and their control with the goal of 

promoting efficient and economical high-speed flight. 

The effect of viscous forces on the prediction of 

aerodynamic drag is now recognized as a critical 

unsolved problem in aeronautics. New concepts in 

drag reduction applicable over a wide range of operating conditions found on modern aerospace vehicles 

make the study of flow instability and transition of 

critical importance in meeting national goals. New 

computational hardware is now available to enable 

time accurate solutions on very fine grids that are 

sufficient to resolve many scales of instability. Research 

is under way to compute through instability, past 

transition, and into fully developed turbulence. Exciting new concepts are being explored for the reduction 

of induced drag (drag due to lift) on wings. Crescentshaped wing planforms and leadinghailing edge 

geometry modifications are being explored experimentally and analytically. 

Techniques are being investigated for improving the 

quality and productivity of wind tunnel testing. A 

flexible wall test section has been developed and 

installed in a Langley research wind tunnel. The wall 

automatically adapts to a shape such that the streamlines over the model would be the same as in free air. 

The elimination of wind tunnel wall effects is a giant 

step toward “true-fidelity” ground testing. 

In the area of aeroacoustics, research efforts have 

been focused on determining the precise nature of 

acoustic and structural fatigue loads of supersonic 

heated flows, i.e., jet engine exhausts. In particular, 

flight tests were conducted on F-15 and B-IB aircraft to 

measure twin plume resonance effects on the surrounding structure. The structural damage due to these 

resonance effects that was observed in the flight tests 

was also confirmed by wind tunnel tests. 

aircraft’s total drag is caused by skin friction. Laminar 

(smooth) flow over the aircraft’s surfaces reduces skin 

friction. For the past several years, NASA has been 

researching three different concepts for maintaining 

laminar flow: passive natural laminar flow (NLF) 

achieved by careful airfoil design, active laminar flow 

control (LFC) achieved by suction through tiny slots or 

perforations in the surface, and hybrid laminar flow 

control (IILFC) which uses both active and passive 

techniques. Passive LFC is applicable to small airplanes; active LFC and HLFC are applicable to transports. Research efforts in all three areas have been 

promising. Previously conducted wind tunnel and 

flight tests of a full-sized NLF wing on a Cessna 210 

aircraft demonstrated that the new airfoil achieved 

natural laminar flow over 70 percent of the upper and 

lower surfaces. In another flight test, a contoured NLF 

“glove” was tested on the wing of a Boeing 757 aircraft 

in the region of intense acoustic radiation from the 

turbofan engine and demonstrated that laminar flow 

During subsonic flight, approximately one-half of an 

47 
could be maintained in the presence of engine noise 

and on the moderately swept wings of commercial 

transports. Active LFC was achieved by two different 

system concepts during flight evaluations on a Jet Star 

operating under representative commercial airline 

operations. In 1987, a NLF glove was flight tested on a 

variable-sweep wing F-14 aircraft and provided 

fundamental data on the stability of laminar flow at 

various sweep angles. A NASA wind tunnel test 

completed in 1988 showed significant benefits and 

potential for the use of HLFC to improve the operating 

efficiency of transport aircraft, and a cooperative 

research program between NASA, the U.S. Air Force 

and the Boeing Company is now under way to test a 

HLFC system. A full-scale flight experiment using a 

“gloved” HLFC wing section will be flight tested on a 

Boeing 757 beginning in 1989. 

The world’s fastest supercomputer, a Cray Y-MP, 

was installed in the numerical aerodynamic simulation 

(NASI facility at Ames Research Center. Capable of 

exceeding 1 billion computations per second in 

sustained operation or a peak speed of 2.37 billion 

operations per second, the computer’s vast computational capabilities will permit solutions to aerodynamic 

problems far too complex to be handled by previous 

computers. The Cray Y-MP will replicate aircraft and 

spacecraft flight by virtually “flying” the vehicle inside 

the computer on a three-dimensional grid. Computer 

modeling has been used by NASA to advance jet 

engine designs and efficiency by simulating the 

complex, fluctuating air flow within aircraft engine 

turbines and compressors. The new computer became 

fully operational in November 1988. 

Propulsion. Improvements in propulsion technology have historically provided a major share of aircraft 

system performance improvements and allowed the 

development of new generations of aircraft and flight 

vehicles. NASA‘s propulsion research continues to be 

focused on the understanding of the governing physical phenomena occurring at the disciplinary, component, and subsystem levels that will lead to future 

48 

high-payoff improvements in propulsion system 

capability, efficiency, reliability, and durability. NASA is 

emphasizing the development, experimental verification, and application of internal computational fluid 

mechanics (ICFM) analysis which continues to be an 

increasingly important tool in achieving propulsion 

improvements. 

In 1988, viscous capability was added to the average 

passage three-dimensional turbomachinery code which 

was subsequently used to analyze the flow in three 

blade rows of a turbine that is representative of the 

fuel pump turbine in the space shuttle main engine. 

The analysis revealed vertical flow structures which 

had not been fully understood previously. Comparison 

to experimental data confirmed the ability of the code 

to calculate the important flow physics in the very 

complex flowfield of advanced high work turbines. In 

addition, codes were released with the capability of 

calculating the unsteady flowfield of a turbomachinery 

rotodstator interaction and the mixing and reaction of 

fuel injected into a supersonic airstream. A prototype 

of a user-friendly interface for advanced ICFM codes 

was developed and demonstrated. Interfaces of this 

type will make it possible for users with an average 

level of propulsion expertise to use, without extensive 

training, the very complicated codes that are currently 

under development. 

In the area of experimental activities in 1988, the 

large low-speed centrifugal compressor facility was 

completed and extensively instrumented to provide a 

fundamental understanding of viscous flow regions 

and secondary flows which dominate centrifugal 

flowfields. In addition, the stratified charge rotary 

engine experimentally demonstrated a brake-specific 

fuel consumption of 0.43, a 15 percent improvement. 

An analytical study of the fuel injector flowfield 

revealed a source of fuel inefficiency that can reduce 

the fuel consumption an additional 5 percent. Other 

experimental accomplishments included the evaluation 

of small gas turbine combustors designed to allow 

higher temperatures with minimum cooling require- 
ments and the evaluation of a compact radial turbine. 

The combustor allowed a 200 degree Fahrenheit 

increase in temperature while improving the temperature pattern by 50 percent. The turbine design reduced 

the length by 40 percent, and thus reducing the 

weight, while maintaining the efficiency of a conventional turbine. 

Materials and Structures. Composite materials 

are finding increased use in current and future airframe 

designs because they are lighter and stiffer than 

conventional metallic aircraft structural materials. A 

new thermoplastic composite material developed by 

Langley Kesearch Center is currently being evaluated 

by the aircraft industry for design of high temperature 

composite structures. Low cost fabrication by thermoforming this material system offers the potential for 

improved aircraft performance with reduced production costs. The objective is to develop the materials 

and structures technologies for innovative and costeffective advanced composite airframe structures. This 

includes development of advanced composite materials 

for applications to 600 degrees Fahrenheit, development of innovative design concepts, verification of 

fabrication processes for cost-effective structures, and 

design validation of sub-scale and large-scale advanced 

composite structures. The major goals are to reduce 

structural weight by 50 percent, reduce part count by 

25 percent, and reduce manufacturing costs by 30 

percent. 

NASA is a leader in the development of analytical 

methods for transonic aeroelastic analysis of advanced 

aircraft configurations, including the phenomena of 

divergence and flutter. These analysis codes are used 

by the aircraft industry to predict unsteady airloads and 

flutter phenomena which are critical to the successful 

design of advanced aircraft. A new analytical approach 

to predict the unsteady aeroelastic response of complete aircraft configurations was developed by Langley 

Research Center in 1987. This approach is capable of 

treating complete aircraft geometries with multiple 

lifting surfaces and is very efficient compared to 

previously used analyses. Kesearch in aeroelasticity 

includes computational methods to predict flutter and 

performance of aircraft; control concepts to improve 

performance, enhance stability, and reduce loads; and 

development and testing of advanced aircraft configurations. 

A major new initiative on advanced high temperature engine materials technology started in 1988 at 

Lewis Kesearch Center. The objective of the program is 

to develop the technology for revolutionary advances 

in materials and structural analysis capabilities to 

enable the development of 21st century transport 

aircraft propulsion systems having greatly decreased 

specific fuel consumption, reduced direct operating 

costs, improved reliability, and extended life. This 

requires materials capable of operating at much higher 

temperature and strength levels than now possible. 

The candidate advanced materials being developed 

include metal matrix composites, intermetallic matrix 

composites, ceramic matrix composites, and polymer 

matrix composites. Significant progress has been made 

on the fabrication of silicon carbide reinforced titanium 

aluminide composites by a powder- cloth technique, as 

well as on silicon carbide reinforced reaction bonded 

silicon nitride composites. Other aluminide composites 

such as iron aluminide, nickel aluminide, and niobium 

aluminide are also under investigation. The titanium 

aluminide composites are also being considered for 

hypersonic vehicle applications such as the National 

Aero-Space Plane because of their high strength/ 

density at elevated temperatures. A major deficiency 

that still needs to be overcome is their brittle, low 

ductility behavior. The potential hydrogen compatibility problem of the titanium aluminides under service 

conditions was identified by Ames Kesearch Center in 

1987. Recent efforts have focused on understanding 

the effects of hydrogen on these materials, other 

intermetallic matrix composites, and ceramic matrix 

composites, as well as on developing effective coatings 

to eliminate this technology barrier for material utilization in new design concepts. 

49 
Information Sciences and Human Factors. 

NASA is conducting research directed toward improving the safety and efficiency of aircraft which will 

operate in the future National Airspace System. During 

1988, flight testing of a takeoff performance monitoring 

system was completed. This system provides information to the crew regarding the status of a number of 

critical systems during takeoff. Analytical models 

depicting the nature of the wind shear threat and a 

wind shear hazard index were developed and have 

been widely accepted by industry. Three airborne 

windshear detection sensor concepts are being studied 

and one or more of these will be evaluated in flight 

during 1990-91. In coordination with the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA), automated decision aids 

are being developed. In 1988, automated terminal-area 

flow control concepts were evaluated in simulation 

with FAA controllers and airline crews. 

The objective of the aeronautical human factors 

research and technology program is to provide the 

capability to design effective crew-cockpit interfaces 

and air traffic control interfaces with the aircraft. 

Advanced automation technologies, along with increased traffic density, challenge human operators and 

their interface with diverse air and ground systems. 

?'he goal of the program is to provide human-centered 

technology which is safe, productive, efficient, and 

effective for advanced commercial and military aircraft, 

rotorcraft, and other national aeronautical applications. 

A new concept for automated onboard fault management was developed and evaluated in 1988. Future 

plans include demonstration of an advanced intelligent, error-tolerant cockpit in simulation and flight. 

FZight Systems. Improving flight safety through 

research into the operating environment is viewed by 

NASA as vital and is being addressed with research 

related to natural phenomena as well as operational 

flight systems. Storm hazards research is now concentrating on the effects of heavy rain on aircraft performance while NASA's Aircraft Icing Program is focused on 

the problems caused by aircraft icing. Heavy rain can 

50 

The Aircraft Landing Dynamics Facility at the Langley 

Research Center. 

change airfoil effectiveness, change the airflow, and 

cause a loss of airplane performance, possibly severe 

enough to reduce safety margins. Previously conducted 

tests in the Langley Kesearch Center's 14-x-22-foot 

wind tunnel using a wing section model revealed that 

the maximum lift was reduced by 20 percent during 

periods of very heavy simulated rainfall. In 1988, a 

500-foot gantry-mounted water-spray system was 

installed over a span of track at the Aircraft Landing 

Dynamics Facility. In order to conduct tests on a 

section of a full-scale wing, a 10-foot chord wing 

section has been mounted on a moving carriage which 

is propelled along a track through the simulated rain 

provided by the spray system. These tests have been 

initiated to determine the performance degradation of 

the wing's performance. 

NASA icing research is aimed at understanding the 

physics of ice accretion on aircraft surfaces, the effects 
of ice formation on the aircraft’s performance and 

handling qualities, means to prevent ice accretion, and 

methods to deice the aircraft if ice does form. Little or 

no quantitative icing data has previously existed that is 

useful for the complex engineering analyses which are 

required to determine these icing effects. Analytical 

and experimental methods are being used to determine the changes in aircraft performance and handling 

qualities. These results are being incorporated into the 

LEWICE prediction code which includes advanced ice 

accretion, aero-performance, heat transfer, and thermal 

deicer codes. In addition, a three-dimensional version 

of LEWICE is also being developed. In addition, icing 

methodology for rotors and propellers is being developed, as well as methodology for simulating the 

complete aircraft’s response to an icing encounter. In 

the area of ice protection, evaluation of advanced 

concepts is continuing; alternate protection systems for 

rotorcraft are being explored; and NASA continues to 

support ground deicing studies. Improved cloud 

instrument monitoring and calibration apparatus and 

techniques are being developed. Flight tests are used 

to acquire flight test data to validate these computational fluid dynamics codes and the results obtained in 

the Icing Research Tunnel (IHT). Two tests which were 

completed in the IRT are a joint Boeing/NASA test of 

ground deicing fluids and a joint NASA/Boeing test of 

a multi-element airfoil. In addition, several cloud 

instrumentation development efforts were conducted; 

ice accretion code results were compared among 

NASA, the French Office National d’Etudes et de 

Kecherches Aerospatiales, and the British Koyal Aircraft 

Establishment; and 12 nozzles were evaluated for the 

Army’s Helicopter Icing Spray System improvement 

program. 

Progress continued this year in utilizing both the 

power of new aerodynamic computational methods 

and parameter identification techniques to model low 

altitude wind shear characteristics. This atmospheric 

phenomenon, characterized by large, rapid changes in 

wind magnitude and direction over small changes in 

altitude, is a potential hazard to all aircraft, especially 

during takeoff and landing. In 1987, wind shear 

computer models were used to develop and evaluate a 

wind shear hazard warning index to provide aircrews 

advance warning of hazardous wind shear conditions. 

During 1988, studies of two candidate airborne sensor 

concepts, airborne doppler radar and airborne light 

detection and ranging, were initiated. 

Systems Research and Technology 

Vehicle specific research is focused primarily on 

technology which has the potential for increasing the 

capabilities of specific classes of vehicles: subsonic 

transports, rotorcraft, high performance/military 

aircraft, supersonic cruise aircraft, or hypersonic 

vehicles. 

manufacturers, the airlines, the Department of Defense 

(DOD), and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

to advance the technology for subsonic transport 

aircraft. This close relationship is essential to assure the 

timely introduction of new technology that will meet 

the growing challenge from foreign competition for 

leadership in the world market. The long-range goal of 

subsonic transport research is to develop the technology that will permit future aircraft designs to be highly 

competitive in terms of operating efficiency and 

affordability and safer than today’s most advanced 

aircraft. 

In 1988, a NASAhndustry turboprop team was 

presented the prestigious Robert J. Collier Award in 

recognition for the development and testing of new 

fuel efficient subsonic aircraft propulsion systems. This 

technology development effort, which included the 

flight test of a large-scale propfan propulsion system, 

has been essentially transferred to U.S. industries for 

exploitation of its market potential. NASA continued 

the development of technology for turboprop applications in the areas of propeller code development and 

validation, turboprop/airframe installation aerodynamics, cabin environment noise and vibration suppresTransports. NASA works closely with aircraft 

51 
Robert 1. Collier Award presented to NASA for its work in 

subsonic aircraft propulsion. 

sion, and unducted fan (UDF) technology development. Specific accomplishments in 1988 include the 

following: comparison of detailed experimental 

flowfield data against analytical results for counterrotation propellers; experimental integration of a 

turboprop powerplant with an advanced technology 

wing; demonstration of active noise suppression 

control for aircraft interiors; and flight testing of the 

UDF on a modified McDonnell-Douglas MD-80 aircraft. 

The success of these programs will provide the U.S. 

industry with the technology base to develop turboprop-powered subsonic transport aircraft. 

conducted studies to assess the market and economic 

Factors associated with the concept of a high-speed 

civil transport. These studies showed that there is a 

substantial market for an economically viable and environmentally compatible long-range high-speed civil 

transport capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 2.5 

or better. These studies also highlighted the need for 

research in several key areas to bring about the full 

potential of this aircraft. These areas included environ52 

In 1988, NASA with Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas 

Unducted fan engine on a Boeing 737. 

mental concerns resulting from engine emissions and 

sonic boom effects and efficient engines and lightweight structures capable of sustaining the high-speed 

conditions. 

Rotorcrufl. The nation’s continued leadership in 

military and civil rotary wing technology depends on a 

strong and broad-based research program. NASA, in 

cooperation with other government agencies and 

industry, conducts rotorcraft research that addresses 

the fundamental areas of aerodynamics, structural 

dynamics, acoustics, guidance, stability and control, 

propulsion and drive systems, and human factors to 

exploit the full potential of this unique vehicle class. In 

1988, there were a number of significant accomplishments in the key areas of noise reduction, improved 

rotor performance, and high-speed performance. 

Reducing rotorcraft noise is essential for community 

acceptance and reduction of military detectability. The 

NASA-developed helicopter noise prediction code, 

called KOTONET, is currently in use by industry. In 

1988 this code was refined to include results of recent 

wind tunnel and flight validation experiments and the 
Artist’s concept of a Boeing high speed civil transport. 

updated version was distributed to users. 

Additional wind tunnel tests were conducted to 

evaluate the feasibility of active control to reduce 

blade-vortex interaction noise. Computational prediction methods were used to select the specific test 

conditions which demonstrated an 80 percent (3-4 

decibels) reduction in this impulsive noise source. 

the Ames Kesearch Center’s National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex (NFAC) resumed operation in 1987. 

The first major entry in the 40-x-80-foot wind tunnel 

was a large-scale model of the V-22 tiltrotor wing/ 

nacelle/rotor system. Demand for access to the NFAC 

has been great and the current schedule has a series of 

high priority tests including models of the Army’s light 

helicopter family program. 

In 1988 the UH-60 airloads program proceeded with 

a series of highly instrumented flight experiments. 

These tests will provide a vital step in the validation of 

previous small- and large-scale wind tunnel test results 

and will help provide more accurate design codes for 

modern helicopter rotors. A workshop was held to 

The 40-x-80-foot and 80-x-120-foot wind tunnels in 

Rollout of the Bell Boeing V-22 tiltrotor. 

speed the transfer of this technology to the rotorcraft 

industry and to refine future test objectives. 

The area of high-speed rotorcraft received increasing emphasis in 1988. In-house conceptual studies 

proceeded and contractual efforts were begun with the 

goal of identifying those technology barriers which 

must be overcome to allow rotorcraft with low speed 

maneuverability and cruise speeds in excess of 400 

knots. 

The tiltrotor concept gained attention in 1988 with 

the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement with the 

Navy to develop a tiltrotor technology base and the 

signing of a Memorandum of Understanding with the 

FAA to cooperate in the development of a civil tiltrotor. The NASA tiltrotor research and technology 

program included control loads determination and 

envelope expansion of the XV-15 with enhanced 

performance advanced technology blades. Tiltrotor 

acoustic measurements were conducted with the XV15. This flight validation experiment will enable 

development of a tiltrotor noise prediction module for 

KOTONET. 

53 
F-15 used in the HIDEC program. 

In 1988, Lewis Research Center continued to 

provide key support to a major Army program in 

advanced rotorcraft transmissions. This effort will 

provide the technology base to significantly reduce 

helicopter drive-train weight, reduce the source of 

noise of the transmission, and increase its reliability. 

High-Performance Aircrafl. NASA’s high-performance aircraft research develops high-risk technologies applicable to future military aircraft and is planned 

and conducted in close coordination with the DOD. 

Much of this research is equally applicable to civil 

aviation. 

portion of the highly integrated digital electronic 

control (HIDEC) program was completed at Ames 

Iicscarch Center’s Dryden Flight Research Facility. For 

the first time, an aircraft’s propulsion and flight control 

systems have been integrated. The engine’s efficiency 

was increased by reducing the engine operating stall 

margin without compromising safe engine operation. 

Flight testing with two modified engines demonstrated 

performance improvements of up to 25 percent in 

54 

Flight testing of the adaptive engine control system 

Flow visualization on the F/A-lS high angle-of-attack 

research vehicle. 

certain portions of the flight envelope. The final results 

were reported to industry in 1988. The self-repairing 

flight controls system and trajectory guidance portions 

of the HIDEC program are continuing as is work on a 

follow-on integrated controls program, called performance seeking controls, which is a potentially revolutionary concept that provides for real-time optimization 

of aircraft performance. 

In 1988, both ground and flight research activities 

continued to assess high angle-of-attack flight technologies for high-performance aircraft. The objectives 

of the first phase are to obtain and assess the aerodynamic characteristics of vortex flows at high aircraft 

angles of attack and to correlate them with the results 

of computations, wind tunnel experiments, and 

simulations. The modified and highly instrumented 

Dryden F/A-l8 high-alpha research vehicle (HAKV) has 

been flown up to sustained angles of attack of 40 

degrees. The vortex flow around the aircraft forebody 

and wing leading-edge extension has been made 

visible on-surface by colored dye and off-surface by 

natural moisture and smoke. Comparisons with 
X-29 forward swept wing aircraft. 

advanced viscous flow calculations and wind tunnel oil 

flow measurements have significantly enhanced our 

understanding and ability to predict complex vortex 

flowfields. Also in 1988, the McDonnell Aircraft 

Company, under contract, completed the preliminary 

design for the installation of thrust vectoring devices 

on the HAW for the next phase of flight testing. The 

thrust vectoring control system will allow research into 

the high angles-of-attack (up to 70 degrees) and 

supermaneuveral~ility flight regimes that have never 

been explored. 

Flight testing of the first X-29 forward swept wing 

research aircraft was successfully completed in December 1988. This joint NASA/DAKPA/USAF program successfully demonstrated the integration of several 

advanced technologies including: a composite, thin, 

supercritical, variable camber, aeroelastically tailored 

forward-swept wing; close-coupled canard; straked 

flaps; relaxed static margin (up to 35 percent negative); 

and an advanced fly-by-wire digital flight control 

system. The 1988 flight test program focused on agility 

and maneuverability, limited high angle-of-attack 

stability and control, low-speed control, and transonic 

aerodynamic efficiency. The first X-29 aircraft completed a total of 242 flights, surpassing the old record 

for X-series aircraft of 199 set by the X-15 research 

aircraft. The second X-29 was modified by the Grumman Corporation with a spin chute and instrumentation to conduct a full-blown high angle-of-attack 

research program. The aircraft arrived at Dryden in 

November 1988 and the first flight is expected in the 

spring of 1989. 

The advanced fighter technology integration/F-111 

mission adaptive wing program successfully completed 

flight testing (total of 59 flights) on December 22, 1988. 

The overall objectives of this joint NASA/USAF program were to demonstrate and evaluate the aerodynamic performance improvements of a smooth variable-camber supercritical wing over a conventional 

fixed-camber supercritical wing. The areas of research 

included performance, handling qualities, loads, buffet, 

and wing pressure distributions. The manual mode 

phase of the program was completed in June 1987 

(total of 26 flights/% hours) and, after modification, 

flight testing of four automatic modes began in September 1987. The performance results were even better 

than predicted. Drag reductions of 8 percent at the 

design point and up to 20 percent at off-design points 

were realized over a conventional fixed-camber 

supercritical wing. The data are being prepared for 

presentation to industry in April 1989. 

The potential of a 30 percent improvement in lift 

over drag and concomitant improvements in stability 

and control and maneuver performance are being 

explored in a flight research program involving the use 

of a vortex flap on the leading edge of the wing of the 

NASA F-106~ aircraft at the Langley Kesearch Center. 

The vortex flap is a sharp-edged mechanical flap with 

the cross-section of a wedge which extends forward 

and downward from the leading edge of the wing. It 

reorients the vortex suction which is formed along the 

edge of a swept wing. This vortex suction is utilized 

mainly for lift increase. The vortex flap tilts the lift 

55 
F-106 configured for vortex flap flight testing. 

vector of the vortex suction in a forward direction, 

thereby providing a thrust component for drag reduction. The vortex flap, fabricated and installed at 

Langley, was designed following extensive wind tunnel 

tests which were complemented by extensive use of 

computational fluid dynamics codes. Flight tests were 

initiated in 1988 which will provide a data base for 

establishing design criteria for increased aircraft 

performance. 

ratios, propulsive lift control, and the understanding of 

low-speed aerodynamics combine to open new 

opportunities for significant advances in vertical/short 

takeoff and landing and short takeoff and vertical 

landing (STOVL) aircraft technologies and concepts. In 

the micl-l980s, NASA entered into collaborative 

agreements with the U.S. Department of Defense, the 

United Kingdom Ministry of Defence, and the Canadian Department of Kegional and Industrial Expansion 

to reduce the technological risks associated with the 

development of advanced STOVL aircraft in several 

key areas, including propulsive lift concepts, hot gas 

56 

Advances in propulsion system thrust-to-weight 

E-7A wind tunnel test in the Ames Research Center’s 40-x80-foot wind tunnel. 

ingestion, ground environment aerodynamics, and 

integrated controls. In November 1988, the U.S./U.K. 

Joint Assessment and Ranking Team conducted a 

thorough review of the studies performed by contractors in both countries which are being used to guide 

future research efforts. In a joint effort with Canada, 

Ames Kesearch Center installed and began testing a 

large-scale STOVL model (E-7A) in the 40-x-80-foot 

section of the new National Full-Scale Aerodynamics 

Complex. The transonic fighter aircraft configuration 

model will be used for research on an entrainmenttype thrust augmentation system and an integrated 

flight and propulsion control system. 

Hypersonics. One of the key technology thrusts of 

the aeronautics program being pursued by NASA is the 

technology foundation for hypersonic vehicles. The 

program focuses on vehicle configuration studies, 

propulsion, and materials and structures. Recent NASA 

accomplishments in these areas, combined with earlier 

progress in hypersonic research, have contributed to 

the state of readiness for NASA and the DOD to jointly 

develop the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP). The 
Artist’s concept of a National AeroSpace Plane 

configuration. 

NASP program may result in a hypersonic flight 

research vehicle (X-30) which would be used to 

validate and demonstrate the successful merging of 

aeronautics and space technologies into a flightworthy 

vehicle. NASA maintains a strong research and technology base effort within its aeronautics program in 

support of the NASP and for future advances in 

hypersonic flight vehicles. 

During 1988, testing in the Langley hypersonic 

propulsion wind tunnels continued to make advancements in supersonic combustion ramjet (scramjet) 

engine technology. Significant progress on variable 

geometry scramjet configurations was achieved with 

the successful testing of the variable geometry inlet 

configuration at a Mach number of 4.0 and with the 

accomplishment of a Navier-Stokes flow analysis for 

the transition area of the engine combustion section. 

These 1988 accomplishments are significant steps 

toward achieving a hypersonic propulsion system that 

can be operated over broad ranges of speeds and 

altitudes. 

National Aero-Space Plane Program 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program to Congress and the nation during his State of the Union 

Address and directed NASA and the DOD to proceed. 

The goal of the joint NASA/DOD program is to develop and demonstrate hypersonic and transatmospheric technology for a new class of aerospace 

vehicles powered by airbreathing, rather than rocket, 

propulsion. The program envisions an experimental 

flight rcsearch vehicle (X-30) capable of taking off 

from a conventional, horizontal runway and flying 

single-stage to orbit or cruising at hypersonic speeds 

within the atmosphere. 

research centers are heavily involved in the extremely 

complex technical challenges of the NASP program. In 

1987, the program entered the preliminary design and 

component development phase with three airframe 

(General Dynamics, McDonnell Douglas, and Rockwell 

International) and two engine (Rocketdyne and the 

Pratt & Whitney division of United Technologies) 

contractors. This phase will lead to a decision in late 

1990 whether or not to build and test the X-30 research 

vehicle. This program presents technical challenges in 

all technologies wherein these NASA engineers and 

scientists have expertise. The success of the program 

depends heavily on the technical guidance provided 

by these people. 

Since the x-30 would fly in a hypersonic regime 

which cannot be adequately simulated in ground 

Facilities, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will have 

to be used to extrapolate beyond these facility limits. 

In 1988, NASA’s numerical aerodynamic simulation 

capability continued to provide vital support to the 

NASP program. The application of CFD analysis 

methods has enabled the calculation of pressure 

contours on baseline and specific NASP configurations 

which allows analysis and the prediction of vehicle 

aerodynamic loadings and aerothermodynamic interactions at Mach numbers well beyond the capability of 

57 

In February 1986, President Reagan announced the 

The NASA aeronautics and space technology 
existing ground test facilities. CFD codes are being 

developed by NASA to the point of providing threedimensional, real gas, viscous flow capability with 

finite rate chemistry. These codes are now being 

applied by government and contractors for vehicle 

aerodynamics and internal propulsion flows. Codes for 

combustors and nozzles are being developed and 

methods for reducing costly computer time are being 

implemented. Experimental tests are being conducted 

for validation of these codes and additional progress 

has been made. Considerable progress has been made 

in defining local thermal loads in areas of complex 

shock interactions. Both analytical and experimental 

results have now been published and are being used 

in the contractor design proposals for an X-30 aircraft. 

Another critical area in which major work has been 

started is in boundary layer transition. There is a 

critical need for analytical means of predicting the 

length and stability of laminar flow and the onset of 

transition to turbulent flow in the boundary layer at 

hypersonic speeds. The validation of the analysis with 

very specific experimental tests is also critical. Both 

have been addressed in a program at Langley Research 

Center. Early results indicate that analysis methods 

which are successful at transonic speeds may also be 

successful at hypersonic speeds. 

In related structures research, airframes for hypersonic flight will require high strength, light weight, and 

tough, heat-resistant materials capable of withstanding 

high external skin temperatures and shock impingement. The five above-mentioned major NASP contractors formed a 30-month, materials consortium program 

that began in March 1988. Five materials systems were 

identified that were of greatest importance to the 

program. Each contractor leads the development effort 

in one of the materials systems, with participation by 

the other four consortium contractors. The three NASP 

airframe contractors identified titanium aluminides, 

titanium aluminide metal matrix composites, and 

refractory composites as the materials systems that they 

consider of greatest importance to the airframe. The 

58 

two engine contractors identified two other materials 

systems necessary for propulsion applications-high 

specific creep strength materials and high conductivity 

composites. 

In 1988, the organization of the overall NASP 

national team, composed of members of industry, 

universities, NASMDOD, and other government 

laboratories, was completed. The NASP team of over 

5,000 people and some 200 companies in 40 states is 

pursuing the program with great enthusiasm. The 

commitment of the NASP engine and airframe contractors is significant and they have demonstrated this by 

contributing almost one-third of the dollars in the 

current technology development phase. The NASP 

program continues to make excellent progress toward 

its key milestone, the decision to build and test the X30 flight research vehicle. 

Space Research and Technology 

The primary goal of the space research and technology program is to develop advanced technologies that 

enhance and enable our nation’s future space missions 

and, thereby, continue to ensure U.S. preeminence in 

space and space-related activities. To achieve this goal, 

a commitment is required to conduct a broad-based 

research activity which constantly advances the stateof-technology at the concept, system, subsystem, 

component, and device level; to develop technical 

strengths in the engineering disciplines within NASA, 

industry, and academia; and to perform critical technology demonstrations that facilitate the transfer of 

new technology, with high levels of confidence, to 

future space missions and applications. 

The space research and technology program is 

composed of two complementary parts: the research 

and technology (K&T) base program and the focused 

technology programs. The objective of the K&T base 

program is to gain new technical knowledge resulting 

in a better understanding of the fundamental behavior 

of natural phenomena in critical disciplines related to, 

and supportive of, the U.S. space program. Through 
the K&T base program, and usually in the environment 

of the laboratory, scientists and engineers develop 

forecasts regarding the potential applicability, usefulness, and overall benefit associated with the new 

knowledge. Once the potential applicability and 

usefulness of the new knowledge is documented, 

decisions are made to carry selective discoveries into 

the next stage of technology development-often 

called focused technology. The R&T base serves as the 

seedbed for technical progress and capability enhancement. 

In the focused programs, technologies are developed for specific applications, and products are 

delivered in the form of demonstrated hardware, 

software, and design techniques and methods. Focused 

development is most often initiated based on the 

identified needs and potentials of both current and 

future programs and missions. In 1988 two such 

programs were under way at NASA: the Civil Space 

Technology Initiative (CSTI) and Pathfinder. 

The CSTI program was initiated by NASA in 1987 as 

a positive step to reaffirm our nation’s space technology leadership. Its objective is to advance the state-oftechnology in key areas where capabilities have 

eroded and stagnated over the last decade. This “gapfiller.’ program has a short-term perspective-it is 

designed to address high-priority national and agency 

needs of the 1990s. The CSTI program includes 

research in technologies to enable efficient, reliable 

access to, and operations in, Earth orbit and to support 

science missions. The program‘s technology thrusts are 

divided into three categories: space transportation, 

space science, and space operations. 

The space transportation thrust addresses those 

technologies that will provide safer and more efficient 

access to space. They will contribute to the design of a 

new fleet of space vehicles, including new expendable 

and partially reusable cargo launch vehicles, fully 

reusable manned vehicles, and expendable and 

reusable space transfer vehicles. In some cases, these 

technologies will provide additional capability for 

existing launch vehicles. The thrust has been organized 

to address the pressing needs in the areas of Earth-toorbit propulsion, booster technology, and vehicle 

technology. The vehicle technology area currently 

includes the aeroassist flight experiment, which is 

described later. Some of the accomplishments in 1988 

included improved rocket engine design methods 

addressing the behavior of hot gases in the engine and 

new approaches to developing better components 

such as damping seals, contact bearings, and turbine 

blades using more durable materials. 

effective conduct of scientific missions from Earth 

orbit. Proposed long-term missions such as the Earth 

Observing System will require major advances in 

information sciences such as sensors, data storage and 

compression, and onboard analysis for success. As the 

science spacecraft of the future become larger, more 

complex, and inherently more flexible, they will 

require that interactions between the control systems 

and the structure be better understood such that the 

total structure can be controlled to the required levels 

of precision. The technical programs initiated to 

address these areas include: high rate/capacity data 

systems, sensors technology, precision segmented 

reflectors, and control of flexible structures. Accomplishments to date include the design of a robust 

control systems architecture for large (100-foot) 

precision reflector telescope systems and the fabrication of subscale panels for use in assembling precision 

reflectors. Contracts were awarded to guest investigators for the control structures interaction technology, 

and a set of analysis/design problems was defined 

which identifies common technology needs for continuing development. Significant advances were 

achieved in space flight optical disk (data storage) 

technology development. 

tions will lead to increased capability, substantial 

economies, and improved safety and reliability for 

both ground and space operations. In space operaThe space science thrust technologies support more 

The technologies to enhance future space opera59 
tions, three technologies are being addressed: telerobotics, system autonomy, and power. Accomplishments in the first two areas include the successful 

technology transfer of a force reflecting hand controller 

and smart end effector to industry; the initial integration of knowledge-based system control with real time, 

complex, electromechanical systems in a Space Station 

Freedom testbed; and the demonstration of the integrated communications officer automated system in 

support of shuttle mission operations. In the electric 

power area, the development of higher capacity 

systems, commensurate with increasing mission needs, 

is proceeding with the development of a higher 

efficiency, higher power free-piston Stirling cycle 

engine for use in generating electric energy. 

The Pathfinder program, begun in 1988, implements 

the new national space policy directing that NASA start 

planning for potential exploration missions beyond the 

turn of the century. The program is aimed at developing the critical technologies that will be required to 

enable missions that expand human presence and 

activities beyond Earth’s orbit into the solar system. An 

important aspect of Pathfinder is that it will prepare 

the United States to embark on such exciting future 

missions without having to commit to any specific one 

at this time. Additionally, Pathfinder-as a partnership 

between NASA, industry, and academia-will add to 

our nation’s ability to maintain itself at the “cutting 

edge” of new space technology. The Pathfinder 

program will develop a broad set of technologies in 

five major areas to enable future robotic or piloted 

solar system exploration missions, including the 

following: surface exploration, in-space operations, 

humans in space, space transfer vehicles, and mission 

studies. Proof-of-concept testing for mission-critical 

engineering designs will be an important product of 

both the CSTI and Pathfinder programs and will 

directly support the continuing evolution and maturation of mission plans. 

In 1988 increased planning efforts were directed in 

two new areas of future activity. The first is aimed at 

60 

expanding the in-space experiments program to take 

full advantage of the opportunities provided by the 

projected deployment of Space Station Freedom. The 

second area of emphasis will increase research and 

technology activity in support of future programs 

associated with monitoring the Earth’s global climate 

change. 

In 1988 the research and technology (R&T) base 

program continued to be concentrated in ten discipline 

elements: aerothermodynamics, space energy conversion, propulsion, materials and structures, space data 

and communications, information sciences, controls 

and guidance, human factors, space flight, and systems 

analysis. Additionally, a university space research 

program, funded within the R&T base, continued to 

enhance and broaden the capabilities of the nation’s 

engineering community to participate more effectively 

in the U.S. civil space program. Following is a brief 

summary highlighting the activities within the R&T 

base program. 

Aerothermodynamics. Future aerospace vehicles, 

such as aeroassist space transfer vehicles, aerospace 

planes, and hypersonic cruise and maneuver vehicles, 

must be capable of sustained hypervelocity flight in air 

densities ranging from the dense, near-Earth atmosphere to the less dense reaches of the upper atmosphere. Because there is a general lack of experimental 

data and knowledge in the operational regimes of 

these vehicles, their designs present formidable 

challenges to current prediction methods. To meet 

these challenges, the aerothermodynamics program is 

pursuing the development and application of advanced 

computational methods and numerical techniques, 

using very powerful, high-speed computers; the 

establishment of high-quality ground and flight experimental data bases for computational code validation 

and verification; and the enhancement of engineering 

design codes and advanced configuration analysis 

capabilities to support rapid evaluation of future 

vehicle concepts. 
In 1988 computational approaches to simulate flight 

conditions for advanced vehicles continued to be 

developed. These approaches promise to increase 

confidence for using predictive methods in the design 

of future vehicles. Specific progress included the 

development of computer codes to simulate hypersonic vehicle velocities in the rarified (low-density) 

regions of the upper atmosphere. 

Computer simulations for the aeroassist flight 

experiment were also refined in 1988 and will be used 

to support the hardware design in areas of structural 

loading aerodynamics and aerothermodynamics. The 

data bases being used in the simulations are continually being updated with performance information from 

traditional wind tunnels, ballistic ranges, shock tubes, 

and high-velocity flight programs. In the aeroassist 

concept, space transportation vehicles will use the 

upper reaches of the atmosphere to decrease their 

velocity when returning from high-energy orbits, such 

as from the moon, instead of using retropropulsion 

which requires fuel. This will allow a reduction in the 

amount of fuel carried, thereby increasing the payload 

capability of the vehicle. 

Space Energy Conversion. The objective of the 

space energy conversion program is to develop new 

technologies to improve the performance, reliability, 

life, and cost effectiveness of space power systems for 

applications ranging from manned space operations in 

Earth orbit to unmanned planetary exploration spacecraft. To meet these challenges, improvements in 

performance and life-span are being sought in solar 

power generation (primarily photovoltaics such as 

solar cells), chemical energy conversion, energy 

storage, electrical power management and distribution, 

and thermal management systems. For spacecraft 

photovoltaic systems, the goal is to improve system 

efficiencies enough to permit a 50-percent increase in 

payload mass while not increasing the overall spacecraft mass. Recent developments in photovoltaics 

include a 22-percent efficient gallium arsenide concentrator solar cell, 19-percent efficient radiation-resistant 

indium phosphide solar cells, and an improvement in 

solar panel specific power to over 130 watts per 

kilogram. These achievements are significant steps 

towards the overall performance and life goals. 

& Development 100” award for demonstrating longlived nickel-hydrogen battery performance for low 

orbit applications. This battery, which has about ten 

times the lifetime of existing systems, will be used on 

Space Station Freedom and on the Hubble Space 

Telescope. Research on very high performance rechargeable batteries, such as lithium-titanium-disulfide, 

demonstrated the potential for achieving 80 watt hours 

per kilogram, which is about four times current 

capabilities. 

having the potential for achieving 25 percent of the 

mass per unit area of those to be flown on Space 

Station Freedom, was demonstrated, and receiver 

concepts with one-half the mass of those to be used 

on the space station were identified. 

Propulsion. The objectives of the propulsion 

research and technology program are to provide an 

analytical and experimental technology base for 

developing advanced propulsion systems. These 

systems are to be used in surface-to-orbit ascent 

vehicles, in planetary transfer vehicles, and for orbiting 

spacecraft auxiliary propulsion systems with capabilities well beyond those that are achievable with today’s 

technology. Also, a part of the program is dedicated to 

the identification and evaluation of very high-energy 

advanced propulsion concepts that, if proven feasible 

and ultimately practical, would provide a quantum 

leap in propulsion capabilities such that missions 

heretofore thought to be impossible could be 

achieved. 

The propulsion program is directed toward expansion of fundamental knowledge and understanding of 

rocket engine behavior and toward improved component and engine systems designs. Fundamental efforts 

are focused on the development and experimental 

NASA’s Lewis Research Center received a “Research 

Advanced solar dynamic concentrator technology, 

61 
verification of combustion instability codes, unified 

computational fluid dynamics codes, impeller flow 

models, soft seal rub dynamic models, and fluid 

dynamic processes in combustion chambers and 

nozzle boundary layers. In 1988 considerable progress 

was made in development of analytical representation 

of these phenomena. Also, work associated with rocket 

propellants yielded success in gelling and metallizing 

fuels (with aluminum)-the potential benefits lie in 

greater bulk densities and improved storability. 

In the area of auxiliary or low-thrust propulsion, 

technology was directed toward improving both 

performance and life of various propulsion concepts 

including resistojets, arcjets, ion thrusters, magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters, and gaseous and storable liquid 

chemical propellant rockets. Applications for these 

classes of systems range from station-keeping (orientation) for large systems such as the Space Station 

Freedom, orbit changing (for example, transferring a 

spacecraft from a 250-mile Earth orbit to a geosynchronous Earth orbit of 22,000 miles), to planetary missions 

represented by the Voyager spacecraft. The program 

achieved a number of notable successes in 1988 

including the following: (1) increased performance for 

standard chemical engines; (2) completion of life 

extending (lOOO-hour, 500-cycle) tests of an arcjet 

propulsion system; and (3) completion of a similar life 

test (1000-hour, 500-cycle) for ion engines. 

continued to investigate promising capabilities not yet 

within our reach and included such topics as the status 

of fission, fusion, antimatter, and unconventional 

chemical and other revolutionary propulsion concepts. 

A magnetically confined microwave-induced plasma 

experiment was initiated at the Massachusetts Institute 

of Technology as the first experimental effort under 

the advanced concepts program. 

Materials and Structures. The objectives of the 

program are to provide technology that will enable the 

development of materials to better withstand the 

harshness of the space environment across a broad 

62 

In 1988 advanced propulsion concepts studies 

front of space applications and to develop the structural concepts and capabilities necessary to allow for 

the in-space construction of large-area space structures. 

In the materials science program, efforts were under 

way to develop theoretically, and to verify experimentally, methods for predicting the properties of tougher 

and higher temperature polymers for space engine and 

structural applications and studies to better understand 

the behavior of solid lubricants in the space environment. In the space durable materials program, contamination studies focused on the development and 

verification of analytical codes for correlating in-flight 

data and ground- based experiments. Studies of atomic 

oxygen, prevalent in low-Earth orbits, and its effects on 

spacecraft materials, were enhanced with the development of new ground-based atomic oxygen simulation 

facilities, the calibration of a wide range of groundbased facilities for simulating atomic oxygen exposure 

in low Earth orbit, and the measurement of long-term 

atomic oxygen exposure effects on organic composite 

and polymer materials. In the area of micrometeoroid/ 

debris impact, ground-based experimental studies of 

hypervelocity impact on metallic and nonmetallic 

materials continued. In the area of radiation exposure, 

a new facility was being developed to provide a 

combined thermal-cycling/electron-radiation materials 

testing capability. In the aerothermal materials program, processing, fabrication, and testing of various 

ceramic materials for thermal protection systems were 

carried out. For hypersonic vehicle applications, work 

was under way to develop, fabricate, and evaluate very 

thin-gauge oxidation-resistant intermetallic and carboncarbon materials for lightly loaded hot structures, such 

as control surfaces. 

The structures technology was focused on erectable 

and deployable spacecraft structural concepts; methods 

for in-space construction and repair of large complex 

structures; dynamics of flexible structures and concepts 

for active configuration control and vibration suppression; new structural concepts for active cooling of hot 

structures for hypersonic vehicles and cryogenic tanks 
for in-space propellant storage; and efficient analysis 

and design methodology for advanced space structures, including multidisciplinary analysis and optimization. 

Space Data Systems. Efforts continued in 1988 to 

enhance significantly onboard computational capabilities while, at the same time, improving reliability under 

spaceflight conditions. In the area of advanced data 

systems, neural memory devices for high reliability 

space applications were demonstrated. These memory 

devices may have the potential to replicate the capability of the human mind for pattern recognition and 

deductive reasoning. They will be used as hardwarebased natural intelligence systems in applications such 

as spacecraft navigation and autonomous robots. In the 

area of software engineering, efforts continued to 

develop and apply life-cycle costing principles to the 

development, maintenance, and modification of 

software in order to improve performance, cost, and 

reliability (risk reduction). A pilot software management environment application was developed and 

evaluated with positive results. An advanced software 

life-cycle simulation was developed and is currently 

being applied to a model of the space station software 

development environment. These tools are intended to 

provide software managers with critical aids for 

evaluation of software development costs and schedules. A reusable software component library in an Ada 

development laboratory was also demonstrated. Ada is 

a newer generation computer language which provides 

enhanced versatility for the software program developer while, at the same time, providing an operational 

environment conducive to greater system reliability 

and flexibility. 

and optical communications devices and component 

technology continued to yield accomplishments. 

Prototype Ka-band monolithic microwave integrated 

circuits were designed, fabricated, and tested. These 

circuits are proposed for use in phased-array antennas 

for future deep space missions, such as Cassini and the 

Cornmunications. The development of microwave 

Mars Rover. An experiment was successfully conducted 

on a multiple element phased-array microwave antenna feed with electronic compensation for antenna 

dish distortion resulting in the production of a nearperfect far-field antenna pattern. Such a concept will 

find application for comminications and for large radiometry antennas for Earth remote sensing (in the 10 to 

100 Gigahertz frequencies). Continuing tests on 

gallium-aluminum-arsenide semiconductor lasers 

indicate the potential to increase the operational 

lifetime of optical communications systems by four to 

five years. 

For deep space communications applications, a 

major accomplishment was achieved when a complete 

monolithic solid-state photodiode with ten amplification stages was fabricated and successfully tested with 

a yield in gain of 200 at a bandwidth of greater than 

two Gigahertz. This device represents a technical 

achievement for reception of space optical communications signals. 

Information Sciences. Kesearch activity in this 

area continued across a broad front in 1988 including 

work in computer sciences, sensors, and photonics. In 

the computer sciences area, the distributed access view 

integrated data base (DAVID) system software was 

developed and tested. DAVID will provide scientific 

users transparent access to space data that is stored in 

dissimilar data bases. Demonstrations of DAVID for 

astrophysics applications were given. The new center 

of excellence in space data and information sciences 

was established at Goddard Space Flight Center in 

conjunction with the University of Maryland. 

spatial imaging with simultaneous sharp energy 

resolution for X-ray and gamma-ray imaging spectrometers and cosmic-ray drift detectors was advanced. 

A technique employing a silicon drift detector to 

achieve better energy resolution was applied over the 

soft X-ray spectrum for energy levels ranging from 100 

to 10,000 electron volts. These concepts have immediate application to the Advanced X-Ray Astronomical 

In the area of sensor technology, the goal of high 

63 
Facility and AstroMag missions planned by NASA. A 

semiconductor diode laser, fabricated from gallium 

antimonide with indium and arsenic in various layers, 

was successfully operated at eye-safe wavelengths. 

In the relatively new photonics area, research was 

focused on components devices and was aimed at 

improving autonomy and performance of spacecraft 

systems. An advanced real-time acoustic spectrum 

analyzer was demonstrated which has immediate 

potential for use in the search for extraterrestrial 

intelligence. Also, a liquid crystal spatial light modulator for image subtraction, edge enhancement, and 

associative memory applications was demonstrated for 

use in robotic image identification and recognition 

applications. 

Autotnation and Robotics. The objective of the 

automation area is to exploit the potential of artificial 

intelligence and telerobotics to increase the capability, 

flexibility, and safety of space and ground operations 

while decreasing associated operating costs. The 

automation and robotics activities are focused in the 

following five core technology areas: sensing and 

perception, control execution, task planning and 

reasoning, operator interface, and systems architecture 

and integration. The program is currently being 

implemented as a sequence of demonstrations using 

testbeds, mockups, and shuttle and spacecraft operations to verify development progress. 

In 1988 first use of an expert system for monitoring 

shuttle communications during flight was demonstrated. The integrated communications officer (INCO) 

program developed and demonstrated the application 

of artificial intelligence; this expert system aided the 

communications officer in the Mission Control Center 

at the Johnson Space Center by displaying data in 

ways that made it quicker and easier for him to make 

accurate decisions. Problems were graphically displayed on a screen, and failures were traced through 

to the appropriate system. NASA’s first operational use 

of artificial intelligence occurred when the INCO 

system was used during the launch of STS-26 in 

September 1988. 

increased capability and safety in performing on-orbit 

operations, such as satellite servicing, repair, and 

assembly. In 1988 the capability to capture a spinning 

satellite by a telerobot, under human supervision, was 

demonstrated in a laboratory testbed facility. The 

telerobot testbed combines machine vision control, 

advanced dual robot arm control, and conventional 

forcehorque control in its capabilities. 

primarily aimed at developing new technologies to 

enhance the in-space controllability and stability of 

complex spacecraft such as large flexible antennas, 

segmented precision optical telescopes and interferometers, multi-instrument Earth observing platforms, 

and space stations. The activity focused on developing 

computational tools for spacecraft control system 

design, analysis, and simulation complemented by 

technology for advanced sensors and actuators. During 

the past year, the large flexible vertical-beam antenna 

test facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center was 

used to successfully test these new concepts. The fiberoptic control gyro technology program continued to 

show promise through the successful demonstration of 

an eight-component optical chip. 

made in advancing our understanding of adaptive 

controls for orbit transfer vehicles employing aerodynamically assisted orbit braking which uses the resistance of the atmosphere to slow the vehicle down; 

precision guidance and navigation through planetary 

atmospheres to a safe touchdown; and for designing 

and analyzing highly reliable fault and damage tolerant 

flight control systems. 

Human Factors. In this area, the effort in 1988 

continued to emphasize the development of a new 

generation of high-performance space suits, gloves, 

end effectors, and tools to improve human effectiveThe space robotics program is focused on providing 

Controls and Guidance. Research in this area is 

For space transportation applications, progress was 

64 
ness in space. Also, to complement this goal, research 

was conducted to develop more comprehensive 

guidelines for designing man-machine interfaces for 

human work stations and extravehicular activities 

(EVA) by enhancing computer-generated models of 

human capabilities and performance in low gravity 

environments. 

Accomplishments in 1988 included evaluation of 

human performance in zero gravity with direct control 

devices (telerobotics); development and evaluation of 

a neural network for autonomous motion and spatial 

sensing using mathematical and computational models 

of human performance; completion of an initial 

operating configuration for a virtual work station; and 

updating the data base on human strength and motion 

in zero gravity. In the area of EVA suits and tools, 

accomplishments included testing of a new, highpressure EVA glove and glove materials and fabrication 

of a highly dexterous end effector and its test in zero 

gravity. Installation of a laser-based anthropometric 

mapping system at the Johnson Space Center was 

completed and its use initiated. 

research and technology program provides the opportunity for researchers and engineers from industry, 

universities, and NASA to conduct tests in space in 

support of their respective ground-based research and 

technology activities. Flight data obtained from such 

experiments are used to validate and verify analytical 

models, prediction techniques, and ground test methods and facilities. This program encompasses the 

identification and definition of in-space flight experiments; the design, fabrication, and flight certification of 

the experiments prior to flight; and the development of 

unique, special purpose hardware systems to support 

in-space experimentation. During 1988, 46 space flight 

experiments were approved for definition, and it is 

anticipated that many of them will eventually be 

conducted in space either on the shuttle or on Space 

Station Freedom. 

Space Flight. As indicated earlier, the space flight 

A workshop was conducted in December 1988, 

attended by industry, university, NASA, and other 

government agency representatives, to determine the 

critical space technology problems and needs facing 

the United States and to identify which, if any, will 

require in-space experimentation for their solution. 

The workshop findings will be used to guide research 

and technology development activities as well as 

providing a basis for initiating future in-space technology experiments. 

objective of the university space research program is to 

enhance and broaden the capabilities of the nation’s 

engineering community through a more intimate 

participation in the U.S. civil space program. This 

program is an integral part of the strategy to rebuild 

the space research and technology base. This program 

responds to the need to remedy the decline in the 

availability of qualified space engineers by making a 

long-term commitment to universities aspiring to play a 

strong engineering role in the civil space program. This 

program utilizes technical advisors at NASA Centers to 

foster collaborative arrangements with participating 

universities and sponsors the exchange of personnel 

and sharing of facilities between NASA and the university community. The program elements include the 

following: the University Space Engineering Research 

Center Program, which supports interdisciplinary 

research centers; the university investigators research 

program, which provides grants to individuals with 

outstanding credentials; and the university space 

advanced design program, which funds advanced 

systems study courses at the undergraduate and 

graduate levels. 

In 1988 the University Space Engineering Research 

Center Program was initiated to advance the traditional 

engineering disciplines applicable to space and bring 

together the knowledge, methodologies, and engineering tools needed to advance future space systems. The 

research centers promote the kind of multidisciplinary 

teamwork that systems technological problems deUniversity Space Research Program The 

65 
mand and bring together individuals from a wide 

range of engineering and scientific fields into a single 

research structure. These partnerships provide the 

universities with a broader charter for independent 

research and also enable new mission concepts and 

ideas that might alter NASA’s own visions of the civil 

space program. In April 1988, the Office of Aeronautics 

and Space Technology selected nine universities from 

a total of 115 proposers. 

Exploration 

The Presidential Directive on National Space Policy, 

signed January 1988, states that a fundamental objective is space leadership, and specific goals are set forth 

that will guide our Nation toward that leadership. One 

such goal is “to expand human presence and activity 

beyond Earth orbit into the solar system.” 

In June 1987, the NASA Administrator established 

the Office of Exploration to meet the need for specific 

activities supporting this long-term goal, which can 

energize the U.S. civilian space program and stimulate 

the development of new technology. In 1988, the 

Office worked to identify viable alternatives and to 

provide recommendations for an early 1990s Presidential decision on an approach to human exploration of 

the solar system. 

Pathways to Human Exploration 

An extensive range of possibilities, primarily focused on the Moon and Mars, exists for human exploration and development. To organize and systematically examine a full spectrum of options, the office 

identified three strategies, or alternative pathways, for 

study in 1988. Each strategy presented particular 

opportunities for satisfying defined exploration themes 

and objectives. In the coming years, additional pathways will be developed to expand the set of options. 

The first strategy addressed human expeditions, 

emphasizing a significant, visible, successful effort to 

establish the first human presence on another body in 

the solar system. The expeditionary pathway would 

lead to exploration without the burden and overhead 

66 

associated with lasting structures and facilities. This 

pathway has been explored for missions to Mars and 

its moons. 

Establishing a science outpost, the second strategy, 

emphasized advancing scientific knowledge and 

gaining operational experience by building and 

maintaining an extraterrestrial outpost as a permanent 

observatory. Such a facility, located far from the 

obscuring effects of Earth’s turbulent atmosphere, 

would tremendously enhance our long-term astronomical studies. The experience gained in the process 

would serve as a foundation for establishing a permanent human base on another planetary body. This 

pathway has been explored for a mission to the Moon. 

The third pathway, evolutionary expansion, would 

sustain a methodical, step-by-step program to open the 

inner solar system for exploration, space science 

research, extraterrestrial resource development, and 

ultimately, permanent human presence. This strategy 

would begin with an outpost on the Moon and progress to similar bases of operations on Mars and its 

moons. 

date missions were identified to be systematically 

examined as “case studies,” in order to obtain an 

understanding of the implications of the potential 

approaches to exploration. Within the case study 

framework, detailed mission analyses and system 

engineering studies were performed to define a full set 

of concepts and requirements for each case. 

The case study effort included producing actual 

system design concepts for implementing such missions. This approach builds a context within which 

diverse exploration strategies can be developed, 

analyzed, and assessed. Through building this knowledge base, it becomes possible to refine these options 

in the future. 

Human Expedition to Phobos (Case Study I). 

Two approaches to exploring Mars have recently been 

proposed and studied: (1) a human expedition, and 

(2) a robotic mission incorporating a highly autonoFor each of the three exploration pathways, candi- 
Artist's concept of a human expedition to Phobos, with 

Mars on the horizon. 

nious rover. An effort to scale down the initial expedition and also achieve the objectives of both approaches has rekindled an interesting idea: a human 

expedition to Phobos, combined with rovers that are 

operated by the crew from Mars orbit. Going to 

Phobos would allow initially simpler, earlier human 

exploration of the Mars system. An expedition to 

Phobos would establish early leadership by sending 

the first human travelers to the Martian moon to 

explore, conduct resource surveys, and establish a 

science station. Also, it would provide opportunities to 

conduct enhanced robotic exploration of Mars itself 

from the near vicinity (Mars orbit), using tele-operated 

rovers, penetrators, balloons, and sample collectors, 

and to return samples of both Mars and Phobos to 

Earth for detailed analysis. The expedition to Phobos 

combines human exploration objectives with those of 

previously studied Mars Kover/Sample Return (robotic) 

missions, but allows the capability for nearly real-time 

remote operation of robotic systems. 

Human Expeditions to Mars (Case Study 2). 

Sending piloted spacecraft to Mars has been an 

aspiration for decades; it was seriously considered 

(with accompanying technology investments) as early 

as 1969, and it has been the centerpiece of many 

studies since then. Recent activities by the National 

Commission on Space and the Kide Task Force have 

renewed national interest in this concept; these two 

Artist's concept of human explorers on Mars. 

studies proposed ambitious plans for piloted missions 

to the surface of our planetary neighbor. 

This case study develops a three-mission set of 

expeditions to send the first human explorers to the 

martian surface, thereby clearly capturing early leadership in piloted interplanetary exploration. Once there, 

the crew would scientifically explore the local terrain 

and geological formations, emplace long-lived geophysical instruments, and collect samples for return to 

Earth. The Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, would 

be explored as well. 

Lunar Obsewatory (Case Study 3). Astronomers 

have long been frustrated by the fact that, even with 

the most sophisticated telescopes on Earth, many of 

the objects that they wish to observe are extremely 

difficult to see because of the impediments generated 

by Earth's atmosphere. Telescopes in Earth orbit offer 

substantial improvement in viewing conditions, but an 

observatory on the Moon could be orders of magnitude more effective, as larger, more stable instruments 

and arrays can be emplaced. 

The objective of this case study is to understand the 

effort required to build and operate a long-duration 

human-tended astronomical observatory on the moon. 

The moon, which is airless, seismically stable, and 

provides passive cooling, may be the solar system's 

best location for such an observatory. In addition, the 

far side of the moon is shielded from manmade 

67 
Artist’s concept of a lunar observatory on the far side of 

the moon. 

electronic noise and radiation. The facility would 

consist of optical telescope arrays, stellar monitoring 

telescopes, and radio telescopes, allowing nearcomplete coverage of the radio and optical spectra. 

The observatory would also serve as a base for geologic exploration and for a modest life sciences 

laboratory. 

Luitar Outpost to Early Mars Evolutions (Case 

Study 4). One of the recommendations of the National 

Commission on Space was that a “bridge between 

worlds” be built in the inner solar system to establish 

human presence on the Moon and Mars, combining a 

number of different objectives in the process. An 

underlying goal is to learn to live, first off the lunar 

land, and eventually the Martian land as well. This case 

study seeks to realize that goal, by building a capability that would lead to a nearly self-sufficient, sustained 

human presence beyond low-Earth orbit. The evolutionary approach would provide the impetus for a 

broad range of technology advancement, evolutionary 

experience in outpost development and habitation, use 

of local resources, and the development of facilities 

that would stimulate further growth. 

Beyond Earth ’s Boundaries 

The results of the study effort of 1988 were released 

in an annual report called “Beyond Earth’s Boundaries: 

Human Exploration of the Solar System in the 21st 

68 

Artist’s concept of a lunar outpost. 

Century.” 

One of the major conclusions of the report is that 

independent of what type of future exploration course 

is chosen, the United States must now lay the foundation by beginning a modest but vital effort in detailed 

research, technology development and concentrated 

studies. Developing a strategy to implement a program 

for human exploration of the solar system mandates 

the consideration of a time period of at least 20 years. 

Equally important are the near-term investments and 

studies that keep open promising options and opportunities. A high priority is placed on positioning the 

United States to accomplish exploration objectives in 

the first part of the 21st century with near-term investment levels that are reasonable and practical. The 

report reflects the belief that our strategy must effectively build on current programs (Space Station Freedom, launch vehicle development, precursor science 

missions, life science research, and Pathfinder technologies), keep the demand for exploration-unique 

resources at a modest level, and still preserve a 

capability to act in the first decade of the next century. 

This document is an annual report describing work 

accomplished in developing the knowledge base that 

will permit informed recommendation and decisions. 

An in-depth discussion of this year’s studies was also 

published in a separate three-volume series titled, 

“Exploration Studies Technical Keport: FY 1988 Status.” 

A robust on-orbit space capability of national security 

systems continued to provide responsive, global 

capability during 1988 for communications, 

surveillance, weather sensing, and missile warning. 

During this year of space launch recovery, a variety of 

space boosters were employed to meet DoD mission 

requirements, including Titan-34D launches from both 

coasts and the first launch of a refurbished Titan I1 

launch in September. 

The Shuttle recovery program took a major step 

forward with the successful mission of Discovery in 

September 1988 and the flight of Atlantis with a DoD 

mission in December 1988. The launch rate will 

continue to expand until a maximum flight rate of 14 

per year is achieved when four orbiters are available in 

1993. 

To meet assured access to space requirements, DoD 

ELV programs are being expanded and enhanced. The 

first Titan IV launch is planned for early 1989. By 1995, 

Titan IV production enhancements and dual pads on 

each coast will provide a robust capability of up to ten 

launches. The first of the Delta IIs, built to carry 

NAVSTAK Global Position System satellites, will also 

launch early in 1989. The Atlas I1 launch system is in 

development to meet the launch needs of the Defense 

Satellite Communication System (DSCS) beginning in 

1991. The Titan I1 is operational for launch of Defense 

Meteorological Satellites, as well as other smaller 

payloads, into unique polar orbits. In addition, the 

DoD will provide near-term ELV launches on a costreimbursement basis to support NASA’s mixed fleet 

launch requirements. 

requirements for access to space and capability to 

launch, merely acquiring additional boosters within 

today’s inventory will not solve longer-term requirements for national assured access. To meet future 

requirements, a new mixed fleet of launch vehicles 

must be developed to accommodate a variety of 

conditions. As a first step in this development process, 

initial concept definition studies have been completed 

While near-term efforts will narrow the gap between 

for an Advanced Launch System (ALS) to reduce 

launch costs dramatically, improve operational responsiveness, and meet future demands for assured access 

to space. NASA and DoD are partners in these efforts. 

Systems design will continue in 1989, leading toward 

the objective of a family of lower cost, versatile, and 

reliable unmanned launch vehicles for the late 1990s 

and beyond. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

General. The military satellite communications 

(MILSATCOM) systems are now approaching a critical 

condition as a result of our inability to have replenishment launches. Both the Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) system and Defense Satellite 

Communications System (DSCS) space segment require 

launch replenishment if they are to maintain service to 

their current critical user community. As an example, 

for the DSCS space segment, on-orbit reserve satellites 

are not capable of restoring the current user community if we have an on-orbit satellite failure. As a result 

of this condition, our top priority effort must be to 

restore our Space Transportation System (STS) and our 

Titan-34D launch capability and shorten our launch 

turnaround time. Additionally, high priority must be 

placed on the new medium launch vehicle (MLV) 

acquisition also known as the Atlas I1 and its associated integrated apogee boost stage (IABS) acquisition. 

This launch capability is currently planned to commence operation in 1991 to place the remaining DSCS 

111 satellites into synchronous, equatorial orbit. Should 

this program experience any delay from its currently 

planned launch vehicle availability date of late 1990, 

our worldwide command and control and wideband 

data transfer would be greatly reduced. This same 

condition exists for the FLTSATCOM user community 

in that the 1989 planned launch of a FLTSATCOM 

satellite must take place on schedule. 

communications system continued. This system will 

In 1988, planning the future of the Milstar satellite 

71 
employ the Extremely High Frequency (EHF) band to 

provide highly survivable and enduring essential 

communications for critical users. Work also progressed on defining an upgraded capability for the 

DSCS system. Using portions of the EHF technology 

developed under Milstar, this upgrade will greatly add 

to communications capacity and survivability for these 

users. 

Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM). 

FLTSATCOM system provides low capacity, worldwide 

connectivity for small mobile platforms in the Ultra 

High Frequency (UHF) band. The system consists of 

five government-owned Fleet Satellites (FLTSATs) and 

three contractor-owned Leased Satellites (LEASATs). 

Launch of the last of the current FLTSAT series, 

FLTSAT 8, is scheduled for 1989. Both FLTSAT 7 and 

FLTSAT 8 include an Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 

package to allow testing of EHF terminals for the 

Milstar system. In 1988, a contract was awarded to 

Hughes Aircraft Corporation for a replacement program for FLTSAT known as UHF Follow-On (UFO). A 

separate contract to add an EHF subsystem starting on 

the fourth UFO is to be released in 1989. The UFO 

system will provide the mobil users connectivity 

through the mid 2000s. 

Launch vehicle difficulties, affecting all US space 

progress, hit the FLTSAT program especially hard in 

1987, with effects still being felt in 1988. The launch of 

the last satellite in the current FLTSAT series is scheduled for late 1989. 

Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSAT 

COM)/Single-Channel Transponder (SCT). The 

AFSATCOM is a satellite communications capability 

that provides reliable global communications between 

and among the National Command Authorities and the 

nuclear-capable forces. The primary missions supported are dissemination of emergency action and 

force-directing messages to the deployed forces and 

the associated report-back communications. The 

system terminal segment consists of fixed and transportable ground terminals and airborne terminals a 

72 

transponder control system. During 1988, the Single 

Channel Transponder (SCT) on the DSCS 111 spacecraft 

and the SCT Injection system (SCTIS) ground segment 

entered final installation and testing phase. These will 

provide a more survivable SHF service for the strategic 

users. The mission areas performed by these systems 

will be transferred to the Milstar system in the mid 

1990s. 

Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS). DSCS is the long-haul communications system 

supporting critical worldwide command and control of 

our forces. In addition, the DSCS supports the transfer 

of wideband data and the users of the Diplomatic Telecommunications System. The space segment portion of 

DSCS has been approved as five operational satellites 

and two on-orbit reserves. The current space segment 

consists of three DSCS 111s and two DSCS 11s and two 

limited-capability DSCS 11 reserve satellites. Should any 

of the current operational satellites experience an onorbit failure, the current reserves would not be able to 

restore all users traffic. During 1988, contingency plans 

were drawn up in order to immediately react to an onorbit failure. These plans were initiated because the 

current operational space segment has two DSCS I1 

satellites well beyond their mean mission duration and 

a DSCS I11 satellite that has already switched more than 

75 percent of its backup components into operations 

and will exceed its mean mission duration in 1989. As 

a result of these conditions, it is essential that our 

launch capability through 1995 for DSCS be given a 

top priority. While the current inability to launch DSCS 

satellites has impacted our overall level of confidence 

that the space segment will be capable of supporting 

the user requirements, it has also impacted the program funding because of unplanned and unfunded 

satellite storage costs that the program is now incurring. As of January 1989, there will be seven DSCS 111 

satellites in storage. When the remaining DSCS I11 

satellites are launched, we will be capable of supporting the critical user community through 1997. In 1988, 

concept work was begun on the DSCS 111 follow-on 
program with the objective of achieving FY 92 funding 

support and a late 1990’s launch. Also, increased 

attention was paid to the development of a common, 

interoperable, anti-jam, super high frequency (SHF) 

modem for DSCS terminals. 

The control segment provides for near real-time 

monitoring and control to ensure optimum use of 

resources, thereby maximizing user support. This 

control segment was expanded in 1988 with activation 

of a sixth DSCS Operations Center (DSCSOC) at Ft. 

Belvoir, VA. Also, three additional deliveries of DSCS 

Frequency Division Multiple Access Control System 

(DFCS) equipment were accepted from the contractor 

for installation at Ft. Detrick, Ft. Belvoir, and Ft. 

Meade. This equipment, to be installed at each 

DSCSOC, will provide control of the Frequency 

Division Multiple Access (FDMA) networks in each 

satellite area. Management actions were undertaken in 

1988 to begin the consolidation of all DSCS operations 

centers under the Army Space Command. There are 

also contracts in place to move toward a contingency 

control capability in the 1991-94 time frame. 

The ground segment consists of the family of large, 

medium, and small Earth terminals with associated 

communications equipment supporting both the 

strategic and tactical user communities. In 1988, all 39 

new AN/GSC-52 fixed terminals had been accepted for 

activation through 1991. With these activations, the 

total terminal population using the DSCS exceeds 500. 

In addition, actions were continued to define the next 

generation Earth terminal needed to support the 

expanded requirements of the late 1990s, and to plan 

for replacing or upgrading the aging terminals currently within the networks. 

Mibtar. Milstar is a multichannel, Extremely High 

Frequcncy/Ultra High Frequency (EHF/UHF) satellite 

communications system that will provide survivable, 

enduring, jam-resistant, and secure voice/data communications for the President, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and 

the Commanders in Chief (CINCs) of the Unified and 

Specified Commands. It will be used for the worldwide 

command and control of US strategic and tactical 

forces in all levels of conflict. Milstar satellites, which 

contain special survivability features, will be launched 

into high and low inclination orbits to provide full 

Earth coverage. Full-scale development of the space 

and mission control segments continued in 1988 with 

Critical Design Reviews completed. Detailed planning 

for payloads and its integration will begin in 1989. 

Nuclear hardened Milstar terminals will be provided to 

command facilities, to surveillance outposts, and to 

strategic and tactical forces during the 1990s. When 

completed, Milstar will provide the United States with 

its most survivable wartime communications capability. 

The Air Force is the lead service for the procurement 

of Milstar satellites, the dispersed mission control 

network, and the airborne terminals. The Army and 

Navy also have terminal development and procurement programs. The terminal programs of all three 

Services are coordinated through the Navy’s Joint 

Terminal Program Office, which has the responsibility 

to ensure interoperability and common specifications 

among the three designs. 

The Milstar multiservice terminal segment OT&E 

was initiated in 1988 through the Phase I interoperability test demonstration. The results validated the 

frequency-hopping waveform and other terminal 

technical characteristics, as well as demonstrating 

operations in some field environments. The three 

service terminals communicated with each other via a 

scaled down version of the Milstar space system 

orbiting on a FLEETSATCOM satellite. Each Service 

terminal also completed Phase I testing with a breadboard version of the Milstar satellite payload. Land, 

sea, and airborne terminals included a destroyer, a 

submarine, and a transport aircraft in the field tests. 

Requirements for Milstar have been validated and an 

initial paper loading of the communications nets on 

the satellite constellation has been completed. Extensive terminal interoperability testing was conducted 

between the Air Force, Army, and Navy terminals using 

the EHF package on FLTSAT 7. Integration of the flight 

73 
hardware for the Development Flight System (DFS) is 

well underway and will continue through 1989. 

Satellite Laser Communications. The Satellite 

Laser Communications (SLC) system is a joint technology demonstration effort between the Navy and the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 

to provide the capability to communicate from space 

to a submerged submarine, using a laser beam as the 

transmitting medium. To date, the basic capability has 

been proven by sending messages to a submerged 

submarine from an aircraft, using green and blue laser 

lights. An operational system would probably use blue 

laser light, which provides greater transmission efficiency. An aircraft-to-submarine test using blue laser 

was completed in the summer 1988, with a final report 

expected by January 1989. 

Strategic Defense initiative 

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) has made 

tremendous strides since President Reagan’s 1983 

speech, particularly in the program’s organizational 

maturity and the number of technology options 

potentially available for a strategic defense system. The 

SDI program seeks to preserve both near- and longterm defense options. For example, kinetic energy 

systems (e.g., rocket interceptors)-for use in the initial 

phase of a defensive system-and directed energy 

weapons (lasers, particle beams) are being researched 

with equal dedication. These options are integral to the 

program’s success in countering potential Soviet 

responses to a deployed strategic defense system. 

In 1988, the Department of Defense Acquisition 

Board (DAB) completed an annual review of progress 

of the technologies previously selected for the demonstration/validation phase of the Defense Acquisition 

Process. These technologies, known as Phase I of the 

Strategic Defense System (SDS), consist of various 

sensor systems, ground- and space-based ballistic 

missile interceptors, and battle management, command, control, and communications. Cost reduction 

has long been recognized as an important component 

of the SDI program, and cost-reduction efforts had 

been emphasized for this year’s DAB review in tandem 

with technology research. By anticipating potential SDI 

costs, and implementing technology development 

strategies that focus on reducing costs, we believe the 

SDS will be affordable. 

SDI program accomplishments have increased our 

confidence that strategic defenses will prove feasible. 

In past years, the SDI Organization (SDIO) has conducted a series of kinetic energy and directed energy 

weapon technology tests. Kinetic energy tests have 

successfully demonstrated the possibility of nonnuclear destruction of enemy ballistic missile before 

they reach their targets. Recently, the first of a series of 

“hover tests” of a space-based interceptor was conducted in a ground test facility. These tests help 

evaluate the capability of fast-acting thrusters to keep a 

sensor pointed at a target, and the interaction of the 

sensor and propulsion systems. This past year, the 

Aerothermal Reentry Experiment demonstrated that 

kinetic energy weapons can destroy warheads not only 

with a perfect hit, but also by inflicting damage with a 

less than perfect collision. The process of self-destruction of a damaged warhead as it enters the atmosphere 

was demonstrated. Substantial technological advances 

have been incorporated into the system designs. For 

example, inertial measurement units have been 

reduced in weight to six ounces, from 41 pounds 

about 15 years ago, and in size to a much smaller 

device. Such a dramatic reduction in weight and size 

will allow interceptors to be placed into space at 

reduced cost. 

demonstrated several key principles related to the 

operation of a large Free Electron Laser, a weapon 

which could become powerful enough to destroy 

enemy ballistic missiles in the boost-post-boost phases 

of flight. Similar experiments are also being conducted 

using other types of lasers and neutral particle beams. 

While lasers and particle beams will not be available as 

soon as some of the kinetic energy systems, their 

With directed energy experiments, researchers have 

74 
importance to the overall SDI mission cannot be 

overstated. Although such systems would build on the 

capability of a Phase I system, they have a least one 

new mission: to thwart the effectiveness of a new 

generation of Soviet ICBMs aiid other possible counters to an SDS. Kinetic energy systems, lasers, and 

particle beams form a mutually reinforcing “triad” for 

defensive systems much like the mutually reinforcing 

and complementing aspect of the Triad for offensive 

systems. 

Some surveillance and sensor technologies supported by the SDI program address not only SDI but 

other critical national security needs as well. The 

capabilities of today’s early warning radars and satellites could be greatly improved through advancements 

in detection capabilities. These new sensors will 

provide more accurate and reliable surveillance data of 

objects in space. The Delta-181 experiment demonstrated substantial improvements in our ability to 

develop sensors necessary for strategic defenses. In 

that experiment, a payload of sensors and test objects 

aboard Delta-181 provided a demonstration of effective 

ways to discriminate between decoys and reentry 

vehicles. The assortment of active and passive sensing 

instruments accurately characterized the test objects, 

and also the launch of a research rocket, in a variety of 

space environments. Small differences in motion- or 

wobble:-and also other signatures provide detectable 

differences between decoys and reentry vehicles. 

Tangible, impressive results have given us increased 

confidence that strategic defenses are feasible. The 

goal is to present the Nation with the option of moving 

from a deterrent relationship based solely on nuclear 

retaliation to one that is increasingly based on effective 

defenses against attack. During 1988, DNA programs 

led to the development of a method of producing 

insulating substrates which will provide the quality of 

material necessary for circuit fabrication. These improvement, which have led to a ~10,000 reduction in 

material defects, will make it possible to produce the 

very-large-scale integrated circuits needed for future 

DoD strategic systems. This technology was demonstrated by the manufacture of a number of 16K Static 

Kandom Access Memory devices. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Fixed- Wing Programs 

B-IB Bomber. In June 1985, the first B-1B was 

delivered to the Strategic Air Command. By summer 

1988, all 100 B-1Bs were delivered to the Air Force, 

with operational basing at Dyess AFB, Texas; Ellsworth 

AFB, South Dakota; Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota; 

and McConnell AFB, Kansas. The B-IB has been on 

alert as part of the Strategic Air Command’s defense 

force since October 1, 1986. Baseline development and 

testing of the B-IB continues at Dyess AFB, Texas, and 

Edwards AFB, California. 

B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber. Work has 

been ongoing on the B-2 with Northrop as the prime 

contractor; Boeing, LTV, and General Electric Aircraft 

Engine Group are subconiractors to Northrop. The B-2 

employs low-observable, or stealth, technology and is 

based on a flying wing concept which exhibits high 

aerodynamic efficiency giving high-payload, longrange capability. 

The B-2 was rolled out at Palmdale, California, in 

November 1988. The first flight of the B-2 is scheduled 

for the near future. Also, Northrop is well into the 

assembly phase of aircraft number two. 

The first operational B-2 will be delivered to 

Whiteman AFB, Missouri, in mid-1991. An Initial 

Operational Capability (IOC) will be achieved in the 

early 1990s at Whiteman AFB. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). The ATF 

program is developing the next generation Air Force 

fighter to counter the Soviet threat projected for the 

late 1990s and beyond. As a follow-on to the F-15, the 

ATF is being designed to penetrate high-threat enemy 

airspace and support the air-land battle forces with 

“first-look, first-kill” capability against a technologically 

advanced, numerically superior enemy. The ATF’s 

improved capabilities will be made possible by signifi75 
cant technological advances in the area of signature 

reduction, aerodynamic design, flight controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and integrated avionics. It will 

reach operational capability in the mid-1990s. 

include flying prototypes and ground-based avionics 

prototypes in the Demonstration/Validation (Dem/Val) 

phase of the program. The restructured program 

implements Packard Commission recommendations, 

emphasizes fly-before-you-buy, competitive contracting, and provides the means to reduce technical and 

cost risks for entering full-scale development in 1991. 

In October 1986, the ATF program completed a 

Joint Requirements Management Board Milestone I, 

and received Office of the Secretary of Defense 

approval to award the Dem/Val contracts. Contracts 

were awarded to Lockheed and Northrop, and flight 

demonstrations of their prototype aircraft, designated 

YF-22A and YF-23A respectively, will begin in 1990. 

General Electric and Pratt and Whitney are providing 

the prototype engines for the ATF aircraft. 

C-17. The C-17 aircraft is entering its fifth year of 

full-scale development. Wind tunnel testing is complete, and all major subcontracts have been awarded. 

More than 90 percent of the detailed engineering 

drawings for manufacture of the C-17 have been 

completed. The engines (Pratt and Whitney 2040) for 

the C-17 are modern, efficient, commercially developed, turbofan engines that are equipped with unique 

thrust reversers specifically developed for the C-17. 

The first C-17 engine (military designation F-117) was 

delivered five months early in May 1987. In addition, 

the airframe and electronic flight control system critical 

design reviews were completed in July 1988 and 

November 1988 respectively. Assembly of the first C-17 

began on time in August 1988. The Defense Acquisition Board (DAB), after a December 1988 Milestone 

IIIA review, approved low-rate initial production. As of 

December 1988, Congress has approved an appropriation funding for a total of six aircraft (Lots I and 11) and 

a long lead for six aircraft (Lot 111). 

76 

In April 1986, the ATF program was restructured to 

Remotely Piloted Vehicle. The Navy and Air Force 

are jointly developing a medium-range, unmanned reconnaissance vehicle. The Navy is developing the 

unmanned vehicle, and the Air Force is developing an 

electro-optical sensor suite to be carried by Air Force 

and Navy manned and unmanned tactical reconnaissance vehicles. In 1989, two contractor will be selected 

to participate in a competitive fly-off of their unmanned vehicles that will occur during 1990. 

Advanced Technology Demonstrators 

V-22 Osprey (FormerlyJtX). The Osprey is 

designed to provide the Marine Corps, Navy, and Air 

Force with a multimission VerticaUShort Takeoff and 

Landing (V/STOL) capability for the 1990s and beyond. 

It will satisfy operational requirements such as Marine 

Corps assault vertical lift, Navy combat search and 

rescue, and Air Force special operations. In April 1983, 

the Preliminary Design Phase began; in 1986, a decision leading to full-scale development was made. 

Powered model, aero-elasticity, and large-scale rotor 

performance tests were completed. These test results 

will lead to the first flight of the V-22 in December 

1989. 

Aeronautics Technology 

Microwave Landing System (MLS’. MLS is the 

precision approach landing system of the future. It will 

replace the existing instrument landing system (ILS) 

and precision approach radar by the year 2000. Both 

fixed and mobile MLS ground equipment will be 

acquired, as well as MLS avionics, for DoD aircraft. The 

Federal Aviation Administration has overall responsibility for the national MLS program, and the Air Force 

was designated the lead Service for the DoD. In 1988, 

the Air Force continued with programs to acquire 

modified commercial MLS avionics and mobile MLS 

capabilities. The modified commercial MLS avionics 

will be used in cargo, tanker, trainer, and support 

aircraft. The mobile MLS will replace existing mobile 

precision approach radars. The mobile MLS Request for 

Proposal was released in 1987, and the contract was 
awarded in August 1988. The FAA Fixed Base MLS 

Kequest for Proposal will be released in 1989 and will 

include equipment for the DoD. Contract award is 

planned for 1990. An MLS avionics architecture study, 

completed in 1986, considered MLS avionics alternatives that could accommodate the environmental and 

space constraints that exist in high-performance 

aircraft. As a result of the study, the Air Force awarded 

contracts in 1987 to conduct a concept definition effort 

for a high reliability (20,000-hour mean-time-betweenFailure) MLS/ILS receiver. Full-scale development is 

planned to start in Fiscal Year 1989. The ILS capability 

will be retained until the transition to MLS is completed 

in the year 2000. 

Short Takeoff and Landing/Maneuver Technology Demonstrator (F-15 STOL/MTD). The F-15 

STOL/MTD aircraft integrates and flight validates twodimensional exhaust nozzles, movable canards, and 

rough field landing gears on an F-15B. The aircraft 

essentially has an F-15E cockpit and digital fly-by-wire 

flight control system with no mechanical backup. The 

result will be an aircraft controlled in the pitch axis by 

vectored thrust with greatly improved up-and-away 

maneuver and deceleration performance. It should 

able to take off and land on a 1500-ft by 50-ft icy 

runway with 30-knot crosswinds without the aid of an 

instrument landing system. The first flight of the F-15 

STOL/MTD (without the two-dimensional nozzles) was 

conducted on September 7, 1988. The two-dimensional 

thrust vectoringhhrust reversing nozzles are currently 

undergoing ground testing. They should be installed in 

the STOL/MTD aircraft in early 1989. 

Advanced Flight Technology Integration (AFTI/ 

F-26). In 1987, the AFTI/F-~~ started flight testing 

close air support (CAS) technologies in support of 

Army/Air Force joint operations. Just recently, the 

aircraft has completed Phase I flight testing. This 

consisted of integrating and flight demonstrating digital 

data link and digital terrain systems technologies in an 

operational environment. Two Army Scout helicopters, 

working without a Forward Air Control (FAC), provided target and threat information to the AFTI/F-16 

pilot who, in turn, successfully acquired and attacked 

targets at high speeds on the first pass. The entire 

attack was carried out without a spoken word and was 

very successful. In the past, pilots flying CAS missions, 

employing similar tactics without these technologies, 

have had only a 40-50 percent chance of finding 

similar targets on the first pass. Phase I1 started in 

December 1988 and will demonstrate a two-ship 

internetted attack and manual night attack capability. 

X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator. The 

X-29 #1 aircraft has completed flight testing. This 

unique forward-swept wing aircraft has flown 87 

successful flights during 1988, and 247 test flights since 

flight testing stated in December 1984 at NASA’s 

Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards AFB, 

California. The X-29 now holds the record for the most 

flights of any X-series aircraft. The aircraft demonstrated the viability of forward-swept, aero-elastically 

tailored composite wings, successful digital control of a 

35 percent statically unstable aircraft, and excellent 

stability and longitudinal control derived from coupled 

canards. Recent flight test results indicate that a 

forward-swept wing fighter, constructed using X- 29 

technologies, would have less drag and be lighter than 

a conventional aft-swept wing fighter. Based on X-29 

#1 aircraft performance data and computer simulations, 

a forward-swept wing design is predicted to have significant transonic maneuvering performance improvements. These include instantaneous turn and roll 

control rates at high angles of attack. A follow-on 

program for a second X-29 aircraft (X-29 #2) has been 

started. This X-29 #2 aircraft flight test program will 

evaluate X-29 agility at high angles of attack. The #2 

aircraft has been modified with a spin chute and high 

angle-of-attack instrumentation. 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP). This is a 

Presidentially-directed, joint Department of Defense 

(Air Force, Navy, Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA), Strategic Defense Initiative Organization/National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

77 
(NASA) program. The objective is to develop the 

enabling technologies for an entirely new generation 

of flight vehicles including space launch vehicles 

capable of single-stage-to-orbit with horizontal takeoff 

and landing, and hypersonic aircraft capable of longrange hypersonic cruise within the atmosphere. The 

requisite technologies will be integrated into the 

design and fabrication of an experimental aircraft, the 

X-30, for flight test and demonstration. These demonstrated technologies would then provide the basis for 

military and civil vehicles capable of: global unrefueled 

operation, reaching any point on the Earth in less than 

two hours; providing routine “on demand” access to 

near-space; reducing payload-to-orbit costs by at least 

an order of magnitude; and flexibly based, rapid 

response (to any azimuth) space launch. Such NASPderived aerospace systems would provide a revolutionary increase in military capability. 

The contractor competition to build the X-30 will 

not be completed until 1990, but some characteristics 

can be specified now. The X-30 will be a manned 

aerospacecraft powered by ramjet/scramjet engines 

that will be fueled by liquid or slush hydrogen. It will 

have auxiliary rocket engines for final orbit insertion 

and on-orbit maneuvering. The vehicle structure will 

be manufactured from advanced, high strength, lightweight, temperature-resistant materials and critical 

portions of the structure will be actively cooled with 

the super-cold hydrogen fuel before it is burned in the 

engine. 

The NASP program is making solid progress with no 

insurmountable technical obstacles foreseen. All 

competing airframe and engine contractors have 

produced X-30 designs that meet the goals of the NASP 

program. These conceptual designs for airframes and 

engines have been analyzed and are forming the basis 

for component hardware fabrication and ground tests 

that are producing impressive results. Among recent 

accomplishments are the following: 

Computerized fluid dynamics calculations refined 

for three-dimensional calculation and validated 

78 

with component test data from wind tunnels. 

Several alternative advanced materials have been 

characterized and successfully joined or welded. 

Critical engine and airframe components have 

been successfully fabricated and tested under 

realistic operating conditions. 

modules at flow conditions up to Mach 8 have 

been completed and tested. 

Construction of cryogenic liquid-hydrogen tank 

structures has been initiated. 

Initial applications studies to analyze missions for 

future NASP-derived vehicles have been 

completed and detailed follow-on studies are 

underway. 

An innovative acquisition approach has been 

taken of establishing a consortium of the major 

NASP contractors to develop and share 

information on advanced materials. 

Engine test facilities for validating full-scale engine 

During the current phase, the NASP contractors are 

contributing over $700M of their own resources to the 

NASP program. 

The next phase, dealing with the detailed design, 

fabrication, and flight test of an experimental aircraft, is 

scheduled to begin in 1991. First atmospheric flight of 

the X-30 experimental flight research vehicle is 

planned for early 1995, with the first orbital flight 

planned for late 1996. The goal of Phase 111 is to 

accomplish sufficient flight demonstration to provide a 

verified technological basis for the development of 

future operational vehicles. 

Advanced Short-TakeoB Vertical Landing 

Aircrafi (ASTOVL). Under a cooperative research 

initiative involving the Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency, NASA, Navy, and the Air Force, 

conceptual designs of an ASTOVL fighter aircraft have 

been developed. The objective of this effort is to 

determine the potential of an ASTOVL fighter to be the 

next generation replacement for the current generation 

of fighter aircraft (F-16, F-18, AV-8B). These aircraft, 

which constitute the bulk of the US tactical fighter 
fleet, were designed in the 1970s and will reach the 

end of their design lifetime in the first decade of the 

next century. If current and emerging technology can 

permit the design of a high-performance fighter that 

also includes the ability for short takeoff and vertical 

landing, then it may be possible to use the same 

airframe in multiple roles and Service missions. The 

NASA laboratories have supported this initiative 

through wind tunnel testing, flight/propulsion control 

concept development, and propulsion definition. An 

existing Memorandum of Agreement between the 

DoD, NASA, and the Ministry of Defense of the United 

Kingdom has resulted in a successful joint research 

effort with data exchange provisions. If the research 

initiative continues to show progress, the potential 

exists to build a research aircraft for concept validation 

and risk reduction. The existing Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) with the UK and a proposed 

MOU with Canada form the basis for a potential 

multinational effort in the fabrication and testing of a 

multinational research aircraft. 

Unmanned Air Vehicle. In 1988, two very important aeronautical milestones have been achieved. The 

AMBER Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) demonstrated 

record-setting altitude and endurance capability, and 

the CONDOR, a totally autonomous high-altitude, 

long-endurance UAV, successfully completed its first 

flight. These achievements introduce a new dimension 

that lies between manned patrol aircraft on the one 

hand and satellites on the other. Such “Slow-Sats” or 

“Low-Sats” have great potential, not only for reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition in any 

theater, but they provide an important means for 

extending the battle space of air defense which is 

essential for continued effective defense of carrier 

battle groups as well as air defense of North America. 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability (EFM]. The 

EFM program is joint development between the United 

States and the Federal Republic of Germany, initiated 

under the Nunn-Quayle NATO Cooperative Research 

and Development Initiative. The two prime contractors 

involved in the program are Rockwell International 

and Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohn. The EFM program 

will integrate and demonstrate a number of emerging 

technologies that collectively have the potential to 

significantly increase fighter aircraft agility and to 

improve close-in-combat (CIC) exchange ratios. The 

technical challenge is to produce a low-cost flight 

vehicle that will demonstrate the payoff of high agility 

at high angles of attack using integrated flight and 

propulsion control systems. Two X-31A flight demonstrator aircraft will produce data on the technical and 

military implications of post-stall maneuvering provided by EFM. Flight tests will provide both research 

data for the relatively unexplored flight regime at high 

angles of attack, and will also provide a preliminary 

tactical assessment of post-stall maneuvers for close-in 

aerial combat. A low-cost approach to flight demonstrators will be used, and a data base for proof-ofconcepts flight vehicles will be generated for future 

application. 

The first X-31A aircraft, which is currently being 

assembled by Rockwell International in Palendale, 

California, is scheduled for first flight in late 1989. 

Pilot’s Associate. The Pilot’s Associate program is 

applying many of the technologies being developed 

under the DARPA Strategic Computing Program to the 

problem of real-time combat pilot aiding. The specific 

technologies being developed and applied include 

artificial intelligence, automated planning, and the 

supporting computer processor technology necessary 

for their implementation. The program seeks to 

demonstrate the technological feasibility of airborne 

mission replanning and execution in response to either 

command redirection or drastic differences between 

the expected and the encountered situation. A mature 

Pilot’s Associate would provide the pilot of a singleseat fighter aircraft with expert assistance in the highly 

dynamic and demanding environment of aerial warfare. The program includes increasingly challenging 

demonstrations in advanced flight simulators representative of the fighter aircraft of the mid-1990s. 

79 
Early in 1988, the Pilot’s Associate program demonstrated an artificially intelligent mission replanning 

system which performed mission-level planning and 

tactics planning directed by expert situation assessment 

and aircraft status assessment modules. The interface to 

the pilot was controlled by an artificially intelligent 

system which modeled pilot behavior in order to 

determine pilot display requirements. The distributed 

system was implemented on a network of advanced 

laboratory processors which formed the link between 

the flight simulation facility and an experimental 

cockpit. The system dramatically demonstrated route 

replanning, observable signature management, threat 

avoidance, intercept planning, attack planning, sensor 

management, display management, and aircraft system 

management at levels of performance which were considered beyond the capability of the unaided pilot. 

Future demonstrations will include real-time operation 

for selected, high-value functions. 

The program has examined two alternative architectures for integration of distributed intelligent systems. 

One of these architectures, message passing between 

actors, has shown highly successful near real-time performance. The second architecture, a partitioned blackboard for data exchange, has helped to identify some 

of the limitations of that technology for real-time 

performance. 

Other Technologies 

Nuclear Hardening. In 1988, a DNA program with 

Honeywell was culminated with the receipt of 64K 

Static Kandom Access Memory (SKAM) devices which 

demonstrated the highest-ever combination of ionizing 

radiation hardness and performance (>1 MKAD with 40 

nanoseconds access time). These devices were selected 

by California Institute of Technology scientist for use in 

the Mars probe experiment and for initial use in the 

USAF Boost Phase and Surveillance Tracking Satellite 

(BSTS) program. 

In an ongoing program with General Electric, a 

static random access memory device, which was 

80 

developed during the Very High-speed Integrated 

Circuit (VHSIC) program, was redesigned to provide a 

significant improvement and its performance in a 

radiation environment. These improvements will 

permit this device to be used in space and strategic 

applications. The radiation hardening requirements of 

the initial VHSIC program were satisfactory to support 

tactical requirements (3000 rads). However, to permit 

the use of these components in space and strategic environments, additional effort was required. 

survivability to insure electronics-based space systems 

can perform, despite upset and interference. In 1988, 

the program developed a design approach for computer processors that increases the “virtual hardness” of 

silicon processors (resistant to >10 Kads(Si)/sec) by at 

least two orders of magnitude. The program approach 

is of value to SDI and other space-based developments. A simple code was also demonstrated which 

shows system response in a multiple nuclear blast environment. Demonstration technology is also planned 

for space power systems and sensor electronics. 

Carbon-Carbon High-Temperature Turbine 

Demonstration. The Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency has made a long-term investment in 

the maturation of high-strength carbon-carbon fiber 

technology for application to turbomachinery. Current 

aircraft turbines operate at temperatures above the 

softening point of the metals involved; consequently, 

cooling air must be supplied from the aircraft engine to 

maintain the integrity of the turbine. This use of 

cooling air constitutes a serious loss from the ultimate 

efficiency of a turbine engine. The DARPA program 

has successfully demonstrated uncooled turbine 

wheels of high strength operating in a laboratory 

environment with surface temperatures of 3100°F. 

Current plans are to provide these turbine wheels to 

the Air Force Propulsion Laboratory for evaluation in 

an experimental cruise missile engine. If the carboncarbon turbines operate successfully in this dynamic 

environment of temperature gradients and aerodyThe Operate Through program goes beyond 
namic loading, it will open a whole new class of 

propulsion designs based on this material. This could 

span the range from highly efficient electrical power 

generation turbines to hypersonic vehicle propulsion 

systems. 

Advanced Space Technology Program 

(LIGHTSAT). The Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency (DARPA) has initiated efforts for the 

development of advanced technologies to support the 

use of smaller and lightweight satellite systems, 

subsystems, and components. These technologies will 

augment existing satellite systems and improve support 

to the operational commanders. Two small Ultra-High 

Frequency (UHF) store-and-forward communications 

satellites (MACSATs) weighing 150 lbs. each will be 

launched this summer and will demonstrate the utility 

of small satellites for remote sensor read-out. The 

Pegasus Air-Launched Vehicle (a commercially developed launch vehicle) will be demonstrated and 

evaluated under DARPA sponsorship this summer and 

will place several government payloads into 400 

nautical miles polar orbit. In the fall, seven small (45 

Ibs.) UHF transponder satellites will be placed into 

orbit by the second Pegasus flight vehicle and will 

undergo operational evaluation by the military Services. In addition, DAHPA will contract for the commercial development and government evaluation of a 

Standard Small Launch Vehicle (SSLV) capable of 

placing 1000-1500 Ib. payloads into polar orbit. 

Miniature Global Positioning System Receivers 

(MGR). The Department of Defense has been developing means for obtaining precise geo-positioning and 

navigation data using the Global Positioning System 

(GPS) for almost twenty years. DARPA began a research program in the early 1980’s to demonstrate the 

necessary solid-state technology to miniaturize GPS 

receivers. The DARPA demonstration unit is a GPS 

receiver the size of a cigarette package. This program 

was in concert with a United States Marine Corps 

(USMC) need for a lightweight, low-cost, handheld 

receiver to support long-range reconnaissance and 

other tactical missions. The effort requires significant 

advances in the state-of-the-art of Gallium Arsenide 

(GaAs) monolithic microwave integrated circuit 

(MMIC) technology as well as specialized GPS digital 

signal processing realization in bulk complementary 

metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS). The strong USMC 

weight, size, and endurance requirements dictated the 

development of a low-power, high-performance radio 

and intermediate frequency (RF/IF) integrated circuitry 

in GaAs MMIC technology. 

During 1988, Rockwell/Collins (WC) demonstrated 

all necessary technology to miniaturize GPS receivers. 

Specifically, these accomplishments demonstrated the 

following: 

Successful operation of the first-ever hybrid 

analog/digital GaAs MMIC chip for received signal 

amplification, down-conversion and analog-todigital conversion. 

Successful integration into an operating MGR of 

the GaAs MMIC chip with a digital P-Code capable 

tracker/correlator CMOS chip, a bipolar silicon RF 

synthesizer chip, an advanced architecture, ultralow-power microprocessor chip, and a 

multifunction interface chip. These last four silicon 

chips had been previously developed in the MGR 

program. In addition, this MGR includes all the 

necessary software required for full-scale 

engineering development. 

GPS Guidance Package (GGP). The GGP program is directed towards the development of a small, 

modular, low-cost, lightweight, precision guidance and 

navigation unit. The components of this navigation 

unit are: (1) a MGR; (2) a solid-state inertial measurement unit utilizing an advanced fiber optic gyroscope 

and silicon accelerometers; and, (3) a data integration, 

guidance and control processor. The GGP technical 

objectives will support a broad spectrum of tactical reconnaissance missions, and precise, long-range nonnuclear strike applications, including those which will 

employ highly maneuverable hypersonic vehicles. 

81 
Three DARPA contractor teams began preliminary 

work in FY 88 to produce a design for the basic GGP 

package, with emphasis on the development and 

fabrication of an Interferometric FOG (IFOG) brassboard within three years. This six-month study ended 

late third-quarter and the three contractors final reports 

arrived late August 1988. Two of the three companies 

show very good progress in their overall GGP design 

work and describe IFOG experimental result indicating 

bias stabilities less than 0.1 degreedhow, random 

noise less than 0.01 degreedroot-hour, and scale factor 

linearities less than 50ppm. The expected near-term 

goal of a GGP had been a bias stability of 0.1 degree/ 

hour. These demonstrations, along with other experiments performed by all contractor teams, indicate that 

the DARPA GGP goal of a 0.01 degree/hour drift rate 

will be achievable from IFOGs today and that of a 

0.001 degree/hour drift rate will be reachable in the 

future. 

82 

Department of Commerce 

Agencies of the Department of Commerce that 

contributed to the nation’s aeronautics and space 

program during 1988 were the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA); and National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST), formerly the National Bureau of 

Standards. 

tion (NOAA) conducts research, gathers, stores, and 

analyzes data about the oceans, atmosphere, space, 

and sun, and applies this knowledge in environmental 

forecasting and enhancement of knowledge of environmental processes. These functions are performed 

by NOAA’s National Weather Service, National Ocean 

Service, National Marine Fisheries Service, Environmental Research Laboratories, and National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Services 

(NESDIS). The satellite data so obtained and utilized 

originates from NOAA’s own polar-orbiting (NOAA) 

and geostationary spacecraft (GOES) operated by 

NESDIS and from the satellites of other agencies or 

governments. 

The National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA), the principal communications 

adviser to the President, develops and coordinates 

Executive Branch policy in telecommunications and 

information. NTIA also is responsible for managing the 

radio spectrum assigned for Federal use and provides 

technical assistance to other federal agencies. An 

important NTIA role is to help develop U.S. policy in 

space communications. 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) establishes and maintains national standards of 

measurement and provides measurement services and 

fundamental physical, chemical, engineering, and 

material data to serve national goals. NIST supports a 

variety of aeronautical and space programs. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministraNOAA Satellite Operations 

During 1988, NOAA, through its National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

(NESDIS), continued to operate its polar-orbiting and 

geostationary spacecraft for remote sensing of the 

earth’s environment, collection and relay of data from 

in-situ observing platforms, search and rescue, and 

sensing of the space environment. In full operation, 

the polar-orbiting system consisted of two NOAA 

(sometimes called Advanced TIKOS-N) spacecraft, one 

each in sun-synchronous morning and afternoon orbits 

at a nominal height of 850 KM. The geostationary 

system, called GOES for Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite, also consisted of two spacecraft, one at 75x W, the other at 135x W. 

Instruments carried by the polar-orbiting spacecraft 

included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHKR) to obtain visible and infrared imagery; a 

TIKOS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) for 

profiling atmospheric temperature from the earth’s 

surface to the stratosphere; an Earth Radiation Budget 

Experiment (ERBE); a Solar Background Ultra-Violet 

(SBUV) sensor for measuring ozone distribution and 

concentration; a Space Environment Monitor (SEM) for 

observing near-earth charged-particle spectra; a Search 

and Rescue (SAK) package to detect and locate emergency distress signals; and an ARGOS Data Collection 

System (DCS) to collect, relay, and position-determine 

observations sensed by moving and other platforms 

such as buoys and balloons. 

included a VISSK Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) for 

visible and infrared imaging and sounding; a Space 

Environment Monitor (SEM); an experimental Search 

and Kescue (SAK) package; and a Data Collection 

System (DCS) to collect and relay observations from 

fixed stations such as river gages, tide gages, anchored 

buoys, and the like. The communications systems 

The instrument complement of the GOES satellites 

85 
aboard GOES were also used to broadcast a weather 

facsimile (WEFAX) service, consisting of pictures, 

charts, and other environmental information. 

The NOM-9, NOAA-IO, and NOAA-11 satellites 

provided the polar-orbiting service during the year. 

When NOM-11 was launched September 24, 1988, it 

became the operational afternoon 2 10 satellite. 

GOES-6, at 135x W, and Goes-7 at 75x W, provided 

the NESDIS geostationary service in 1988, Goes-6 in an 

increasingly uncertain state, having exceeded its 

expected life in June. (GOES-6 would actually last until 

January 1989). 

GOES-4, an eight-year-old spacecraft, was deactivated after four years of cooperatively supporting the 

European Space Agency’s Data Collection System 

operations. Using its remaining propellant, the spacecraft was boosted above its normal geostationary 

altitude to keep from increasing the satellite debris in 

this busy corridor. 

During 1988, the Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation continued its design and development of the next generation GOES spacecraft, GOES IM, and associated ground equipment. Launch of the 

first in this new series of spacecraft is expected in 

1990. 

Pursuant to the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, the Earth Observation Satellite 

Company (EOSAT) operated both the Landsat 4 and 5 

remote sensing satellite systems for NOAA in 1988. 

During this time, these systems acquired 40,000 scenes 

for domestic use, while providing 280,000 scenes to 

foreign ground stations. On April 1, 1988, EOSAT and 

the Department of Commerce signed a contract to 

develop the follow-on Landsat 6 space and ground 

system. 

NOAA Application of Satellite 

Observations 

In 1988, as in previous years, the imagery, sounding data, and other observations sensed or collected by 

NOAA’s polar-orbiting and geostationary spacecraft 

86 

Artist’s concept of GOES I-M, NOAA ’s next-generation 

geostationary satellite series. 

were applied nationally, mainly by the National 

Weather Service and Department of Defense, and 

internationally, via the nations of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to environmental forecasting of both a routine and special-warning nature. 

The year’s highlights in NOAA’s use of its own 

satellites or of others included: 

Atmospheric Temperature 

and Moisture Soundings 

The year marked the ninth of operational atmospheric sounding production from NOAA’s polarorbiting satellites. These soundings are used as input to 

numerical weather forecast models. The retrieval 
processing has been upgraded from an original, purely 

statistical, technique to a physical method which 

retrieves both the verticaI temperatures and moisture 

profiles simultaneously. During the first half of 1988, a 

global Baseline Upper Air Network (BUAN) feasibility 

study was conducted by NESDIS, the National Weather 

Service and the World Meteorological Organization to 

study techniques for improving the quality of sounding 

products. 

GOES-VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) Data 

In 1988, special emphasis was placed on defining 

moisture and its transport from the Gulf of Mexico into 

the south-central United States where it fuels the 

severe weather of the spring as well as the convection 

responsible for the majority of summer rainfall. Vertical 

moisture distribution (in broad layers) derived from the 

VAS radiance measurements has been demonstrated to 

be a significant improvement upon other routinely 

available moisture data used to initialize weather 

forecast models. In addition, hourly “images” of 

moisture and atmospheric stability were provided to 

the National Severe Storm Forecast Center (Kansas 

City, Mo.) where they were used in defining outlooks 

and watch areas for severe weather. After 8 years of 

development and implementation, the VAS soundings 

now routinely contribute to the daily operational 

mission of NOAA. 

Operational Global Vegetation Index 

An experimental global vegetation index product 

from AVHRR data was begun at NESDIS in 1982. The 

product was disseminated to researchers from 1982 

through 1987 and became the focus of research 

interest in the area of climate assessment, agricultural 

monitoring, and large scale ecological studies. These 

global vegetation index maps sufficiently demonstrated 

their usefulness to be made an operational NESDIS 

product in the spring of 1988. Their primary use will 

be for climate monitoring and assessment by the 

Climate Analysis Center of the National Weather 

Service. 

Climate Applications 

Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensors 

were provided by NESDIS to the U.S. Agency for 

International Development during the 1988 growing 

season and covered selected areas of Africa. Products 

included (1) the estimation of the location of the 

Intertropical Convergence Zone, (2) estimates of soil 

moisture, and (3) estimates of the yield of millet and 

sorghum. These developmental products are the 

subject of continuing research at the NESDIS Climate 

Applications Branch with the objective of gaining a 

fuller understanding of the capabilities and limitations 

of satellite-derived information for evaluation of 

drought conditions. Detection and evaluation of 

drought offers the opportunity to alleviate famine 

conditions through early warning of food shortages 

and planned food distribution policies. 

Aerosols 

During the year, NESDIS laid the basis for producing an experimental product of aerosol optical thickness over oceans beginning in 1989. It is based on 

radiative transfer model interpretation of the radiance 

of reflected radiation. Weekly contour maps of aerosol 

optical thickness will be produced together with digital 

archive data tapes, also weekly and monthly analyzed 

fields at a grid resolution of 100 km. These products 

will be available through one or more of the NESDIS 

Data Centers. They will be useful for accounting for 

the effects of aerosols on remote sensing of other 

parameters; weather and climate; air and water quality; 

and on military and civil aviation operations. 

Yellowstone Smoke Plume Effect 

Forest fires in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 

during the summer of 1988 caused considerable smoke 

to be transported to surrounding states, so much so 

that on two days the plume was thick enough over 

northeast Colorado to reduce the solar radiation sensed 

at the surface by 20 to 40 percent of that sensed on 

clear days. Investigation of the impact of this smoke 

Experimental products derived from its Advanced 

87 
cover, observed by NOAA satellites, on near-surface air 

temperatures and on the development of local thermally-induced circulations and convective cloud 

formation is under way by the Regional and Mesoscale 

Meteorology Branch of NESDIS. 

Ozone 

Total, level, and layer ozone observations were 

obtained from the Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Kadiometer (SBUV/2) on the NOM-9 (afternoon) polarorbiting satellite for the NASA Goddard Space Flight 

Center (GSFC), NOAA Environmental Research Labs 

(ERL), and National Weather Service (NWS). During 

1988, the first two years (1985 and 1986) of NOAA 9 

SBUV/2 data using the latest ozone algorithm and 

calibration techniques were processed. In 1989 the 

remaining NOAA 9 data will be processed. These 

ozone data will be used along with other ozone data 

sources to determine trends in world ozone amounts. 

GOES-TAP 

GOES-TAP, a program enabling government and 

non-government users to acquire high quality meteorological satellite data over point-to-point telephone 

circuits, continued to expand with approximately 12 

new primary user connections in 1988. There are 

presently nearly 350 primary and over 500 secondary 

users who include the National Weather Service, the 

military, the Federal Aviation Agency, and other 

civilian agencies, private companies, universities, and 

television stations. GOES-TAP data consists of visible 

and infrared facsimile images from the GOES satellites, 

and from NOAA (polar-orbiting), GMS Uapanese), and 

European spacecraft. 

Satellite Altimetry 

Sea-surface altimetry data from the 1978 NASA 

SEASAT flight, converted to gravity anomaly data, 

became available in 1988 from the NESDIS National 

Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). It consists of a 

shaded-relief image, contour maps, and gridded 

numeric data on magnetic tape. The shaded-relief 

image, published by NGDC for the Navy, shows a 

88 

number of seafloor features represented by variations 

in the height of the sea surface that were previously 

poorly documented in bathymetric surveys but later 

verified by additional surveys. Also in 1988, NGDC 

continued, along with the NESDIS National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), to provide the public 

domain version of the Navy’s GEOSAT satellite altimetry. To enhance service to the user, NGDC reorganized its inventory of satellite altimetry, gravity, and 

magnetic anomaly data into one data base. 

Solar Geophysical Data 

In 1988, NGDC staff presented review papers on 

solar-terrestrial activity as a cause of satellite anomalies 

and demonstrated the NGDC “Spacecraft Anomaly 

Manager” (SAM) software at national and international 

meetings. The anomaly database has tripled in size, 

now including more than 3,000 events. Results from 

the anomaly data base and SAM include (1) changed 

operating procedures for currently orbiting satellites, 

(2) tighter specifications for future spacecraft, and 

(3) the realization that improved environmental observations are needed to fill gaps in current data collection during all levels of solar activity. 

Search and Rescue 

During 1988, COSPAS/SARSAT, the international 

satellite search and rescue service provided by Canada, 

France, the United States and the USSR, was responsible for the rescue of approximately 200 people, 

bringing the total of lives saved through this cooperative program to well over 1200. Greater international 

recognition of the program was achieved by the 

signing of an Inter-governmental Agreement between 

the four countries in Paris in July. 

Satellite Applications Training 

logical Organization (WMO) and National Weather 

Service (NWS) to develop needed courses for foreign 

meteorologists and oceanographers. Planning was 

begun to hold a basic satellite imagery interpretation 

course for countries with WEFAX (weather facsimile) 

NESDIS continued to work with the World Meteoro- 
capability in Africa and the Caribbean during 1989. 

NWS, NESDIS, and WMO developed a plan to provide 

copies of the polar-orbiter imagery interpretation 

program to WMO-member nations. NWS and NESDIS 

also began preparing a handbook on interpreting 

tropical clouds and weather systems from satellite 

imagery. When completed in 1989, the handbook will 

be shared with WMO and its members. 

During 1988, the Satellite Applications Laboratory 

(SAL) of NESDIS collaborated with the National 

Weather Service (NWS), the Air Force, and the Navy to 

ensure coordinated satellite training. Two courses were 

taught for the Air Force. Workshops were provided to 

NWS, television weathercasters, and others. By the end 

of the year, more than 900 persons had received 

satellite applications training from 32 such NOAA 

workshops. 

The joint NWS and NESDIS training program on 

satellite imagery interpretation continued. Following 

the creation of a handbook on imagery interpretation 

and collection of a series of videotapes depicting 

various aspects of imagery analysis, NWS and NESDIS 

prepared a correspondence course tied to these 

training materials. The course was distributed throughout the NWS, the Air Force, and the Navy during 1988. 

The script-slide program on polar orbiter interpretation (completed in 1987) was distributed during 1988. 

A three-part videotape training program on convection 

was completed. Work continued on additional exercises on tropical cyclones, downbursts, local wind 

regimes, ocean cyclogenesis, oceanographic analysis, 

and satellite applications for assessing numerical model 

initial analysis. Working with the National Weather 

Association, NESDIS ensured widespread availability of 

Forecasting Handbook #6, “Satellite Imagery Interpretation for Forecasters”, and of the polar-orbiter interpretation slide program to universities, television weathercasters. and other satellite data users. 

A viation Applications 

Research conducted by NESDIS regarding aeronautical weather includes three significant developments, all 

making use of environmental satellite data. A method 

has been developed to target areas having a high 

probability of thunderstorms with accompanying 

downburst or microburst winds. It uses data from 

GOES sounders to sense areas of potential instability 

that should be closely monitored. A Turbulence Index, 

derived from satellite water vapor and infrared data 

(plus upper air observations), identifies high-level 

turbulence areas. Finally, two different GOES satellite 

infrared channels are being used to identify areas of 

fog and cloud formation during nighttime hours. Fog 

and low clouds typically are at or near the temperature 

of the surrounding land making them difficult to detect 

at night. The advantage of this new technique is that 

the additional satellite-borne channel is sensitive to the 

cloud composition and more accurately identifies their 

presence. 

Rapidly Developing Storms 

Weather patterns along with satellite and surface 

observations associated with storms that intensify or 

develop rapidly have been under study. Because most 

of these storms occur along the East Coast of the U.S. 

where conventional observations are limited, satellites 

appear to be the key to better forecasting of such 

hazardous events on coastal and marine communities. 

Tornado Research 

NESDIS is investigating how better to understand 

and detect tornado-producing super-cells. Research 

based on satellite imagery and aircraft flights, coupled 

with Doppler radar data analysis and ground-based 

visual observations of tornado-producing thunderstorms, is helping to explain why a severe storm 

evolves and how it produces tornado activity. Aircraft 

flights into low-level outflow boundaries produced by 

89 
thunderstorm activity show that the flow of air associated with those boundaries is characterized by both 

strong wind shear and intense upward motion. When 

such boundaries are acted upon by the updraft of a 

strong thunderstorm, intense tornado activity is often 

the result. However many severe thunderstorms that 

produce tornadoes do not interact with any preexisting boundary detectable in satellite imagery. Many 

of those storms, often termed super-cells, develop 

rotation at mid-levels detectable by Doppler radar; 

such rotation is often observed before the super-cell 

enters its tornado phase. Additionally, ground based 

observations near tornadoes show the development of 

a strong downdraft along the rear flank of the supercell occurring prior to tornado development. Satellite 

observations of supercells, coupled with the aircraft 

investigations of cloud lines, are helping to provide 

considerable insight into the likely mechanism responsible for the formation of the rear downdraft, the final 

crucial phase in tornado storm development. In the 

ongoing research effort, satellite data are being used to 

observe the existence of cool low-level outflow air 

immediately to the rear of the super-cell, and, then, to 

infer the development of a rear flank downdraft. 

Kinematic Global Positioning System (GPS) 

National Ocean Service (NOS) has developed and 

demonstrated GPS techniques whereby moving 

instrumentation platforms, including ground vehicles, 

ships and aircraft, have been positioned by satellite to 

better than 5 cm in horizontal as well as vertical 

coordinates. Tests conducted in cooperation with the 

states of Texas and Washington have shown the utility 

of the technique for more rapid and economical 

photogrammetry. The same technique has also been 

jointly demonstrated with the Naval Research Laboratory to support airborne gravimetric measurements. 

Development continues along with a software package 

to transfer these techniques to other users. 

The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) of NOAA's 

Global Positioning System 

Orbit Tracking Network 

The computation of precise GPS orbits requires a 

continuously operating GPS tracking network. NGS has 

organized a Cooperative International GPS Network 

(CIGNET) for the purpose of establishing a global GPS 

tracking network. The participating stations include 

Westford, Massachusetts, Richmond, Florida, Kokee 

Park, Hawaii, and Mojave, California, operated by 

NGS; Yellowknife, Canada, operated by the Geodetic 

Survey of Canada; Tromso, Norway, and Onsala, 

Sweden, operated by the Norwegian Statens Kartwork; 

Wettzell, Germany, operated by the Institute for 

Applied Geodesy, Federal Republic of Germany; and 

Tsukuba, Japan, operated by the Geographical Survey 

Institute of Japan. The data is delivered to NGS each 

week where it is archived, reformatted, and distributed 

upon request. GPS orbits are also computed from this 

network and distributed by NGS. 

GEOSAT 

During the past four years, the U.S. Navy altimeter 

satellite GEOSAT has provided nearly continuous 

measurements of global sea level, wind speed, and sea 

state. Under agreement with the U.S. Navy, the NOAA 

GEOSAT project prepares and distributes raw data and 

products from this revolutionary mission. About 2 

billion measurements have been processed by the 

project into geophysical data records (GDRs), and the 

first-ever complete determination of sea level variation 

during an El Nino has been made. Several hundred 

scientists in more than 40 institutions and countries 

receive the GDRs on a regular basis. 

The GEOSAT project is a key element of the NOM 

Climate and Global Change (C&GC), program, in 

particular, the NOS Sea Level portion. Satellite altimetry 

is the only way to obtain global and detailed determinations of sea level variations such as those associated 

with El Nino. In addition to providing data for oceanographic research, the GEOSAT mission has enabled the 

first operational monitoring of sea level over entire 

90 
ocean basins. NOAA presently publishes sea level 

maps of both the Pacific and Indian Oceans in nearreal time. The project will be enhanced in the future as 

additional satellites become available. In the next 

decade it is likely that global sea level will be monitored as routinely as the weather is today. 

would be favorable for their survival and, thereby, 

improve their chances for subsequent recruitment into 

the salmon fisheries. Southwest Fisheries Center 

scientists also are completing a case study using NASA 

SEASAT Scatterometer wind stress measurements to 

define locations of oceanic convergence and diverFisheries Use of Satellite Data 

Satellite ocean remote sensing continues to play an 

important role in the activities of NOAA’s National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Satellite observations 

provide synoptic information for studying the effects of 

the ocean environment on the abundance and distribution of fish populations. 

The NMFS Auke Bay, Alaska, Laboratory is developing a tracking system to monitor several hundred 

radio-tagged adult salmon using satellite techniques. 

The data obtained permits tracing the migration of the 

salmon and studying environmental characteristics in 

the salmon spawning areas. The information obtained 

from these studies is intended for use in managing 

salmon stocks in transboundary rivers as part of the 

Pacific Salmon Treaty between the U.S. and Canada. 

NOAA fisheries scientists in the Northwest and 

Alaska regions are collaborating with the NOAA Pacific 

Marine Environmental Laboratory and academic 

institutions in a Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated 

Investigation (FOCI) of the Gulf of Alaska and Bering 

Sea. Part of the Investigation is to study effects of the 

ocean environment on larval distribution and survival 

of walleye pollock, a valuable commercial fish stock. 

The present research studies use AVHKK data from the 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites and from the Coastal 

gence which are important in determining the availability of albacore tuna off the coast of North America. 

Southeast Fisheries Center is focused on using satellite 

data to aid in locating adult and juvenile forms of commercially important species in the Gulf of Mexico and 

Caribbean. Some of these include bluefin tuna, yellowfin tuna, butterfish, king mackerel, menhaden, and 

shrimp. A pilot study was conducted in the Gulf of 

Mexico using thermal data acquired from NOM 

satellites to assist fishermen in locating commercial 

concentrations of butterfish. 

participate in the activities of the Northeast Area 

Kemote Sensing System (NEARS), an association of 

government, academic, and private institutions. 

NEAKSS provides a forum for the exchange of information and a support base for meeting regional satellite 

and aircraft data and information needs; it facilitates 

the maintenance of a communication network between 

users of remote sensing data and datahnformation 

sources. NEFC scientists continue to use data from 

NOAA satellites in combination with other data sets in 

describing near real-time and long-term variations in 

marine environmental conditions affecting the fisheries 

of the Northeastern U.S. 

Recent satellite-related research at the NOAA 

The Northeast Fisheries Center (NEFC) continues to 

Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) on NASA’s Nimbus 7. National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration 

World Administrative Radio Conference 

world Administrative Radio Conferences (WARCS) 

are conducted under the aegis of the International 

Telecommunication Union (ITU). The National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA) participates in the planning for them and 

NMFS scientists from the Southwest Fisheries Center 

and the University of Oregon continue to evaluate the 

feasibility of using satellite measurements of ocean 

temperature and color to determine the best time to 

release salmon smolts from Columbia Kiver salmon 

hatcheries. The objective is to time the release of 

smolts during Ocean environmental conditions which 

91 
represents the U.S. Government when they are held. In 

1988, NTIA led the preparation for and served on the 

delegation to the WAKC “Use of the Geostationary 

Satellite Orbit and the Planning of Space Services 

Utilizing It”-also known as the Space WARC-which 

was of major importance to U.S. space interests. This 

WAKC developed new planning methods and improved and simplified regulatory procedures for 

gaining access to a limited geostationary orbit by all 

interested countries. As a key participant in the development of U.S. positions, proposals, and strategy, 

NTIA worked to protect present and planned U.S. 

satellite systems with results that were highly acceptable to U.S. interests. In 1989, an assessment will be 

made of the results of the Space WARC, looking 

towards future U.S. needs. 

PEACESAT 

NTIA and NOMNESDIS are working on reestablishing the Pan-Pacific Educational and Communications Experiments by Satellite (PEACESAT) program. 

Begun in 1971, PEACESAT used a retired NASA 

experimental satellite, ATS-I, to provide two-way 

voice, data, and slow-scan video services accessed by 

small, affordable, earth stations in the Pacific Basin 

region. These services provided otherwise unavailable 

educational, medical, cultural, and emergency communications to more than 100 sites in 22 countries. NASA 

decommissioned the ATS-I in 1985 due to orbital drift. 

The satellite has since drifted one revolution around 

the earth and is again being used by the PEACESAT 

community on an interim basis. NOMNESDIS will 

loan its GOES-3 which was launched in 1978 and 

ceased meteorological services in 1981, to reestablish 

communications service. NTIA has been provided 

funding to reestablish the PEACESAT network and to 

make recommendations for supporting the program. In 

1988, NTIA began a study of satellite replacement 

options for both the short and long term. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

Planning continued for experiments that NTIA will 

conduct utilizing the Advanced Communications 

Technology Satellite (ACTS) under development by 

NASA for a mid-1992 launch. These experiments will 

center on communication system performance with 

measurements to evaluate network and switching 

performance. This planning will continue in 1989 with 

further refinement of the system performance experiments and the development of a complementary 

experiment to characterize the channel transfer function for an advanced communications technology 

satellite. 

Millimetercwave Frequencies 

In 1988, NTIA began deploying a measurement 

system to study propagation effects at millimeter-wave 

frequencies on a simulated earth-space path. The 

measurements will concentrate on characterizing the 

effects of adverse weather so that techniques can be 

developed to enhance the utilization of millimeter 

waves in earth-space telecommunications. Special 

attention is being given to the potential for interference 

that may have an impact on geosynchronous orbit and 

ground station allocations. In 1989, measurements will 

continue and the dynamics of signal fading will be 

studied. 

National Institute of Standards 

and Technology 

During 1988, the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST) carried out activities in the following areas of space support and space and atmospheric 

research. Space support work was performed on the 

characterization of the platinum-neon sealed hollow 

cathode lamp used in the space telescope. Procedures 

were developed and a meter designed and constructed 

for characterizing and calibrating these lamps. The 

following particulars were determined for a sample 

lamp: warmup time, stability, emission as a function of 

current, repeatability with ignition, spatial characteris92 
tics, impurity lines, signal as a function of pitch and 

yaw. 

An improved material (Al,O,/PEEK) was evaluated 

for use in thermal isolation straps employed in satellites for long-term containment of cryogens for sensor 

cooling. 

In certain space applications, pure indium and an 

indium-lead alloy are used as solders. Owing to 

failures in the solder joints, NIST has been measuring 

their properties and conducting metallurgical studies. 

In cooperation with NASA and the University 

Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), NIST 

has been studying the feasibility of using orbiting 

space shuttle external tanks (ETs). These expanded 

external fuel tanks are being considered for orbiting 

laboratory space. At a NASA/UCAR workshop, NIST 

provided information on the structural modifications 

which would be required for a safe working environment at minimum cost. 

Work is under way for the Air Force to identify the 

actual, inflight, dynamic behavior of large space 

structures. The work is important because information 

on the dynamic behavior, as estimated by analytical 

modelling, may not be accurate enough to allow for 

the effective performance of control systems. 

NIST has searched the scientific and engineering 

literature for references applicable to spacecraft fire 

safety. The review covered specific subjects, suggested 

by the experiments defined for technology development missions in the Space Station. The result is a 

bibliographic document containing 375 references 

related to spacecraft fire safety. These references were 

added to the Center for Fire Research bibliographic 

database FIKEDOC. A final report was published, 

“Spacecraft Fire Detection and Extinguishment: A 

Bibliography,” NASA CR-l80880/NBSIR 88-3712. 

A study is ongoing to develop a theoretical model 

capable of predicting the radiative ignition of a cellulosic material (for example, a paper) and subsequent 

flame spread over the sample in a microgravity environment. The results will be used to improve the fire 

safety in spacecraft. 

NIST is evaluating for NASA existing pure substances, including commercially marketed heat transfer 

fluids, for potential use in two-phase thermal-control 

systems in manned spacecraft. Stringent constraints are 

imposed on candidate fluids. Among these are nontoxicity, nonflammability, chemical stability, and a good 

thermal performance. Ultimately, the development of a 

new fluid may be required. In view of the likely high 

cost, long-term, and complexity of such a development, an extensive and quantitative evaluation is 

required to establish the need and/or specifications for 

that development. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

The accuracy of a number of geophysical and 

astronomical studies based on microwave distance 

measurements is limited mainly by the uncertainty in 

correcting for water vapor in the atmosphere. NIST 

scientists are developing a microwave-optical system to 

improve the accuracy in the correction of microwave 

distance measurements for this factor. 

NET continues its project to determine accurate 

values for the atmospheric parameters of hot stars. The 

goal is the generation of new astronomical detectors to 

obtain very high signal-to-noise line profiles, which 

will then be analyzed using photospheric models that 

incorporate all physical processes thought to be of 

relevance. The intent is to provide sufficiently accurate 

constraints on the theory of stellar evolution that the 

effect of the physical uncertainties in that theory can 

be evaluated and ultimately removed. NIST scientists 

and a colleague from Oxford University have completed work on a set of detailed models for the outer 

atmosphere of solar type stars. These models described 

the amount of emitting material in the chromosphere, 

transition region and corona. 

Personnel from NIST and Goddard Space Flight 

Center have several projects underway to measure 

93 
microwave emission from stars. They have now 

completed a survey of microwave emission from 39 of 

the closest stars that are more luminous and cooler 

than the Sun. This survey at 5 and 15 GHz was made 

using the National Radio Astronomy Observatory’s 

Very Large Array. 

NIST is pursuing a major program to measure 

surface magnetic fields on stars cooler than the Sun. It 

has succeeded in making magnetic field measurements 

on stars much cooler than was heretofore possible. It 

has also developed an analysis technique to take into 

account the saturation of optically thick absorption 

lines. These measurements confirm the hypothesis that 

magnetic fields are at the heart of solar-like phenomena by showing that stars with the most energetic 

phenomena, for example, flares and enormous starspots, also have the strongest measured field strengths 

and spatial coverage. 

94 
Artist’s concept of the SP-100 space reactor. 
Department of Energy 

The u.S. Department of Energy provides nuclear 

power sources for highly specialized applications of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) and the Department of Defense (DOD). Such 

power units have enabled these user agencies to 

accomplish some of the most spectacular astronautical 

events undertaken by the United States over the years, 

such as the Voyager and Pioneer missions to the outer 

planets, and the Apollo scientific investigations on the 

lunar surface. These missions have provided us with 

detailed photographs and data on a variety of 

planetary bodies including Jupiter and its moons, and 

the discovery of the first extraterrestrial volcanos on 

the moon Io. 

In the past, the majority of the power sources used 

on these missions has been relatively low power Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (KTGs), capable 

of producing between 2 and 200 watts of electricity 

(0.002 to 0.2 kilowatts). RTGs convert the heat from a 

decaying radioisotope into electricity by the use of 

thermoelectric materials. However, since some planned 

missions will require higher power levels, a more 

efficient dynamic energy conversion process (Turbine 

Energy Conversion System) is also being developed for 

isotopic power systems, in the 1 to 10 kilowatt range. 

Finally, for the higher end of this range (5-10 kilowatts 

electric [kwel) and above, nuclear reactors are being 

developed and tested. Programs of this type include 

the SP-100 space reactor technology that is applicable 

over the range of 10s of kwe to 100s of kWe. Also 

included is the Multimegawatt (MMW) Space Nuclear 

Keactor System, which is in the first phase of studying 

the feasibility of various concepts, and which can 

eventually extend the range from 10s to 100s of 

megawatts (MWe). 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Thus far, radioisotope power units have used 

thermoelectric energy converters to provide electrical 

power for spacecraft operations. Over time, the 

amount of power capable of being provided by these 

devices has increased from the 3 watts provided by the 

SNAP-3 for the Transit program in 1961, to the 64 watts 

provided for the NASA Apollo lunar program in 1970, 

to the 150 watts for NASA’s Voyager program in 1976 

using the Multi-Hundred Watt unit, and to the 285-watt 

General Purpose Heat Source unit for NASA’s Galileo 

and Ulysses flights planned for launch in 1989 and 

1990. In order to extend the practical application of 

radioisotope power sources and to make possible the 

next increases in power level, significant progress on 

dynamic converters is being made to supply electric 

power in the 1-to-10 kilowatt range. 

sources, nuclear reactors can make available a higher 

power source capability for space operations purposes. 

One 500-watt reactor power unit, the SNAP-lOA, was 

flown in 1965 and development was started on other 

units of up to about 300 kilowatts. However, because 

the earlier planned space missions needed only the 

power levels available from radioisotopes or from solar 

power units, the space reactor program was discontinued in the early 1970s. Recently, because of increasing 

power needs of both NASA and DOD, well beyond 

those obtainable from radioisotopes or solar power, 

space reactor development has been re-activated 

through the cooperation of NASA, DOD, and DOE. 

Discussion of the progress made in the space reactor 

program during the past year will follow the sections 

on radioisotope space power. The principal space 

reactor program currently in development is the SP100, of which a current design is illustrated. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

The United States has successfully used 34 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) on 19 spacecraft 

launches covering a variety of different space applications. An RTG is a static device (Le., has no moving 

parts), which directly converts the heat from the decay 

of the radioisotope Plutonium-238 to electricity. Pu238, a non-weapons material, was selected due to its 

relatively long half-life (about 87.6 years) and ease of 

In addition to the use of radioisotope power 

97 
General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric 

Generator. 

containing the alpha particles (helium atoms) emitted 

during normal decay, plus the fact that no special 

shielding is required for these heat sources. 

Kesearch and development has increased the 

conversion efficiencies of radioisotope power systems 

from less than 5 percent to almost 7 percent, which 

increases the power output or reduces the weight of 

the power supply, both of which are critical design 

factors. KTGs have demonstrated the long lifetimes, 

self-sufficiency, environmental independence and 

operational flexibility demanded by a variety of space 

missions, including the capability to operate well 

beyond specified mission lifetimes and above design 

power levels. For example, the Pioneer 10 and 11 

spacecraft that were launched in March 1972 and April 

1973 used RTGs to successfully power the spacecraft 

for their encounters with Jupiter and Saturn. Both 

spacecraft are still operating, about 16 years after 

launch, and are sending technical data back to Earth. 

They will be the first man-made objects to leave our 

solar system. In a similar demonstration, the multihundred watt KTG on the Voyager 2 spacecraft, 

98 

Artist’s concept of Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter which will 

use General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope 

Thermoelectric Generatom. 

launched in August 1977, continues to operate after its 

encounters with Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus and is 

scheduled to fly by Neptune in 1989, and continue on 

into space. 

A new model RTG with a more efficient fuel design, 

called the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS), is the 

latest in a series of nuclear power sources developed 

for space applications by the Department of Energy. 

The first two General Purpose Heat Source KTGs will 

be used to provide the electrical power for the Galileo 

spacecraft to Jupiter to be launched from the Kennedy 

Space Center, Florida, on the Space Shuttle in October 

1989. In addition, one GPHS generator will power the 

joint NASMEuropean Space Agency Ulysses spacecraft 

to study the polar regions of the sun, also to be 

launched on the Space Shuttle, which is scheduled for 

launch in October 1990. 

Each of the GPHS RTGs will produce at least 250 

watts of electric power continuously for a period of 

five years or longer. These generators are also fueled 

with Plutonium-238. The electrical output of each 

GPHS generator is about double that of previous RTGs 
UENERATDR DBSION I MOWLER SEfiMEMT (20 wiirs la VOLTS 4 67 POUNDPI 

MUtTl FOK NSULATW 

GENERATOR Houswa / 

Modular RTG design parameters. 

such as those used on the Voyager spacecraft. The 

higher electric conversion efficiency of today’s KTGs 

provides the highest specific power in the lowest 

specific volume now available. 

Significant program activities on this power system 

in 1988 included tests on design performance characteristics of KTG components, and revision (and issuance in December 1988) of the Final Safety Analysis 

Report (FSAK), which contains risk analyses of postulated accidents for the Galileo mission. In addition to 

various tests conducted regarding potential accidents 

from launch to aborted orbit, safety tests and analyses, 

especially potential impacts from solid rocket motor 

fragments and changes in the NASA mission profiles 

and launch vehicles, were conducted. Independent 

review and analysis of the FSAK and related safety tests 

and analyses were initiated in 1988 by the Interagency 

Nuclear Safety Review Panel, made up of representatives from DOE, DOD, and NASA. In the spring of 

1989, upon completion of their independent review 

activities, the panel will issue a safety evaluation 

report, which will be used by the Office of the President in making the decision on whether to launch the 

nuclear powered spacecraft. 

Supporting this decision will be life testing of the 

GPHS qualification KTG unit, which continued successfully for a period of over 35,000 hours. Life testing has 

provided valuable data in support of the long-term 

performance and reliability predictions of the flight 

KTGs, and the power output matches the engineering 

predictions very well. 

In 1988, additional development of advanced 

technology KTGs for future space missions continued. 

The modular radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

program (MOD-KTG) focused on the design, development, manufacture, and test of an electrically heated 

engineering test unit. Over 6,000 hours of system test 

data have been collected. The figure depicts the 

general concept of modular “building blocks” for an 

KTG system. The MOD-KTG design will provide a 

significant advance in KTG specific power (watts/ 

kilograms) and improved efficiency for use in NASA’s 

Mariner Mark I1 and DOD missions during the next 

decade. 

Dynamic Conversion/T’rbine Energy 

Con version Sys tem 

Dynamic energy conversion systems, which employ 

a rotating turbine/alternator system, offer efficiencies 

approaching 18-25 percent. For higher power requirements (e.g., 1-10 kW), this improved efficiency could 

translate into higher specific power and lower per unit 

power costs, because a smaller amount of radioisotope 

fuel per unit of power output would be needed. 

Despite a small weight penalty over thermoelectric 

converters at the lowest power ranges, dynamic 

converters are at least three times as efficient as the 

best thermoelectric systems, minimizing the requirement for isotope fuel. Thus, the survivability, reliability, 

and compactness of the nuclear power system is 

retained in the 1 to 10 kW range, below the power 

level generally considered for reactor applications. 

Shown in the illustration is a typical integration of the 

99 
CONTAINMENT 

B U I L 0 IN G 

- TURBO-ALTERNAT 

6-UNIT 

ISOTOPE HEAT SOURCE I ELECTROMAGNETIC 

PUMP AUXILIARY 

EOUIPMENT 

Dynamic isotope power system: turbine energy conversion 

system (TECS) integrated with a generic spacecraft. 

SP-100 Ground Engineering System Test Site. 

dynamic conversion system on a generic spacecraft. 

This compact power source is highly survivable, does 

not interfere with spacecraft maneuvering and better 

maintains its power conversion capability over time as 

compared to solar systems in high radiation environments. 

DOE has initiated a technology development 

program for a Turbine Energy Conversion System. 

During 1988 the Brayton energy conversion system 

was selected for this application, requirements specifications were written, several critical design studies 

were completed, and the system design was widely 

reviewed. Kockwell-Rocketdyne of Canoga Park, 

California was awarded a contract for development of 

the dynamic conversion system. Allied Signal Corporation (Tempe, Arizona) received a subcontract from 

Rockwell to fabricate the TECS portion of the conversion system. 

SP-100 Space Reactor Program 

The purpose of the SP-100 program is to develop 

and demonstrate technology for space power in the 

10s to 100s of kWe power range for use by NASA and 

DOD. This program was initiated in 1983 and is 

sponsored by NASA, DOD, and DOE. In 1985, the 

three agencies selected a technology for the reactor 

and power conversion system, resulting in the prime 

contractor, General Electric Company, initiating 

engineering and design work in 1986. 

fabrication stage with significant progress being made 

in all areas, including component testing. The SP-100 

reactor and power system design has progressed and 

safety studies and analyses have been conducted. 

Significant progress has also been made in the areas of 

hardware design, development, and fabrication over 

the past year. 

The definitive design of a 2.5 megawatts (thermal) 

reactor and modifications to an existing containment 

facility in which the reactor will be tested are nearing 

completion. The figure shows the layout of the Nuclear 

Assembly Test (NAT) site at Hanford near Richland, 

Washington. Details of the SP-100 NAT arrangement 

are also shown in the next illustration. 

The program has entered into the design and 

100 
SP-I00 NUCLEAR ASSEMBLY 

PRIMARY 

TEST (NAT) . ......- .... UPPER LITHIUM 

VACUUM /--\ SURGE TANK 

VESSEL \ ; 

EXCHANGER 1 

SPOOL PIECE -. 4 

ELECTROMAGNETIC 

PUMP 

/' 

STRUCTURAL 

SUPPORT 

. RESISTIVE 

I'R HEATER 

VACUUM 

VESSEL 

FACILITY 

LOWER -___ PROTOTYPIC 

VACUUM FLIGHT SHIELD 

VESSELlGUARD 

SHIELD 

CONTROL ROO 

DRIVE MECHANISM 

LOWER 

REACTOR HINGED ------- 

REFLECTORS 

SP-100 Nuclear Assembly Test (NAT). 

About half of the fuel for the test has been fabricated at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The 

following figure shows work being performed in a 

portion of the fuel element production facilities at the 

laboratory. The next figure shows the preparation for 

testing of SP-100 fuel pins in the Fast Flux Test Facility 

(FFTF) at Hanford, Washington. 

In the lifetime testing program, fuel and structural 

materials for the reactor have been exposed to simulated space reactor operating environments. By the end 

of 1988, the SP-100 fuel had achieved about 85 percent 

Fuel element production facilities at the Los Alamos 

National Laboratory. 

Preparation for testing SP-100 fuel pins in the Fast Flux 

Test Facility at Hanford, Washington. 

of its lifetime burnup in the FFTF, and up to 100 

percent in some fuel pins in the EBR-I1 reactor in 

Idaho. The configuration of the materials irradiation 

test capsules is illustrated. These capsules permit 

testing of many test specimens in each capsule. 

Importantly, in-core monitoring equipment for FFTF 

101 
SP-100 MATERIALS IRRADIATION TEST 

Configuration of the SP-100 materials irradiation test 

capsules. 

has indicated good results for the high temperature/ 

thermal tests of special materials to be utilized in the 

SP-100 technology. 

Development of the thermoelectric converters that 

transform the reactor's heat to electricity is also progressing. Recent work has concentrated on verifying 

the performance of basic elements of the converter. 

power assembly. Components which are now under 

test or being fabricated include the control actuators, 

the thermoelectric electromagnetic pump, the shield, 

and reactor honeycomb and baffle components. 

Multimegawatt Space Reactor Program 

DOE effort established in 1985. The primary purpose 

of the MMW program is to identify nuclear power 

technology which could fulfill the very high power 

needs of future advanced Strategic Defense Initiative 

(SDI) applications. NASA is also interested in the 

program and, while not presently a sponsor, is participating in the various studies and planning for the 

MMW program, especially at the lower MMW power 

levels. 

102 

The next figure shows details of the SP-100 reactor 

The Multimegawatt (MMW) program is a joint DODREACTOR POWER ASSEMBLY 

Reactor power assembly. 

The power range being evaluated varies from tens 

of megawatts to hundreds of megawatts. In 1988 an 

evaluation of three general types of MMW space 

power systems was established. These types are tens 

of megawatts for short periods (minutes), tens of 

megawatts for up to 1 year, and hundreds of megawatts for short periods. Concepts in which a low 

power, MMW nuclear system is coupled with electrical 

energy storage to meet total energy requirements are 

included in the program. NASA is expected to be 

primarily interested in these systems for future applications such as large electric propulsion systems to cut 

interplanetary transport times and launch weights, or 

for providing power at manned bases on solar system 
CLOSED, U TOR 

FAST CERMET REACTOR 

NWA EPrlliERMAL OPEN, GAS 

FAST CERMET REAC 

CLOSED, IN-CORE THERMIONlCS/MllERY 

OPEN, GAS cwm FAST REACTOR 

FAST RDRACTORY 

REACTOR 

Multimegawatt concept application configurations. 

bodies. The ability of MMW nuclear systems to provide 

long life power is also an important NASA MMW 

requirement. 

definition, refinement.., and assessments. Six industrial 

teams are at work in a competition to provide for the 

selection of the best systems for further development. 

Phase I of the concept evaluation is essentially complete and phase I1 proposals are expected early in 

1989. Most of the available energy conversion technologies are addressed in these studies. These include 

Brayton, Rankine, and thermionics as well as battery 

and fuel cell energy storage. The external configuration 

of several of these concepts is shown in the figure. 

The year 1988 saw considerable progress in concept 

“PIPE” FUEL ELEMENT 

HYDROGEN t HOT FLOW 

“Pipe” fuel element. 

The major technology accomplishments during 1988 

have been in the areas of advanced, lightweight heat 

pipe radiators, refractory reactor materials, and in 

fabrication and testing of particle-bed reactor materials 

and components, including in-core tests of MMW-type 

particle-bed fuel element assemblies. The next figure 

shows the internal design of the particle-bed test fuel 

elements, and the following one shows the advanced, 

lightweight heat pipe being developed at the Los 

Alamos National Laboratory. 

Thermionic Fuel Element Verification Program 

Thermionics, like thermoelectrics, is a means of 

converting heat directly to electricity without the need 

103 
METER-LONG MEUBFIANE 

HEAT PIPE TEST ART!LL.E [EXTEh3tl 

Progress in radiator technology at Los Alamos National 

Laboratory. 

of moving parts. It has the potential advantages of 

modularity, smaller heat rejection radiators, and lower 

vulnerability to various threats. The next figure shows 

a thermionic fuel element (TFE) assembly. The TFE 

program arose from the need to verify that the unit 

thermionic cells could be successfully integrated into 

complete nuclear fuel assemblies and be operated 

reliably for several years to satisfy user requirements 

for space missions. Thermionic technology promises to 

provide relatively higher efficiency than the thermoelectric energy converters being used in the SP-100 

rcactor. 

The past year has seen progress in re-establishing 

the capability to make and test this type of converter in 

order to resolve the key issues regarding the technical 

viability of this concept. During 1988, tests on various 

TFE components were conducted in a nuclear reactor 

to verify their performance. The primary goal is to 

demonstrate a 7-year lifetime (equivalent) for TFE 

components. 

ELEIXIWAL EM THERMIONIC ELECTRICAL EM 

\ CELL 161 

AXIAL MNEErrm 

\ 

FlSSW GAS NEE \ i*o AXIAL REFLECTOR 

BlC ABSORBER FISSION GAS PASSACf 4C ABSORBER 

Thermionic fuel element. 

Nuclear Detonation Detection 

Another important DOE responsibility in the space 

arena is providing the specialized sensors needed to 

satisfy national requirements for detection, identification, location, and characterization of nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in space as well as in Earth’s atmosphere. The concept of satellite-borne nuclear explosion 

surveillance came about during interagency discussions 

from 1959 to 1962 and led to the Vela Hotel (later 

called the Vela Satellite) Program. Six pairs of Vela 

satellites were launched from 1963 to 1970. The last 

Vela operated reliably until it was intentionally turned 

off in September 1984. 

From the beginning, this program has been a joint 

effort of the DOD and the DOE. Development, design, 

and production of the nuclear explosion detection instrumentation were responsibilities of the DOE, while 

the rest of the satellite hardware, launch, telemetry, 

and day-to-day operations were responsibilities of the 

DOD, which also had the overall coordination and 

104 
scheduling role. Both the DOD and the DOE have 

shared in special operations and tests and in data 

interpretation and use. 

The program today has three primary objectives: 

Verification of compliance with the Limited Test 

Ban Treaty (1963) and the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (1968) wherein nuclear testing 

was banned in the atmosphere, under water, and 

in space and the non-weapons states pledged not 

to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear 

weapons or explosive devices. 

Provision of intelligence information on nuclear 

tests that occur outside the jurisdiction of the 

treaties or clandestinely in violation thereof. 

Detection and location of multiple atmospheric 

and nearEarth nuclear bursts for strategic battle 

management in time of war. 

The information required for each of these objectives is similar and, thus, the DOE has developed 

detector suites to simultaneously address all three. 

The DOE laboratories maintain continuous technology development efforts for improving the underlying 

technologies. The goals of these efforts include better 

energy resolution, faster response times, wider spectra 

coverage, greater survivability, and the development of 

advanced sensor concepts. In 1988, emphasis was 

placed on improved radiation hardening and miniaturization of the spaceborne electronic systems, and on 

data compression logic to minimize communication 

channel demands. Considerable research is also being 

devoted to the study of satellite operating environments in order to enhance event discrimination and 

prevent false alarms. Many such developmental 

experiments are flown aboard NASA satellites, and 

many are conducted in cooperation with the space 

programs of other countries. 
This simulated perspective view of El Capitan, a prominent 

feature in Yosemite National Park, California, was 

produced from a digitized high-resolution natural color 

aerial photograph merged with digital elevation data of the 

same area. 
As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior (DO0 is responsible for 

most of the nationally owned public lands and natural 

resources. This responsibility entails fostering the 

wisest use of land and water resources, protecting fish 

and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of national parks and historical places, and 

ensuring the enjoyment of life through outdoor 

recreation. The Department monitors energy and 

mineral resources to ensure that their development is 

in the Nation’s best interest. Also, the Department has 

a major responsibility for residents of American Indian 

reservations and Island Territories under the 

administration of the United States. 

The Department uses data acquired by satellite and 

aircraft sensors to inventory natural resources and 

monitor changes on lands under its management, and 

the Department supports an active program of research 

and technique development in remote sensing, digital 

cartography, and geographic information systems. 

During 1988, bureaus and agencies of the Department 

of the Interior participating in remote sensing and 

digitdl data applications included the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 

Bureau of Mines (BOM), Bureau of Keclamation 

(BOR), Minerals Management Service (MMS), National 

Park Service (NPS), Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE), U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (USFWS), and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition 

and Processing 

Satellite Data 

Landsat. The USGS continued to use the EHOS 

Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, as the 

principal facility for archiving, processing, and distributing Landsat data under agreement with and funding 

from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOM), in support of the Earth Observation 

Satellite (EOSAT) Company, the commercial Landsat 

operator. During 1988, approximately 44,000 Landsat 

Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and Thematic Mapper 

(TM) scenes were received, processed, and archived. 

Currently, over 878,000 scenes of Landsat data are 

archived and geographically referenced, and information is also maintained on more than 1,650,000 scenes 

that were received and archived at foreign Landsat 

stations. In 1988, over 17,000 film and digital products 

with a sales value of over $7.6 million were produced 

and distributed to users around the world. 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. 

The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHKK) Data Acquisition and Processing System at 

the USGS Earth Resources Observation Systems (EKOS) 

Data Center receives, processes, and archives AVHKK 

data from the NOAA-9, NOAA-10, and NOM-11 

satellites for land science applications in DO1 and 

other Federal agency research projects. Federal Government agencies acquire and use AVHKK data for a 

wide variety of research activities, including the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project; 

Corps of Engineers Great Lakes Ice Mapping; National 

Weather Service (NWS) Snow Mapping; and a Northern Great Plains Fire Danger Kating and Vegetation 

Monitoring Cooperative Project conducted with the 

NWS, Nebraska Forest Service, and the Rocky Mountain Fire Council. 

Civil Satellite Data Purchasing. The USGS has 

established purchasing agreements to assist Federal 

agencies in obtaining civil satellite data products and 

services from the EOSAT Company and the Satellite 

Pour I’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) Image Corporation, the commercial operators of Landsat and SPOT 

satellite systems. These purchasing agreements have 

eliminated the requirement for each Federal agency or 

office to establish, administer, and maintain separate 

agreements, and are estimated to have saved the U.S. 

Government over $600,000 to date. Twenty-five 

Federal agencies have purchased data worth over $12 

million through these agreements since 1985, with 

nearly $4 million expended by 20 agencies in 1988. 

107 
Aerial Photographs 

The growing interest in high-resolution, colorinfrared aerial photographs for a wide variety of 

applications such as agriculture, forestry, soils, land 

and resource management, mapping, and earth science 

studies has lead to a reassessment of Federal and State 

agency needs for this type of photography. As a result, 

a new program, the National Aerial Photography 

Program (NAPP), was begun in 1987 to provide higher 

resolution and larger scale photographs of uniform 

quality for the 48 conterminous United States. The 

NAPP replaced the previous National High Altitude 

Photography (NHAP) Program, after NHAP coverage of 

the conterminous 48 States was completed in 1988. 

NAPP photographs are being acquired according to a 

planned strategy for acquiring coverage of a State or 

sector of a State approximately every 5 years. Some 

revisions to the plan are anticipated depending on 

availability of funds and the priority expressed by State 

and Federal contributors to the program. The new 

program promises to meet the aerial photography 

needs of State and Federal organizations engaged in 

key projects of national interest. 

height of 20,000 feet with a single 6-inch focal-length 

camera exposing color-infrared film at a scale of 

1 :40,000. The resulting photographs are centered on 

quarter sections of standard USGS 7.5-minute quadrangle maps. The ground resolution of NAPP photographs is approximately 1.5 meters. The first NAPP 

photographs became available in the fall of 1987, and 

NAPP photographs were being acquired during 1988 in 

all or parts of Ohio, Kentucky, Georgia, Virginia, 

Illinois, Nebraska, Colorado, Oregon, and California. 

NAPP is guided by a multiagency steering committee 

composed of representatives from the DOI, Department of Agriculture, and Tennessee Valley Authority. 

The program is administered by the USGS on behalf of 

the State and Federal cooperators. 

NAPP photographs are being acquired from a flying 

A side-looking airborne radar (SUR) image of Malaspina 

Glacier, Alaska. The surface of the glacier appears as 

mottled light (higher relief areas) and dark (lower relief 

areas) tones. The surface relief is thought to subtly mimic 

the subglacial morphology at depths as great as 600 

meters. 

The USGS National Cartographic Information Center 

(NCIC) has completed a Compact Disc-Read Only 

Memory (CD-ROM) project to provide more rapid, 

flexible access to the Aerial Photography Summary 

Record System (APSKS). APSKS currently contains over 

2.3 million computer records describing over 12 

million aerial photographs (including type of photograph, geographic location, flight date, and agency 

source). Access to the existing system is currently 

limited to computer inquiries made only from USGS 

NCIC offices to the mainframe-based information 

system, or by the use of microfiche. By converting the 

APSKS data files to the CD-KOM medium, access to the 

system will be open to anyone with a suitable personal 

computer, a CD reader, and appropriate software. The 

potential benefits from the use of CD-KOM technology 

include improved productivity through rapid, flexible 

access to the data, avoidance of costs associated with 

communications to and use of the mainframe computer, and elimination of the manual task of generat108 
ing, duplicating, and maintaining large files of microfiche. 

by these projects are permanently archived as part of 

the digital data base that supports BIA resource 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar Data 

program began in 1980, coverage of more than 34 

percent of the United States has been acquired and 

made available to the public. The USGS selects approximately twenty 1-degree by 2-degree areas for 

SLAR coverage each year on the basis of a technical 

review of proposals submitted by State geological 

surveys, Federal agencies, the academic community, 

and the private sector. 

The USGS has supported more than 100 research 

studies on the use of SLAK data for geologic, hydrologic, engineering, and cartographic applications. SLAR 

data are currently being used for locating fracture 

zones in Connecticut, siting high-yield water wells in 

Georgia, identifying large (up to 50 square kilometers) 

rockslides in the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia for 

earth-hazards studies, and analyzing the surface 

features of Malaspina Glacier in Alaska for application 

to global change research. 

Since the USGS Side-Looking Airborne Kadar (SLAR) 

Remote Sensing Applications 

Renewable Resources 

conducting natural resource applications projects that 

make extensive operational use of satellite data 

through both visual interpretation and digital analysis. 

Projects conducted during 1988 include (1) mapping of 

elk habitat on the Fort Apache (Arizona) Keservation; 

(2) detection and mapping of noxious weeds at the 

Sisseton (South Dakota) Reservation; (3) post-wildfire 

assessment on the Northern Cheyenne (Montana) 

Reservation; (4) drought assessment on the Wind River 

(Wyoming) Reservation; (5) land cover/land use 

mapping on the Warm Springs (Oregon) Reservation; 

and (6) production of satellite image maps for the Pine 

Ridge (South Dakota), Nambe (New Mexico), and 

Tulalip (Washington) Reservations. The data generated 

Resource Inventory and Assessment. The BIA is 

management programs. 

during 1988 for inventory and environmental assessment and major water development projects. Work 

was completed on the Green River in Utah and 

Colorado to map backwater habitat using large-scale, 

color-infrared aerial photographs as part of a multiagency effort to protect the endangered Colorado River 

squawfish. Low-flow conditions on the Green River 

during the summer drought of 1988 provided an 

opportunity to map 480 kilometers of backwater 

habitat. Airborne video imagery acquired in conjunction with the large-scale aerial photographs is being 

evaluated for its usefulness in mapping backwater 

habitat. Aerial photographs are being used to map the 

San Juan River corridor in New Mexico to provide 

baseline resource information and maps of river 

habitats for use by the New Mexico Game and Fish 

Department to plan the sampling of critical fish habitat. 

The Fontenelle Dam Tailwaters Study (Utah) was also 

completed during 1988. Aerial photographs taken 

before and after flood releases from the dam were 

used to develop a data base to quantify environmental 

impacts and determine the net change in fishery 

habitat and riparian vegetation. 

of irrigation canal construction on native vegetation 

and to record the presence of desert riparian vegetation associated with seepage from unlined canals. 

Projects completed in 1988 included short reaches of 

the All-American Canal in California and the Granite 

Reef Aqueduct in Arizona. Changes in vegetation communities above and below a 48-kilometer unlined 

segment of the Coachella Canal in California were 

mapped using historic and current aerial photographs. 

The BOR used SPOT and Landsat MSS data to map 

irrigated agricultural lands in the Upper Gunnison 

Basin of Colorado. Field boundaries, delineated from 

The BOK used aerial photographs and satellite data 

The BOK used aerial photographs to map the effects 

109 
high-altitude aerial photographs, were transferred to 

satellite images acquired at the peak of the growing 

season. Vegetation greenness transformations were 

applied to the satellite images to develop a data base 

of irrigated lands. 

Land Cover Mapping in Alaska. Over the past 8 

years, the USGS has worked cooperatively with Federal 

and State resource management agencies to produce 

land cover and terrain maps throughout Alaska. 

Approximately 1 million square kilometers of land, or 

over 60 percent of the State of Alaska, have been 

mapped using Landsat and digital terrain data. In 1988, 

USGS and BLM personnel analyzed digital Landsat MSS 

and TM data to produce land cover data bases for 

planning and wildlife habitat assessment in the SteeseWhite Mountains and Kuskokwim Management Areas. 

The USGS and USFWS cooperated to use data from a 

variety of satellite sensors for resource assessment in 

Alaska. AVHRR data of the north coast of Alaska were 

analyzed to examine environmental conditions relevant 

to caribou and polar bear habitat. Landsat TM data of 

the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge were analyzed to 

produce a vegetation map. SPOT data of the Central 

Arctic Coastal Plain were analyzed to produce land 

cover information for waterfowl habitat assessment. 

been started to convert the Alaska land cover information into a standard statewide classification system for 

presenting and reporting land cover information to 

State and Federal agencies and to Congress for land 

use planning and management activities. Digital data 

bases consisting of land cover and terrain variables 

have been prepared for six 1:250,000-scale quadrangles, and paper maps were printed as part of the 

research phase of the program. Based on the positive 

response of the Alaska user community to these 

products, approval has been given to produce digital 

data bases (and maps if users will support preparation) 

for six more quadrangles in 1989. 

WiUflre Mapping. The USGS and NPS cooperated 

to use Landsat TM data to measure the extent of the 

110 

The USGS Interim Land Cover Mapping Program has 

wildfires that burned in and near Yellowstone National 

Park during the summer of 1988. Several enhanced 

and geometrically registered images were made from 

satellite data acquired before, during, and after the 

fires. A July 1988 image shows small areas that were 

burned in 1987 or early in 1988. The September 1988 

image shows the presence of considerable smoke and 

several actively burning fire fronts. The October 1988 

image, acquired after most fires were extinguished, 

was analyzed to distinguish between burned and 

unburned areas. Data acquired after the 1988 fire 

season will be analyzed to monitor vegetation regrowth. 

nyttroiogv 

The USGS, BOR, and NWS are cooperating through 

the National Remote Sensing Hydrology Program to 

investigate the utility of AVHRR data for near realtime 

mapping of snow-cover areas in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado. Digital image processing techniques 

have been developed to analyze spring 1987 and 1988 

AVHKK data with the associated digital elevation 

model. The snow mapping process involves four steps: 

image preprocessing, cloud/snow discrimination, snow 

classification, and area calculation. The final product is 

a snowpack classification image that defines the areal 

extent of (1) open, continuous snow cover; (2) discontinuous snow cover or snow cover in conifer forests; 

and (3) snow under cloud cover. This image can be 

registered to a map of surface water drainage basins to 

calculate basin snow-cover percentages. Results of this 

cooperative project are being used by the NWS to 

develop an operational snow-cover area monitoring 

program. Knowledge of the areal extent of snow 

cover, especially during the spring snow-melt season, 

aids in reservoir operation decisionmaking. 

The BOR continued to use the National Wildlife 

Refuge Monitoring Program to provide a base of information on natural peak-water-flow conditions before 

the Garrison Diversion Project directs irrigation return 

flows into the James River Basin. Remotely sensed data 
and geographic information systems have been used to 

map emergent and submergent vegetation. Sonar was 

used for the first time in 1988 in conjunction with 

aerial photographs to delineate submergent vegetation. 

The BOK continued to develop models to map reservoir surface-water temperature, turbidity, and chlorophyll-a concentrations using Landsat TM and MSS data. 

Work in 1988 continued at Lake Mead, between 

Arizona and Nevada, to refine the ability of the model 

to determine spatial and temporal variations in the 

water parameters. BOR scientists developed methods 

using Landsat MSS and SPOT data of the Upper 

Gunnison Basin of Colorado to determine reservoir 

surface areas for evaporation estimation studies. 

Oceanography 

The MMS uses satellite data, including satellite 

telemetry, extensively in its Offshore Environmental 

Studies Program. The MSS Alaska Outer Continental 

Shelf Region and NOAA have a long-term, ongoing 

environmental satellite data program. Landsat TM and 

MSS data and AVHRR data are used to study the forms, 

seasonal distribution, and movement of sea ice. In a 

joint effort with the U.S. Navy and NOAA, the Alaska 

Region also is using satellite telemetry techniques to 

study the movement of sea ice in the Beaufort and 

Chukchi Seas. Signal-emitting buoys are placed in the 

ice and tracked through the international AKGOS 

satellite telemetry system. 

The remaining three MMS Outer Continental Self 

Kegions use satellite data, primarily in the form of 

AVHRR-derived sea-surface temperature images, to 

delineate major circulation and mass transport features 

such as thermal fronts, currents, upwellings, and 

eddies. This information is important to an understanding of the physical oceanography of the regions and is 

used to develop and improve computer simulation 

circulation models. The MMS Atlantic Region uses seasurface temperature data to study the spatial and 

temporal variability and frontal dynamics of the Gulf 

Stream, including associated features such as meanders, filaments, and warm-core and cold-core eddies. 

The Atlantic Region also is using satellite telemetry 

through the AKGOS system to track drifter buoys to 

better understand Gulf Stream frontal dynamics. The 

Gulf of Mexico Region is using satellite-derived seasurface temperature data to track and monitor eddies 

that break off from the Loop Current as it moves 

through the Gulf. The Pacific Region is using seasurface temperature data to study eddy dynamics, 

thermal fronts, and upwelling along the California 

coast. 

Geology 

Mineral Resource Assessment. USGS geologists 

participated in the NASA Airborne Visible and Infrared 

Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Data Evaluation and 

Technology Assessment Program. The purpose of the 

investigation was to evaluate the utility of AVIRIS data 

for geologic mapping in semiarid terrains. The primary 

effort was to demonstrate methods for display and 

analysis, for correction for atmospheric scattering and 

absorption, for extraction of reflectance spectra, and 

for compilation of maps of mineralogical and chemical 

compositions. These studies demonstrated the significant potential of AVIRIS data for rock type discrimination and mineral identification where the ground 

surface is reasonably well exposed. 

In related research, USGS geologists developed 

procedures to extract maximum geologic information 

from Landsat TM and SPOT data. The procedures 

involve digitally combining the spectral information in 

TM data with two opposite-viewing, SPOT 10-meter 

resolution panchromatic images, and displaying and 

analyzing these data sets as stereoscopic images. 

imaging spectrometers to detect and identlfy mineral 

deposits. Imaging spectrometers have 64 to 224 

spectral channels of data in the spectral region where 

the Landsat TM sensor has only 6 channels. Imaging 

spectrometer data have been used to identify many 

individual minerals for areas in which Landsat TM data 

The USGS has been investigating the use of airborne 

111 
Airborne imaging spectrometer image (a) of Cuprite, Nevada, used to identify several minerals that could be indicators of 

valuable mineral deposits. Shown are alunite (b), kaolinite (c), and buddingtonite (d). 

112 
could detect only the presence of several very broad 

groups of minerals. For example, imaging spectrometer 

data of Cuprite, Nevada, were analyzed to identify 

several important minerals. Using data from 31 separate spectrometer channels in the spectral region 

where there is only one Landsat TM channel, several 

minerals were identified, including alunite, kaolinite, 

and buddingtonite. These minerals are commonly 

associated with hydrothermally altered rocks and may 

be indicators of potential base-and precious-metal 

deposits. Much new information about mineral deposits is being extracted from data from imaging spectrometers. Application of this technology using a 

satellite-based instrument will provide an added 

advantage for inventorying mineral resources on a 

global basis. 

The USGS recently used data from the NASA 

Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) to map 

geology of the gold-bearing Carlin district in Nevada. 

This technique uses the thermal properties of rocks to 

identify subtle differences in rock type that cannot be 

detected with Landsat data or airborne imaging spectrometer data. Studies of the Carlin district indicate 

that, because of the greater density of TIMS data 

relative to traditional ground-based observations that 

are used to map most potential mineral deposits, TIMS 

data can be used to improve geologic map accuracy 

and to assist in identifying possible targets for mineral 

explorations. 

Mine Development and Safety Monitoring. The 

BOM has continued studies of the correlation between 

geologic lineaments interpreted from Landsat data and 

ground hazards in underground coal mines. In a 

northern Alabama study site, lineaments and the 

geologic structures that underlie them have been found 

to influence the location of ground control problems in 

mines. At one mine, the number of known roof falls 

decreases exponentially with increasing distance from 

lineaments. Some lineaments relate to known faults, 

which offset the coal seam and limit recoverable 

reserves, and shear zones, which often contain large 

quantities of methane and water that can expose 

miners to safety hazards during mining. Results of 

these studies should improve mine planning to optimize coal recovery and mine safety. In an effort to 

upgrade the BOM remote sensing research capabilities 

for these studies, laboratory facilities at the BOM 

Denver Research Center are being expanded with 

acquisition of a new minicomputer for large image 

processing jobs and an image processing workstation 

for geographic information system analysis in conjunction with remote sensing studies. These improvements 

will permit the integration of a wide range of data 

types with remotely sensed data and allow more 

comprehensive applications of remote sensing technology to safe and economic exploitation of mineral 

resources. 

The OSMKE uses remotely sensed data, mainly 

aerial photographs, as part of its programs with coal 

mining companies and State regulatory agencies in 

designing, monitoring, and reclaiming surface coal 

mines. Remote sensing has been included in training 

courses for OSMRE and State Regulatory Authority 

employees to improve their inspection and monitoring 

capabilities. In some OSMHE offices, aerial photographs of individual coal mines are taken as often as 

once a year. During 1988, aerial photographs were 

used as the base for topographic maps to facilitate 

preparation of mine development plans and to aid in 

calculating earthwork volumes. Aerial photographs 

were used to identify the extent of a coal refuse pile 

fire and to determine the amount of material that had 

to be moved to extinguish it. Other design uses 

include evaluating the soil resources of areas to be 

mined, determining the success of prime farmland 

reclamation, and assisting in mapping the stratigraphy 

of a sensitive mining site by identifying the location of 

pre-mining drill hole sites. 

Aerial photographs are used to determine regulatory 

compliance by identifying and monitoring areas of 

disturbance, spoil ridges, areas reclaimed, areas under 

facility construction, and acid mine drainage. They are 

113 
also being used to determine changes to the ground 

surface profile due to underground mining. In one 

case, aerial photographs were used to identify and 

map hazardous surface cracks resulting from underground mining. Aerial photographs taken in 1979 and 

1987 over an abandoned underground mine in Ohio 

were compared to determine if subsidence was 

continuing. Aerial photographs are used for bond 

forfeiture cases and abandoned mine land projects to 

provide the basis for before and after comparisons. 

They are used in designed the reclamation of bond 

forfeiture sites by developing reclamation specifications 

and cost estimates. Aerial photographs were also used 

in an extensive survey of abandoned mines in the 

North Branch Potomac River watershed to identify coal 

mine drainage sources and to develop preliminary 

abatement plans and costs. 

ing the radon potential of rocks and soils across the 

United States for the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency. Rocks and soils are the principal source of 

indoor radon. The radon potential of rocks and soils is 

primarily controlled by their radium content and 

permeability. During the Department of Energy's 

National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NUKE) program, aerial gamma-ray data were gathered for the 

entire conterminous 48 States and parts of Alaska. 

Gamma-ray data from bismuth-214 were gathered 

during these surveys to detect the presence of uranium-238, the principal isotope of naturally occurring 

uranium. However, bismuth-214 is also a decay 

product of radon-222, the radon isotope of primary 

concern in indoor air. Using the NUKE gamma-ray 

data, the USGS has completed maps of the entire 

United States showing the apparent radium-226 (the 

immediate predecessor of radon-222) content of the 

surface materials. Although the coverage of the United 

States is close to 100 percent, the broad spacing of the 

aircraft flight lines in this survey makes these maps 

best suited for estimating the radium content of soils at 

regional scales (l:l,OOO,OOO). These radium maps 

114 

Radon Hazard Assessment. The USGS is assess0 

w 

100 200 KU 

0 80 160 UILES 

Map showing the relative radon soil gas potential In the 

Pacific Northwest. (White areas indicate no data.) 

provide a first-order estimate of the radon potential of 

various areas of the United States, although other 

factors such as soil and rock permeability (where the 

permeability is very low or very high) are critical. 

Planetary Studies. USGS research activities in 

planetary science during 1988 emphasized more 

detailed, site-specific studies as well as broad studies 

that support upcoming planetary missions. Prelaunch 

planning for the U.S. Magellan Mission to Venus (1989) 

involved geologic interpretation of high-resolution 

radar images of Venus that were acquired by the Soviet 

Venera 15 and 16 spacecraft. This work produced a 

geologic map of the northern quadrant of Venus at a 

scale of 1:15,000,000. In addition, a mosaic of Venus at 

1 :15,000,000 scale was completed by using the Venera 

data. The topographic data base derived from the U.S. 

Pioneer Venus altimetry data has been improved and 

supplemented by the Venera altimetry data. 

USGS also supported studies of human travel to the 

Moon for the establishment of permanent science and 

industrial bases. An operational strategy was devel- 
oped that employs teleoperated robots for lunar 

geologic field work. This technique will enable human 

involvement in surface exploration while minimizing 

the risks to humans from solar radiation and micrometeorite bombardment. Site selection was also completed for a lunar base. Mare Smythii was shown to 

have several advantages such as geologic diversity, 

access to the lunar far side, and mineral resources 

(titanium- and aluminum-rich soils). 

Kesearch activities have also increased in support of 

the Mars Observer Mission (scheduled for a 1992 

launch) and in support of advanced planning of a Mars 

Kover/Sample Keturn Mission. USGS activities in 1988 

included preparation of 1 :500,000-scale photomosaics, 

compilation of a topographic map series at 1:2,000,000 

scale for the entire planet, generation of a new global 

color mosaic with 1-km resolution, and completion of 

several geologic maps at 1:500,000 scale that include 

candidate landing sites. Other activities included the 

application of new computer-enhancement and 

topographic-extraction techniques to high-resolution 

images of specific Martian regions, and the interpretation of these data to determine the geologic and 

tectonic history of each region. Significant efforts have 

focused on determining of the origin and evolution of 

the Martian climate, particularly of the planet’s water 

content and hydrologic processes. The USGS is also 

involved in the development and implementation of 

new spacecraft sensors for the Mars Observer Mission 

and in the science-planning phase for the Mars Kover/ 

Sample Keturn Mission. 

The USGS has developed techniques to generate a 

digital image of the entire surface of Mars through a 

NASA-sponsored project. Local views of this image will 

have accurate scale and negligible distortion. The 

image will have a total size of 92,000 X 46,000 pixels 

and a resolution of 1/256th of a degree (equivalent to 

230 meters) of latitude and longitude. The entire image 

will be contained on seven Compact Disc-Kead Only 

Memory (CD-ROM). Local high-resolution (250 meters) 

views of any place on Mars will be available. A similar 

technique is being used to produce a companion 

digital topographic model of the entire planet with 

1/64th of a degree resolution, equivalent to a little than 

1 kilometer. These products will be used for planning 

surveys to be made by the Mars Observer Mission. 

Similar techniques are being applied to digital mapping 

of other planets and their satellites. A digital image 

mosaic of Venus, based on the Magellan radar investigation, will have four times the number of pixels as 

the Mars image and will require approximately 25 CDKOM’s for data storage. 

USGS scientists have continued to study Jupiter’s 

volcanically active satellite, Io. The global distribution 

and abundance of sulfur dioxide frost has been 

modeled and mapped from Voyager spacecraft data 

and Earth-based observations. Studies have shown that 

the sulfur dioxide is concentrated in an equatorial 

band on Io, rather than at the poles as was expected 

because of Io’s dominantly sulfur dioxide atmosphere. 

This suggests that a more volatile substance, perhaps 

hydrogen sulfide (buffered by polar deposits), may be 

the major atmospheric gas. This hypothesis has been 

corroborated recently by spectroscopic evidence. The 

presence of significant hydrogen sulfide along with 

sulfur dioxide implies that magmatic water in Io has 

not been entirely degassed as was previously thought. 

Cartography 

Satellite Image Mapping. The USGS continued its 

satellite image mapping program in 1988 in which 

false-color satellite images are mosaicked, registered to 

a topographic base map, and printed. Landsat MSS 

image maps were printed for the following 1:250,000- 

scale quadrangles: Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; Shiprock 

and Aztec, New Mexico; and Limon, Durango, Denver, 

Greeley, and Sterling, Colorado. A 1 :50,000-scale SPOT 

image map of the Washington, D.C., area was prepared by merging and mosaicking SPOT multispectral 

and panchromatic data. Similar techniques were used 

to prepare a 1:24,000-scale SPOT image map of the 

Point Loma, California, quadrangle, which includes 

115 
part of the city of San Diego. This is the first satellite 

image map produced to match a standard USGS 

1 :24,000-scale topographic map. 

research on the development of a digital system to 

produce orthophotoquads, which are image-based 

maps in which distortion due to terrain relief has been 

removed and all land features are in their true map 

position. The digital orthophotoquad is produced from 

USGS digital elevation models and aerial photographs 

that have been converted to digital data by optical 

scanning. 1)resent efforts are concentrated on producing both color-infrared and black-and-white digital 

orthophotoquads from National Aerial Photography 

Program photographs. The output of this process is a 

geometrically corrected digital image that can be used 

on image processing systems or integrated into a 

geographic information system. A secondary output is 

a color or black-and-white photographic print, or a 

separation for offset printing. Experimental orthophotoquads have been produced for Portland, Oregon; 

Dane County, Wisconsin; and McCall, Idaho. 

Digital Image Processing. The USGS is cooperating with the NPS to demonstrate new applications of 

remotely sensed data for national parks. SPOT satellite 

data were used to prepare an up-to-date 1:24,000-scale 

image map of Yosemite Valley to complement the 

existing 1958 topographic map. A digital elevation 

model was used to remove distortions due to terrain 

relief. As part of the same project, computer-generated 

simulated flights through Yosemite Valley were 

produced using a series of perspective views derived 

from two types of remotely sensed data. In one 

simulated flight, perspective views were created from 

the SPOT image map and USGS digital elevation model 

data. A second simulated flight around El Capitan, a 

prominent feature in Yosemite Valley, was produced 

from digitized large-scale color aerial photographs and 

a high-resolution digital elevation model. Both techniques-image mapping and simulated flights from 

multiple perspective views-are being evaluated by 

116 

Digital Orthophotoquads. The USGS continued 

This simulated perspective view of El Capitan, a prominent 

feature in Yosemite National Park, California, was 

produced from a digitized high-resolution natural color 

aerial photograph merged with digital elevation data of the 

same area. 

the NPS for operational use in other parks for a variety 

of planning, resources management, and interpretation 

applications. 

The USGS has developed procedures for producing 

a single digital image from two separate satellite 

images to enhance the detection of land cover changes 

between dates. The procedures provide an image that 

is readily useable by interpreters having little or no 

image processing experience. The procedures include 

(1) registering one image to another; (2) processing to 

adjust for differences between image dates that are due 

to factors such as sun angle and atmospheric conditions and not to land cover changes; and (3) processing to enhance particular surface features or conditions. These procedures have been evaluated using 

Landsat TM color-composite images of the Chernobyl 

(U.S.S.R.) nuclear power plant, which was the site of 

the reactor accident on April 23, 1986. An image was 
prepared to show land cover changes that occurred 

since the accident. Comparison of images acquired 3 

postponed until 1989 when the launch of operational 

GPS satellites will begin. 

days and approximately 1 year after the accident 

shows numerous changes resulting from (1) severe 

radiation damage to the conifer trees adjacent to the 

plant, (2) Soviet mitigation efforts such as removal of 

trees and creation of water impoundments, and (3) the 

cessation of agricultural activities in the region. Procedures such as these will be particularly useful for 

monitoring land cover changes that reflect the impact 

of global and regional climatic change. 

tion of cultural features from digitized aerial photographs as an adjunct to the primary topographic 

mapping process. A spatial requirements analysis was 

recently completed which determined that, for extraction of roads from 1:25,000-scale color-infrared photographs, a scanning resolution of 3 meters would result 

in the lowest amount of road distance being omitted 

from the actual roads. Current research is aimed at 

establishing quantitative indicators to ensure that image 

quality is always sufficient for extracting the appropriate level of map detail from digital images. 

Global Positioning System In 1988, the Global 

Positioning System (GPS) was used to provide both 

horizontal and vertical control for a number of USGS 

mapping projects. The decision to use GPS for vertical 

control was based on in-house tests, which confirmed 

that the system could obtain the necessary accuracy. 

The USGS continued to use the system for monitoring 

the San Andreas fault in California. New software was 

obtained that provided positional accuracies of a few 

parts in one hundred million using orbit-improvement 

techniques. 

The GPS was used by the USGS for ground-water 

well site location and land subsidence studies. Over 

the past 3 years, a GPS network spanning the entire 

Sacramento Valley of California was established for 

monitoring land subsidence. USGS also participated in 

a number of interagency projects using GPS for crustal 

motion determination. Some development efforts were 

The USGS has been investigating automated extracGlobal Change 

During 1988, the USGS cooperated with nine other 

Federal agencies to create a comprehensive U.S. 

Global Change Program. As part of this major Federal, 

national, and international initiative, each participating 

organization has been reorienting or establishing 

programs and projects that are focused on scientific 

problems relevant to global change. Because of the 

regional impact of various aspects of global change, 

remotely sensed data from existing and future aircraft 

and satellite sensors, in conjunction with direct field 

measurements, will play an important role in USGS 

global change research. In particular, space-based 

observations have now become an essential means for 

monitoring global change. 

Global Ice Monitoring. Scientists from the USGS 

and NASA completed a study of variations in Arctic, 

Antarctic, and global sea ice cover using observations 

from the Nimbus 7 scanning multichannel microwave 

radiometer during 1978-87. Over the 9-year period, no 

significant trends were found in the total area of either 

the Arctic and Antarctic ice packs, or in their sum, the 

global ice area. However, a significant downward 

trend was found in the maximum extent of global ice 

boundaries. This trend during 1978-87 appears to 

continue a downward trend observed between 1973 

and 1976, based on additional analysis of monochromatic microwave observations obtained by the Nimbus 

5 spacecraft. The trend for the combined 15-year 

period is a 6-percent reduction in global maximum ice 

extent. This study, in conjunction with recent studies 

of global temperature change, lends support to the 

belief that changes in global average temperature 

might be detectable by observing variations in global 

sea ice extent. 

Landsat and AVHRR images acquired during the 

past 15 years have been used by USGS glaciologists to 

document and measure large ice calving events along 

117 
the margin of the Antarctic ice sheet. In 1986, two 

large icebergs (11,225 square kilometers) calved into 

the ocean from the Larsen Ice Shelf, and a group of 

three large icebergs (10,700 square kilometers) calved 

from the Filchner Ice Shelf. In 1987, another large 

iceberg (5,508 square kilometers) calved from the Ross 

Ice Shelf. From available ice-thickness measurements, 

it was concluded that 7,110 cubic kilometers of ice was 

discharged from just these three ice shelves during 

1986-87, or an amount that is more than twice the 

estimated annual snowfall (water equivalent) on the 

entire Antarctic continent during the same period. 

These large calving events on the Filchner and Ross 

Ice Shelves are probably cyclical. However, the 

reduction in area and volume of the more northerly 

situated ice shelves on the Antarctic Peninsula (for 

example, the Larsen Ice Shelf and the Wordie Ice 

Shelf) probably represent long-term changes in response to global climatic warming. Long-term (over 

many decades) resurveys every 2 years of the coastal 

regions of Antarctica using satellite images are necessary to ascertain whether or not the changes are truly 

cyclical. Antarctica contains 91 percent of the volume 

of glacier ice on Earth, so even a slight change in its 

volume in response to climate warming would produce a rise in sea level. 

Nearly 10 years ago, the USGS began to prepare a 

Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers, a long-term project involving more than 55 scientists from the United States 

and 29 other countries to document, monitor, and 

study the glacial regions of the Earth from Landsat MSS 

images acquired primarily during the middle to late 

1370's and ancillary data. The present areal distribution 

of glaciers in each geographic area is compared, 

wherever possible, with historical information about 

their past extent. The first chapter, covering Antarctica, 

was published in 1988. More than 10,000 Landsat 

images of Antarctica, which cover the continent from 

the coast to about 81 degrees south latitude, were 

evaluated for possible inclusion in the chapter. Fiftyeight annotated Landsat images and image mosaics, 38 

118 

November 11,1973 

October 18,1986 

Landsat MSS images acquired before (November 11, 

1973) and after (October 18,1986) a major ice caiving 

event on the Fiichner Ice Shelf, Antarctica. The area that 

has calved is just slightly less than the size of the State of 

Connecticut. 
oblique aerial photographs, maps, and other data 

provide a comprehensive review of the diversity of 

glaciological features and the vastness of the Antarctic 

ice sheet. When completed, the atlas will provide an 

accurate regional inventory of the areal extent of 

glacier ice on Earth and will be another contribution to 

the growing international scientific effort to measure 

global change in response to natural and anthropogenic processes. 

Coastal Erosion Processes and Sea Level 

Change. Since 1986, the USGS and the Louisiana 

Geological Survey have been studying the geologic 

development of barrier islands and the most critical 

processes that cause their erosion. The Louisiana coast 

was selected as a study area because relative sea level 

is currently rising rapidly there (as much as 1 centimeter a year) from a combination of land subsidence and 

world wide sea level rise (an estimated 15 centimeters 

during the last 100 years). Successive sets of vertical 

and oblique aerial photographs, acquired by various 

Federal, State, and other agencies during the past 50 

years, are being used to map historic changes in 

coastal sections of Louisiana and as a reference base 

for comparing present and future changes. The effects 

of hurricanes, tropical storms, and cyclones on the 

erosion of Louisiana’s barrier islands are being studied 

by pre- and post-storm aerial videotape surveys, 

vertical and oblique aerial photographs, and field 

investigations (beach profiles). An analysis of these 

data substantiates the fact that major storms often 

cause breaches in the islands, and substantial beach 

and dune erosion. 

Regional Vegetation Monitoring. In 1988, the 

USGS began to develop a comprehensive AVHRR data 

base for the Northern Great Plains to support cooperative research with the NWS and U.S. Forest Service. 

There are three primary objectives of this research: the 

use of vegetation indexes derived from AVHKK data 

for monitoring changes of the land surface (primarily 

vegetation) that are caused by the interaction of 

climatic and human factors; vegetation condition as it 

relates to fire danger; and other effects of drought 

conditions throughout the Northern Great Plains 

region. The data base includes AVHRR data acquired 

daily through the 1988 growing season from April 

through October, which have been geometrically 

registered to known ground coordinates. The individual daily AVHRR scenes were composited to provide 

nearly cloudfree weekly data sets for the study area. 

Spectral Change and Climate as Influenced by 

Irrigation. As part of NASA’s International Satellite 

Land Surface Climatology Project, the USGS is examining the change over several years in spectral data from 

satellite sensors and possible effects on climate resulting from irrigation development in western Nebraska. 

Existing Landsat MSS and AVHRR data are being used 

to assess spectral changes that may be related to land 

cover change on a regional scale. A technique was 

demonstrated to use acreage estimates of irrigated land 

area from Landsat data to calibrate acreage estimates 

made from AVHRR data to improve regional surveys 

that can be accomplished only with AVHRR data. 

Weather data from the past 40 years for 33 stations 

within the region have been analyzed for trends in 

climate elements that may be related to irrigation 

development. Maps from these analyses show decreases in climate parameters (precipitation, daily 

maximum minus minimum temperature, and evaporation) in areas downwind of irrigation development. A 

procedure was also developed for using satellite 

measurements of land cover and weather station data 

to produce estimates of evapotranspiration over the 

study area, a potentially significant climatic effect due 

to irrigation development. These results show promise 

for describing climatologically important properties of 

the land surface on a spatial basis to serve the information needs of regional and global climate models. 

International Activities 

Africa. During 1988, the USGS was involved in 

several projects in Africa funded by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development (USAID) to provide 

119 
technical assistance in either remote sensing or geographic information systems. The largest and most 

visible effort involved the production of vegetation 

condition maps for use in locust control efforts in 

Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Algeria, Tunisia, 

and Morocco. This activity is a continuation of a 1987 

pilot project in which a procedure to monitor seasonal 

vegetation patterns was developed, tested, and evaluated. AVHRR satellite data are used to produce vegetation greenness maps every 2 weeks during the rainy 

season to show the current distribution of vegetation. 

Copies of each map are used by each participating 

country to help locust control teams look for potential 

locust breeding areas. 

The USGS also provided technical assistance for the 

USAID Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) and the 

Agriculture, Hydrology, and Meteorology (AGHRYMET) Requirement Needs Analysis projects. FEWS was 

established 3 years ago by USAID to identify and 

assess human populations likely to experience food 

shortages and famine in seven Sahelian Africa nations. 

FEWS relies heavily on geographic information system 

technology and AVHRR satellite data to make assessments of available food resources. USGS contributed to 

a major redesign of the FEWS program by defining 

geographic information system capabilities and equipment specifications. A new data base design will be 

implemented in early 1989, and FEWS field representatives will receive training by USGS specialists in the 

use of these new data sources for famine vulnerability 

assessments. The AGHRYMET project was established 

in the 1970’s to provide timely climatic and weather 

data to decisionmakers in nine West African countries. 

Under USAID sponsorship, AGHRYMET is entering a 

phase to modernize data processing and establish a 

capability to receive, process, and distribute AVHRR 

satellite data. The AGHHYMET Requirement Needs 

Analysis report outlined the key products and capabilities that will be needed over the next 5 years as part of 

this modernization. 

Middle East. The USGS continues to support 

remote sensing activities in the Middle East. The USGS 

supports the Saudi Arabia Directorate General for 

Mineral Resources Remote Sensing facility in mineral 

resource and general geologic mapping studies. Image 

maps (scale 1:50,000) are being produced in Abu 

Dhabi to support ground-water studies and general 

geologic mapping. The Government of Jordan receives 

assistance from the USGS, through USAID, in the use 

of remotely sensed data to support general geologic 

mapping for the entire country. The USGS also assisted 

the Governments of Jordan and Qatar in establishing 

remote sensing laboratories. At the request of the 

Yemen Government and USAID, the USGS is providing 

assistance in the application of airborne and satellite 

remotely sensed data to mineral resource assessmentS 

in North Yemen. 

The People’s Republic of China. A protocol of 

cooperation has been in existence for 4 years between 

the USGS and The People’s Republic of China’s 

National Bureau of Surveying and Mapping. During 

1988, scientific exchanges in the two countries focused 

on developing and implementing geographic information systems and on digital image processing techniques for preparing satellite image maps and land 

cover maps. During 1988, SPOT and Landsat TM data 

for the Mei Tan Ba and Ning Xiang 1:50,000-scale 

quadrangle maps in the Hunan Province of China were 

digitally mosaicked and enhanced, and preliminary 

satellite image maps were produced. Joint work 

between USGS and Chinese scientists concentrated on 

alternative methods for developing digital land cover 

spectral statistics, refining classifications, using digital 

elevation data, and assessing classification accuracy. 

The results of these joint efforts will be applied in 

developing digital approaches for updating land cover 

maps and monitoring land cover change within The 

People’s Republic of China. 

Iceland The USGS is cooperating with NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center and the National Re120 
search Council of Iceland in a study of active volcanic 

zones and glaciers of Iceland using side-looking 

airborne radar and airborne laser altimeter (ALA) data. 

ALA data, acquired by a NASA P-3 aircraft in conjunction with a simultaneous differential offset Global 

Positioning System (GPS) survey, permitted precise 

plotting on base maps of all ALA profiles. The GPS 

data also allowed the plotting of profiles of the land 

surface with an error of less than 1 meter. Highresolution side-looking airborne radar images of 

several sites in Iceland were acquired in 1987 and in 

1988. The 1988 survey acquired the first radar images 

of an active volcanic zone from three different look 

directions to determine if look direction introduces a 

directional bias in the analysis of such images. The 

most important result of the work in Iceland is the use 

of a GPS receiver on the NASA aircraft to permit 

precise plotting of the ground track of the flight path 

and correction of the changing aircraft orientation to 

produce accurate terrain profiles. 

hfin America In 1988, the BOR provided consultation to the Brazilian Ministry of Irrigation on the use 

of land remote sensing satellite data and geographic 

information systems technology to compile basic environmental information for planning irrigation development in the arid northeast region of Brazil. 

The USGS cooperated with the U.S. Customs Service 

and the International Boundary and Water Commission 

to produce image maps along the entire border 

between the United States and Mexico. Natural-color 

aerial photographs at 1:25,000 scale were used to 

prepare 203 orthophotoquads that provide the most 

up-to-date information about the border area from San 

Diego, California, to the Gulf Coast of Texas. 

Data merging techniques were used by the USGS to 

produce a Landsat TM/SPOT image map of the 

Viedma, Argentina, area, which has been proposed as 

the site for relocating Argentina’s national capital from 

Buenos Aires, 800 kilometers to the northeast. This 

image map was printed at 1:50,000 scale by the USGS 

and the Instituto Geografico Militar of Argentina under 

the auspices of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History as part of a cooperative project to 

evaluate the usefulness of remote sensing technology 

for mapping in Latin America. A second phase of the 

project, digital land cover classification of the same 

data set used for the image map, was not completely 

successful, suggesting that visual interpretation of 

merged Landsat TM and SPOT images may be more 

useful where detailed mapping is required. 

121 

Department of Agriculture 

During 1988, agencies of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) continued to develop and refine 

airborne and space-based remote sensing systems 

which have become vital information sources for 

agricultural assessment and resource management. 

Applications research proceeded steadily, with a 

balanced approach that stressed development of 

computer-aided interpretive procedures. Significant 

achievements during the year included implementation 

of geographic information systems (CIS) using 

digitized remotely sensed data as a primary 

component, use of satellite data in the analysis of the 

drought in the United States and flood damage to 

crops in South Asia, and testing and development of 

satellite electronic positioning equipment for forest 

management tasks. 

Agricultural Assessment 

Throughout the 1988 crop season, remote sensing 

specialists assisted the Department’s drought assessment effort with analysis of crop conditions in the 

winter wheat, spring wheat, and corn belts of the 

United States. Analysis of satellite data, weather 

information, and soil moisture model results were 

integrated to provide the Secretary of Agriculture and 

management officials with a series of updates which 

aided definition of different levels of drought impact at 

the county and crop district levels. 

Detection and monitoring of summer floods in 

Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan was also assisted by 

satellite coverage. The remotely sensed data provided 

critical information to U.S. embassy personnel in their 

on-site evaluation of damage to coarse grains, rice, and 

cotton crops. Washington-based analysts also benefited 

from the information, with the result that a more 

moderate and realistic assessment could be prepared. 

With primary responsibility for providing domestic 

agricultural statistics, the National Agricultural Statistics 

Service (NASS) has long used remotely sensed data as 

an aid in locating and establishing plots for stratified 

sample surveys. The value of Landsat satellite data in 

combination with conventional ground-gathered data 

in obtaining more precise and timely crop area estimates has been demonstrated in both pilot and largearea tests, and a developmental program operated 

from 1980 through 1987. Early in 1988, a decision was 

made to emphasize research and to focus resources on 

preparations for future satellite sensors. In order for 

NASS to take advantage of the new and more advanced sensors, research is required to assess their 

feasibility so that when data become available, the 

anticipated improvement in the accuracy of the results 

will be cost effective. The advanced sensor data from 

the commercial systems of the 1990s will contain 

improved spatial, spectral, and temporal information. 

To NASS, this will translate into more accurate acreage 

estimates and also crop condition or yield assessments, 

if procedures can be fully developed. 

In 1988, the remote sensing research program in 

NASS specifically considered winter wheat estimation 

in Kansas. A statistical comparison of three different 

sensors was made for the crop. Preliminary results 

show the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) to be significantly better than other satellite sensors, for example, 

Landsat Multispectral Scanner or SPOT. Similar studies 

are planned for corn, soybeans, rice, and cotton. 

Resource Management 

The Department’s Forest Service is charged with the 

management of 190 million acres of land, often 

rugged, remote country, located throughout the United 

States. Of prime importance is the necessity that all 

management objectives be considered in decisionmaking: timber production, grazing, recreation, wildlife 

management, and watershed protection. Mineral 

exploration, fire, and insect and disease infestations are 

also important subjects that must be considered. 

Because the land area of the Forest Service is so 

large and the tasks of management are so diverse, and 

because so many of the tasks require a knowledge of 

location, the potential contributions of satellite electronic positioning technology are great. One good 

123 
example is timber sale preparation. Sales require a 

preliminary survey of the area to establish the species 

to be cut and the volume of timber available; a plan 

must be made which prescribes cutting objectives and 

methods; roads and assembly points for logs must be 

designated; and trees to be left to provide seed for 

reforestation must be marked. All these activities 

require position or area determination. 

Other tasks that will benefit from better position 

location include establishment of forest inventory plots, 

soil sampling in critical areas, delineation of mining 

claims, and marketing disease and insect infestations, 

archeological areas, and delineating areas containing 

endangered plant and animal species. 

All these tasks require a varying degree of location 

accuracy, which satellite electronic positioning equipment can supply. Because this procedure holds such 

promise, the Forest Service embarked on an ambitious 

project to determine how the equipment could be 

incorporated into ongoing operational programs. After 

a market and literature search to learn what equipment 

might help accomplish Forest Service tasks, a survey of 

potential users in the Forest Service was conducted to 

determine specific requirements for a field location 

system. Some 46 separate uses were identified for 

improved location systems, including timber plot 

locations, boundaries between leasable and nonleasable land, road and trail locations, timber sale 

areas, and location of work crews in emergencies. 

Two satellite electronic positioning systems are 

being tested. One system, the NAVSTAK-Global 

Positioning System (GPS), is operated by the Department of Defense as a weather navigation and positionfixing system. When fully operational, 18 satellites 

(with 3 active spares) will continuously circle Earth, 

transmitting coded signals to receivers on the ground, 

which then calculate the user’s position. 

A commercial system which uses three geosynchronous satellites to relay information to the central computer facility, is also under consideration. In this 

system the position of user transceivers will be deter124 

mined by a central computer, based on signals relayed 

from users via satellite to the central computer. The 

calculated position will be sent back through the 

satellite and displayed at the user’s transceiver. 

In 1988, after test and development, the Forest 

Service moved to operational status for applying 

satellite electronic positioning systems for many uses, 

and activity is now in progress to establish numerous 

applications for resource management. 

With greater budgetary constraints, forest managers 

must increasingly make use of remote sensing in forest 

inventories and other forest management applications. 

Remote sensing is used in a number of ways, including 

delineation of forested areas to be inventoried and 

monitored; delineation of soil and vegetation types; 

and preparation of sampling frames, among others. 

space-based sensors are used. In addition to regular 

aerial photography, newer sources of data include 

optical bar photography; high altitude photography; 

laser profilers; radar data; video recorders; and satellite 

imagery, such as that provided by the Landsat system 

and meteorological satellites. 

Data from meteorological satellites, specifically, the 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites, now appear to have significant potential for large-scale forest mapping and 

monitoring, particularly when up-to-date information is 

needed on changes in forested areas. Developmental 

testing of imagery from the Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor carried by 

NOAA’s series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites was carried out in 1988, with the AVHKR used as 

a data source for statewide estimates of forest area in 

Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Results indicate 

that basic land cover classes can be mapped with 

reasonable accuracy, compared with forest surveys 

prepared by conventional means. It is concluded that 

digital AVHRR image data also can be used advantageously for operational forest area monitoring. Although limited in information content by the low 

resolution, the advantages (low cost, less data, largeAll types of remotely sensed data from airborne and 
Data are collected on the ground at the Maricopa 

Agricultural Center to compare data acquired by satellite 

sensors. 

area coverage, and frequent repeat cycle) are great and 

AVHKK imagery is receiving increased attention as one 

of the components of forest inventory updating 

systems. 

Both the Forest Service and the Soil Conservation 

Service, which is responsible for soil and water conservation, including natural resource surveys and management and protection of community resources, are using 

digital remotely sensed data as an input to Geographic 

Information Systems (CIS). Simply stated, a GIS is an 

information processing system that enables the user to 

enter, store, search, modify, analyze, and retrieve 

spatial resource data. Digitized remotely sensed data, 

especially data from Earth-observation satellites, can be 

merged in computers with other digitized geographic 

data, for example, vegetation types, boundaries, soil 

types, and topography. The resource manager can 

quickly analyze the current situation and, if needed, 

create a map or other graphic for planning or other 

tasks. 

Soil Conservation Service selected the Geographic 

In 1988, after extensive testing and evaluation, the 

Kesources Analysis Support System (GRASS) as the 

agency-supported geographic information system. 

GRASS is highly interactive, graphics oriented software 

developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

Construction Engineering Kesearch Laboratory. In 

addition to performing typical CIS functions, GKASS 

provides the ability to input, display, and classify 

Landsat MSS and TM, SPOT, and digitized photography. This imagery capability in GKASS will be useful 

for providing a photoimage background for various 

thematic maps, or for automated classification of 

imagery to produce new map layers. In conjunction 

with this effort, SCS is developing software and 

procedures to provide scanned aerial photography to 

field offices. 

Many Forest Service units have experimented with 

CIS technology with the goal of meeting specific local 

and regional land management needs. Future operational applications in the Forest Service will be aided 

by an agency-wide program initiated in 1988 for 

implementation of GIS. 

Applications Research 

Applications research provides the essential “bridge” 

that enables data from aircraft and satellite sensors to 

become meaningful information for decisionmaking. 

The Kemote Sensing Kesearch Laboratory, a component of the Department’s Agricultural Research Service 

(AM) located at Beltsville, Maryland, is engaged in a 

broad-based research program to develop new techniques to incorporate remotely sensed data into 

agricultural and resource information systems. This 

program is a part of a larger activity which includes 

other remote sensing projects at AKS field locations. 

years, several units have reported significant results in 

1988. For example, results from a multidisciplinary 

field experiment conducted June 11-13, 1988, at the 

University of Arizona’s Maricopa Agricultural Center 

demonstrated that ground reflectance factors can be 

obtained from SPOT data, if the data are corrected for 

Although much of the research extends over several 

125 
atmospheric scattering and absorption. This experiment, which included AKS researchers from both 

Phoenix, Arizona, and Beltsville, MD, provided considerable insight necessary for the interpretation of 

satellite-based surface reflectance data taken at offnadir view angles, and will aid in the improvement of 

procedures to assess crop conditions using satellite 

data. 

developed from satellite data that is capable of using 

both canopy reflectance and thermal information in 

simulating growth and yield. The model does not need 

soil moisture, rainfall, or irrigation data to determine 

evapotranspiration and water stress effects. Evaluations 

involving wheat and corn indicate that canopy temperatures may be as important as light absorption in 

estimating yield from remotely-sensed data. In a 

second study, it was shown that yield reductions due 

At Weslaco, TX, a computer-based crop model was 

to flooding of rice by a typhoon can be estimated from 

Landsat TM observations. The research improves 

current procedures to assess crop yield potential using 

satellite data. 

Satellite data users may occasionally experience 

difficulties in associating a geographic location with a 

specific path/row catalog identifier. A user may want 

to determine the date when an acquisition may have 

occurred or when one may occur in the future, or 

match collection dates for Landsat, AVHRR and SPOT 

acquisitions. These questions are now made easier for 

satellite data users with an MS-DOS compatible 

accession aid program. The program-called 

SATCOV-provides basic information in response to 

menu-driven user inputs. SATCOV was developed in 

1988 at the Remote Sensing Research Laboratory in 

Beltsville. 

126 
PAS1 satellite. launched June 15, 1988. First US. 

international satellite system separate from INTELSAT. 
Federal Communications 

Commission 

Communications Satellites 

International Commercial 

Communications Satellites 

munications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) global 

communications system consisted of thirteen satellites 

in orbit: one INTELSAT IV, one INTELSAT IV-A, four 

INTELSAT V’s, four INTELSAT V-M’s and three INTELSAT V-A’s. During the year, one IV was retired and 

ejected into a higher orbit. One INTELSAT V-B (F-13) 

was launched on May 17, 1988, by an Arianne IV 

rocket and placed in orbit at 307 degrees East Longitude. At the end of 1988, INTELSAT maintained 

thirteen satellites in geosynchronous orbit: one IV-A, 

three V’s, one V-M, two V-A’s and one V-B in the 

Atlantic Ocean region; two V-M’s and one V-A in the 

Indian Ocean region; and one V and one V-M in the 

Pacific Ocean region. The IV-A satellite has already 

exceeded its estimated maneuver life. 

In 1988, the Federal Communications Commission 

approved the construction and operation of 18 new 

Earth station facilities to access the INTELSAT system in 

the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean Kegions for the provision of INTELSAT Business Service (IBS) and television 

transmission and 5 stations for multipurpose service. 

On September 30, 1987, the Commission issued a 

final construction permit and launch authority for Pan 

American Satellite Corporation’s (PanAmSat) “Simon 

Bolivar” (PAS-1) satellite in accordance with the 

Commission’s policy statement in CC Docket No. 84- 

1299 which was released in 1985. On June 15, 1988, 

PAS-1 was launched aboard an Arianne IV rocket and 

placed in orbit at 45 degrees West Longitude. On 

November 7, 1988, the Commission issued a final order 

allowing PanAmSat to use six 11/14 GHz transponders 

on its PAS1 satellite for service to selected countries in 

Europe. Orion Satellite Corporation has also reached 

agreement with a foreign correspondent, the United 

Kingdom. The United States and the United Kingdom 

initiated consultation with INTELSAT in December 

At the beginning of 1988, the International Telecom1988, for service between those two countries as well 

as other possible services between North America and 

Europe. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

In 1988, the Commission authorized the construction and launch of nine new domestic fixed-satellites. 

It also authorized the construction and launch of ten 

satellites to replace ones that are currently in orbit. The 

newly authorized satellites will provide domestic 

satellite capacity through the 1990s and will offer users 

a wide range of services including video services, high 

speed data services, private network services, and 

audio services. 

The 1988 grants increased the total number of 

authorized in-orbit domestic satellites to 42. These 

satellites are operating in the 4/6 GHz and 12/14 GHz 

frequency bands. By the end of 1988, 29 domestic 

satellites were in orbit and located between 69 degrees 

West Longitude and 143 degrees West Longitude on 

the geostationary orbital arc. Three satellites were 

launched in 1988, one of which is not currently in its 

proper orbit. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

National and international efforts to establish a 

future global maritime distress and safety system are 

continuing. The International Maritime Organization 

(IMO) is developing the system which will use Standard A, Standard M, and Standard C ship Earth stations 

through INMAKSAT as well as satellite emergencyposition-indicating radio beacons (satellite EPIKBs), 

which will provide initial distress alerting information 

from ships to rescue coordination centers. Although 

present plans include satellite EPIKBs through the 

polar orbiting SAKSAT (a NOAA Weather Service 

satellite for search-and-rescue satellite data tracking) 

and the Soviet equivalent called COSPAS, the IMO 

Maritime Safety Committee is also considering use of Lband EPIKBs through INMARSAT (geostationary orbit). 

The global maritime and safety systems are expected 

to be phased in between 1992 and 1999. 

129 
Currently, INMAKSAT is leasing two in-orbit satellites from the European Space Agency, a spare 

MARECS A in the Pacific Ocean region and an operational MARECS B-2 in the Atlantic Ocean region; four 

in-orbit INTELSAT piggy-back Maritime Communications Subsystem (MCS) satellite packages, the spare 

MCS B (F-6) in the Atlantic, the operational MCS A (F8) in the Pacific, and the operational MCS A (F-5) in 

the Indian Ocean region; and three MAKISAT back-up 

spare satellites leased from Comsat General-the 

MAKISAT F-1 in the Atlantic, the MAKISAT F-3 in the 

Pacific, and the MAKISAT F-2 in the Indian Ocean, 

which are also for special purpose use. 

Second-generation satellites, the first of which is 

projected to become operational in late 1989 or early 

1990, are being built under INMAKSAT specifications 

and will have a capacity about triple that of the present 

leased satellites. INMAKSAT serves over 8,000 vessels 

through its 55 member-country organization. Twenty 

coast stations in fourteen countries are in operation, 

with seven more planned for 1989. 

Aeronautical Sateiiite Service 

The process of adopting amendments to the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMAKSAT) 

convention and operating agreement, which will allow 

it to offer aeronautical services, continues. The amendments will take effect 120 days after two-thirds of 

member countries representing two-thirds of the total 

INMAKSAT investment shares have filed notices of 

acceptance. INMAKSAT’s four second-generation 

spacecraft are being constructed with three megahertz 

of bi-directional bandwidth in the Aeronautical MobileSatellite Service (K) band. The International Civil 

Aviation Organization through its subcommittee on 

Future Air Navigation Systems has been discussing 

standards for aeronautical satellites and other issues 

involving the use of satellites in a coordinated program 

for civil aviation. The aviation community is actively 

developing, through the Airlines Electronic Engineering 

Committee, aeronautical satellite standards for voice 

130 

and data services. The aviation industry, in cooperation 

with INMAKSAT, is developing aircraft antennas and 

avionics needed for this service. Aeronautical Radio, 

Inc., is pursuing international aeronautical services via 

INMAKSAT by interconnecting its terrestrial VHF 

network with satellite facilities for oceanic coverage. In 

addition, the American Mobile Satellite Consortium is 

proposing to provide aeronautical service on its 

system. 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service 

Satellite service in July 1982, in order to provide 

satellite delivery of video programming directly to 

homes via small (two 3-foot diameter), relatively 

inexpensive ($300 to $500) receiving stations. The 

Commission granted the first several conditional 

construction permits later that year. Two of those 

original permittees continue to hold their permits and 

are currently scheduled to begin operations by late 

1992. United States Satellite Broadcasting Company, 

Inc., is authorized to provide eight channels of service 

to each half of the United States from two 8-channel 

satellites in separate orbital locations. Dominion Video 

Satellite, Inc., is authorized to provide eight channels 

of service to each half of the United States from one 

16-channel satellite, splitting its capacity. 

Several additional parties have subsequently received conditional construction permits, and two of 

those parties continue to hold their permits and should 

begin operations in three to four years. Hughes 

Communications Galaxy, Inc. (Hughes) is authorized 

to provide 16 channels of service to each half of the 

United States from two 16-channel satellites from the 

same orbital location. Advanced Communications 

Corporation (Advanced) is authorized to provide 16 

channels of service to each half of the United States 

from two 16-channel satellites from separate orbital 

locations. Advanced has requested a single orbital 

location for both of its satellites. Both Advanced and 

Hughes propose to spread each of their 32 channels 

The Commission authorized the Direct Broadcast 
over the entire United States if signal strength is 

adequate and interference problems are not created. 

In 1988, six additional applications for new Direct 

Broadcast Satellite service authorizations were filed 

and are pending. These applications have been “cutoff” and no additional applications will be considered 

in conjunction with thcse six. Each applicant proposes 

service via two 16-channel satellites from one or two 

orbital locations, depending on availability. The parties 

are: Continental Satellite Corporation; Direct Broadcast 

Satellite Corporation; DIKECTSAT Corporation; 

EchoStar Satellite Corporation; Orbital Broadcasting 

Company; and TEMPO Satellite, Inc. Any construction 

permits granted will be conditioned on initiation of 

construction within one year and completion and 

launch within six years. Minimum construction time 

would be 32 to 40 months. 

New Satellite Services 

(KDSS) continued to develop. This service was authorized in 1986 and allows subscribers to determine 

latitude, longitude, and altitude, and to exchange brief 

coded messages using hand-held or vehicle-mounted 

transceivers. Although two of the authorized companies turned in their licenses in 1987, the remaining 

licensee, Geostar Positioning Corporation, began to 

provide start-up service in 1988 when the Spacenet 111 

domestic fixed-satellite, carrying an RDSS payload, was 

launched in March. Geostar has also begun construction of three of its own dedicated KDSS satellites. 

Progress was also made toward implementing a 

mobile-satellite service (MSS). In 1986, the Commission 

allocated 27 MHz of spectrum in the L-Band and 

established licensing policies for MSS. This service is 

expected to provide telephone service to rural areas; 

long-range vehicle dispatch and location service; 

emergency communications service; service to industries operating in remote locations; and aeronautical 

communications service. The Commission concluded 

that only one system could be licensed for the first 

In 1988, the radiodetermination satellite service 

generation system, and that joint ownership of this 

system would best permit a variety of mobile-satellite 

services to be made available to the public in an 

expeditious manner. The Commission directed all 

qualified applicants to negotiate a joint venture contract and propose a mobile-satellite system. A consortium of eight qualified applicants, the American Mobile 

Satellite Consortium, submitted a technical proposal 

and joint operating agreement in 1988. The Commission expects to act on this application in 1989. 

International Conference Activities 

The year 1988 saw the culmination of over eight 

years’ worth of work oriented toward the concluding 

Second Session of the World Administrative Kadio 

Conference on the Use of the Geostationary-Satellite 

Orbit and the Planning of the Space Services Utilizing 

During the months leading up to the conference, 

Commission engineers and regulatory experts traveled 

to several countries, meeting with representatives of 

governments and international organizations influential 

on the outcome of the conference. These meetings 

included an ad hoc group of international satellite 

cooperatives, a permanent telecommunications committee of the Organization of American States, a 

seminar organized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for African countries, and a global 

information meeting also organized by the ITU. 

At home, the Commission completed the collection 

of U.S. satellite industry views concerning conference 

priorities and strategies. Its staff analyzed and promoted changes that supported U.S. interests for 

incorporation into the software under development at 

the ITU to be used for conference planning. In addition, Commission staff provided support for efforts of 

NASA’s Lewis Kesearch Center in their efforts to create 

computer programs that could also aid in the orbital 

planning of positions for virtually all of the world’s 

countries. The Commission cooperated closely with 

NASA and the Departments of State, Commerce, and 

It (WAKC-OKB[21-88). 

131 
Defense, as U.S. positions were finalized. 

The six-week WARC-ORB(2)-88 conference was, by 

almost any measure, a success. An allotment plan was 

established which guarantees, in practice, to all 

counties an orbital position at which they can operate 

a communications satellite using particular frequency 

bands. The conference also improved the international 

procedures used to provide orderly access to the 

geostationary-satellite orbit in other frequency bands. 

While satisfying concerns of some countries about a 

lack of equity in access to the geostationary-satellite 

orbit resource, the United States was able to protect 

the considerable investment of the US. satellite 

industry and ensure continued technological innovation in this important telecommunications area. 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is a 

modal component of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Under the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as 

amended, the FAA is charged with the dual mission of 

regulating air safety and fostering civil aviation. In 

pursuit of these objectives, the agency operates the 

national airspace system used by both civil and military 

aircraft. The FAA conducts a broad range of research 

and development programs, which can be grouped 

into two categories: those concerned with increasing 

safety, and those aimed at enhancing the efficiency of 

air navigation and air traffic control. 

Aviation Safety 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

During 1988, the FAA made significant progress in 

implementing the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance 

System (TCAS) concept adopted in June 1981. The 

TCAS approach is aimed at providing a range of 

aircraft collision avoidance equipment alternatives to 

afford some degree of added collision protection for 

the full spectrum of airspace users. The TCAS equipment would utilize air-to-air interrogations between 

transponder-equipped aircraft and operate without 

dependence on ground facilities. The TCAS family 

includes three versions: TCAS I, a system that generates traffic advisories and provides the pilot with the 

bearing, range, and altitude of the intruder aircraft; 

TCAS 11, which generates traffic advisories with bearing, range, and altitude of the intruder and provides 

resolution advisories in the vertical plane; and TCAS 

111, which generates traffic advisories with bearing, 

range, and altitude of the intruder and provides 

resolution advisories in both the vertical and horizontal 

planes. 

TCAS I. The Technical Standard Order (TSO) that 

will permit active TCAS I to be manufactured under the 

TSO approval system was issued in August 1988. The 

FAA announced that a cost-sharing contract will be 

awarded in 1989 to design, fabricate, and evaluate 

TCAS I units as part of an FMIndustry TCAS I Limited 

Installation Program (LIP). Several aircraft belonging to 

regional commuter airlines will be used for the flight 

evaluation. At the end of 1988, the FAA was close to 

issuing a rule requiring all turbine-powered commuter 

aircraft with 10 to 30 passenger seats to carry TCAS I 

within six years of the effective date. 

TCAS II. The TCAS I1 program is now in its certification-implementation phase. In October 1988, the 

FAA issued a final TSO and an Advisory Circular 

providing aircraft certification guidance. The agency 

continued the Limited Installation Program designed to 

permit evaluation of production-quality TCAS I1 

equipment by a number of airlines under normal 

scheduled operations. In support of this program, costsharing contracts were awarded in 1984 to Bendix 

(now Bendix/King) and Sperry Dalmo Victor (now part 

of Honeywell) to design and fabricate TCAS I1 units, as 

well as to evaluate them on air carrier aircraft. On July 

31, 1988, United Airlines completed a six-month inservice evaluation of Bendix TCAS I1 units on board a 

B-737 and DC-8. Northwest Airlines began flying 

Honeywell units on two MD-80 aircraft in September 

1988 in an evaluation that will run through March 

1989. Results to date indicate that the TCAS I1 concept 

is safe and operationally effective in all flight regimes 

and under all visibility conditions. 

On December 30, 1987, the President signed Public 

Law 100-223, which requires TCAS I1 to be installed on 

all airline aircraft having more than 30 passenger seats 

by December 30, 1991. As 1988 came to a close, FAA 

was in the final stages of preparing a rule implementing this requirement. 

TCAS III. Flight testing of version two of the TCAS 

I11 collision avoidance logic, using experimental TCAS 

111 units, was completed at the FAA Technical Center in 

April 1988. Version three of the logic is being designed, and engineering tests and operational flight 

tests of this logic are planned to begin in 1989. The 

135 
flight tests will provide the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) with the engineering basis 

for the specification of TCAS 111 in Minimum Operational Performance Standards (MOPS). Completion of 

the final draft MOPS for the system is expected in 

September 1989. Although there is no requirement at 

this time for mandatory installation of TCAS 111, a 

decision was made to conduct a Limited Installation 

Program for TCAS 111 similar to that described above 

for TCAS 11. Honeywell and Bendix/King are expected 

to upgrade their TCAS I1 production units to the TCAS 

111 level of performance, starting in late 1989. The 

airline flight program is scheduled to begin in early 

1991. 

Aircraft Crash worthiness 

In 1988, the FAA issued final rules for the dynamic 

evaluation of seat and restraint systems for transport 

and general aviation aircraft. These rules were based 

on an extensive program of research, development, 

testing, and evaluation. As another part of its ongoing 

efforts to improve occupant survivability, the agency 

generated important data on the crashworthiness 

characteristics of the advanced composite materials 

developed for aircraft applications. This data base will 

be significantly expanded in the coming year with the 

results from actual drop tests on a commuter class 

aircraft. 

destructive inspection equipment for detecting defective or weak bonds in both composite and metallic 

aircraft structures. It also initiated research on lowcycle and high-cycle fatigue in composite materials. To 

expedite its research and development efforts in the 

field of composite aircraft structures, the FAA signed 

new interagency agreements to continue cooperation 

with the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The agency will 

work with the Army on a study of the crash impact 

characteristics of composite structures. The joint effort 

with the Air Force will focus on the causes and 

mechanisms of failures of composite aircraft structures. 

136 

The FAA began the development of advanced, nonA Federal Aviation Administration planner configures air 

traffic on a computer model of New York’s LaGuardia 

Airport, taking his data from actual traffic. 

The FAA will work with the Navy in a joint evaluation 

of existing data on the strength and fatigue life of composite structures. 

Aviation Weather 

change in wind speed and direction, is among 

aviation’s most serious safety problems. Usually 

associated with thunderstorms, hazardous windshear 

occurs both in gust fronts and in small, intense 

downdrafts known as microbursts. An aircraft flying 

through a microburst encounters a headwind, followed 

by a tailwind. The resulting reduction in airspeed and 

loss of lift may sometimes cause an accident. In 

conjunction with other Federal agencies, the FAA is 

addressing the windshear question through a variety of 

detection, warning, and flight guidance programs. 

During 1988, the FAA continued to improve the Low 

Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS), the groundbased wind shear detection system now in operational 

use. LLWAS provides windshear alerts to air traffic 

Windshear. The hazard of windshear, a sudden 
controllers, who, in turn, issue advisories to the pilots 

of arriving and departing aircraft. The system uses 

computer processing to compare wind speed and 

direction from sensors, usually six in number, located 

at the airport. The basic version of LLWAS generates an 

alert whenever the center-field wind data differs from a 

sensor located at the airport perimeter by a preestablished threshold. In the upgraded version, an alert 

results whenever wind at a particular sensor location 

deviates from temporal and spatial values of the 

network average. The upgraded version has more 

sophisticated computer algorithms that reduce the 

number of false alarms and provide improved microburst detection. It also has onsite recording capability. 

By the end of 1988, the upgraded version was in 

operation at 58 airports. 

is deploying a version that employs an expanded 

network of 8 to 22 sensors. This version has full 

microburst detection capability, and allows the controller to distinguish between microbursts and gust fronts. 

Windshear advisories provided to pilots are in terms of 

runway-oriented headwind gain or loss. Specific 

approach and departure wind directions and wind 

speeds are also available to the pilot. The first expanded-network LLWAS system was commissioned at 

Denver Stapleton Airport in January 1988, and the 

second at New Orleans Moisant Airport in November 

of that year. During 1989, expanded-network LLWAS 

systems will be procured to replace six-sensor systems 

at 12 other high-use airports. These systems will be 

installed in 1990. 

the FAA conducted an operational evaluation of 

Doppler weather radar at Denver’s Stapleton Airport. 

During the evaluation, the Denver air traffic controllers 

received information on two types of windshear 

(microbursts and gust fronts), including their areas and 

intensity of precipitation, as well as prediction of when 

winds would shift at the airport. This information was 

automatically generated by computers analyzing the 

In addition to upgrading six-sensor LLWAS, the FAA 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar. During 1988, 

radar data, and presented in a form that the controllers 

could read directly to the pilots. Because of this, the 

controllers did not have to interpret weather information, and could concentrate on their primary mission of 

separating aircraft. 

The operational evaluation showed that Doppler 

weather radar can reliably and automatically detect 

windshear, and that the resulting warnings to controllers and pilots are timely and useful. Thee FAA therefore awarded a contract for production and installation 

of 45 operational systems at major airport.., as well as 

for two support systems at FAA’s Technical Center and 

Aeronautical Center. Installation is scheduled for the 

1992 to 1994 period. Research will continue to enhance the performance of these Doppler weather 

radars so that they will be able to detect turbulence 

and tornados as well as provide accurate predictions of 

the formation of windshear conditions. 

Airborne Windshear Program Another part of 

the FAA’s efforts to combat windshear is the Airborne 

Windshear Detection and Avoidance Program. This 

program is developing the system requirements for 

“forward-looking” airborne devices that could use 

radar, lasers, or infrared sensors to scan some distance 

in front of an aircraft and warn of hazardous windshear ahead. In order to apply the best combination of 

national resources to this task, the FAA entered into a 

five-year cooperative agreement with the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1986. The 

joint FAA/NASA program concentrates on three 

interrelated areas: (1) hazard definition, including a 

thorough understanding of the atmospheric phenomena and their effects on aircraft; (2) sensors, including 

the mechanics of building such devices; and (3) flight 

management, an investigation of how to incorporate 

sensor data into the flight deck environment. 

During 1988, as during the previous year, the 

Airborne Program concentrated on defining the hazard 

and assessing the technological opportunities. The 

program formulated a quantitative definition of how 

windshear affects aircraft, a definition that is consistent 

137 
with industry developments in reactive devices, as well 

as with the work that is envisioned for forward-looking 

devices. In addition, the program gained greater insight 

into how the lowest 2,000 feet of the atmosphere 

behaves in a microburst. The technology assessments 

revealed that radar and lidar showed the greatest 

promise. A proof-of-concept study is underway for 

infrared to see if it can work in normal operation 

without false alarm. Since the hazard definition is 

completed and the first assessments of sensor technology have been done, the next step is to see what the 

requirements are for presenting the information to the 

flight crew. In 1989, therefore, the Airborne Program 

plans to emphasize the flight management aspect of 

the project. 

In order for the Airborne Program to be successful, 

the FAA and NASA have ensured a good working 

relationship with the industry that is designing, manufacturing, certifying, and marketing airborne windshear 

devices. So far, there are dozens of organizations from 

around the world working with the Airborne Program. 

This enables the results of government efforts to be 

channeled into the appropriate areas for the fastest 

possible implementation. 

Automated Weather Observing System Most 

airports within the United States do not have a local 

weather reporting capability, and this lack restricts 

commercial operations under instrument flight rules at 

over 1,300 locations. This situation can be improved 

through the Automated Weather Observing System 

(AWOS), which uses automated sensors to make 

surface observations of aviation-critical weather data. 

The system processes and disseminates this data, using 

computer-generated voice to broadcast current weather 

to pilots by radio. Users may also contact AWOS by 

telephone, and the system has the ability to transmit 

observations to the data bank within the national 

weather network. AWOS I, the basic version of the 

system, is able to compute density altitude and has 

sensors to measure wind speed and direction, ambient 

and dewpoint temperature, and altimeter setting. 

138 

AWOS I1 includes the AWOS I sensors plus a visibility 

sensor, and AWOS 111 adds a cloud height sensor to 

the AWOS I1 capabilities. 

State and local airport authorities may apply for 

partial funding of AWOS under the Airport Improvement Program. The FAA certificated three companies 

as suppliers of the system during 1987, and in 1988 the 

agency awarded a contract to one of these firms for 

160 of the AWOS 111 systems. These Federally owned 

systems will be installed at airports without towers, 

where they will provide an early enhancement of the 

safety and efficiency of flight operations. The FAA also 

continues to coordinate with the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on the procurement and operation of additional and more sophisticated Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOS). 

The ASOS equipment will be used at airports where 

FAA personnel currently take observations, and at 

additional non-towered airports. The agency has a 

planned requirement for 537 ASOS’s, with a potential 

requirement for an additional 204 systems. 

concluded its evaluation of lightning simulation 

techniques. The agency also co-sponsored an international conference on lightning and static electricity that 

generated 103 papers on electromagnetic research. In 

addition, the agency issued an Advisory Circular on the 

protection of avionic systems against the indirect 

effects of lightning, and another on high energy radio 

frequency fields. 

Icing. The FAA conducted a study of a deicing 

system for aircraft that uses electromagnetic impulses. 

The agency concluded that such systems would be 

suitable for use on metallic aircraft wings, but could 

pose problems for composite wings. 

Aviation Security 

During 1988, the FAA took significant steps toward 

fielding new systems to solve threats against civil 

aviation. Airport testing was completed on two designs 

of thermal neutron analysis systems used to detect 

Atmospheric Electrical Hazards. The FAA 
A chemist at the Federal Aviation Administration Technical 

Center works with a device that can sense traces of vapor 

emitted by plastic compounds and explosives. 

explosives in checked baggage and air cargo. Based 

on testing of over 30,000 passenger bags, a decision 

was made to procure a limited number of these 

systems for deployment at selected airports. A contract 

for procurement of five of these systems was signed in 

August. Deployment of this technology will provide 

the first automated explosives detection system. 

In October, research on detecting explosives carried 

by a passenger proceeded to prototype testing at 

Boston Logan Airport of a system using the chemiluminescence detection technique. False alarms were well 

below one percent, and public acceptance of the 

system was excellent. Additional work is underway on 

the system, as well as on competing technologies, in 

an attempt to further increase the ability to detect 

explosives while decreasing the processing time. 

Significant progress has been made in research to 

improve security at the concourse screening checkpoints. A Phase I Small Business Innovative Research 

Effort solicitation resulted directly in a commercial 

product that should dramatically improve the effectiveness of x-ray inspection system operators. The product 

is a false image projection device to motivate the 

operators and measure their performance. State-of-theart metal detectors and x-ray systems were also 

evaluated during 1988. A new set of smaller weapons, 

fabricated from a cross section of materials, was 

procured for detector calibration. Use of these calibration weapons will bring airport security checkpoints 

into compliance with the Undetectable Firearms Act of 

1988. In addition, technology was identified that has 

shown in laboratory conditions the ability to detect 

nonmetallic weapons carried by an individual. 

In conclusion, the FAA is approaching the problem 

of detection of the terrorist’s tools-weapons and 

explosives-by focusing on detecting the fundamental 

properties of the threat. Mature technologies such as 

thermal neutron analysis have undergone extensive 

airport testing, and a limited number of systems are 

being procured. Other technologies are being pursued 

in anticipation of potential threats such as the nonmetallic handgun. The objective of the program is to 

develop capabilities for the total airport security system 

to deter and defeat threats against civil aviation. 

Aviation Medicine 

During 1988, FAA continued its study of toxicity 

from burning or smoldering materials of the type used 

in aircraft cabins. Three individual toxic gases were 

studied: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide 

(IICN), and acrolein. Two gas mixtures (CO plus HCN, 

and CO plus acrolein) were also studied. Mathematical 

relationships were derived to describe the toxic effects 

of these various gases. This information is used to 

guide decisions on types of materials to be used in 

aircraft interiors. 

In the area of medical certification, research was 

conducted during 1988 on functional color vision 

requirements for Air Traffic Controllers. Future air 

traffic control systems will embody color radar displays. It is important, therefore, to determine if this 

139 
equipment will require specific color vision capabilities 

that will have to be screened for in the initial medical 

examination of air traffic controller applicants. 

Airport Pavement Research 

In 1988, through an Interagency Agreement with the 

Army Corps of Engineers, the FAA completed research 

to update criteria on the design of overlays for deteriorated airport pavements constructed of portland 

concrete cement (PCC). The agency also completed a 

study to assess the importance of the yielding of base 

pavements on satisfactory compaction of asphaltic 

concrete surface courses necessary to assure pavement 

longevity. Research also provided criteria for recycling 

of PCC pavements. Theoretical study of aircraft arresting systems employing soft ground was completed in 

1988. Devices for rapid assessment of pavement 

properties onsite for use in design and strength 

evaluation were completed. In addition, studies on the 

effect on pavement performance of pavement layer 

separation were completed. 

The FAA continued work on methods for strengthening weak subgrade soil through the use of lime, 

cement, flyash, and polymers. The agency continued to 

develop a statistical monitoring system to assure that 

pavement criteria provide the intended level of pavement performance. The FAA also continued to obtain 

information on how to prevent premature cracking of 

pavements in cold climates, and to assess the value of 

foam insulation in decreasing frost heave and thaw 

weakening of airport pavements. Research and development in the area of runway surface roughness 

provided various methods of providing smooth 

runways and taxiways. 

A rapid and accurate method of measuring runway 

profiles was verified during 1988. The agency conducted a simulation study of the use of straightedges of 

various lengths to determine if runway surfaces have 

excessive undulations. These techniques were applied 

to an operational airport runway that was reported to 

provide “rough” rides to airline crew and passengers. 

140 

The results of the investigation verified the “rough” 

condition and recommended suitable runway repair. 

Other Safety Developments 

General Aviation Fuels. In 1988, the FAA completed its evaluation of the use of automobile gasoline 

in general aviation aircraft. The study concluded that 

these aircraft could avoid vapor lock, detonation, and 

other potential problems associated with automobile 

gasoline by operating at reduced power, provided that 

the engine had an adequate power margin. The study 

also reported no evidence of a valve wear problem 

due to the use of unleaded automobile gasoline. 

Safety Fuels. The FAA signed an agreement in 

1988 with the Coordinating Research Council, an 

organization that coordinates research among petroleum, equipment, and transportation industries. Under 

the agreement, the Council will serve as an advisor to 

the agency in its continuing efforts to develop jet fuels 

that will reduce the hazards of postcrash fires. The 

agency conducted preliminary evaluations of two 

safety fuel candidates in 1988, and has scheduled 

screening tests on others for 1989. 

by FAA from its bird ingestion programs in 1988 

indicate, as expected, that high bypass turbofan 

engines, with their large inlet areas, are more likely to 

ingest birds than low bypass turbofan engines or 

turbojet engines. The data also indicate that the current 

medium bird size used in engine certification (1.5 

pounds) may not be sufficient, and FAA is reviewing a 

possible increase in this size. The agency also initiated 

a study of the bird ingestion patterns of the new, very 

high bypass ratio turbofan engines that are used on the 

latest transport aircraft models (Boeing’s 747-400, 757, 

and 767, and Airbus Industrie’s A-320). 

Rotorcrafi Safety. In a cooperative effort with the 

Army and Navy, the FAA began work on the development of lightweight “soft wall” containment materials 

that can absorb and contain fragments from a helicopter turbine engine that is disintegrating. The agency 

Jet Engine Bird Hazard Program Data obtained 
reviewed and analyzed the causes and effects of 

uncontained turbine engine failures in the civil helicopter fleet through 1984 and, in 1989, will examine 

and analyze the data on such failures through 1987. 

The FAA also developed and published an Emergency 

Medical Services Advisory Circular (AC 135-14) for 

prospective and current helicopter operators providing 

this type of service. Generated during several meetings 

with industry, this document focuses on safety enhancement. 

Aircrafi Rescue and Firefighting. Current 

firefighting agents have been found ineffective against 

three-dimensional magnesium fires. The FAA performed tests with a new agent called Borolon, which 

has shown promise in upgrading our ability to fight 

aircraft magnesium fires. The agency is also evaluating 

a new concept, the use of heavy-duty hydrocarbon 

agents that are plunged into burning fuel to form a 

water-in-oil emulsion that acts as a skin to smother the 

fire. Tests to date have concentrated on the four most 

promising of these agents. Another significant accomplishment was the determination of the cause of 

deteriorating performance of certain firefighting agents 

in the field. The FAA also extended the firefighting test 

envelope of dry powder agents to more difficult fire 

scenarios. 

Cabin Fire Safety. Late in 1988, the FAA completed its ground and flight evaluations of new concepts for evacuating cabin smoke during in-flight fires. 

Preliminary results indicate that exhaust valves installed 

in the cabin roof, where smoke accumulates, are more 

effective than exhaust valves now installed in the belly 

of transport aircraft. 

Low Impact Resistance Structures. The FAA 

continued its development of Low Impact Resistance 

Structures (LIRS) designed to reduce the damage 

sustained by aircraft that might collide with air navigation equipment and supports. Work proceeded on the 

mathematical model and on design and test criteria for 

LIRS, including Fixed Offshore Frangible Structures. 

During 1988, the agency completed static-type tests of 

a land-based plastic tower that is 20 feet high and 

strong enough to support Microwave Landing System 

equipment. Dynamic tests of the tower’s top platform 

were also completed. Preparations were made to 

conduct a series of laboratory impact tests of the 

tower’s structural shape components. These tests will 

establish the dynamic response characteristics and 

fracture behavior of the structural shapes and the 

integral break-away mechanisms. A wing from a light 

aircraft will be procured and instrumented for a 

dynamic impact test of the instrumented 20 foot tower 

that is scheduled for October 1989. 

Also during 1988, the FAA completed a draft report, 

“Static and Dynamic Strength of Electrical Conductors 

Specified for Airport Approach Lighting Structures” 

(DOT/FAA/PS-88-13), and began review in preparation 

for publication in 1989. The report covers the design 

and fabrication of the dynamic test apparatus developed to measure the energy and force required to 

break the electrical cables that are part of the structures that could damage an impacting aircraft. 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

National Airspace System Plan 

major step in implementing the National Airspace 

System (NAS) Plan, a technological blueprint for 

modernizing and increasing the capacity of nation’s 

system of air navigation and air traffic control, when it 

commissioned the Host Computer System at the Salt 

Lake City air route traffic control center (ARTCC) in 

June 1988. This was the twentieth and final ARTCC to 

receive the new system, and the event marked the 

successful completion of the program. While using the 

same basic instruction package as the IBM 9020 

computers that they replaced, the Host systems are ten 

times faster and have four times the capacity. They will 

be able to handle the air traffic workload projected for, 

1995 using less than 40 percent of their capacity. 

Besides allowing for unforeseen growth, this capacity 

margin will enable the FAA to add new automation 

Host Computer System The FAA completed a 

141 
functions and to upgrade such existing capabilities as 

conflict alert and en route traffic metering. 

Advanced Automation System The Advanced 

Automation System (AAS) is a totally new system 

designed to replace the air traffic control automation 

equipment now used in air route traffic control centers 

and terminal radar approach control facilities. AAS will 

include new controller workstations called “sector 

suites,” new computer software, and new processors to 

improve productivity, processing capacity, and reliability, and to provide the flexibility necessary for future 

improvment in air traffic control automation. 

In July 1988, the FAA awarded an acquisition 

contract to IBM after a four-year design competition 

between IBM and Hughes Aircraft Company. The 

award was suspended for three months due to a 

protest by Hughes. The government successfully 

defended the award before the General Services 

Administration Contract Board of Appeals, and work 

resumed on the contract in November. The AAS will 

be phased into the National Airspace System, beginning in 1991 with replacement of obsolete interface 

equipment, and ending in 2001 with commissioning of 

the last equipment in air traffic control towers. 

Voice Switching and Control System The Voice 

Switching and Control System (VSCS) program will 

provide controllers at air traffic control centers with 

computer controlled voice switching for air-ground 

communications and intercom and interphone communications within and between FAA facilities. VSCS will 

be faster and more flexible, reliable, and economical to 

maintain than the present electromechanical switching 

system. 

Design and development of the new system began 

in October 1986 with the the award of competitive 

contracts to AT&T Technologies and Harris Corporation. A critical design review was conducted on the 

two competing prototypes early in 1988, and a request 

for proposals for the acquisition contract was issued in 

November. An acquisition contract to produce and 

install 24 systems will be awarded in late 1989 to one 

of the competing contractors. The first system is 

expected to be operational in 1991. 

New York TRACON. Work proceeded under a 

contract awarded in 1986 to UNISYS for upgrading the 

automated air traffic control system at the New York 

Terminal Radar Approach Control Facility (TRACON). 

Upgrading is required to increase the capacity of the 

current system, which services three major airports and 

40 satellite airports in the New York Metropolitan area. 

Because of the complexity of the effort, the project is 

being undertaken in two stages. Stage I will provide 

tracking of 1,700 aircraft within a 15,000 square mile 

area. Stage I1 will increase the tracking capability to 

2,800 aircraft. 

In January 1988, an interim capacity upgrade 

became operational to provide near-term capacity until 

Stages I and I1 can be implemented. In the course of 

the year, hardware testing was completed at the FAA 

Technical Center for Stage I, and the first system was 

delivered to the field. Stage I1 equipment will be 

delivered to FAA for test and evaluation early in 1989. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

Technical Center emphasized the development and 

testing of lighting and marking systems to provide 

guidance under the lower visibility weather conditions. 

Evaluation of present standard taxiway sign devices to 

determine performance under natural conditions of 

very low visibility continued whenever fog occurred. 

New and unique taxiway centerline markings, which 

warn pilots of an approach to critical taxiway intersections, were evaluated under simulated low-visibility fog 

conditions. The FAA completed development and 

refinement of an in-pavement lighting system to warn 

pilots of the point at which they must hold clear of an 

intersecting runway when given a “cleared to land but 

hold short” clearance. The system will be installed for 

in-service testing at an air carrier airport during 1989. 

Additional work in support of FAA regional offices, 

During 1988, visual guidance activities at the FAA 

142 
principally in providing solutions to field-encountered 

problems with visual aids, continued throughout 1988. 

Airport Capacity 

Enhancement and Delay Reduction. This continuing 

FAA program provides site-specific analysis of current 

airport conditions that cause delay. The Task Forces 

are made up of representatives from the FAA, major 

and commuter airlines, the general aviation industry, 

airport sponsors, airport consultants, and local planning agencies. These groups evaluate current conditions and proposals for airport improvements in order 

to optimize capacity and reduce delay. Each Task 

Force uses computer simulation modeling techniques 

to analyze present and future levels of operations. Task 

Forces have identified the need for new runways, 

changes in operational procedures, and modification of 

taxiway and gate structures. In 1988, Task Force 

studies were completed at Miami, St. Louis, Detroit, 

and Memphis. Studies continued at Boston, Phoenix, 

Salt Lake City, and Kansas City, while new studies 

began at Washington/Dulles, Seattle, and Orlando. 

FAA recognizes the urgent need for improved computer models to study airspace congestion near 

airports and in multi-airport terminal areas. The agency 

is vigorously developing simulation capabilities that 

will accurately depict the consequences of new 

procedures and designs affecting airspace and airports. 

In 1988, computer simulation modeling was used as 

a tool in addressing several critical capacity and delay 

problems and issues in the Los Angeles Basin. Modeling was used in identifying and evaluating potential 

solutions to congestion and delay. Included were 

evaluation of operational alternatives involving realigning airspace, redesigning aircraft routings, and revising 

procedures to enhance the efficiency and safety of air 

traffic operations. Simulation capabilities were used to 

quantify delay, travel time, capacity, and sector loadTask Force Studies on Airport Capacity 

Airspace and Airport Sinrulation Modek. The 

ing, as well as the operating cost impacts of proposed 

new airspace structures, routings, and procedures. 

Using FAA’s Airport/Airspace Delay and Fuel 

Consumption Simulation Model (SIMMOD), the 

capacity of Los Angeles International Airport was 

determined. Delays were quantified for air traffic 

passing through narrow flight corridors in order to 

avoid airspace reserved for military special use. Over 

30 hours of daily delay are attributed to the problem of 

special-use airspace. Alternative routing and procedures were evaluated for efficiency and delay reduction. The priorities for reserving large quantities of 

airspace for the military near population centers must 

be changed. 

NASPAC (National Airspace System Performance 

Analysis Capability), a prototype model that simulates 

air traffic through the NAS, was developed in 1988. 

The model aids in developing limiting factors in the 

NAS that cause congestion and delay. This enables 

planners to work toward solutions to reduce choke 

points and limitations. Applications of NASPAC will 

provide an integrated, in-house operations research 

capability to respond to questions on system performance, capacity, and flow management. Additionally, 

NASPAC will enable airspace system planners to vary 

operating conditions that affect capacity and delay, and 

allow them to develop optimal solutions for meeting 

air traffic requirements. 

In 1988, the FAA upgraded its Dynamic Ocean 

Tracking System (DOTS), a model which computes the 

most fuel-efficient track and vertical profile, taking into 

account the weather, aircraft performance, separation 

rules, and airspace availability, for each aircraft entering the track system. An agreement between the U.S. 

and Japan was reached, and an Annex signed to 

permit testing of DOTS in the central Pacific. A Traffic 

Display System at the Oakland air route traffic control 

center has undergone installation, demonstration, and 

evaluation in preparation for the upcoming testing of 

aircraft position reports in Japanese-controlled airspace. 

143 
Precision Runway Monitor Program Plan. This 

program is a response to the rapid growth of air traffic, 

which is forecast to increase at 6 percent annually, and 

the consequent urgent need for airport capacity 

solutions that can be implemented within the next five 

years. At airports with parallel runways, “dependent” 

approaches are required when runway separation and 

weather conditions dictate that controllers maintain 

diagonal separation between aircraft on the parallel 

runways, as well as in-trail separation between aircraft 

on the same runway. Capacity (arrivals per hour) can 

be increased by an average of 40 percent if the distance between the runways is sufficient to remove the 

diagonal separation requirements and thus allow the 

arrival streams to be independent of each other. Under 

visual flight conditions, independent approaches are 

permitted with runways separated by as little as 700 

feet. Under instrument flight conditions, however, 

runways must be separated by at least 4,300 feet to 

allow independent approaches. 

Recent studies have suggested that independent 

approaches to parallel runways separated by as little as 

3,000 feet can be safely conducted under instrument 

conditions if arriving aircraft are monitored by a 

precise radar system that will update aircraft position 

faster than the 4.8 second rate of existing approach 

radar systems. This capability will reduce capacity 

problems at ten candidate airports. About 50 additional 

airports will benefit if the concept can be applied to 

converging runways. In addition, independent approaches to closely spaced parallel runways will open 

possibilities for new runway construction at other 

airports with land-limited conditions. To meet these 

objectives, the FAA has undertaken a comprehensive 

demonstration program involving two different technical approaches to finding a suitable sensor for monitoring closely spaced independent parallel approaches. 

Both approaches are based on application engineering 

of existing technology, and hence can be implemented 

in the near term. 

One approach is to modify the new Mode S beacon 

system, presently being procured for installation at all 

major airports, by adding another antenna. The backto-back, mechanically rotating antenna will double the 

update interval of the Mode S system, so that it will 

“see” a target once every 2.4 seconds. The other 

approach is to develop a very high update rate sensor 

that will use a fixed, circular, electronically scanned (EScan) phased array antenna. This antenna is a derivative of a circular antenna developed for the Navy. 

Aircraft tracking algorithms and software were extracted from the TCAS collision avoidance program 

described earlier in this report. The electronically 

scanned antenna will be able to see each approaching 

aircraft once every half second. 

Operational demonstration of the Mode S system 

began in August 1988, in Memphis, Tennessee. The EScan system will be delivered to Raleigh-Durham, 

North Carolina, in February 1989, for a demonstration 

that will continue through 1990. 

Air Tranic Control Radar Training. The FAA is 

constantly faced with the challenging task of maintaining a highly trained air traffic controller workforce. 

This task has become increasingly difficult in recent 

years due to the large influx of new air traffic control 

(ATC) personnel and a significant increase in traffic. In 

1986, the agency initiated a research project to explore 

the basic feasibility of exploiting “expert systems” 

computer technology for controller training. The initial 

analysis was promising, and the FAA proceeded to 

develop a prototype system during 1987 and 1988. 

Working closely with ATC personnel from Boston 

Logan International Airport, the contractor developed a 

prototype system that utilizes a low-cost personal 

computer and expert system logic to emulate the pilots 

and the instructor during radar training simulation 

exercises. 

from the controller’s handbook regarding aircraft 

separation minima, interfacility letters of agreement, 

The prototype loads the expert system with “rules” 

144 
An XV-15 tiltrotor research aircraft built by Bell Helicopter 

Textron. 

internal procedures, noise abatement procedures, 

restricted areas, and any other “rule” the training department wishes to teach. The controller trainee is supported by a psuedo-pilot who uses keyboard entries to 

“fly” the aircraft. The computer reacts to the data 

entries with appropriate “pilot” responses through a 

voice generator. Also, the expert system monitors the 

position and altitude of every aircraft and, using a 

different voice, alerts the trainee to any rule violations. 

A contract is being let for an independent evaluation during 1989 that will include an estimate of the 

training effectiveness of an expert system technology 

application based on a personal computer. If the 

application is found effective, the contractor will 

provide the foundation for defining the functional 

requirements associated with a major acquisition of 

production-level systems. 

Rotorcrafi/Power Lifi Vehicles Program 

Safety section above, the FAA took a number of steps 

In addition to the actions discussed in the Rotorcraft 

to assist the development and efficient operation of 

helicopters and power lift vehicles, including tiltrotor 

aircraft. 

committee was formed to assess design standards for 

large heliports and for vertiports intended for tiltrotor 

operations. The FAA appointed Kegional Heliport 

Development Coordinators to carry out mission 

responsibilities to industry in the area of heliport and 

vertiport development. These coordinators will serve 

as a focal point for development concerns within 

specific geographic areas. 

lighting systems intended to support both precision 

and non-precision helicopter instrument approach 

operations were tested under simulated low-visibility 

conditions to develop visibility credits that may be 

allowed for installed lighting systems. Validation testing 

of these systems will continue during the next year. 

Helicopter Routes. Helicopter operations were 

significantly improved with the development and 

publication of new helicopter charts for use under 

visual flight rules. The most recent of these were the 

charts for Washington, D.C., and Chicago, Illinois. 

These charts enhance helicopter operations in and 

around terminal control areas by allowing equal access 

to available air space. They comply with environmental 

concerns, and consider travel flow and helicopter use 

needs. 

Helicopter Wake Vortex Study. In 1988, the FAA 

and the Department of Transportation completed their 

joint study of the characteristics of helicopter wake 

vortices. The final report will be published in 1989. 

The FAA will use the data to develop air traffic control 

standards for helicopters operating in terminal areas. 

Civil Tiltrotor. In 1988, the FAA, NASA, Depanment of Defense, and Department of Commerce began 

to pursue the development and implementation of a 

coordinated civil tiltrotor transportation plan. The goal 

of the plan is to make the U.S. civil air transportation 

system ready for introduction of the civil tiltrotor in 

Heliports. In July 1988, a joint FMIndustry 

Heliport Approach Lighting Systems. Approach 

145 
1995, with early demonstrations beginning in 1992. In 

order to accomplish this, development and support of 

preparation for the commercial launch operations that 

were to begin in 1989. 

Policy and Legislation airport, airway, and air traffic infrastructure was 

initiated. Certification of aircraft and airmen was also Since 1984. when OCST was created. several maior 

begun. 

The FAA Technical Center hosted an FAAhdustry 

Kotorcraft forum. The forum provided information to 

the industry on FAA accomplishments, rotorcraft 

technology to be fielded in the 1990’s, an overview of 

heliport and vertiport development, and public awareness on such issues as noise and other environmental 

concerns. 

Rotorcrafl Aeronautical Decidonmaking. 

During 1988, the FAA continued to develop and 

distribute aeronautical decisionmaking materials 

(ADM), publications designed to increase skills in 

choosing the best available option. Expanding on the 

ADM training manual for helicopter pilots, the agency 

developed new training materials for pilots, operators, 

and hospital administrators involved in helicopter 

emergency medical services. The FAA began developing an Advisory Circular on ADM general applications, 

and initiated a feasibility study to ascertain whether 

ADM techniques can be applied to air traffic control. 

Rotorcrafl Govemment/Industty Cooperation. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

(OCST), established by the Secretary of Transportation 

in 1984, is charged by Executive Order 12465 and the 

Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 with overseeing 

and coordinating the U.S. commercial space transportation industry. This mandate includes the responsibilities for establishing a policy environment that serves to 

enhance the industry’s position in world markets and 

for defining regulatory guidance that ensures safe and 

responsible launch operations. 

During 1988, OCST continued to enter new areas 

and break new ground to create the foundations for 

guiding privately conducted launch activities in 

-, 

Federal policy decisions have reinforced the 

Government’s support for commercial space enterprise 

in general and for a vigorous commercial space 

transportation industry in particular. For its part, OCST 

has worked to ensure that Federal policies affecting 

this industry lead to continued growth, diversified 

services and reliable access to space at reasonable cost. 

National Space Policy. The release of the 

President’s National Space Policy in February 1988 

recognized for the first time a distinct commercial 

space sector which, along with the military and civilian 

Government sector, forms an integral part of the 

overall national effort to maintain U.S. space leadership. Concurrently, with the release of the national 

space policy, the Administration announced a 15-point 

plan on commercial space initiatives. The new policy 

was aptly named “Space Policy and Commercial Space 

Initiative to Begin the Next Century.” 

The Amendments to the Commercial Space 

Launch Act. Having advanced to the point where it 

had successfully secured its first launch contracts, the 

commercial space transportation industry was almost 

immediately confronted with a serious issue: potentially open-ended exposure to liability for damages 

associated with launch operations. Such exposure 

threatened to undermine the position of U.S. firms visa-vis their foreign competitors. 

The Administration and the Congress successfully 

crafted a legislative initiative to address this concern. 

Building on work conducted by OCST in the area of 

risk assessment and management, the Commercial 

Space Launch Act Amendments of 1988 established a 

Government/industry risk sharing scheme that will 

permit companies to acquire insurance at rates that do 

not render them uncompetitive, thus helping to assure 

U.S. access to space through commercial providers. 

146 
In other areas, the 1988 Amendments helped clarify 

the types of costs for which commercial users must 

reimburse the national launch ranges, established 

incentives for the launch of certain eligible satellites on 

US. launch vehicles, provided protection from arbitrary Government preemption of commercial launch 

slots, gave instructions to DOT to study more efficient 

and commercially reasonable scheduling of commercial launches at national ranges, gave the sense of Congress that the United States should pursue guidelines 

for fair international competition in commercial space 

activities, and assigned NASA the responsibility of 

designing a program to support research into launch 

system component technologies. 

Status of the U.S. Commercial Space 

Transportation Industry 

an environment that is more conducive to private 

investment in and business commitments to commercial launch activities. At present, at least eight domestic 

launch firms are actively marketing their services: three 

major aerospace manufacturers-Martin Marietta, 

McDonnell Douglas and General Dynamics-and five 

smaller firms: Space Services, Inc.; American Rocket 

Company; Orbital Sciences Corporation; E’Prime 

Aerospace Corporation; and Conatec, Inc. As of June 

1988, these commercial launch companies have 

contracts worth nearly a billion dollars in potential 

revenues. 

As of the end of 1988, these private sector firms 

have already invested almost $500 million in commercial launch activities. The greatest portion of this 

investment was made by the three largest commercial 

launch companies; however, a significant amount of 

capital has been invested by each of the smaller firms 

as well. 

Regulatory Program 

DOT shoulders primary responsibility for ensuring 

commercial launch activities are conducted safely and 

responsibly. 

Taken together, these policy initiatives have created 

Licensing Regulations. The Licensing Programs 

Division of OCST is responsible for issuing launch 

licenses for commercial launch activities. The purpose 

of this licensing process is to protect public health and 

safety, property, and U.S. national security and foreign 

policy interests, and to ensure compliance with U.S. 

international obligations. Final licensing regulations 

were issued on April 4, 1988. The regulations address 

the wide range of activities for which OCST is responsible-launches, launch site operations, and certain 

payload activities-and are intended to provide the 

means for ensuring that each proposal is thoroughly, 

but promptly, reviewed. 

In 1988, OCST issued two launch licenses: one to 

Conatec, Inc., covering two sub-orbital microgravity 

payloads to be launched from the White Sands Missile 

Kange in New Mexico; and one to McDonnell Douglas 

Astronautics Company for launch of a telecommunications satellite for the Government of India (INSAT 1-D) 

from Cape Canaveral, Florida. 

In addition to issuing two licenses, DOT has also 

completed mission reviews for Martin Marietta’s 

proposed launch of two communications satellites, 

SKYNET and JCSAT, aboard its Titan launch vehicle. 

Insurance Requirements. By 1988, OCST had 

recommended, as a matter of policy, to establish 

insurance requirements for commercial launch activities based on an assessment of the actual risks associated with each proposed activity. 

In 1988, OCST established insurance requirements 

for four companies. The office issued both third-party 

liability and Government property insurance requirements to Conatec, Inc. The office also completed the 

analytical work upon which to base Government 

property insurance requirements for the three major 

launch firms. 

safety problems associated with this industry had 

become more clearly defined. OCST efforts subsequently shifted from data collection to research and 

Research for Regulatory Functions. By 1988, the 

147 
analysis of specific issue areas. Primary focus was on 

areas where public safety was most immediately 

affected or industry advancements would most likely 

require a new body of Federal safety knowledge, 

including the following: issues associated with characterization of commercial launch risks; new flight 

concepts; flight safety equipment; range safety practices; personnel qualifications; and debris reentry. 

Some examples of research in 1988 follow. 

International Activities 

The year 1988 saw greatly increased activity in the 

world space launch market. OCST was an important 

participant in international negotiations concerning the 

competitive conditions under which this market will 

operate in the future. 

European Space Agency Talks. In July and 

October, 1987 and July 1988, the U.S. and the European Space Agency held informal talks to determine if 

negotiations to establish trade rules, or “rules of the 

road,” for the space launch services industry would be 

advisable. During 1988, OCST co-chaired the U.S. 

Interagency Working Group which, along with its 

European counterpart, attempted to fashion a comparative assessment of policies and practices that 

constitute direct Government supports. 

Chinese Commercial Launch Services. A development of major importance for the U.S. commercial 

space transportation industry was the entry of the 

People’s Republic of China (PKC) into active competition for launch customers. DOT/OCST became concerned about the impact that allowing U.S.-made 

satellites to be launched on Chinese launch vehicles at 

potentially arbitrarily low prices could have on the U.S. 

commercial space launch industry. Building on the 

President’s National Space Policy, the Department 

argued that a broad range of national interests, including long-term national security, are advanced by a 

strong, diversified commercial launch sector. Unfair 

competition would undermine the industry and U.S. 

strategic interests as well. 

On the recommendation of SIG-Space and the 

Economic Policy Council, and recognizing the strategic 

advantages of a strong U.S. commercial space transportation industry, the President notified Congress on 

September 12, 1988, of his intent to approve two 

pending satellite export license applications, contingent on the PKC’s agreement to three conditions. The 

first two conditions related to liability and technology 

transfer. The third condition required completion of a 

U.S.-PKC agreement to protect the U.S. launch industry 

from unfair Chinese pricing or trade practices. No 

licenses would be issued until all three conditions had 

been met and COCOM had approved the exports. The 

US. entered negotiations with the Chinese in October 

1988. These negotiations were concluded and the 

agreement signed by the end of January 1989. 

Special Issues 

Allocation of Critical Resources. Approximately 

one-half of the U.S. capability to produce ammonium 

perchlorate (AP), which is used for solid rocket motor 

fuel, was destroyed in an explosion of the PEPCON 

facility in May 1988. 

gency Management Agency (FEMA) to determine that 

the commercial space launch sector should receive 

equal priority with NASA and the Department of 

Defense for purposes of the allocation of this critical 

resource. FEMA’s positive response authorized “the 

commercial space launch program to receive priorities 

and allocations support under Title 1 of the Defense 

Production Act.” 

Infrastructure. U.S. firms currently rely upon the 

existing national launch infrastructure to support 

commercial operations. This infrastructure consists of 

several launch sites and facilities made available on a 

direct-cost, reimbursable basis to commercial launch 

firms, but which are nonetheless subject to first-priority 

Government usage. Thus, an exciting development in 

1988 was the stated intention of two states to consider 

In September 1988, DOT asked the Federal EmerCommercial Space Transportation 

148 
development of commercial spaceports. These states 

committed to expend relatively large sums of state 

funds to assess their feasibility. OCST played an active 

role in supporting these initiatives through the provision of information and ongoing efforts to study and 

clarify issues pertaining to commercial range operations. 

In February 1988, a consulting firm completed a 

study for the State of Hawaii and selected Palima Point 

and Kahilipali Point as the sites with the best potential 

to be commercial spaceports. Subsequently, the State 

announced plans to award a contract for the preparation of a master plan and environmental impact 

statement for a commercial expendable launch vehicle 

complex and associated facilities for all classes of 

boosters. 

plans to establish a commercial spaceport. Spaceport 

Florida would be a launch services and payload 

processing facility for the use of commercial orbital 

and sub-orbital launch operations. Florida selected a 

consulting firm to formulate a master development and 

business plan for Spaceport Florida. 

On March 1988, the Governor of Florida announced 

In addition, the Commonwealth of Virginia indicated its commitment to encouraging commercial 

launches from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility within 

the next five years. 

Outreach Activities 

A critical ingredient to the success of the commercial space launch initiative is OCST’s ability to communicate how it intends to regulate commercial space 

transportation activities and identify resources it has 

developed through its research program for that 

purpose. 

In June 1988, OCST and NASA jointly sponsored a 

highly successful symposium titled “Future of the U.S. 

Space Transportation Industry.” This event brought 

together senior officials from Government and industry 

to discuss future issues affecting the industry. 

In October 1988, OCST, NASA and the Air Force 

jointly sponsored the “Commercial Space Kisk and Insurance Symposium.” This symposium was targeted to 

the insurance community for the purpose of describing 

OCST’s technical approach to the risks associated with 

space transportation. 

149 
Photointerpretation analysis of hazardous waste site using 

large-scale vertical aerial photography. 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency @PA), 

through its Environmental Monitoring Systems 

Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada (EMSL-LV), routinely 

conducts research and technical support using remote 

sensing as part of an overall environmcntal monitoring 

program. Large scale aerial photography is collected 

and interpreted to support the provisions of the 

Kesource Conservation and Kecovery Act (KCKA) and 

the Comprehensive Environmental Kesponse, 

Compensation, and Liability Act (CEKCLA); medium 

scale photography is collected and interpreted to 

support non-point pollution studies, wetlands 

protection, coastal zone studies, and forest ecosystem 

decline due to acid deposition; and high altitude 

photography is interpreted for broad area studies in 

the coastal zone and to contribute land use/land cover 

information in risk assessment studies. Airborne and 

satellite multispectral scanner data are collected and 

interpreted to support water quality, non-point 

pollution, hazardous waste, and acid deposition 

investigations. Airborne laser systems are developed 

which contribute to air and water monitoring, and a 

geographic information system (CIS) is used to 

integrate multiple data sets in support of all EPA 

programs. 

Hazardous Waste 

Large scale aerial photography is used to develop 

site wharacterization data during the remedial investigatiodfeasibility study (KI/FS) portion of remedial 

actions under CEKCLA (the SUPERFUND). Aerial 

photographs are collected from a variety of archival 

sources which may date from the late 1920’s and 

continue to the present. A site history is developed by 

visually interpreting the historical photography, 

annotating changes at the site. This provides vital 

information on the location of drums, pits, and lagoons, as well as the level of activity at the site over 

time. Further photographic interpretations provide 

documentation of cleanup progress and are sometimes 

used to monitor post-cleanup status. The same photoLandsat Multispectral Scanner image showing turbidity 

plume at left flowing north from the Welland Canal into 

Lake Ontario in the upper part of the image. The eastern 

tip of Lake Erie is visible in the lower left. 

graphs are also used to develop detailed topographic 

maps of each site which are critical to the cleanup 

process. 

Aerial photography is also used to support site 

selection and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities 

operating under KCKA. During the site selection 

process, aerial photographs, airborne multispectral 

scanner data, and satellite imagery are interpreted to 

develop a detailed site characterization. The interpretations are then used with collateral data (such as soils, 

geology, and groundwater data) to determine 

applicability under the site selection criteria. Aerial 

photography is routinely used to monitor development, operation, and closure activities once a site has 

been approved for operation. 

151 
Aerial photography also supports emergency actions 

during spills and accidents. Photographs are acquired 

through local contractors and are interpreted and sent 

to the field within 24 to 48 hours of an accident or 

spill. These photographs of existing conditions form a 

permanent record of the on-scene conditions and are 

used to develop control and remedial strategies. 

Water Quality 

Kemote sensing systems are developed and used by 

EPA to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. 

The Landsat satellite system and an airborne multispectral scanner are used in conjunction with water 

samples to map the extent of Chlorophyll a, Secchi 

depth, turbidity, dissolved organic carbon, and a 

variety of other water quality parameters in both 

freshwater lakes and near-coastal marine environments. 

A Laser Fluorosensor, developed by EPA, is an 

airborne profiling system that is capable of measuring 

an array of water related features in all fresh, estuarine 

and marine waters. These include chlorophyll a, 

dissolved organic carbon, the optical attenuation 

coefficient, water body mixing, estuarine salinty and 

the density of blue green algal blooms. The primary 

use for this sensor is to provide regional scale water 

quality coverage through extrapolation of limited 

concurrent “ground truth” data sets obtained from grab 

samples or in situ measurements. As a logical extension of this activity, the same data can be used to 

“calibrate” airborne and satellite multispectral scanner 

data gathered over extensive spatial scales. 

Aerial photography and satellite data also support 

non-point pollution studies. Satellite imagery provides 

the broad view of land cover, while aerial photographs 

provide detailed interpretations of the distributions of 

feeder lots, poultry farms, and other activities requiring 

high spatial resolution. These data are input to models, 

such as Purdue University’s “Answers Model” to 

determine nutrient loadings to aquatic ecosystems. 

n 

Fluorescence and Raman Emission fmm Surface 

Laser Fluorosensor. 

Air Quality 

EPA is currently using an airborne two-frequency 

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAK) system to 

monitor particulates associated with point source 

plumes, major urban plumes and air masses. In 

development (with partial NASA support) is an airborne Ultraviolet Differential Absorption LIDAR (W 

DIAL) to simultaneously measure ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. These instruments provide rangeresolved profiles under the aircraft which can be used 

to monitor pollutant transport expecially in coastal 

areas and complex terrain where models perform 

poorly and where air pollution transport problems arc 

most severe. 

152 
_- 

. ti! 

Seneca County, Ohio. Classification of agricultural lands into crop residue categories using Landsat Thematic Mapper 

data. These data wen? required as input to a nonpoint source runoff model which was used to determine nutrient loadings 

into rivers and lakes. 

EPA, in conjunction with the U S National Park 

Service, is also conducting remote measurements of 

visibility in Class I areas (National Parks and Wilderness Areas). Photographic and electro-optical sensors 

are deployed to monitor scenic vistas to determine 

atmospheric extinction coefficients. Variations in 

extinction coefficients are then related to variations in 

air pollutant levels. 

Wetland Protection 

An area of increasing environmental concern is the 

protection of the Nations wetlands. A major problem 

facing legislators and program administrators is the 

availability of accurate and rapidly updateable spatial 

information on the status and trends of wetland 

resources on both a National and regional scale. The 

EPA is attempting to fill this void through implementation of a Nation wide environmental monitoring and 

assessment program (EMAP) for wetland resources. 

Remote sensing and CIS research is being conducted 

by EPA to provide advance wetland identification and 

spatial data analysis analysis techniques in support of 

the program. 

EPA is using single date and multi-temporal Landsa 

Thematic Mapper (TM) data and CIS technology to 

delineate wetlands for wetland advance identification, 

change detection, and spatial distribution analysis. 

Current applications include the use of multitemporal TM data to delineate the past and current 

extent of regional bottom land hardwood (BLH) 

wetland resources. GIS data analysis of satellite data 

products will provide maps and statistical information 

on the rate of BLH wetlands destruction, the spatial 

153 
distribution of BLH losses, and facilitate a prediction of 

future rates and spatial distributions of BLH losses. 

Spatial information derived form the studies will 

provide a valuable tool to law makers responsible for 

stewardship of the Nation’s wetland and to Regional 

decision makers responsible for administration of the 

Clean Water Act, Section 404 program. 

Data Integration 

Often, single-media monitoring and modeling do 

not provide sufficient scientific explanation of the 

complex environmental phenomena which affect 

human and ecological health. A geographic information system (CIS) is being implemented in EPA to 

provide a tool for multi-media data integration and 

analysis. The CIS is used to overlay and combine data 

from remote sensing, existing spatial databases, and 

tabular data from state, local, and EPA national databases to provide analyses of complex environmental 

situations for programs such as wetlands and estuarine 

protection, water quality, acid deposition, global 

climate, and hazardous waste cleanup. 

DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL MOSAIC 

With Selected Digital Line Graph Data 

GIs data integration: Geographic Information Systems 

(01s) provide a common framework to integrate and relate 

multiple iayers, or themes of data. This example shows 

the integration of digital elevation model data wlth 

transportation and hydrography digitai line graph data 

layers. 

Example of Ligtrt Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) system 

graph. 

154 
National Science Foundation 

Atmospheric Sciences 

The world’s most powerful sodium resonance lidar 

system was developed at the University of Illinois in 

Urbana, Illinois, in 1988. The high power of this 

system puts it among the most powerful Rayleigh 

scatter lidars in the world. The combination of these 

two techniques allows high time resolution measurements of the structure and dynamics of the atmosphere 

from 30 to 110 km during both the day and night. 

Initial results from the system have shown rapid highdensity changes associated with meteors, large perturbations due to gravity waves, and other previously 

unseen changes in the density structure of the upper 

atmosphere. Planned use of the system should go far 

in increasing our understanding of perturbations that 

are important in applications related to re-entry 

vehicles (shuttle, satellite debris) and in deducing the 

links between changes in lower and upper atmosphere 

weather systems. 

A new meteorological hazard (the “downburst”) for 

aviation was postulated by Professor Theodore Fujita, 

University of Chicago, using flight data recovered from 

a commercial aircraft that crashed at Kennedy International Airport in 1975. The National Science Foundation (NSF) supported three subsequent field experiments-in Illinois, Colorado, and Alabama-designed 

to verify the existence, structure, and evolution of the 

downburst postulated by Fujita. These experiments 

verified his predictions and provided much additional 

detail showing that a hierarchy of downbursts did exist 

and that they could be a serious hazard to aircraft, 

especially during landing and take-off. This new 

knowledge has been incorporated into various pilot 

training programs that teach pilots to avoid or minimize the effects of downbursts. 

In addition, the role of Doppler radar in the detection of microbursts has been greatly expanded through 

the use of polarization in identifying the existence and 

distribution of ice and water precipitation particles. 

Evaporation of such particles and the resulting cooling 

of the air are thought to be a major cause of 

downbursts. 

The National Science Foundation has completed 

installation of a network of stations for monitoring 

ultraviolet radiation levels at Earth’s surface under the 

Antarctic “ozone hole.” This year, the last of four 

monitoring systems was installed at Ushuaia, Argentina; the others are located at the U.S. Antarctic Program stations at the South Pole, McMurdo, and Palmer. 

Data from this network will be used to determine the 

extent of ultraviolet (especially UV-B) radiation enhancement caused by the Antarctic ozone depletion 

and to assess the biological consequences thereof on 

organisms and personnel in Antarctica. 

Astronomical Sciences 

Gravitational lenses refer to massive objects that 

bend the light of more distant celestial sources located 

along the same line of sight. Their existence follows 

from Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. Independent evidence for the existence of gravitational lenses 

has been reported by optical and radio astronomers. 

Optical astronomers discovered extremely long, 

luminous arcs in two clusters of galaxies. Several 

theories have been proposed to explain the nature of 

these objects, but present evidence appears to indicate 

strongly that they are produced by gravitational 

lensing. A group of radio astronomers discovered an 

elliptically shaped source, which appears to be the 

gravitationally lensed image of a radio galaxy. 

detectors that are causing a revolution in infrared 

astronomy. Infrared images of galaxies that previously 

required ten hours of observations can now be obtained in seconds. In combination with other instruments, the detectors provide images of interacting 

galaxies, molecular clouds which are the sites of star 

formation, and solar systems in states of evolution 

different from our own. 

Astronomers developed and put into operation array 

155 
The first visible light echo ever observed from a One of the fastest rotating pulsars, located in an 

eclipsing binary system, was discovered. Measurements 

of the orbital motion of the system indicate that the 

pulsar’s companion is not massive enough for nuclear 

reactions to begin in its interior and, therefore, that it is 

a substellar object, possibly a brown dwarf. 

supernova has been detected. This phenomenon 

consists of two expanding, luminous arcs, which 

originate in light reflected off interstellar clouds located 

in the vicinity of Supernova 1987A in the Magellanic 

Clouds. 

156 
7- I I 1 

63%’ 

0 

Two views of the remnant of an exploded star known as “Tycho’s Supernova” (observed by Tycho 

Brahe in 1572). The upper view is an x-ray image made by the HEAO-2 (Einstein) satellite; the 

lower view is a map of radio emission from the same object. Both views show the expanding 

“bubble” of hot, gaseous material ejected into space by the stellar explosion. 

(Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory photo) 
The Smithsonian Institution contributes to national 

space goals through the basic research programs of the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 

Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the Center for Earth 

and Planetary Studies (CEPS) at the National Air and 

Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, DC. NASM also 

contributes significantly to public understanding of 

space research and exploration through its exhibits, 

lectures, and education programs. 

A Laboratory for Astrophysics was established at 

NASM in 1988 as a research facility concentrating on 

interpretation of infrared observations from both Earthbased and spacecraft experiments. An objective of the 

Laboratory is to prepare museum personnel to present 

the results of astronomical research to the public. 

Space Science 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

During 1988, SA0 continued to reduce and analyze 

x-ray data obtained by spacecraft such as the Einstein 

Observatory (HEAO-2). Approximately 125 scientists 

from around the world used the Einstein Data Bank 

maintained by SAO. In November, on the 10th anniversary of the Einstein launch, a special symposium was 

convened to review the results of x-ray astronomy 

during the past decade and discuss potential research 

initiatives that could follow launch of the Advanced XRay Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) in the 1990s. 

One of SAO’s major goals is to catalog all observed 

x-ray objects and map the distribution of sources of 

cosmic x-rays. Such maps already are providing the 

basis for systematic studies of stars, galaxies, clusters of 

galaxies, and quasars. 

For example, clusters of galaxies, the largest aggregations of matter yet recognized in the universe, can 

be studied by observing the x-ray emissions from the 

very hot gas filling the space between individual 

galaxies. SA0 scientists used x-ray images from the 

Einstein Observatory satellite and visible light observations of both large clusters and smaller groups of 

galaxies to compare the amount of matter found in the 

galaxies with that seen in the medium between them. 

They found a much larger percentage of gas in the 

large clusters, thus suggesting that galaxy formation 

(by condensation out of the gaseous medium) may be 

more efficient in smaller clusters. 

Further studies will be aimed at determining how 

much of the intercluster gas is primordial-left over 

from the early formation of the universe-and how 

much has been produced more recently by processes 

inside the stars. Indeed, SA0 scientists examining 

images of nearby galaxies have already found some 

evidence that explosive forces in galactic centers may 

be driving gas out into the surrounding space. 

Although the Sun is not a particularly copious 

emitter of x rays, its two-million-degree-Centigrade 

gaseous outer atmosphere, or corona, does radiate 

strongly at these wavelengths. This year, a novel SAObuilt x-ray telescope equipped with a modified Hasselblad camera and special high-sensitivity film was 

flown aboard a suborbital sounding rocket to make 

extremely high spatial resolution images of the hot 

corona. 

The attempt to observe x rays from Supernova 

1987A with a balloon-borne telescope failed when the 

instrument’s pointing mechanism jammed during a 

flight over Australia. A subsequent flight of the instrument from New Mexico obtained data from several xray sources and demonstrated the effectiveness of the 

experimental package. The telescope is prepared for a 

reflight in 1989 to observe the supernova. 

SA0 scientists and engineers are working with 

NASA and industry on detailed definition and design 

studies of AXAF. In addition, SA0 developed a highresolution imaging x-ray detector for flight on the West 

German-UK-US Roentgen Satellite (KOSAT), scheduled 

for launch in 1990. In cooperation with the Goddard 

Space Flight Center, SA0 will operate the US ROSAT 

159 
Data Center which will use a portable x-ray analysis 

software system now under development. 

Solar Physics 

One of the major puzzles of solar physics is what 

process heats the Sun’s outer atmosphere, or corona, 

and creates the powerful flow of gas and supercharged 

particles called the solar wind that sweeps over all the 

planets. An SAO-conceived instrument called an 

Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS), designed to create artificial eclipses allowing continuous 

observation of the solar corona and study of the solar 

wind, has been selected for flight aboard the international Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SO1 IO) in the 

mid-1990s. 

Ultraviolet Astronomy 

One of the most intriguing problems in modern 

cosmology is the detection of very young and distant 

galaxies that are forming stars for the first time. One 

key to the search for these “primeval galaxies” is a 

knowledge of their special spectral characteristics. 

Using the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) 

satellite, SA0 scientists observed five star-forming 

galaxies and confirmed earlier findings that primeval 

galaxies may not display distinctive signatures in 

ultraviolet light. 

The IUE satellite was also used extensively for 

continuing observations of the Supernova 1987A, with 

the ultraviolet data contributing significantly to our 

understanding of the physical processes occurring 

within the expanding shell of the exploded star. 

Space Technology 

Atomic clocks are being designed and built at SA0 

in support of the NASA deep space tracking program, 

as well as very long baseline interferometer radio 

astronomy programs and the time-keeping efforts of 

the U.S. Naval Observatory. In 1988, a novel method 

was developed to isolate hydrogen atoms in certain 

desired atomic states, thus improving the stability of 

the atomic clocks. Experiments with a hydrogen maser 

160 

Galactic halos: Contour lines defining the x-ray emission 

from an extended corona of hot gas are superimposed on 

an optical image of the elliptical galaxy M86 (NGC 4406) 

in Virgo. The distortion of the lines results from the 

stripping of hot gas from the corona by the rapid passage 

of this galaxy through the center of the Virgo cluster of 

galaxies. A second strong x-rayemitting galaxy, M84 

(NGC 4374), is seen at the right. (Optical photograph 

from the National Geographic-Palomar sky survey; x-ray 

contours from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory) 

clock cryogenically cooled to one-half degree above 

absolute zero have suggested that such “cold clocks” 

could keep time a thousand times more accurately 

then similar clocks operating at room temperature. 

SA0 scientists have also designed a dual optical 

interferometer for space flight that might measure the 

position of stars with an accuracy a thousand times 

better than ground-based systems. 

Studies of the dynamics of tethered satellite systems, 

as well as their potential electromagnetic wave generation, continued in anticipation of the first tethered 

satellite mission aboard a Shuttle sometime early next 

decade. 
Planetary Sciences 

completion of a geologic map of Nicholson Regio on 

Jupiter’s satellite Ganymede (mapped jointly with 

personnel at SAO), and in newly found evidence for 

structural events that have modified the surface of 

Mars. birth. 

the geologic setting of similar folds seen in the Columbia basalt plateau of central Washington State. 

Research continued in 1988 at SA0 on the wealth of 

data provided by the European Space Agency’s Giotto 

mission to Comet Halley in 1986, and a new study is 

under way on the likely mode and place of comet 

During 1988, research at CEPS resulted in the 

In the Mangala Vallis region of Mars, for instance, 

mapping based on high-resolution Viking Orbiter 

images suggests several periods of faulting, the oldest 

of which may have resulted from lateral offsets of the 

crust, the first clearly documented fault of that type 

seen on Mars. Continuing model studies of compression of the Martian crust indicate that several layers of 

lava flows must be present in the plains regions. Such 

relatively thin layers in deformation are consistent with 

Terrestrial Studies 

A long-term study at CEPS of terrestrial deserts 

incorporated orbital measurements of color changes of 

dune and interdune sand to determine the stability of 

wind-blown deposits. Using a 16-year record of 

Landsat and SPOT data, dune movement and surface 

changes were mapped in parts of Egypt, Sudan, Mali, 

and Botswana. 

161 
Department of State 

The Department of State is responsible for evaluating 

and advancing U.S. foreign policy interests in the 

context of space activity. In this capacity, it considers 

space programs, policies and agreements, and advises 

the President on international space matters. It also 

represents the US. Government in international 

government-to-government negotiations concerning 

space topics, in international organizations involved in 

space, and in foreign countries. 

In 1988, the United States reached agreement with 

its partners on international participation in the multibillion dollar, permanently manned Space Station 

project. Working closely with other interested agencies, 

State Department and NASA officials negotiated 

agreements governing long-term cooperation on the 

detailed design, development, operation, and utilization of the Space Station with European, Japanese, and 

Canadian representatives. These agreements were 

signed in Washington on September 29, 1988. The 

Department of State strongly supports the Space 

Station as a concrete demonstration of U.S. leadership 

in space, a stimulus for exploring new areas of science 

and technology, and a model for cooperation with 

friends and allies on large-scale, high-technology 

endeavors. 

As part of a major Government-wide effort, the State 

Department worked with other agencies in producing 

a new U.S. space policy signed by President Reagan on 

January 5, 1988. The Department of State and NASA 

continued to co-chair an interagency group that 

supervises the implementation of the US.-Soviet space 

cooperation agreement of 1987. Two items were added 

to the list of areas of cooperation during the Moscow 

summit meeting of June 1988. 

The Department also worked with NASA on arrangements with other nations on emergency landing 

facilities for the space shuttle. 

The COSPAS-SARSAT agreement was signed on 

June 30, 1988, making this search and rescue satellite 

system permanent. 

In addition to U.S. policy formulation and bilateral 

negotiations, the Department of State represents the 

U.S. Government in international organizations involved in space issues. Among these international 

bodies are the United Nations and related organizations such as the International Telecommunication 

Union, and INTELSAT and INMARSAT. 

Activities with the United Nations 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

The year 1988 marked the 30th anniversary of the 

establishment within the United Nations of an appropriate international body for cooperation in the study 

and utilization of outer space for peaceful proposes. It 

was three decades ago when the General Assembly 

adopted Kesolution 1348 (XIII), the Twenty Power 

Resolution, which was introduced by the United States 

and 19 other states. The resolution established the Ad 

Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS) and laid the foundation for today’s permanent committee. 

Subcommittee, member states focused on the practical 

applications of remote sensing and satellite communications of particular relevance to the needs of developing countries. The Subcommittee decided to pay 

particular attention in 1989 to the use of space technology for combating environmental problems. The Legal 

Subcommittee met in March 1988 to consider questions 

relating to the use of nuclear power sources in space, 

utilization of the geostationary orbit, and the delimitation of outer space. 

After two years of debate, the subcommittee agreed 

on a new agenda item for dealing with the application 

of the principle that space exploration should be 

carried out for the benefit of all countries, taking 

particular account of the needs of developing countries. The United States, with the support of other 

Western countries, in 1988 continued efforts to make 

the work of COPUOS and the Subcommittee more 

At the February 1988 Scientific and Technical 

162 
relevant to the present state of space exploration. To 

this end, at its June 1988 meeting, member states 

accepted a U.S. proposal to add to the COPUOS 

agenda an item on the secondary applications of space 

technology for addressing problems on Earth, (i.e., 

“spin-offs”). 

COSPAS/SARSA T 

On June 30, 1988, representatives of the United 

States (principally, the NOAA Administrator), the Soviet 

Union, France, and Canada signed an Agreement at 

Paris extending and expanding the COSPAS/SARSAT 

system of space satellite-based global search and 

rescue for 15 years. The signing climaxed two and 

one-half years of intensive negotiations among the four 

nations which manage the interoperable system 

regarding liability, meeting structure, contributions, etc. 

COSPAS/SAKSAT began in 1979 as an experimental 

program between the Soviet Union (COSPAS) which 

provided two satellites with processors and repeaters 

and the United States (SARSAT) which provided two 

satellites along with French repeaters and Canadian 

processors. To date, over 1,000 lives have been saved 

by the interoperable Soviet and Western system. 

lnternatlonal Maritime Satellite Organization 

The United States accepted the 1985 amendments to 

the INMARSAT Convention, thus permitting INMARSAT 

to offer satellite-based aircraft communication services. 

The development of further amendment proposals 

that, if adopted, would permit INMARSAT to offer 

satellite-based communications to vehicles on land are 

also being supported by the United States. 

International Radio Conference 

munication Union held the Second Session of the 

In August-October 1988, the International TelecomSpace Services World Administrative Radio Conference 

(WAKC). The Space WARC successfully concluded its 

planning exercises for the use of additional radio 

spectrum allocated to the Fixed Satellite Service (the 

primary type of commercial communications satellite), 

largely as a result of the U.S. contribution of computer 

software developed by NASA’s Lewis Research Center. 

In addition, improved procedures governing the use of 

the orbit and radio spectrum by conventional communications satellites were adopted in a manner consistent with the U.S. philosophy of retaining flexibility to 

accommodate new technologies and services. The 

Final Acts of the Conference will be submitted by the 

Department of State to the U.S. Senate for ratification. 

International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization 

Parties of the International Telecommunications 

Satellite organization (INTELSAT) (1 15 members) 

approved a proposal allowing Pan American Satellite 

Corporation (PanAmSat) to provide satellite communication services between the United States and certain 

European countries, separate from INTELSAT services. 

Following earlier approvals of PanAmSat service to 

certain Latin American countries, this development 

provides the first satellite-based competition to INTELSAT for transoceanic services. Extensive U.S. 

diplomatic activities are leading to broader acceptance 

of the U.S. policy, (based on Presidential Determination 85-4) and opening new markets for U.S. commercial participation. 

In October 1988, an Extraordinary Assembly of 

163 
Arms Control 

and Disarmanent Agency 

The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

(ACDA) has an indirect role in the U.S. civil space 

program largely concentrating on arms control 

considerations of space weapons systems, both 

defensive and offensive. Among other things, ACDA 

explains and defends the President’s Strategic Defense 

Initiative (SDI) in multilateral and bilateral fora. ACDA 

represents the United States in space arms control 

negotiations at the bilateral US.-Soviet Nuclear and 

Space Talks in Geneva. ACDA also leads the U.S. 

delegations involved in multilateral considerations of 

space arms control issues at the First Committee of the 

United Nations General Assembly in New York and at 

the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva. The 

CD’s ad hoc committee on outer space, established for 

the first time in March 1985 and renewed in 1987, is 

the venue for multilateral examination of issues 

relevant to the prevention of an arms race in outer 

space. Its nonnegotiating mandate is designed to 

encourage discussion on any proposals that may be 

made on outer space issues and to review the current 

space legal regime. 

Nuclear and Space Talks 

During 1988 at the Defense and Space Talks the 

United States sought agreement to facilitate the joint 

management of a stable transition to an increasing 

reliance on effective defenses against strategic ballistic 

missiles, should they prove feasible. To this end, the 

United States tabled a draft Defense and Space (D&S) 

Treaty in January. In March, the United States tabled a 

Predictability Protocol which calls for, on a reciprocal 

and comparable basis, a range of confidence-building 

measures designed to provide predictability for each 

side regarding the strategic ballistic missile defense 

programs of the other. The United States made other 

initiatives in the Defense and Space talks during the 

year regarding activities permitted during and after a 

period of nonwithdrdwal from the ABM Treaty. For its 

part, the Soviet Union tabled a draft Defense and 

Space agreement in April; however, the Soviet Union 

has refused to develop a Joint Draft Text of an agreement. Regarding predictability measures, the Soviet 

Union also proposed in April to focus predictability 

measures exclusively on verification in order to ensure 

compliance with the ABM Treaty and the D&S agreement being negotiated. The two sides are working on 

a Joint Draft Text of a Protocol that addresses predictability measures. 

Multilateral Discussions 

on Space Arms Control 

ACDA leads the U.S. Delegation to the Conference 

on Disarmament (CD). The Delegation is composed of 

members from interested agencies and as such is 

responsible for the CD’s work, including that on outer 

space issues. The CD’s ad hoc Committee, whose 

mandate was to “continue to examine and to identify 

. . . issues relevant to the prevention of an arms race in 

outer space,” was reestablished during 1988 and met 

regularly during the two CD sessions. The United 

States participated actively in the meetings which 

considered, among other things, measures identified at 

the CD that potentially could form the basis for 

negotiating further multilateral arms control agreements 

that apply to outer space. Progress has been slow but 

steady. ACDA has played an active role in keeping the 

ad hoc committee focused on feasible and acceptable 

approaches to the question of arms control in outer 

space. The United States has not, however, during the 

course of this work, identified additional issues appropriate for outer space arms control negotiations other 

than those worth consideration in the bilateral nuclear 

space talks. 

Space Policy 

ACDA is involved extensively in the formulation of 

U.S. space policy. For example, the agency chairs the 

Interagency Group on Defense and Space, which 

addresses space arms control issues. Also, it is a 

164 
member of the Interagency Group that addresses U.S. 

policy on the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). In 

addition, ACDA provides administrative support, senior 

representatives, advisors, and legal experts to U.S. arms 

control negotiations. 

The agency participates in the Senior Interagency 

Group on Space that addresses a range of issues 

involving space. There are a number of other interagency groups in which ACDA participates that review 

topics relative to space, such as bilateral governmental 

space activities and cooperation, and the sale of spacerelated items. Also, ACDA contributes to U.S. consideration of technical collection assets for verifying 

compliance with arms control agreements; these 

include space-based assets that are part of the national 

technical means of verification. 

165 
United States 

Information Agency 

Despite the enforced lull brought on by the 

Challenger disaster, the United States Information 

Agency (USIA) conducted an active overseas 

information program promoting U.S. achievements in 

space during 1988. Of particular note were four live 

Worldnet television interviews on NASA’s role in the 

ozone layer research and USIA media’s coverage of the 

Discovery launch. Given foreign interest in most 

everything related to U.S. space activities, USIA finds a 

ready audience for its programs and products. USIA 

has various ways to bring messages on space to the 

world: it can use its daily WORLDNET TV broadcasts, 

various Voice of America programs, telephone 

interviews, and Wireless File stories and statements; it 

also uses exhibits, video tapes, books, and cultural 

center and library programs to show US. advances in 

space exploration and technology. 

Television 

USIA’s Television and Film Service (TV) and NASA 

cooperate very closely. As a result, every major NASA 

undertaking receives significant worldwide exposure. 

WORLDNET, USIA’s television network, links Washington via satellite with U.S. embassies and other hostcountry organizations throughout the world. News 

clips, “Science World,” and offerings of films and 

videos to U.S. embassies also promote NASA activities. 

WORLDNET dialogues of live unrehearsed telepress 

conferences brought leading foreign officials, experts, 

and media together with various NASA experts. An 

Hispanic astronaut reached millions through the 

retransmittal of his interview to four Latin American 

countries. Another astronaut’s multi-regional program 

went live to Bonn, Paris, Ottawa, Monrovia, and 

Jakarta. A scientist from the Global Habitability Project 

appeared four different times to discuss the worldwide 

preoccupation with the protection of the ozone layer. 

Two NASA scientists and an expert from the Goddard 

Space Flight Center also participated in WORLDNET 

programs. 

USIA’s Tv news magazine, “America Today,” 

covered a variety of NASA events and produced an 

ongoing series on the agency’s space programs. In 

conjunction with its live coverage of the launch of 

Discovery, “America Today” also aired an overview 

report on the events leading up to the launch. “Science 

World” produced weekly programs on space exploration and other NASA research projects, including 

segments on spin-off technologies that have an impact 

on everyday lives. News clips included in TV’s weekly 

“Satellite File” found use by over 150 broadcasters in 

99 countries. 

be enjoyed in USIA’s cultural centers and libraries 

throughout the world. Overseas audiences received a 

timely preview on the launch of Discovery in NASA’s 

“Return to Space,” which focused on the modifications 

and improvements made to the shuttle to ensure a successful launch. 

NASA films and videos acquired by TV continued to 

Voice of America 

The worldwide broadcasting service of the Voice of 

America (VOA) uses a variety of formats to report on 

NASA activities. VOA’s English, Russian, Spanish, 

Chinese, Urdu, and Indonesian language services 

broadcast the launch of Discovery live on September 

29. Reporters from the Ukranian, Czech, French, 

Bengali, and Portuguese services also covered the 

event. VOA correspondents at the Kennedy and 

Johnson space centers file continuous “update” reports 

in English during missions and these reports are 

translated into VOAs 42 other languages for newscastS 

of varying lengths. 

VOA’s regular programs and series on science 

reporting, frequently feature NASA’s activities. “New 

Horizons,” VOA’s English-language flagship science 

program, took 20-minute weekly in-depth looks at the 

Galileo and Ulysses probes, the anniversary of Supernova 1987-A, preparations for America’s return to 

manned space flight, remote sensing, the Search and 

166 
Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking System, and U.S. space 

goals. Modified forms of “New Horizons” go out in 

Spanish, French, Kussian, and other languages. The 

VOA also makes tapes of these broadcasts available to 

foreign radio stations for later re-broadcasts. Science 

feature scripts of three to five minutes also include 

space topics. 

VOA’s Special English service also frequently uses 

space subjects on its daily 4-minute science program 

and on its two weekly 15-minute programs “Science in 

the News” and “Space and Man.” These programs, and 

newscasts, use a simplified vocabulary and syntax 

geared to those learning English. 

their own programs of interest to their listeners. For 

example, following a recent two-day trip to the 

Wallops Flight Facility, reporters from the Special 

English, Hindi, Spanish, Khmer, Russian, Vietnamese, 

and Ukranian services produced 27 short features and 

several 15-minute programs. 

VOA foreign language broadcasters often generate 

Electronic Dialogues 

Reporters from four Japanese newspapers and a 

leading TV station interviewed a high-level NASA 

scientist on protecting the ozone layer in the Tokyo 

American embassy’s first-ever two-way video hook-up. 

The Satellite Speakers’ staff also used the talents of 

NASA personnel on its telephone press conferences: a 

Voyager engineer spoke with journalists in Mexico; 

NASA’s Associate Administrator for Policy and Planning 

talked with scientists and media leaders in Tel Aviv 

and Singapore; and NASA’s Director for Program 

Support and Special Projects impressed Indian audiences on the future of the U.S. space program. 

Press and Publications 

Through fast international data transmission systems, 

USIA’s Press and Publications Service provide our 

embassies with a steady stream of articles, official 

statements, and American press play on issues of 

importance to the United States, including NASA’s 

space activities. USIA officers and local employees 

place these materials in foreign media outlets and 

distribute them to government officials and other 

opinion leaders. 

on covering NASA rocket tests and the launch of 

Discovery. It also prepared articles on the agreement 

between the United States and 11 allied countries to 

build a permanently manned space station, U.S.-Soviet 

space cooperation, the establishment of a lunar 

outpost, and a manned expedition to Mars. 

our overseas posts: one examined the role of American 

women astronauts on the fifth anniversary of the first 

American woman to fly in space; a second examined 

the development of U.S. space technology over the last 

27 years to show the major benefits reaped by mankind (photovoltaic cells powering refrigerators at 

medical clinics in Africa, special eyeglasses that restore 

normal vision to people suffering degenerative eye 

disease, etc.); and a third looked at experiments 

performed aboard Discovery to help scientists develop 

drugs to battle AIDS, emphysema, and cancer. 

USIA magazines dedicated various articles to NASA 

and space. America Illustrated contained a feature on 

NASA’s support to amateur radio through Project 

OSCAK, and a picture story on “Images from Space,” 

showing computer-generated views of Earth’s surface. 

The magazine also ran a large, fold-out poster called 

“Space Explorers,” featuring all astronauts and cosmonauts to date. A1 Majal had illustrated stories on a 

Huntsville, Alabama, space camp and a proposed 

network of space outposts. 

The Text Services Branch regularly produced spacerelated materials, including one special packet of seven 

articles on “Studying Space” for USIA’s overseas posts. 

Other articles included topics such as NASA’s plans for 

the 21st century, peaceful uses of space, and thinkDuring this past year, the Press Branch concentrated 

Three in-depth articles were of particular interest to 

167 
tanks in space. The Visual Services Branch produced a 

picture story containing 13 color shots of Earth from 

the space shuttle. 

officials, scientists, scholars, and journalists, five NASA 

astronauts traveled in 1988. Their tours included visits 

to several cities in Indonesia, extensive travel in India 

and Singapore, as well as trips to Ecuador, Venezuela, 

Romania, and Uruguay. In addition, USIA’s overseas 

posts arranged programs for six other astronauts and 

various other NASA officials and scientists who travAmerican Participant Program 

Under the American Participant program, which 

involves USIA’s sending prominent Americans to 

foreign countries to meet with foreign government eled overseas under other auspices. 

168 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-l 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbir Earth Escape' Calendar Earth Orbif Earth Escape' 

Year Success Failure success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Year 

1 0 0 1972 ........................... 33 2 8 0 

8 0 4 2 3 0 

1959 ............................. 9 9 1 2 2 1 0 

1960 ........................... 16 12 1 2 4 4 0 

1961 ........................... 35 12 0 2 0 1 0 

1962 ............................ 55 12 4 1 2 2 0 

1963 ........................... 62 11 0 0 1978 ........................... 34 2 7 0 

a 4 0 0 0 0 

7 4 1 4 0 0 

1966 ........................... 94 12 7 Ib 1981 ....._.._..... 1 0 0 

4 10 0 0 0 0 

15 3 0 1983 ........................... 31 0 0 0 

1969 ............................ 58 1 8 1 1984 ......................... 35 3 0 0 

1 3 0 1985 ........................... 37 1 0 0 

2 8 1 4 0 0 

1987 ............................. 9 1 0 0 

1988 ........................... 16 1 0 0 

TOTAL ..........._...... 1,137 144 79 15 

'The criterion of success or failure used is atrainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Escape" flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

'This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

169 
APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's European Space India Israel 

Calendar United U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Rcpubljc Australia 

Year States Kingdom of China Agency 

................................................................... ................................... 1957 .............................. ....... ..................................... 

....... ............. 3 ........................................................................................................................... ................... 1960 .......................... 16 

1961 .......................... 29 

1962 .......................... 52 

1963 ......................... .38 

1964 .......................... 57 

1965 .......................... 63 

1966 .......................... 73 

1967 .......................... 57 

1968 .......................... 45 

...................................................... ..................... 

..................... 

.................... 

.............................. 

1969 ............................ .......................... 40 

1970 .......................... 28 

1971 .......................... 30 

1972 ................... .......................... 30 

1973 .......................... 23 ................................................. 

................................... 1976 .......................... 26 

..................................... 1978 .......................... 32 

1979 .......................... 16 

1984 .......................... 22 

1985 .......................... 17 

1986 ...... 6 

1987 ........................... .8 

1988 .......................... 12 

.................................... 

.................... 

TOTAL .................... 879 2,107 10 8 36 23 1 1 23 3 1 ~~ 

'Includes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

170 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-1988 

Launch Date (GMT), 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehiclc 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mid, 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Fcb. 2 

6A 

Atlas E 

DMSP F-9 

Fcb. 8 

8A 

DOD-2 

Delta 181 

Mar. 25 

San Marco D/L 

26A 

scout 

Apr. 25 

SOOS-3 

33D 

scout 

33E 

Jun. 16 

NOVA-I1 

52A 

scout 

Aug. 25 

SOOS-4 

74A 

Scout 

Aug. 25 

74B 

Sep. 2 

DOD 

77A 

Titan 34D 

scp. 5 

DOD 

78A 

Titan I1 

Objective: To launch meteorological observation satellite 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as DMSP F-6. 

into planned orbit. 

Weight: 1421 kg. 

Objective: To demonstrate effective ways to discriminate 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

between decoys and reentry vehicles. 

Objective: To launch satellite into low earth orbit to 

explore relationship bctwcen solar activity and 

meteorological phenomena by studying dynamic 

processes occurring in the troposphere, stratosphere, 

and thcrmospherc. 

canted 48 cm monopole antennas for telemetry and 

command. Weight: 237 kg. 

Spacecraft: Spherical, 96.5 cm in diameter with four 

Objective: To place the Navy satcllitc into a successful 

Spacecraft Configuration not announced. Weight: 141 Ibs. 

orbit. 

Objective: To place the Navy satellite into a 

Spacecraft: Configuration not announced. 

successful orbit. 

Weight: 141 Ibs. 

Objective: To place Navy satellite into an orbit which will 

enable the successful achievement of the Navy 

objectives. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical main body, four solar panels 

extending from main body, with extendable boom from 

central part of satellite. Weight: 375.8 Ibs. 

Objective: To place Navy satellite into a successful orbit. 

Spacecraft: Configuration not announced. Weight: 141 Ibs. 

Objective: To place Navy satellite into a succcssful orbit. 

Spacecraft Configuration not announced. Weight: 141 Ibs. 

826 

815 

101.3 

98.7 

333 

223 

90.1 

28.6 

615 

263 

93.4 

3.0 

Not availablc. 

Not available. 

1199 

1150 

108.9 

90.0 

1176 

1032 

107.4 

90.0 

1178 

1032 

107.4 

90.0 

Not available. 

In orbit, 

returning 

data. 

Successful test of technology. Reentered 

Mar. 1, 1988. Launched by NASA for 

the Strategic Defense Initiative. 

Launched by NASA as a joint research 

mission with thc Italian Space 

Commission. Launch took place from 

the San Marco Range. Reentered over 

central Africa and was consumed 

Dec. 6, 1988. 

NASA launched US. Navy navigation 

satellite. Stacked Oscar on Scout 

(SOOS) part of Navy's long-established, 

continuous all-weather global 

navigation system. Still in polar orbit. 

NASA for U.S. Navy. Still in polar orbit 

Second of two satellites launched by 

Third in series of improved Transit 

navigation satellites launched by NASA 

for the U.S. Navy. Still in orbit. 

Stacked Oscar on Scout (SOOS) launched 

by NASA for U.S. Navy into polar orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Second of two satellites launched for the 

U.S. Navy. Still in polar orbit. 

In orbit. 

Not available. In orbit. 

171 
APPEND~X A-3-Continued 

Successful US. Launches-1988 

Launch Datc (GMT), 

Spacccraft Namc, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vchiclc 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacccraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Scp. 24 

89.4 

NOM- 1 1 

Atlas E 

Objective: To launch satcllitc into sun-synchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration: 491 cm high, 188 cm in 

diamctcr, weight: 1712 kg. Weight on orbit: 1038 kg. 

Scp. 29 

Space Shuttlc 

Discovcry 

(STS-26) 

91A 

Scp. 29 

TDRS 3 

91B 

Nov. 6 

DOD 

99A 

Titan 34D 

Dcc. 2 

Space Shuttlc 

Atlantis 

lO6A 

Dcc. 2 

DOD 

lO6B 

Objective: To deploy the Tracking and Data Relay 

Satcllite-C/lncntial Uppcr Stagc. 

Spacecraft: Shuttlc orbitcr canying satellite as wcll as 

cxpcrimcnts. Automated Directional Solidification 

Furnace (ADSF), Aggregation of Rcd Blood Cclls (ARC), 

Earth Limb Radiance Expcrimcnt (ELRAD), Isoclcctric 

Focusing Expcrimcnt (IEF), Infrarcd Communication 

Flight Expcrimcnt (IRCFE), Mesoscale Lightning 

Expcrimcnt (MLE), Protcin Crystal Growth (PCG), 

Phased Partitioning Expcrimcnt (PPE), and Physical 

Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS). Additionally 

3 Shuttlc Student Involvement Project (SSIP) 

cxpcriments. Weight: 38,774 Ibs. 

Objective: To dcliver TDRS satellite to stationary 

geosynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Thrcc-axis stabilizcd, momentum-biased 

configuration with two sun-oricnted solar panels 

attached. TDRS mcasurcs 57.17 ft tip to tip of dcploycd 

solar pancls, TDRS composed of 3 modules: (1) 

cquipmcnt module houses attitude control, clcctrical 

powcr, propulsion, tclcmctry, tracking, and command 

subsystcms; (2) payload module consists of processing 

and frequency-gcneration cquipmcnt; (3) antcnna 

module supports dual dcployable and fxed antcnnas, 

multiple-access array, and remaindcr of 

tclccommunications hardware. Weight at launch, 

including IUS upper stage: 37, 699 Ibs. Weight in orbit: 

4,637 lbs. 46.6 ft from outer edge-to-edge of single axis 

antennas. 

Objcaive: Dcvclopmcnt of spaccflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announccd. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch classified DOD Payload. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbitcr carrying DOD satcllite. 

Objcctivc: Dcvclopment of spaccflight technique 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

863 

84 5 

102.0 

98.9 

336 

306 

91.0 

28.5 

35,803 

35,779 

1436.3 

0.2 

Not 

available. 

453 

443 

93.6 

57.0 

Fourth of the advanced TIROS-N 

spacecraft, Fundcd by the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) and 

successfully launched by NASA. To 

replace NOM-9 as afternoon satellite 

in NOAA's two polar satellite system. 

Also onboard Search and Rescue 

instruments. Still in orbit, returning 

data. 

1 :wenty-sixth flight of Space 

Transportation System. First since 

Challenger accident, Jan. 28, 1986. 

Piloted by Frederick H. Hauck and 

Richard 0. Covey. Mission specialists 

John M. Lounge, David C. Hilmers, and 

George D. Nelson. Discovery launched 

KSC 1137 am., EDT. Satellite deployed 

and experiments conducted. Shuttle 

landcd at Edwards AFB, CA, 12:37 

pm., EDT, Oct. 3. Mission duration 4 

days, 1 hr. 

Launched Scp. 29 from Shuttlc orbiter 

Discovcry. Third of a series. Completes 

two satcllite constcllation, locatcd at 

171" W. Leased by NASA from 

Continental Telephone Company 

(CONTEL). 

In orbit 

Twentyseventh flight of Space 

Transportation System. Piloted by 

Robert "Hoot" Gibson and Guy 

Gardner. Mission specialists Mike 

Mullane, Jerry Ross, and Bill Shepherd. 

Atlantis launched KSC 930 a.m., EST. 

Satellite deployed. Landed at Edwards 

AFB, CA, Dec. 6. 3:37 pm., PST. 

Mission duration 4 days, 9 hrs, 6 min. 

Not available. In orbit. 

172 
APPENDIX B-l 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1982-1988 

Date Name Launch Vchiclc Remarks 

Jan. 16, 1982 

Fcb. 26, 1982 

Mar. 5, 1982 

Apr. 10, 1982 

June 9, 1982 

Aug. 26, 1982 

Sept 28, 1982 

Oct. 27, 1982 

Oct. 30, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Sov. 12. 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 11, 1983 

May 19, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

Junc 19, 1983 

Junc 28, 1983 

July 28, 1983 

Aug. 31, 1983 

Scpt. 8, 1983 

Scp. 22, 1983 

Fcb. 3, 1984 

Fcb. 6, 1984 

Mar. 1, 1984 

June 9, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Scpt. 1, 1984 

Sept. 21, 1984 

Nov. 9, 1984 

Nov. 10, 1984 

Nov. 14, 1984 

Mar. 22, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 13, 1985 

Junc 17, 1985 

Junc 18, 1985 

June 19, 1985 

Junc 30, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 29, 1985 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intclsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Wcstar 5 

Anik D-l 

Intclsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11. DSCS I11 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

TDRS 1 

RCA-Satcom 6 

Intelsat V F-6 

Anik C-2 

Palapa B-1 

Galaxy 1 

Tclstar 3A 

Insat 1-B 

RCA-Satcom 7 

Galaxy 2 

wcstar-6 

Palapa-B2 

UOSdt-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS-4 

Syncom N-2 

Tclstar-3C 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

Syncom N-1 

NATO IIID 

Intelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom N-3 

Arabsat-1B 

Tclstar-3D 

Intelsat VA F-11 

AUSSAT-1 

Syncom N-4 

MORELOS-A 

ASC-1 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Dclta (TAT) 

Titan lII(34) 

D/IUS 

Spacc Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, IUS 

Delta 3924 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

Dclta 

Dclta 

Spacc Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Delta 3924 

Dclta 

Spacc Shuttlc, 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Dclta 3920 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Fifth in scries for RCA. 

First in a scrics of sccond-gcncration for Wcstern Union Co. 

Fourth in series; positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in scrics of sccond-generation for Western Union Co.; replaces 

Launched for Tclesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satellites. 

Fifth in scrics; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launchcd for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series of 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Sccond in new series for Telcsat Canada 

First in series. System to provide continuous satellitc communication 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. 

Sixth in scrics; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. 

Launchcd for Telcsat Canada. 

Wcstar 2. 

uprated satellites 

Leascd by NASA from Space Communications Co. (Spacccom). 

Indonesian domestic communications 

Launched for Hughcs Communications, Inc 

Launched for Amcrican Tclcphone and Telegraph Co 

Indian domestic communications. 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. 

Second in serics, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launchcd for Westcrn Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, satellite 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite rctrieved and 

Secondary payload with Landsat-5, for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc 

Launched for Telsat Canada 

retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for refurbishment. 

rcturncd to Earth by Shuttle. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization (ASCO). 

Launched for the Amcrican Telephone and Telegraph Company (ATRrTl. 

Sccond in scrics of improved satellitcs launched for INTELSAT. 

Launchcd for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

173 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

USdaunched Applications Satellites, 1982-1988 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Sep. 29, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 28, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Dcc. 5, 1986 

Mar. 20, 1987 

Dec. 21, 1982 

Mar. 28. 1983 

Apr. 28, 1983 

Nov. 18, 1983 

Dec. 12, 1984 

Sep. 17, 1986 

Feb. 26, 1987 

June 20, 1987 

Feb. 2, 1988 

Scp. 24, 1988 

July 16, 1982 

Mar. 1, 1984 

Intelsat VA F-12 

AUSSAT-2 

RCA Satcom K-l 

Palapa B-2P 

MORELOS-B 

RCA SdtCOm K-2 

Fksdtcom 7 

DMSP F-6 

NOAA-8 

GOES 6 

DMSP F-7 

NOAA-9 

NOAA-10 

GOES 7 

DMSP F-8 

DMSP F-9 

NOAA-11 

Landsat-4 

Landsat-5 

Mar. 13, 1985 GEOSAT 

July 14, 1983 

Feb. 5, 1984 

June 13, 1984 

Scpt. 8, 1984 

Oct. 12, 1984 

Aug. 3, 1985 

Aug. 3, 1985 

Oct. 9, 1985 

Apr. 25, 1988 

Jun. 16, 1988 

Aug. 25, 1988 

Navstar-8 

IRT 

Navstar-9 

Navstar-10 

Nova-3 

Oscar 24 

Navstar-1 1 

NOVA-2 

SOOS-4 

Oscar 30 

SOOS-3 

COMMUNICATIONS continued 

Atlas-Centaur Launched for INTELSAT. 

Space Shuttle Launched for Mexico. 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur Launched for DoD. 

Delta 182 Indonesia domestic communications. 

Second satellite launched for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Delta 3914 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Delta 179 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

WEATHER OBSERVATION* 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Joined NOAA 7 as part of 2-satellite operational system; launched for 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. 

Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOM-7. 

Launched for NOAA. 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-East. 

Third in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOM-9. 

NOAA. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of thematic mapper 

(TM). 

Delta 3920 Fifth experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing Landsat-4. 

GEODESY 

Atlas E Measure ocean surface height. 

Atlas E 

Space Shun 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Atlas E 

scout 

scout 

scout 

NAVIGATION' 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Third of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

tle 

'Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

174 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1982-1988 

Date Namc Launch Vchiclc Remarks 

Jan. 26, 1983 

May 26, 1983 

Junc 22, 1983 

Junc 27, 1983 

Apr. 6, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Oct. 5, 1984 

Apr. 29, 1985 

Junc 20, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 14, 1986 

Mar. 25, I988 

IRAS 

EXOSAT 

SPAS 01 

HILAT (P83-1) 

Long Duration 

Exposure 

Facility 

(LDEF-1) 

Charge 

Composition 

Explorer 

(CCE) 

Ion Rclcasc 

Module 

(IRM) 

United 

Kingdom 

Satcllitc 

(UKS) 

Budgct 

Earth Radiation 

Satellite (ERBS) 

Spartan-] 

Plasma 

NUSAT-1 

Diagnostic 

Package 

(PDP) 

GLOMR 

Polar Bear 

San Marco D/L 

Dclta 3910 

Dclta 3914 

Spacc Shuttle 

scout 

Spacc Shuttle 

Dclta 1924 

DCkd 3924 

Delta 3924 

Spacc Shuttle 

Spacc Shuttlc 

Spacc Shuttle 

Space Shuttlc 

Spacc Shuttle 

scout 

Scout 

Infrared sky survey. 

Europcan Spacc Agcncy study of x-ray sources. 

Rcusablc frcc-flying platform dcploycd and retrieved during STS 7; 6 scientific 

cxperimcnts from West Gcrmany, 2 from ESA. NASA cxperiments tested 

spacccraft tcchnology. 

for DoD. 

Propagation cffccts of disturt~d plasma on radar and communication systems, 

Scicntific cxpcrimcnts designed for rctricval from space by Shuttle. 

Mcasurcmcnt of Earths magnctospherc, one of three satcllitcs composing 

Activc Magnctosphcrc Particle Traccr Explorcrs Mission (AMPTE). 

Sccond of thrcc satcllitcs of AMPTE Mission, launched by same vehicle. 

Third of thrcc satcllitcs of AMPTE Mission, launchcd by same vehicle. 

First of thrcc satcllitcs in Earth Radiation Budgct Experiment Research 

Program. NOAA-9 and NOAA-G carrying other instrumcnts in Program. 

Northcrn Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system calibrator). 

Rcusablc frcc-flying platform. 

Rcusablc cxpcrimcntal platform. 

Global Low Orbiting Mcssage Rclay satcllite. 

Experiments to study radio interference caused by Aurora Borealis, for DoD 

International satcllitc to study carth's lowcr atmosphere. 

175 
APPEYDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1988 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 litan IIIECentaur 

Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Jan 15, 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIE 

Centaur 

Aug. 20, 1977 VOydgCr 2 Titan IIIECcntaur 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

May 20, 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

Aug. 8, 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

Lander dcsccndcd, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samplcs for 

signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flcw in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, measuring 

solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West 

German and US. cxpcriments as Hclios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

arrivcd Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for 

outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dcc. 4, returning imagery and data 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through 

Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

176 
APPENDIX C 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Vostok 1 

McrcuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRcdstone 4 , 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mcrcury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gcmini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gcmini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Fcb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Scpt. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dcc. 21. 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, 1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tercshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Fcoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Alekscy A. Lconov 

Virgil 1. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Ceman 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eiscle 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovcll, Jr. 

William A. Andcrs 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Alekscy A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

JohnW.Young 

Eugene A. Ceman 

0: 1:48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10: 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0: 10: 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 : 23 : 17 

3:22:35 

1: 2:37 

10: 20: 9 

3:22:51 

6: 3: 1 

2: 23: 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight cxceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of 

First 3-man crew. 

astronaut safe. 

Vostok 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longcst-duration manned flight to date 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gcmini 7 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered 

min). 

maneuvers in orbit. 

(Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket) 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 

km). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date 

(Aldrin, 5 hrs 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manncd orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of 

influence; highest speed attained in 

manned flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit 

operation of lunar module to landing and 

takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining 

with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 

m from the lunar surface. 

177 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs: hrs:min) Highlights 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

8: 3: 9 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

4 : 22 : 50 

10: 4 ; 36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17: 16: 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23: 18: 22 

12: 7: 12 

11: 1 :51 

12: 13 : 52 

28: 0: 50 

59: 11: 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1: 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15: 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock and 

soil samples to Earth, and manned 

deployment of experiments on lunar 

surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observation. 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseycv 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

Soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 Second manned lunar landing. Explored 

surface of moon and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. 

Ship circled moon, with crew using LM as 

"lifeboat" until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission 

demonstrated pinpoint landing capability 

and continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew 

recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capusle recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo 

"J" series mission, which carried Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. Worden's inflight EVA of 38 

min 12 sec was performed during return 

trip. 

Roving Vehicle. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 

soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 

Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 

Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 JohnW.Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

OIeg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Cam 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. kbedcv 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. 

Rukavishnikov 

Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 

Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 

Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration 

mission; last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration 

experiments. 

occupied space station. 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dcc. 2, 1974 

178 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs : min) Highlights 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Pctr 1. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alekscy A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vydcheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Olcg G. Makarov 

Alcksey A. Gubarcv 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint 

station. 

recovered after abort. 

station. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Failcd to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

station. 

camera system. 

station. 

station. 

Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 

min. 

Czech cosmonaut to orbit. 

Soyuz 31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 

48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was 

first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 

min. Jaehn was first German Democratic 

Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 

min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 

station. Ivanov was first Bulgarian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 

returned unmanned. 

Soyuz 37. Crcw duration 184 days 20 hrs 

12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

46 min. Farkas was first Hungarian to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight 

of new-generation ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

42 min. Pham was first Vietnamese to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first 

Cuban to orbit. 

Docked wtih Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Soviet program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

48: 1:32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

37: IO : 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79: 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108 : 4: 24 

i:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55: 1: 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12: 19: 8 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dcc. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Feb. 25, 1979 Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 

soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 

soyuz 35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Soyuz 36 May 26, 1980 

SOPZ T-2 

soyuz 37 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Soyuz 38 

SOPZ T-3 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Amaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

179 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

SOJWZ T-4 

Soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

C o I u m b i a 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

Soyuz T-5 

Soyuz T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

Soyuz T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STj 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

SOWZ T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challcngcr 

(STS 7) 

Soyuz T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Mar. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1981 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn 

Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Apr. 12, 1981 

May 14, 1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1982 

May 13, 1982 

June 24, 1982 

June 27, 1982 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 20, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

Nov. 28, 1983 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lcnoir 

Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gcnnady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 ; 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7:20 :41 

2: 6:13 

8: 4;49 

211: 9: 5 

7 : 21 : 51 

7: 1: 9 

7:21 :52 

5: 2:14 

5: 0:24 

2: 0:18 

6: 2 :24 

149: 9:46 

6: 1: 9 

10: 7 : 47 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first 

Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested 

spacecraft in orbit. First landing of 

airplanelike craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first 

Romanian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first 

scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested 

remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

scientific payload (OSS 1). Second test of 

remote manipulator arm. Flight extended 

1 day because of flooding at primary 

landing site; alternate landing site used. 

Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 

211 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first 

French cosmonaut to orbit. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. 

Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight 

testing program. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second 

Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in 

Soyuz T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

operational flight; launched 2 

commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C3); first flight with 4 crew members. EVA 

test cancelled when spacesuits 

malfunctioned. 

TDRS 1. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 

station. 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and 

Palapa B-11, also launched and retrieved 

SPAS 01; first flight with 5 crew 

members, including first woman U.S. 

astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

one commercial satellite (Insat 1-B), first 

flight of U.S. black astronaut. 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first flight of 6 crew 

members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in 

U.S. space program. 

180 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41B) 

Soyuz T-10 

Soyuz T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41C) 

Soyuz T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41G) 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

July 17, 1984 

Aug. 30, 1984 

Scpt. 5, 1984 

Space Shuttle Nov. 8, 1984 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1A) 

Space Shuttle Jan. 24, 1985 

Discovery 

(STS-510 

Space Shuttle Apr. 12, 1985 

Discovery 

(STS-5lD) 

Space Shuttle Apr. 29, 1985 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1B) 

Soyuz T-13 June 5, 1985 

62 : 22 : 43 

181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

11 : 19 : 14 

6: 0:56 

8: 5 :24 

Vance D. Brand 7 : 23 : I6 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robcrt L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Olcg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippcn 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Vkddimir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsficld 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Rcsnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leesuna 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. BucNi 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M.Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Gam 

Robcrt F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Grcgory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodcwijk Vandenberg 

Taylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

7 : 23 : 45 

3: 1 :33 

6 : 23 : 55 

7:0:9 

112: 3: 12 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two 

communication satellites failed to achieve 

orbit. First use of Manned Maneuvering 

Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set 

space duration record of 237 days. Crew 

returned in Soyuz T-11. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz 

T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment 

of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar 

Maximum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and 

redeployed. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

U.S. non-astronaut. 

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight 

of 7 crewmembers, including first flight of 

two U.S. women and one Canadian. 

Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

retrieval and return of two disabled 

Communications satellites (Westar 6, 

Palapa B2) to Earth. 

Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space. 

Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo 

bay of shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

Earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 

spacecraft, Sept. 26, 1985. 

181 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5IG) 

Space Shuttle July 29, 1985 

Challenger 

(STS-51 F) 

Space Shuttle Aug. 27, 1985 

Discovery 

(STS-511) 

Soyuz T-14 Sept. 17, 1985 

June 17, 1985 Daniel C. Brandenstein 7: 1 : 39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

communications satellites. One reusable 

payload, Spartan-1. First U.S. flight with 

French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

Space Shuttle Oct. 3, 1985 

Atlantis 

(STS-51J) 

Space Shuttle Oct. 30, 1985 

Challenger 

(STS-61 A) 

Space Shuttle Nov. 27, 1985 

Atlantis 

(STS-6lB) 

Space Shuttle Jan. 12, 1986 

Columbia 

(STS-61C) 

Soyuz T-15 Mar. 13, 1986 

SOPZ TM-2 Feb. 5, 1987 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Emst Messcrschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. O'Connor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Shemood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolfo Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steven A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

7 : 22 ; 45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo 

bay. 

7: 2 :18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. Repaired 

Syncom IV-3. 

64 : 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor 

Savinykh, Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir 

Vasyutin returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985, 

when Vasyutin became ill. 

mission. 

4: 1 :45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicted DoD 

7: 0 :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated 

German Spacelab D-1 in shuttle cargo 

bay. 

6 : 22 : 54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. First flight of 

Mexican astronaut. 

6: 2: 4 Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one 

communications satellite. First member of 

U.S. House of Representatives in space. 

125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 5/6 

transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 

25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to 

MIR. 

Docked with MIR space station. 

Romanenko established long distance stay 

in space record of 326 days. 

174: 3 : 26 

182 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1988 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Soyuz TM-3 July 22, 1987 Aleksandr Viktorenko 160 : 7 : 16 Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr 

Akksdndr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

Aleksandrov remained in MIR 160 days, 

returned with Yuriy Rornanenko. 

Viktorenko and Faris returned in Soyuz 

TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin 

who experienced medical problems. 

Mohammed Faris first Syrian in space. 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of 

Yuriy Romanenko, Aleksandr 

Aleksandrov, and Anatoliy Lcvchenko 

returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Soyuz TM-4 Dcc. 21, 1987 Vladimir Titov 

Musa Manarov 

fbdtOhy Levchenko 

180: 5 

Soyuz TM-5 Jun. 7, 1988 

Soyuz TM-6 Aug. 29, 1988 

STS-26 Sep. 29, 1988 

Soyuz TM-7 Nov. 26, 1988 

STS-27 Dec. 2, 1988 

Viktor Savinykh 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Valeriy Polyakov 

Abdul Mohmand 

Frederick H. I-Iauck 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilrncrs 

George D. Nelson 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Sergey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Robert "Hoot" Gibson 

Guy S. Gardner 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jeny L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

9:20:13 Docked with MIR space station, 

Aleksandrov first Bulgarian in space. 

Crew returned Jun. 17 in Soyuz TM-4. 

8: 19:27 Docked with MIR space station, Mohrnand 

first Afghanistan in space. Crew returned 

Sep. 7 in Soyuz TM-5 

4: 1 Twentysixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

In progress. 

4 : 9: 6 

Docked with MIR space station. Volkov 

and Krikalev in orbit at end of 1988. 

Soyuz TM-6 returned with Chretien, 

Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov. Titov 

and Manarov completed 366-day mission, 

Dec. 21. 

Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

mission. 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kg)b 

Thrust Max. Dia. 185-Km ~0synch.- Circular First 

(kilonewtons) X Height Orbit Transfer Sun- Launch' Vehicle Stages/(engines) Propellant' 

Orbit 'ynch. 

Orbit (m) 

Scout 

Delta 3900 Series 

(ThOr-Deltdy 

Atlas E 

Adas-Centaur 

1. Algol IIIA ............. 

2. Castor IIA ............ 

3. Antares IIIA ......... 4. Altair IIIA ............. 

1. Thor plus ............. 

9 TX 526-2 ........... 

2. Delta .................... 

1. Atlas booster (MA-3) 

& sustainer .......... 

1. Atlas booster (MA-5) 

Rr sustainer .......... 

2. Centaur ................ 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ........................ 

LOWRP-1 ............... 

Solid ....................... 

N,O,/Aerozine-50 ... 

LOWW-1 ............... 

LOWW-1 ............... 

LOWLH, ............... 

431.1 1.14x22.9 255 __ 155d 1979(60) 

285.2 205d 

83.1 

25.6 

912.0 2.44x35.4 3,045 1,275 2,135d 1982(60) 

375 each 2,180d 

44.2 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

3.05x28.1 2,090d -- 1,500d 1972(59) 

3.05x45.0 6,100 2,360 -- 1984(72) 

Titan I1 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Titan III(34)D/IUS 

Titan III(34)D/ 

Trdnstage 

24-Hour Sun-synch. 

185-Km Polar Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

1. (LR-87[21) N,O,/Aerozine-50 _.._ 2,108.4 3.05x28.5 2,200 .. -- 1962 

2. (LR-91) N,O,/Acrozine-50 .... 444.8 1,905d 

1. (LR-87) ................. N,O,/Aerozine ......... 2,341.0 3.05x48.4 3,600d 3,060d 1966 

2. 

3. 

4. 

2. 

3. 1

(LR-91) ................. 

Agcna .................. Two 5'/2-scgmcnt, 

3.05 m dia ........... 

LR-87 .................... 

LR-91 .................... 

IUS 1st stage ........ 

Same as Tian III(34)D 

5. Ius 2nd StdgC ...... 

plus: 

4. Trdnstagc ............. 

/. 

N,O,/Aerozinc ......... 

IRFNNUDMH ........ 

Solid ........................ 

N,O,/Acrozine ........ 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

N,O,/Aerozine ........ 

N,O,/Aerozine ........ 

455.1 

71.2 

11,564.8 3.05x48.0 14,920 1,850d -- 1982 

2,366.3 

449.3 

275.8 

115.7 

3.05x46.9 14,920 1,855d -- 1984h 

69.8 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) fire 

in parallel with 

2. Two solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with SSMEs AL/NH,CLO,/ 

Mounted on 

cxtcmal tank (ET) 

SRBs .................... LOWLH, ............... 1,670 each 

PBAN ............ 11,790 each 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

24,900 1981 

in full 

performance 

23.79~37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

3.71x45.45 

8.40x46.88 

' Propellant abbreviations used are as follows. liquid oxygen 

and a modified kerosene = LOWRP,RJ; solid propellant comhining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer - Solid; 

inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimcthylhydrazine - IRFNNUDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/N,H, - 

N20,/aerozine: liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOWLH,; 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer = AL"H,CLO,/PBAN. 

Polar launch. 

Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM configurations. 

With dual TE 364-4. 

With 96" flight azimuth. 

Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to bc 

PAM = payload assist module. 

scheduled as needed. 

Due east launch except as indicated. 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

NOTE: Data should not be uscd for dctailcd NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation 

System Support Programs. 

184 
APPENDLX E-1

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year NASA Com- Total Defense Energy Interior wd- NSF DOT Space 

Total %ace' ture 

1959 ............................ 1960 ............................ 1961 ............................ 

1962 ............................ 1963 ............................ 

1964 ............................ 

1965 ............................ 

1966 ............................ 1967 ............................ 1968 ............................ 

1969 ............................ 

1970 ............................ 

1971 ............................ 1972 ............................ 

1974 ............................ 

1975 ............................ 

1977 ............................ 

1979 ............................ 

1980 ............................ 

1982 ............................ 

1984 ............................ 

1985 ............................ 

1987 ............................ 

1988 ............................ 

1990 [est.] .................... 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

4,595.5 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.9b 

6,875.3' 

7,248.0 

7,766.0 

10,507.0 

9,025.8 

10,969.0 

12,322.3 

7,572.6 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3,440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,924.9 

7,165.0 

9,809.0' 

8,302.4 

10,097.5 

11,393.1 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1,298.2 

1,549.9 

1,599.3 

1,573.9 

1,688.8 

1,663.6 

1,921.8 

2,013.0 

1,678.4 

1,512.3 

1,407.0 

1,623.0 

1,766.0 

1,892.4 

1,983.3 

460.4 

2,411.9 

2,738.3 

3,035.6 

3,848.4 

4,827.7 

6,678.7 

9,018.9 

10,194.9 

12,767.9 

14,126.0 

16,286.8 

17,678.7 

17,906.1 

19,382.4 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

58.6 

39.6 

40.5 

60.6 

38.9 

34.1 

34.0 

34.6 

47.6 

240.8 

239.8 

190.3 

. 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

102.8 

98.4 

92.6 

87.0 

144.5 

177.8 

236.0 

422.9 

308.9 

277.9 

351.5 

362.4 

243.0 

~~ ~~ __ 

'Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402) . bIncludes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . 'Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds . 

dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA . 

%eludes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger . 

. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.3 

12.1 

4.6 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

7.6 

13.6 

14.4 

15.5 

- . 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

0.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

20.4 

19.4 

14.8 

22.9 

18.3 

20.5 

23.4 

18.5 

. 

... 

0.1 

0.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

0.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 d ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

1.4 

2.8 

3.5 

- . 

784.7 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,831.4 

6,955.5 

6,969.8 

6,709.5 

6,528.9 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,574.7 

4,824.9 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,319.9 

1,340.5 

5,982.8 

6,518.2 

7,243.5 

8,688.8 

9,977.8 

12,440.7 

15,588.5 

17,135.7 

20,166.5 

21,659.4 

26,447.9 

26,606.7 

28,643.5 

31,251.2 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget . 

185 
BILL 

DC 

US. Space Budget-Budget Authority FY 1971-1988 

(may not add because of rounding) 

35 1 

30 

25 

20 

.IONS OF 

)LLARS 

15 

10 

0 

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 T.Oa 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1988 1987 1988 1989 1990 

EST. EST. 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

186 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Fcdcral Space Programs 

Budgct Authority Budgct Outlays 

1988 1989 1990 1988 1989 1990 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal agencies: 

NASA' ......................................................... 

Defcnsc ....................................................... 

Encrgy .............................................................. 

Commerce ............................... 

Interior .................................... NSF" ............................ 

Agriculture ................... ........................ Transportation - 

TOTAL ................................................. 

8,302.4 

17,678.7 

240.8 

351.5 

13.6 

0.0 

18.3 

1.4 

26,606.7 

10,097.5 

17,906.1 

239.8 

362.4 

14.4 

0.0 

20.5 

2.8 

28,643.5 

11,393.1 

19,382.4 

190.3 

243.0 

15.5 

0.0 

23.4 

3.5 

31,251.2 

'Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

"NSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA 

8,450.5 

14,397.4 

199.1 

333.9 

13.6 

0.0 

18.3 

13 

10,195.2 

14,264.5 

236.7 

344.3 

14.4 

0.0 

20.5 

1.7 

11,111.3 

15,457.6 

210.9 

230.9 

15.2 

0.0 

23.4 

3.1 

23,414.1 25,077.3 27,052.4 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1988 1989 1990 1988 1989 1990 Federal Acronautics Programs 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

NASA' .............................................................. 723.4 871.5 929.2 678.8 855.3 913.2 

Departmcnt of Defenseb ................................ 4,988.7 8,240.4 8,551.8 4,448.3 6,335.3 7,711.4 

Departmcnt of Transportation' ..................... 1,261.5 1,544.1 1,891.3 1,212.7 1,215.7 1,367.8 

TOTAL .............................................................. 6,973.6 10,656.0 11,372.3 6,339.8 8,406.3 9,992.4 

'Research and Development, Construction of 

Facilities, Research and Program Management, 

bRcscarch, Devclopment, Testing, and 

Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

cFcderal Aviation Administration: Research, 

Engineering, and Development; Facilities, 

Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

187 
APPENDIX F-1 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immcdiatc Release 

February 11, 1988 

FACT SHEET 

Presidential Direc-ive on National Space Policy 

Thc President approved on January 5, 1988, a revised national space policy that will set the direction of U.S. efforts in space for the future. 

The policy is the rcsult of a five-month interagency review which includcd a thorough analysis of previous Presidential decisions, the National 

Commission on Space report, and the implications of the Space Shuttle and expendable launch vehicle accidents. The primary objective of this 

review was to consolidate and update Prcsidcntial guidance on U.S. space activitics to provide a broad policy framework to guide US. space 

activitics well into the future. 

The rcsulting Presidential Directive reaffirms the national commitment to the exploration and use of space in support of our national well 

bcing. It acknowledges that United States space activities arc conductcd by three separate and distinct sectors: two strongly interacting 

govcrnrnental scctors (Civil, and National Sccurity) and a separate, non-governmental Commercial Sector. Close coordination, cooperation, and 

tcchnology and information exchange will bc maintained among sectors to avoid unnecessary duplication and promote attainment of United 

Statcs space goals. 

GOALS AND PRINCIPLES 

Thc dircctivc statcs that a fundamcntal objective guiding Unitcd States spacc activities has been, and continues to be, space leadership. 

Leadership in an increasingly compctitivc intcmational environment docs not require United States preeminence in all areas and disciplines of 

spacc cntcrprisc. It docs require United Statcs prccmincncc in kcy arcas of space activity critical to achieving our national security, scientific, 

tcctinical, cconomic, and foreign policy goals. 

Thc ovcrall goals of United Statcs space activities are: (1) to strengthcn the security of the United States; (2) to obtain scientific, 

technological, and economic bcnefits for the general population and to improve the quality of life on Earth through space-rlted activities; (3) to cncouragc continuing United States private-sector invcstmcnt in spacc and related activitics; (4) to promote international cooperative 

activitics taking into account United Statcs national security, forcign policy, scientific, and economic interests; (5) to coopcrate with other 

nations in maintaining the freedom of space for all activities that enhance thc security and welfare of mankind; and, as a long-range goal, (6) to 

expand human prcscnce and activity bcyond Earth orbit into the solar system. 

The directive states that United Statcs space activities shall be conducted in accordance with the following principles: 

- The United States is committed to the cxploration and use of outer space by all nations for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of 

all mankind. “Peaceful purposes” allow for activities in pursuit of national security goals. 

- The United States will pursue activities in space in support of its inherent right of self-defense and its defense commitments to its 

- The United States rejects any claims to sovcrcignty by any nation over outer space or celestial bodies, or any portion thereof, and 

rcjccts any limitations on the fundamental right of sovcrcign nations to acquire data from space. 

- The United States considers the space systcms of any nation to be national property with the right of passage through and 

operations in space without interfcrcncc. Purposeful interference with space systems shall be viewed as an infringement on sovereign 

rights. 

- Thc United States shall encourage and not preclude the commercial use and exploitation of space technologies and systems for 

national economic benefit without direct Federal subsidy. These commercial activities must be consistent with national security 

- The United States shall encourage other countries to cngage in free and fair trade in commercial space goods and services. 

- Thc United States will conduct international cooperative space-related activities that arc expected to achieve sufficient scientific, 

political, cconomic, or national security benefits for the nation. Thc United States will seek mutually beneficial intcmational 

CIVIL SPACE POLICY 

Thc dircctivc states that: 

Thc United States civil space sector activities shall contribute significantly to enhancing the Nation’s sciencc, tcchnology, economy, 

pridc, scnsc of well-being and direction, as well as United States world prestige and leadership. Civil sector activities shall comprise a 

balanced strategy of rcscarch, dcvclopment, operations, and technology for sciencc, exploration, and appropriate applications. 

188 
The objeaives of the United States civil space activities shall be (1) to expand knowledge of the Earth, its environment, the solar system, 

and the universe; (2) to create new opportunities for use of the space environment through the conduct of appropriate research and 

experimentation in advanced technology and systems; (3) to develop space technology for civil applications and, wherever appropriate, make 

such technology available to the commercial sector; (4) to preserve the United States preeminence in critical aspects of space science, 

application:s, technology, and manned space flight; (5) to establish a permanently manned presence in space; and (6) to engage in international 

coopcrativc efforts that further United States spacc goals. 

COMMERCIAL SPACE POLICY 

governmental Commercial Space Scctor. Expanding private sector investment in space by the market-driven Commercial Sector generates 

economic benefits for the Nation and supports governmental Space Sectors with an increasing range of space goods and services. 

Governmental Space Sectors shall purchase commercially available space goods and services to the fullest extent feasible and shall not conduct 

activities with potential commercial applications that preclude or deter Commercial Scctor space activities except for national security or public 

safety reasons. Commercial Sector space activities shall be supervised or regulated only to the extent required by law, national security, 

international obligations, and public safety. 

NATIONAL SECURITY SPACE POLICY 

activities will contribute to national security objectives by 1) deterring, or if necessary, defending against enemy attack; 2) assuring that forces 

of hostile nations cannot prevent our own use of space; 3) negating, if ncccssary, hostile space systems; and 4) enhancing operations of United 

States and Allied forces. Consistent with treaty obligations, the national security space program shall support such functions as command and 

control, communications, navigation, environmental monitoring, warning, and surveillance (including research and development programs 

which support these functions). 

INTER-SECTOR POLICIES 

The directive states that the United States government shall not preclude or deter the continuing development of a separate, nonThe dircctive further states that the United States will conduct those activities in space that are necessary to national defense. Space 

This section contains policies applicable to, and binding on, the national security and civil space sectors: 

The United States Government will maintain and coordinate separate national security and civil operational space systems where 

differing needs of the sectors dictate. 

Suniivability and endurance of national security space systems, including all necessary system elements, will be pursued commensurate 

with their planned use in crisis and conflict, with the threat, and with the availability of other assets to perform the mission. 

Government sectors shall encourage, to the maximum extent feasible, the development and use of United States private sector space 

capabilitica without direct Federal subsidy. 

The directive states that the United States Government will: (1) encourage the development of commercial systems which image the 

Earth from space competitive with or superior to foreign-operated civil or commercial systems; (2) discuss remote sensing issues and activities 

with foreign governments operating or regulating the private operation of remote sensing systems; and (3) continue a research and 

devclopmcnt effort foI3Uture advanced, remote sensing technologies. Commercial applications of such technologies will not involve direct 

Fcdcral subsidy. 

The directive further states that assured access to space, sufficient to achieve all United States space goals, is a key element of national 

space policy. United States space transportation systems must provide a balanced, robust, and flexible capability with sufficient resiliency to 

allow contiinucd operations despite failures in any single system. The goals of United States space transportation policy are: (1) to achieve and 

maintain safe and reliable access to, transportation in, and return from, space; (2) to exploit the unique attributes of manned and unmanned 

launch and recovery systems; (3) to encourage to the maximum extent feasible, the development and use of United States private sector space 

transportation capabilities without direct Federal subsidy; and (4) to reduce the costs of space transportation and related services. 

The directive also states that communications advancements are critical to all United States space sectors. To ensure necessary 

capabilities exist, the directive states that the United States Government will continue research and development efforts for future advanced 

space communications technologies. These technologies, when utilized for commercial purposes, will be without direct Federal subsidy. 

Thc directive states that it is the policy of the United States to control or prohibit, as appropriate, exports of equipment and/or 

technology that would make a significant contribution to a foreign country's strategic military missile programs. Certain United States friends 

and allies will be exempted from this policy, subject to appropriate non-transfer and end-use assurances. 

Thc directive also states that the United States will consider and, as appropriate, formulate policy positions on arms control measures 

governing activities in space, and will conduct negotiations on such measures only if they are equitable, effectively verifiable, and enhance the 

security of the United States and its allies. 

Thc directive further states that all space sectors will seek to minimize the creation of space debris. Design and operations of space 

tests, experiments and systems will strive to minimize or reduce accumulation of space debris consistent with mission requirements and cost 

effectiveness. 

IMPLEMEIYTLNG PROCEDURES 

directive. To provide a forum to all Federal agencies for their policy views, to review and advise on proposed changes to national space 

policy, and to provide for orderly and rapid referral of space policy issues to the President for decisions as necessary, a Senior Interagency 

Group (SI(;) on Space shall continue to meet. The SIG(Space) will be chaired by a member of the National Security Council staff and will 

include appropriate representatives of the Department of State, Department of Defense (DOD), Department of Commerce (DOC), Department 

of Transportation (DOT), Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, United States Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Office of Management and Budget, and the Office of Science 

and Techn.ology Policy. Other Executive agencies or departments will participate as the agenda of meeting shall dictate. 

The directive states that normal interagency procedures will be employed wherever possible to coordinate the policies enunciated in this 

189 
POLICY GUIDELINES AND IMPLEMENTING ACTIONS 

The directive also enumerates Policy Guidelines and Implementing Actions to provide a framework through which the policies in the 

directive shall be carried out. Agencies are directed to use this section as guidance on priorities, including preparation, review, and execution 

of budgets for space activities, within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President. Within 120 days of the date of this 

directive, affected Government agencies are directed to review their current policies for consistency with the directive and, where necessary, 

establish policies to implement the practices contained therein. 

CIVIL SPACE SECTOR GUIDEJJNES 

The directive specifies that in conjunction with other agencies: NASA will continue the lead role within the Federal Government for 

advancing space science, exploration, and appropriate applications through the conduct of activities for research, technology, development, 

and related operations; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration will gather data, conduct research, and make predictions about 

the Earth's environment; DOT will license and promote commercial launch operations which support civil sector operations. 

Space Science. NASA, with the collaboration of other appropriate agencies, will conduct a balanced program to support scientific 

research, exploration, and experimentation to expand understanding of: (1) astrophysical phenomena and the origin and evolution of the 

universe; (2) the Earth, its environment and its dynamic relationship with the Sun; (3) the origin and evolution of the solar system; (4) 

fundamental physical, chemical, and biological processes; (5) the effects of the space environment on human beings; and (6) the factors 

governing the origin and spread of life in the universe. 

Space Exploration. In order to investigate phenomena and objects both within and beyond the solar system, the directive states that 

NASA will conduct a balanced program of manned and unmanned exploration. 

- Human Exploration. To implement the long-range goal of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar 

system the policy directs NASA to begin the systematic development of technologies necessary to enable and support a range of future 

manned missions. This technology program (Pathfinder) will be oriented toward a Presidential decision on a focused program of 

manned exploration of the solar system. 

- Unmanned Exploration. The policy further directs NASA to continue to pursue a program of unmanned exploration where such 

exploration can most efficiently and effectively satisfy national space objectives by among other things: achieving scientific objectives 

where human presence is undesirable or unnecessary; exploring realms where the risks or costs of life support are unacceptable; and 

providing data vital to support future manned missions. 

Permanent Manned Presence. The directive states that NASA will develop the Space Station to achieve permanently manned operational 

capability by the mid-1990s. The directive further states that the Space Station will: (1) Contribute to United States preeminence in critical 

aspects of manned spacefligh~(2) provide support and stability to scientific and technological investigations; (3) provide early benefits, 

particularly in the materials and life sciences; (4) promote private sector experimentation preparatory to independent commercial activity; (5) 

allow evolution in keeping with the needs of Station users and the long-term goals of the United States; (6) provide opportunities for 

commercial sector participation; and (7) contribute to the longer term goal of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into 

the solar system. 

Manned Spaceflight Preeminence. The directive specifies that approved programs such as efforts to improve the Space Transportation 

System (STS) and return it to safe flight and to develop, deploy, and use the Space Station, are intended to ensure United States preeminence in 

critical aspects of manned spaceflight. 

Space Applications. The policy directs NASA and other agencies to pursue the identification and development of appropriate 

applications flowing from their activities. Agencies will seek to promote private sector development and implementation of applications. 

The policy also states that: 

- Such applications will create new capab 

scientific observations. 

es, or improve the quality or efficiency of continuing activities, including long-term 

- NASA will seek to ensure its capability to conduct selected critical missions through an appropriate mix of assured access to space, 

on-orbit sparing, advanced automation techniques, redundancy, and other suitable measures. 

- Agencies may enter cooperative research and development agreements on space applications with firms seeking to advance the 

relevant state-of-the-art consistent with United States Government space objectives. 

- Management of Federal civil operational remote sensing is the responsibility of the Department of Commerce. The Department of 

Commerce will: (1) consolidate Federal needs for the civil operational remote sensing products to be met either by the private sector or 

the Federal government; (2) identify needed civil operational system research and development objectives; and (3) in coordination with 

other departments or agencies, provide for the regulation of private sector operational remote sensing systems. 

Civil Government Space Transportation. The policy states the unique Space Transportation System (STS) capability to provide manned 

access to space will be exploited in those areas that offer the greatest national return, including contributing to United States preeminence in 

critical aspects of manned spaceflight. The STS fleet will maintain the Nation's capability and will be used to support critical programs 

requiring manned presence and other unique STS capabilities. In support of national space transportation goals, NASA will establish 

sustainable STS flight rates to provide for planning and budgeting of Government space programs. NASA will pursue appropriate 

enhancements to STS operational capabilities, upper stages, and systems for deploying, servicing, and retrieving spacecraft as national and user 

requirements are defined. 

International Cooperation. The policy guidelines state that the United States will foster increased international cooperation in civil space 

activities by seeking mutually beneficial international participation in its civil space and space-related programs. The SIG(Space) Working 

190 
Group on Space Science Cooperation with the U.S.S.R. shall be responsible for oversight of civil space cooperation with the Soviet Union. No 

such cooperative activity shall be initiated until an interagency review has been completed. The directive provides that United States 

cooperation in international civil space activities will: 

- Be consistent with United States technology transfer laws, regulations, Executive Orders and presidential directives. 

- Support the public, nondiscriminatory direct readout of data from Federal civil systcms to foreign ground stations and the provision 

of data to foreign users under specific conditions. 

- Be conducted in such a way as to protect the commercial value of intellectual property developed with Federal support. Such 

cooperation will not preclude or deter commercial space activities by the United States private sector, except as required by national 

security or public safety. 

COMMERCIAL SPACE SECTOR GUIDELINES 

implement specific measures to foster the growth of private sector commercial use of space. A high-level focus for commercial space issues 

has been created through establishment of a Commercial Space Working Group of the Economic Policy Council. SIG6pace) will continue to 

coordinate the development and implementation of national space policy. 

The directive states that NASA, and the Departments of Commerce, Defense, and Transportation will work cooperatively to develop and 

To stimulate private sector invcstment, ownership, and operation of space assets, the directive provides that the United States 

Government will facilitate private sector access to appropriate US. space-related hardware and facilities, and encourage the private sector to 

undertake commercial space ventures. The directive states that Governmental Space Sectors shall, without providing direct Federal subsidies: 

- Utilize commercially available goods and services to the fullest extent feasible, and avoid actions that may preclude or deter 

commercial space sector activities except as required by national security or public safety. A space good or service is "commercially 

available" if it is currently offered commercially, or if it could be supplied commercially in response to a government service 

procurement request. "Feasible" means that such goods or services meet mission rcquircments in a cost-effective manner. 

- Enter into appropriate cooperative agreements to encourage and advance private sector basic research, development, and 

operations while protecting the commercial value of the intellectual property developed; 

- Provide for the use of appropriate Government facilities on a reimbursable basis; 

- Identify, and eliminate or propose for elimination, applicable portions of United States laws and regulations that unnecessarily 

impede commercial space sector activities; 

- Encourage free trade in commercial space activities. The United States Trade Representative will consult, or, as appropriate, 

negotiate with other countries to encourage free trade in commercial space activities. In entering into space-related technology 

development and transfer agreements with other countries, Executive Departments and agencies will take into consideration whether 

such countries practice and encourage free and fair trade in commercial space activities. 

- Provide for the timely transfer of Government-developed space technology to the private sector in such a manner as to protect its 

commercial value, consistent with national security. 

- Price Government-provided goods and services consistent with OMB Circular A-25. 

The directive also states that the Department of Commerce (DOC) will commission a study to provide information for future policy and 

program decisions on options for a commercial advanced earth remote sensing system. This study, to be conducted in the private sector under 

DOC direction with input from other Federal Agencies, will consist of asscssments of the following elements: (1) domestic and international 

markets for remote sensing data; (2) financing options, such as cooperative opportunities between government and industry in which the 

private sector contributes substantial financing to the venture, participation by other government agencies, and international cooperative 

partnerships; (3) sensor and data proccssing technology and; (4) spacecraft technology and launch options. The results of this study will 

include an action plan on the best alternatives identified during the study. 

NATIONAL SECURITY SPACE SECTOR GUIDELINES 

0 General. The directive states that 

- The Department of Defense (DOD) will develop, operate, and maintain an assured mission capability through an appropriate mix 

of robust satellite control, assured access to space, on-orbit sparing, proliferation, reconstitution or other means. 

- The national security space program, including dissemination of data, shall be conducted in accordance with Executive Orders and 

applicable directives for the protection of national security information and commensurate with both the missions performed and the 

security measures necessary to protect related space activities. 

- DOD will ensure that the military space program incorporates the support requirements of the Strategic Defense Initiative. 

Space Support. The directive states that: 

- The national security space sector may use both manned and unmanned launch systems as determined by specific mission 

requircmcnts. Payloads will be distributed among launch systems and launch sitcs to minimize the impact of loss of any singlc launch 

system or launch site on mission performance. The DOD will procure unmanned launch vehicles or services and maintain launch 

capability on both the East and West coasts, DOD will also continue to enhance the robustness of its satellite control capability through 

an appropriate mix of satellite autonomy and survivable command and control, processing, and data dissemination systems. 

- DOD will study concepts and technologies which would support future contingency launch capabilities 191 
Force Enhancement. The directive states that the national security space sector will develop, operate, and maintain space systems and 

develop plans and architectures to meet the requirements of operational land, sea, and air forces through all levels of conflict commensurate 

with their intended use. 

space Control. The directive also states that: 

- The DOD will develop, operate, and maintain enduring space systems to ensure its freedom of action in space. This requires an 

integrated combination of antisatellite, survivability, and surveillance capabilities. 

- Antisatellite (ASAT) Capability. DOD will develop and deploy a robust and comprehensive ASAT capability with programs as 

required and with initial operational capability at the earliest possible date. 

- DOD space programs will pursue a survivability enhancement program with long-term planning for future requirements. The DOD 

must provide for the survivability of selected, critical national security space assets (including associated terrestrial components) to a 

degree commensurate with the value and utility of the support they provide to national-level decision functions, and military 

- The United States will develop and maintain an integrated attack warning, notification, verification, and contingency reaction 

capability which can effectively detect and react to threats to United Statcs space systems. 

Force Application. The directive states that the DOD will, consistent with treaty obligations, conduct research, development, and 

planning to be prepared to acquire and deploy space weapons systems for strategic defense should national security conditions dictate. 

INTER-SECTOR GUIDELINES 

supporting major United States space policy objectives: 

The directive states that the following paragraphs identify selected, high priority cross-sector efforts and responsibilities to implement plans 

Space Transportation Guidelines 

- The United States national space transportation capability will be based on a mix of vehicles, consisting of the Space Transportation 

System (STS), unmanned launch vehicles (ULVs), and in-space transportation systems. The elements of this mix will be defined to 

support the mission needs of national security and civil government sectors of United States space activities in the most cost effective 

manner. 

- As determined by specific mission requirements, the national security space sector will use the STS and ULVs. In coordination with 

NASA, the DOD will assure the Shuttle’s utility to national defense and will integrate missions into the Shuttle system. Launch priority 

will be provided for national security missions as implemented by NASA-DOD agreements. Launches necessary to preserve and protect 

human life in space shall have the highest priority cxccpt in times of national security emergency. 

- The STS will continue to be managed and operated in an institutional arrangement consistent with the current NASMDOD 

Memorandum of Understanding. Responsibility will remain in NASA for operational control of the STS for civil missions, and in the 

DOD for operational control of thc STS for national security missions. Mission management is the responsibility of the mission agency. 

- United States commercial launch operations are an integral clement of a robust national space launch capability. NASA will not 

maintain an expendable launch vehicle (ELV) adjunct to the STS. NASA will provide launch services for commercial and foreign 

payloads only where those payloads must be man-tended, require the unique capabilities of the STS, or it is determined that launching 

the payloads on the STS is important for national security or foreign policy purposes. Commercial and foreign payloads will not be 

launched on government owned or opcratcd ELV systems cxccpt for national security or foreign policy reasons. 

- Civil Government agencies will encourage, to the maximum extent feasible, a domestic commercial launch industry by contracting 

for necessary ELV launch services directly from the private sector or with DOD. 

- NASA and the DOD will continue to cooperate in the development and use of military and civil space transportation systems and 

avoid unnecessary duplication of activities. They will pursue new launch and launch support concepts aimed at improving costeffectiveness, responsiveness, capability, reliability, availability, maintainability, and flexibility. Such cooperation between the national 

security and civil sectors will ensure efficicnt and effective use of national resources. 

The directive lists guidelines for the federal encouragement of commercial unmanned launch vehicles (ULVs): 

- The United States Government fully endorses and will facilitate the commercialization of United States unmanned launch vehicles 

- The Department of Transportation (DOT) is the lead agency within the Federal Government for developing, coordinating, and 

articulating Federal policy and regulatory guidance pertaining to United States commercial launch activities in consultation with DOD, 

State, NASA, and other concerned agencies. All Executive departments and agencies shall assist the DOT in canying out its 

responsibilities, as set forth in the Commercial Space Launch Act and Executive Order 12465. 

- The United States Governmcnt encourages the use of its launch and launch-related facilities for United States commercial launch 

- The United States Government will have priority use of Government fac es and support services to meet national security and 

critical mission requirements. The United States Government will make all reasonable efforts to minimize impacts on commercial 

operations. 

- The United States Government will not subsidize the commercialization of ULVs, but will price the use of its facilities, equipment, 

and services with the goal of encouraging viable commercial ULV activities in accordance with the Commercial Space Launch Act. 

192 
- The United States Government will encourage free market competition within the United States private sector. The United States 

Government will provide equitable treatment for all commercial launch operators for the sale or lease of Government equipment and 

- NASA and DOD, for those unclassified and releasable capabilities for which they have responsibility, shall, to the maximum extent 

feasible: 

- Use best efforts to provide commercial launch firms with access, on a reimbursable basis, to national launch and launch-related 

- Develop, in consultation with the DOT, contractual arrangements covering access by commercial launch firms to national launch 

and launch-related property and services they request in support of their operations; 

- Provide technical advice and assistance to commercial launch firms on a reimbursable basis, consistent with the pricing guidelines 

herein: and 

- Conduct, in coordination with DOT, appropriate environmental analyses necessary to ensure that commercial launch operations 

conducted at Federal launch facilities are in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act. 

The directive lists government ULV Pricing Guidelines. The price charged for the use of United States Government facilities, equipment, 

and service, will be based on the following principles: 

- Price all services (including those associated with production and launch of commercial ULVs) based on the direct costs incurred by 

the United States Government. Reimbursement shall be credited to the appropriation from which the cost of providing such property or 

service was paid. 

- The United States Government will not seek to recover ULV design and development costs or investments associated with any 

existing facilities or new facilities required to mcct United States Government needs to which the U.S. Government retains title; 

- Tooling, equipment, and residual ULV hardware on hand at the completion of the United States Government’s program will be 

priced on a basis that is in the best overall interest of the United States Government, taking into consideration that these sales will not 

constitute a subsidy to the private sector operator. 

The directive also states that commercial launch firms shall: 

- Maintain all facilities and equipment leased from the United States Government to a level of readiness and repair specified by the 

United States Government; 

- Comply with all requirements of the Commercial Space Launch Act, all regulations issued under the Act, and all terms, conditions or 

restrictions of any license issued or transferred by the Secretary of Transportation under the Act. 

The directive establishes the following technology transfer guidelines: 

- The United States will work to stem the flow of advanced western space technology to unauthorized destinations. Executive 

departments and agencies will be fully responsible for protecting against adverse technology transfer in the conduct of their programs 

- Sales of United States space hardware, software, and related technologies for use in foreign space projects will be consistent with 

relevant international and bilateral agreements and arrangements. 

The directive states that all Sectors shall recognize the importance of appropriate investments in the facilities and human resources 

necessary to support United States space objectives and maintain investments that are consistent with such objectives. A task force of the 

Commercial Space Working Group, in cooperation with OSTP, will conduct a feasibility study of alternate methods for encouraging, without 

direct Fedcral subsidy, private sector capital funding of United States space infrastructure such as ground facilities, launcher developments, and 

orbital assembly and test facilities. Coordinated terms of reference for this study shall be presented to the EPC and SIG(Space). 

The directive notes that the primary forum for negotiations on nuclear and space arms is the Nuclear and Space Talks (NST) with the 

Soviet Union in Geneva. The instructions to the United States Delegation will be consistent with this National Space Policy directive, 

established legal obligations, and additional guidance by the President. The United States will continue to consult with its Allies on these 

negotiations and ensure that any resulting agreements enhance the security of the United States and its Allies. Any discussions on arms control 

relating to activities in space in fora other than NST must be consistent with, and subordinate to, the foregoing activities and objectives. 

Finally the directive States that using NSC staff approved terms of reference, an SIG(Space) working group will provide 

recommendations on the implementation of the Space Debris Policy contained in the Policy section of this directive. 

193 
APPENDIX F-2 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release 

February 11, 1988 

FACT SHEET 

The President’s Space Policy and Commercial Space 

Initiative To Begin the Next Century 

The President today announced a comprehensive “Space Policy and Commercial Space Initiative to Begin the Next Century” intended to 

assure United States space leadership. 

The President’s program has three major components: 

The new policy and programs are contained in a National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) signed by the President on January 5, 1988, 

Establishing a long-range goal to expand human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the Solar System 

Creating oppormnities for U.S. commerce in space; and 

Continuing our national commitment to a permanently manned Spacc Station 

thc FY 1989 Budget the President will submit shortly to Congress, and a fifteen point Commercial Space Initiative. 

I. EXPANDING HUMAN PRESENCE BEYOND EARTH ORBIT 

In thc reccnt NSDD, the President committed to a goal of expanding human presence and activity in the Solar System. To lay the 

foundation for this goal, the President will be requesting $100 million in his FY 1989 Budget for a major new technology development program 

“Projcct Pathfinder” that will enable a broad range of manned or unmanned missions beyond the Earth‘s orbit. 

Project Pathfinder will be organized around four major focuses: 

- Exploration technology; 

- Operations technology; 

- Humans-in-space technology; and 

- Transfer vehicle technology 

This research effort will give the United States know-how in critical areas, such as humans in the space environment, closed Imp life 

support, aero braking, orbital transfer and maneuvering, cryogenic storage and handling, and large scale space operations, and provide a base 

for wise decisions on long term goals and missions. 

Additional highlights of the NSDD are outlined in Section IV of this fact sheet. 

II. CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR U.S. COMMERCE IN SPACE 

in Earth orbit and bcyond - in research and manufacturing. This initiative has three goals: 

Thc President is announcing a fifteen point commercial space initiative to seize the oppomnitics for a vigorous U.S. commercial presence 

Promoting a strong U.S. commercial presence in space; 

Assuring a highway to spacc; and 

Building a solid technology and talent base. 

Promoting a Strong U.S. Commercial Presence in Space 

1. Priuute Sector Space Facility: The President is announcing an intent for the Federal Government to lease space as an ”anchor tenant” in a 

orbiting space facility suitable for research and commercial manufacturing that is financed, constructed, and operated by the private sector. 

The Administration will solicit proposals from the U.S. private sector for such a facility. Space in this facility will be used and/or subleased 

by various Federal agencies with interest in microgravity research. 

The Administration’s intent is to award a contract during mid-summer of this year for such space and related services to be available to 

the Government no later than the end of FY 1993. 

194 
2. Spacehab: The Administration is committing to make best efforts to launch within the Shuttle payload bay, in the early 1990s, the 

commercially devclopcd, owned, and managed Shuttle middeck module: Spacehab. Manifesting requirements will depend on customer 

demand. 

airlock. Spacehab takes up approximately one-quarter of the payload bay and increases the pressurized living and working space of an 

orbiter by approximately 1,000 cubic feet or 400 percent in useable research volume. The facility is intended to be ready for commercial 

usc in mid-1991. 

3. Microgravity Research Board: The President will establish, through Executive Ordcr, a National Microgravity Research Board to assure and 

coordinate a broader range of opportunities for research in microgravity conditions. 

NASA will chair this board, which will include senior-level rcpresentativcs from the Departments of Commerce, Transportation, Energy, 

and Defense, NIH, and NSF; and will consult with the university and commercial sectors. The board will have the following 

responsibilities: 

To stimulate research in microgravity environments and its applications to commercial uses by advising Federal agencies, including NASA, 

on microgravity priorities, and consulting with private industry and academia on microgravity research opportunities; 

To develop policy recommendations to the Federal Government on matters relating to microgravity research, including types of research, 

government/industry/and academic cooperation, and access to space, including a potential launch voucher program; 

To coordinate the microgravity programs of Fcderal agencies by: 

- reviewing agency plans for microgravity research and recommending priorities for the use of Federally-owned or leased space on 

microgravity facilities; and 

- ensuring that agencies establish merit review processes for evaluating microgravity research proposals; and 

Spacehab is a pressurized metal cylinder that fits in the Shuttle payload bay and connects to the crew compartment through the orbiter 

To promote transfer of federally funded microgravity research to the commercial sector in furtherance of Executive Order 12591. 

NASA will continue to be responsible for making judgments on the safety of experiments and for making manifesting decisions for manned 

space flight systems. 

4. External Tanks: The Administration is making available for five years the expended external tanks of the Shuttle fleet at no cost to all 

feasible U.S. commercial and nonprofit endeavors, for uses such as research, storage, or manufacturing in space. 

exceeds supply, NASA may auction the external tanks. 

5. Privatizing Space Station; NASA, in coordination with the Office of Management and Budget, will revise its guidelines on 

commercialization of the U.S. Space Station to clarify and strengthen the Federal commitment to private sector investment in this program. 

6. Future Privatization: NASA will seek to rely to the greatest extent feasible on private sector design, financing, construction, and operation 

of future Space Station requirements, including those currently under study. 

7. Remote Sensing: The Administration is encouraging the development of commercial remote sensing systems. As part of this effort, the 

Department of Commerce, in consultation with other agencies, is examining potential oppomnities for further Federal procurement of 

remote sensing data from the U.S. cornmercial sector. 

NASA will provide any necessary technical or other assistance to these endeavors on a direct cost basis. If private sector demand 

Assuring a Highway to Space 

8. Reliance on private Launch Senrices: Federal agencies will procure existing and future required expendable launch services directly from 

the private sector to the fullest extent feasible. 

9. Insurance Relief for Launch Providers: The Administration will take administrative steps to address the insurance concerns of the US. 

commercial launch industry, which currently uses Federal launch ranges. These steps include: 

Limits on Third Party Liability: Consistent with the Administration’s tort policy, the Administration will propose to Congress a $200,000 cap 

on noneconomic damage awards to individual third parties resulting from commercial launch accidents; 

Limits on Property Damage Liability: The liability of commercial launch operators for damage to Government property resulting from a 

commercial launch accident will be administratively limited to the level of insurance required by the Department of Transportation. 

If losses to the Government exceed this level, the Government will waive its right to recover for damages. If losses are less than this 

Ievel, thc Government will waive its right to recover for those damages caused by Government willful misconduct or reckless disregard. 

10. Private Launch Ranges: The Administration will consult with the private sector on the potential construction of commercial launch range 

facilities separate from Federal fac es and the use of such facilities by the Federal Government. 

11. Vouches for Research Payhak. NASA and the Department of Transportation will explore providing to research payload owners 

manifcstcd on the Shuttle a one time launch voucher that can be used to purchase an alternative U.S. commercial launch service. 

Building a Solid Technology and Talent Base 

technology programs be conducted in accordance with the following policies: 

12. Spclce Technology Spin-Ofs; The President is directing that the new Pathfinder program, the Civil Space Technology Initiative, and other 

Federally funded contractors, universities, and Federal laboratories will retain the rights to any patents and technical data, including 

copyrights, that result from these programs. The Federal Government will have the authority to use this intellectual property royalty free; 

195 
Proposed technologies and patents available for licensing will be housed in a PathftnderKSTI library within NASA; and 

When contracting for commercial development of Pathfinder, CSTI and other technology work products, NASA will specify its requirements 

in a manner that provides contractors with maximum flexibility to pursue innovative and creative approaches. 

13. Fehul Expertise on Loan to American Schools: The President is encouraging Federal scientists, engineers, and technicians in aerospace 

and space related careers to take a sabbatical year to teach in any level of education in the United States. 

14. Education Opportunities: The President is requesting in his FY 1989 Budget expanding fivefold opportunities for U.S. teachers to visit 

In addition, NASA, NSF, and DoD will contribute materials and classroom experiments through the Department of Education to U.S. 

NASA field centers and related aerospace and university facilities. 

schools dcvcloping “tech shop” programs. NASA will encourage corporate participation in this program. 

15. Protecting U.S. Critical Technologies: The Administration is requesting that Congress extend to NASA the authority it has given the 

Department of Defense to protect from wholesale rclease under the Freedom of Information Act those critical national technologies and 

systems that arc prohibited from export. 

III. CONTINUING TIE NATIONAL COMMITMENT TO THE SPACE STATION 

In 1984, the President directed NASA to develop a permanently manned Space Station. The President remains committed to achieving this 

end and is requesting $1 billion in his FY 1989 Budget for continued development and a three year appropriation commitment from Congress 

for $6.1 billion. The Space Station, planned for development in cooperation with 1J.S. friends and allies, is intended to be a multi-purpose 

facility for the Nation’s science and applications programs. It will permit such things in space as: research, observation of the solar system, 

assembly of vehicles or facilities, storage, servicing of satellites, and basing for future space missions and commercial and entrepreneurial 

endeavors in space. 

To help ensure a Space Station that is cost effective, the President is proposing as part of his Commercial Space Initiative actions to 

encourage private sector investment in the Space Station, including directing NASA to rely to the greatest extent feasible on private sector 

design, financing, construction, and operation of future Space Station requirements. 

N. ADDITIONAL HIGHLIGHTS OF THE JANUARY 5,1988 NSDD 

US. Space Leadership. Leadership is reiterated as a fundamental national objective in areas of space activity critical to achieving U.S. 

national security, scientific, economic and foreign policy goals. 

Defining Federal Roles and Responsibilities. Government activities arc specified in three separate and distinct sectors: civil, national 

security, and nongovernmental. Agency roles and responsibilities are codified and specific goals are established for the civil space sector; 

those for other sectors are updated. 

Encouraging a Commercial Sector: A separate, nongovernmental or commercial space sector is recognized and encouraged by the policy 

that Federal Government actions shall not preclude or deter the continuing development of this sector. New guidelines are established to 

limit unnecessary Government competition with the private sector and ensure that Federal agencies are reliable customers for commercial 

space goods and services. 

The Prcsidcnt’s launch policy prohibiting NASA from maintaining an expendable launch vehicle adjunct to the Shuttle, as well as limiting 

commercial and foreign payloads on the Shuttle to those that are Shuttle-unique or serve national security or foreign policy purposes, is 

reaffirmed. In addition, policies endorsing the purchase of commercial launch services by Federal agencies are further strengthened. 

National Security Space Stution: An assured capability for national security missions is clearly enunciated, and the survivability and 

endurance of critical national security space functions is stressed. 

Ascuring Access to Space: Assured access to space is recognized as a key element of national space policy. U.S. space transportation 

systems that provide sufficient resiliency to allow continued operation, despite failures in any single system, are emphasized. The mix of 

space transportation vehicles will be defined to support mission needs in the most cost effective manner. 

Remote Sensing: Policies for Federal “remote sensing” or observation of the Earth are established to encourage the development of U.S. 

commercial systems competitive with or superior to foreign-operated civil or commercial systems. 

196 US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1990-279-100