Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1977 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

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Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1977 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Table of 

I. Summary of U.S. Aeronautics and 

Space Activities of 1977 __________ Introduction _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ - 

Communications _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ - 

Earth's Resources _______ _______ Space Science __________________ Transportation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ __ Space Energy __________________ 

Administration _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - 

Introduction _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Applications to Earth _ _____ __ _ __ Science _______________________ Space Transportation _ _______ __ _ Space Research and Technology- - Tracking and Data Acquisition __ NASA Energy Programs ________ Aeronautical Research and 

Development _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ 111. Department of Defense _____________ Introduction _ __ __ ______ __ __ ___ Space Activities _______________ Aeronautical Activities _________ Relationship with NASA _______ IV. Department of Commerce ___________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Space Systems _________________ Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

Space Support Activities ________ Space and Atmospheric ResearchData Programs ________________ Aeronautical Program's _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - V. Department of Energy ______________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ Space Applications of Nuclear 

Power __________ __________ __ Program Planning _____________ Space Disposal of Nuclear Wastes 

Satellite Power Stations _________ 

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Contents 

VI. Department of the Interior __________ Introduction ____ ________ __ _ _ __ Earth Resources Observation 

Systems Program _____________ National Cartographic Information Center __________________ Monitoring the Environment ___ Research _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ International Activities _________ 

VII. Department of Transportation _______ 

Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ - _ _ - _ - _ Air Safety ..................... Air Traffic Control and Air 

Navigation - _ - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ OST Research Support __________ 

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Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record _____________ 

World Record of Space Launchings 

Successful in Attaining Earth 

Orbit or Beyond ________________ 

Successful U.S. Launchings-1977 ___ 

U.S. Applications Satellites, 1973-1977 

US.-Launched Scientific Payloads, 

1973-1977 _____________________- 

USLaunched Space Probes, 1973- 

1977 _______________________-__- 

History of United States and Soviet 

Manned Space Flights ___________ 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ___-___-- 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government U.S. Space Budget-Budget 

Authority _ _____ _ ________ ______ - 

Space Activities Budget ___________- 

Aeronautics Budget _ ___ _-__-_ - --- - - 

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Aerospace Events of 1977 

The United States in 1977 conducted the successful approach and landing tests of the Space Shuttle 

Orbiter, neared completion of the Shuttle facilities at the Kennedy Space Center, made operational use 

of data from the network of environmental satellites, and continued work to improve military aviation. 

On October 12, 1977, Enteiprise, the Space Shuttle’s Orbiter No. I (above) 

separated from its 747 carrier aircraft and began its 5-minute glide to its 

first landing on a concrete runway. This was the last of five approach and 

landing flights conducted in 1977 at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center 

at Edwards, California. The live flights confirmed the Orbiter’s ability to 

descend through the atmosphere and make an airplane-like landing. In 

preparation for the orbital flight tests scheduled for 1979, the Shuttle facilities at Kennedy Space Center in Florida neared completion. These October photos show (below, left) Launch Complex 39 being reworked from 

its Apollo launch configuration to its Shuttle configuration, and (below, 

light) the Orbiter landing facility (at top) and tow road leading to the 

pair of rectangular buildings where Orbiters will be refurbished after flight. 

iv 
Environmental satellites continued to provide data used in operational weather forecasting and resources monitoring. At left, an 

enhanced infrared image fiom the Goes 1 

satellite shows areas of precipitation acioss 

North America on July 19, 1977. The densest 

precipitation is seen over westein Pennsylvania; indeed, it was causing the Johnston 

flood of July 19-20. A threatening absence of 

piecipitation is erident below in contrast between the April snow pack in the Sierra 

Nevada Mountains in 1W5 (left) and 1977 

(right). This radiometer image from the 

Noaa 5 weather satellite gave accurate warning of the severe water shortage in the Western states during the summer of 1977. 

In 1977, the Department of Defense conducted flight tests of the Navy’s Tomahawk 

cruise missile (right) and deployed increasing numbers of the new F-16 fighter aircraft 

(below) to the fleet’s aircraft carriers. 

V 
Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1977 I 

Introduction 

The national programs in aeronautics and space 

made steady progress in 1977 toward their longterm objectives. In aeronautics the goals were improved performance, energy efficiency, and safety 

in our aircraft. In space the goals were: better 

remote sensing systems to generate more sophisticated information about the Earth’s environment; 

cost-effective, versatile space transportation; and 

understanding the origins and processes of the 

Earth, the solar system, and the Universe. 

Aeronautical research made real gains toward 

developing technologies that would enable future 

transport aircraft to reduce fuel consumption by 

up to 50 percent along with lower noise and emission levels. 

The United States attempted 26 launches into 

space in 1977; 24 of them put 29 satellites into 

orbit. NASA orbited 15 satellites in 14 launches; 2 

launches failed, and a third placed a satellite into 

elliptical instead of synchronous orbit. DoD orbited 

14 satellites in 10 launches, with another 2 

launched for DoD by NASA. Of the NASA total, 

only 4 were NASA launches; costs of launching the 

remainder were reimbursed by governmental, international, and commercial customers. The NASA 

launches included a high-energy astronomy satellite, two planetary satellites heading toward Jupiter, 

and a radiation-counting satellite focused on the 

magnetosphere. 

This chapter will summarize highlights of the 

year, arranged topically rather than by agency. 

Subsequent chapters will be devoted to the aeronautics and space activities of the six Federal agencies with the largest programs in those areas, as 

determined by their budgets. 

Communications 

Communications satellites were the first space 

systems to demonstrate commercial feasibility and 

are still the largest and fastest growing segment of 

space development. 

Operational Space Systems 

Intelsat. The International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (Intelsat) increased its 

membership by 24 countries in 1977, bringing the 

total to 101. Its space capability was also augmented, by the launch on May 26, 1977, of another 

Intelsat IV-A satellite into synchronous orbit to 

serve the Atlantic Ocean region. 

Marisat. The Marine Satellite (MARISAT) consortium expanded commercial service to the Indian 

Ocean in 1977, adding to its service in the Atlantic 

and Pacific for commercial shipping and in all 

three oceans for the U.S. Navy. The number of 

U.S. ships equipped with MARISAT terminals 

tripled and that of the world fleet doubled. Constant contact with the home office makes ship deployment much more cost-effective and speeds delivery of goods. 

Milita y Communications Satellites. The three 

major operating requirements for military communication by satellite are (1) high-capacity 

worldwide point-to-point communication, (2) moderate-capacity service to mobile users, and (3) 

command and control communication for strategic 

forces. 

For the first of these needs, in 1977 the Defense 

Communications Satellite Program (DSCS) had 

four operational spacecraft: two DSCS satellites 

launched in May 1977 and deployed over the Atlantic and west Pacific, a DSCS experimental satellite launched in December 1973 and now over the 

Indian Ocean, and NATO IIIB on loan for temporary use over the eastern Pacific. Four more 

DSCS 11 satellites were scheduled for launch in 

1978 and development continued of the improved 

DSCS I11 model. 

The moderate-capacity requirement will be met 

by the Fleet Satellite Communications Service 

(FLTSATCOM) for contacting mobile units of 

the Navy and Air Force. The first satellite is scheduled for launch early in 1978. 

The strategic command and control system is 

now provided by transponders on several satellites, 

pending development of a strategic satellite system. 

1 
Domestic Commercial Satellites. At the beginning of 1977, three domestic communications satellite systems were already in operation in the 4 and 

6 GHz (gigahertz) bands. This year the Federal 

Communications Commission authorized Satellite 

Business Systems to develop and flight-test satellites 

operating in the 12- and 14-GHz bands to provide 

wideband, switched communications for private 

networks serving large industrial and government 

users who have voice, data, and image traffic between stations located on customer premises. The 

Corporation of Public Broadcasting and the Public 

Broadcasting Service were authorized to construct 

and operate 150 Earth stations in a domestic satellite system to all public television stations in the 

us. 

Space Communications Experiments 

Experimental Satellites. Two experimental communications satellites continued in use in 1977. 

The ATS 6 (Applications Technology Satellite 6) 

began its third year in orbit with a program of 20 

experiments in public-service broadcasting and in 

science and technology. In addition to its U.S. coverage, it is being used to transmit experimental 

programming to the Trust Territories, Pacific Islands. The other satellite is the CTS 1 (Communications Technology Satellite) , a joint CanadianU.S. venture exploring high-power space communication to small receivers on the ground in remote 

areas. By the end of 1977, 15 of 18 U.S. experiments on CTS 1 were operating in educational, 

health, social services, and information exchange. 

Communications Studies. With demands on the 

finite electromagnetic spectrum increasing, NASA 

continued research on means for more efficient use, 

as well as expansion of, the communications spectrum. A number of U.S. agencies participated in 

the important 1977 World Administrative Radio 

Conference on Broadcast Satellites (where a flexible interim plan was adopted for use of the 12- 

GHz band for satellites in the Western Hemisphere 

as opposed to rigid allotments elsewhere). Preparations were also under way for the 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference whose revisions of 

radio regulations are intended to apply for the next 

20 years. 

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space, and its scientific and legal 

subcommittees, met in 1977 to continue discussions 

of the principles involved in direct broadcast of 

television by satellite. 

Earth's Resources 

Sensors on space and aircraft platforms continued in 1977 to inventory and monitor conditions in the Earth's atmosphere and water and on 

its land surface. These data were increasingly used 

in analysis and protection of the environment. 

lnveatorying and Monitoring 

Lundsat Expel-iments. The experimental Landsat program continued to produce data from satellites Landsat 1 and 2, even though the performance 

of Landsat 1, after five years in orbit, was degraded 

by several system failures. Landsat-C neared completion, with launch scheduled early in 1978; fabrication of Landsat D was begun. 

After several years of experimentation, a number of Landsat projects are operational or nearly 

so. In the Department of Interior 

;I Idandsat-based resources informatioii systciii 

assists the tribal government of the Colville 

lndian reservation in its decision making; 

the requirement to maintain a current inventory of all public lands and their resources has 

become heavily dependent on digital data 

from Landsat and aerial survey; 

automated inventories of irrigated crops and 

wetlands have become possible through Landsat data supported by aerial infrared photography; 

the Salt-Verde river system in Arizona is managed by a cooperative project using Landsat, 

NOAA, and GOES satellite imagery and aerial 

surveys to map snow cover and monitor six 

reservoirs; 

classification and monitoring of mining activities in such diverse areas as Montana-Wyoming, New Mexico, Florida, and South Carolina; 

study of Landsat and aerial imagery for linear 

features that may relate to fault and fracture 

systems, which would help evaluate mine 

safety and locate and monitor leakage in surface and underground mines. 

Internationally the Department of Interior assisted the United Nations, five Central American 

countries, and Chile and Bolivia in using Landsat 

data to inform themselves on resources and geological problems. 

The Department of Agriculture completed the 

third year of its LACIE program, in conjunction 

with NOAA and NASA. Designed to test satellite 

potential for prediction of world wheat crops, the 

program demonstrated enough promise to encourage the Department to acquire its own computers 

for further experimentation. LACIE is scheduled 

for completion and final evaluation in 1978. 

NASA released three applications projects to the 

users for operational employment: the Coast Guard 

would use satellite-derived data to monitor ice 

2 
formation in the Great Lakes; the Corps of Engineers would use Landsat data to predict water 

run-off in flood-prone areas; and Georgia decided 

to use the satellite-based inventorying system for 

the state’s natural resources, a system already in use 

in Mississippi. 

Monitoring the Sea State. Several agencies conducted experiments that used satellite data to 

measure the dynamic state of Earth’s oceans. NASA 

used data from Geos 3 in 1977 to refine models of 

the Earth’s gravity field, which in turn yields a 

more precise geoid. This is helpful in tracking circulation features such as the Gulf Stream and to 

measure the height of waves. 

The Department of the Interior compiled satellite infrared measurements of monthly sea-surface 

temperatures for the past several years. They were 

considered useful in long-range weather forecasting 

and studies of climate dynamics. In the process of 

compiling the data, Interior discovered that a large 

cold-water anomaly had developed in the North 

Pacific in the fall of 1976 and reached its peak in 

February 1977. In late summer 1977 another such 

anomaly seemed to be developing. 

The Department of Defense finished installing 

the Satellite Data Processing Center at the Navy’s 

Fleet Numerical Weather Center in Monterey, 

California. It will receive and process data from 

DoD weather satellites and also from NASA’s Seasat-A, scheduled for launch in May 1978. The processed data will be used in weather and ocean analyses and forecasts. 

Several other projects were operating in 1977 to 

set baselines for interpretation of Seasat-A data. 

NASA joined with commercial users of Seasat data 

in a two-year demonstration program, embracing 

areas such as offshore oil and gas exploration, fidieries, and shipping safety. NOAA planned Fame 

35 experiments related to Seasat-experiments involving winds and waves, currents and circulation 

dynamics, surface temperatures, geodesy, and wa 

ice. 

Mapping the Ocean Bottom. NASA has used a 

scanning laser beam on an aircraft to experiment 

with mapping the topography of the ocean bottom 

in coastal regions. The experiment indicated that 

the method can produce high quality bathymetric 

maps quickly and economically. The Defense Mapping Agency and NOAA are specifying the requirements for an operational system for use in aircraft. 

Monitoring Pollution. In 1977, sensors on aircraft platforms demonstrated their ability to track 

and monitor an impressive array of pollution problems. The emphasis in the cooperative program 

between the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) and NASA has continued to be on energyrelated research and development. 

Using airborne and ground-based measurements, 

an EPA experiment in the Midwest succeeded for 

the first time in tracking sulfur dioxide from a 

single power-plant plume, observing the conversion 

in the atmosphere into significant amounts of acid 

sulfate aerosol, and tracking the chemicals as far 

as 300 kilometers downwind. Of great consequence 

to EPA’s strategy for control of air pollution, the 

results were obtained by close orchestration of airborne and ground-based measurements. Since coalfired power plants are expected to multiply rapidly 

across the U.S. over the next 20 years, this technique will be of increasing importance in determining the distant-source contribution to local and 

regional air pollution. 

In addressing another kind of energy-related pollution problem, EPA and NASA explored the use 

of an airborne multi-spectral scanner to monitor 

and characterize the environmental impacts of the 

expected major increase in western strip mining in 

the next few years. By adapting the scanner to this 

purpose, in place of usual aerial photography, and 

by feeding its data into an automated land-use-data 

classification system, a single mission can cover a 

number of mines and the data can be rapidly interpreted, stored, and relayed to EPA and state 

regulatory offices. 

In water pollution, NASA responded to a request 

from NOAA for satellite and aircraft data on the 

oil spill from the Argo Merchant off Nantucket Island in December 1976. Aside from their immediate operational use, the data are being studied 

by NOAA to improve mathematical models predicting oil spill behavior. 

Enuironmental Alralysis and Protection 

In addition to the efforts in collection and cat‘\- 

loging of data about the Earth and its atmosphere, 

there were substantial activities devoted to both 

operational and experimental programs to analyze 

and predict the processes of natural and man-made 

change in the environment. 

Weatlwl- Satellik Operations. During 1977 the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) of the Department of Commerce operated two polar-orbiting weather satellites, Noaa 

4 and 5, to report daily weather data around the 

Earth. Of the geostationary satellites that focus 

constantly on the weather patterns of North America and its sea approaches, the Goes 2 (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) was 

launched in June 1977 to replace Goes 1 as the 

eastern operational satellite, while SMS 2 (Synchronous Meteorological Satellite) remained the 

western operational satellite. 

3 
Tiros-N, NASA’s experimental version of the 

next generation of polar-orbiting weather satellites, 

was moved along on schedule toward its launch 

date in mid-1978; Noaa-A, the first operational 

model of the new series, is scheduled for launch 

late in 1978. Tiros-N will provide higher resolution visual and infrared imagery of the Earth’s 

cloud cover, will measure moisture and temperature, and monitor proton and electron flux neai 

the Earth. 

The military meteorological satellite systeiii (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program) continued 

to support military operations, with weather data 

for the entire Earth provided four times a day 

from two polar-orbiting satellites. The first of the 

new generation of military weather satellites-the 

Block 5D, parallel to Tiros-N but with different 

sensors-became operational in 1977 and offered 

noon and midnight imagery in visual and infrared 

wavelengths of cloud cover at a quality previously 

unattainable. The second satellite in this series was 

also launched in 1977 and declared operational in 

July. Weather Research. In 1977, Federal agencies 

continued research to improve our ability to 

analyze and forecast weather conditions. 

In the global arena, the U.S., among other nations, performed preliminary studies and experiments that would contribute to the effectiveness of 

the upcoming Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). Involving some 145 nations, this 

large international program in meteorology will 

take place in 1978-1979. 

To improve our ability to detect, track, and 

monitor severe storms, NASA and NOAA are 

working on an advanced instrument for use in 

GOES satellites to be launched in the 1980s. This 

instrument will bc able to report the S-dimensional structure of atmospheric temperature and 

water vapor distribution. Such information could 

make possible earlier and more accurate storm 

warnings to the public. 

NOAA field-tested techniques using imagery 

from infrared and visible satellite instruments to 

estimate hourly rainfall from convective clouds. 

Tests in three states in this country and in Venezuela showed a good correlation between imager) 

and ground areas of no precipitation and reasonable estimates of rainfall in areas of heavy lirecipitation. The technique will help in pinpointing 

areas in danger of flash flooding. Satellite data alyo 

were used in NOAA research on development and 

modification of convective cloud systems. Rainfall 

estimates derived from satellite imagery were applied to analysis of broad-area cumulus modification experiments. Similarly satellite data, as well 

as aircraft and radar data, from Hurricane Anita 

(September 1977) are being analyzed to learn 

whether hurricane cloud systems show characteristic cloud developments that indicate storm 

strength and potential. 

’4 tmospheric Research. Widespread concern arose 

earlier in thc 1970s that some combination of n;itural and man-made gases and particles was 

threatening to thin the ozone layer to a dangerous 

level. This concern led to a multi-agency effort to 

gather enough data to understand the complex interactions going on in the stratosphere and to ascertain the danger level and possible remedies. 

NASA in 1977 continued its measurements of 

quantities and distribution of ozone and other important stratospheric gases and of changes over 

time. A new project studied thc vertical movement of aerosols and gases between the lower atmosphere (troposphere) and the upper atmosphere 

(stratosphere). In the summer of 1977 NASA dispatched an experiment team to Panama to employ 

U-2 and Lear Jet aircraft, as well as balloons and 

sounding rockets, to measure the upward movement from troposphere to stratosphere in the tropical zone. In 1978 it is planned to measure the reverse movement downward from stratosphere to 

troposphere that is thought to occiir in the midlatitudes. 

The measurement program in the stratosphere 

produced new insights into the role of chlorine 

oxide compounds in the destruction of ozone. It 

was shown in 1977 that their role is larger than 

previously thought. The important gases have been 

identified and measured and evidence has been adduced that the world’s total atmosphere mixes 

more rapidly than had been predicted. 

NOAA also mounted a comprehensive investigation into the distribution of nitrogen dioxide in 

the stratosphere, using ground-based and airborne 

spectroscopes. Fluorocarbons F-11 and F-12 and 

nitrous oxide were measured with balloon-grab 

techniques. Laboratory test measurements considerably lowered the predictions of ozone destruction 

by emissions from supersonic aircraft and correspondingly raised predictions of destruction by 

chlorofluorocarbons. 

Two forms of environmental degradation stemming from aircraft are exhaust emissions and engine noise. NASA continued its several-year research effort in both areas in 1977. Experiments 

with the clean combustor, designed to lessen emissions from large turbine engines during takeoff 

and landing, were completed. Emissions were 

within the standards set by the Environmental 

Protection Agency for 1979, well below the level 

of current combustors. Research was begun on 

reducing emissions during stratospheric cruise. This 

4 
research centers on improving combustors and on 

fuel preparation. 

Aircraft noise research investigated, among other 

components, fuel nozzles and acoustic aspects of 

the inlet ducts. One nozzle configuration was the 

inverted-velocity-profile nozzle, which causes the 

high velocity of the jet to occur in the outer region 

instead of at the center as in bypass exhaust systems. In combination with multi-element mechanical suppressors, this arrangement seems likely to 

reduce noise from the high-velocity jet. 

For the engine inlet ducts, a new technique was 

developed that simplifies and makes more accurate 

the description of the sound radiation pattern from 

ducts and enables quick, effective design of acoustic 

liners. 

Earth Dynamics. Experiments related to Earth 

dynamics involve mineral and energy reserves, 

earthquake forecasts, and geodetic surveys. 

Trial models of natural resources in interesting 

formations were being developed from gravity data 

derived from satellite-to-satellite tracking, magnetic 

field data from the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory, and other geophysical data. 

In studies of the recently discovered tectonic 

plates, NASA has every other year for the last five 

years emplaced mobile laser ranging stations on 

both sides of the San Andreas Fault. By ranging on 

satellites, the lasers have tried to delineate relative 

motion between the North American Plate and the 

Pacific Plate. For the first time, analysis indicated 

that movement may have been detected. Another 

effort in 1978 will try to verify these finding. 

Another form of laser ranging uses the Moon as 

target. Three widely dispersed Earth stations are 

returning data now and another four stations are 

being built. The full network will observe polar 

motions and variations in the Earth’s rotation rate, 

with much greater accuracy than any previous system. 

The Department of Commerce operated a series 

of cross checks on different systems for determining 

position on the Earth with the greatest accuracy. 

Computer simulations of laser observations of the 

Lageos satellite positioned geodetic stations within 

5 centimeters. A single photoelectron laser has 

been studied that would reduce costs and improve 

accuracy of locating ranging stations. The prospects 

are that a 1.5-centimeter accuracy could be 

achieved. 

The Smithsonian Institution summarized the results of satellite tracking with its laser tracking 

network in the fourth and final version of the 

Smithsonian Standard Earth, a mathematical representation of the Earth’s shape, size, and gravity 

field. 

Space Science 

Space science is normally considered to begin at 

an altitude where Earth science leaves off-namely, 

at the interface between the Earth’s magnetic field 

and the Sun’s exhalations, the solar wind. From 

this departure point, space science moves outward 

through the solar system to the detectable portion 

of the Universe. 

Earth-Sun Studies 

Effects in the Earth’s magnetosphere, the solar 

wind, and activities on the Sun are the components 

of this complex field of studies. 

Efiects near the Magnetosphere. A new technique for measurement of the interactions of the 

solar wind and the Earth’s magnetosphere became 

possible with the launch in October 1977 of two 

International Sun-Earth Explorers. The program 

also marked a new dimension in international cooperation: one satellite was managed by the U.S., 

the other by the European Space Agency, with experiments of intermingled origin on both satellites. 

Their data will enable experimenters to distinguish 

spatial plasma structures from the complex temporal effects of the solar wind impacting on the 

Earth’s magnetic field. A third ISEE satellite will 

be launched in 1978 into an extended trajectory 

where it can measure the solar wind before it arrives at the magnetosphere, as well as solar events. 

Later the three satellites will be joined by the Solar 

Maximum Mission for quadrilateral studies of the 

Earth-Sun interactions. 

NOAA has used GOES satellite measurements 

of solar x-rays, taken at the distance of geosynchronous orbit, to detect solar flares before their 

x-ray and extreme-ultraviolet radiation reach the 

ionosphere. One use of these data will combine 

them with high time-resolution measurements of 

the ionospheric effects. 

Other NOAA research demonstrated that energetic ions in the interplanetary medium outside 

the Earth’s magnetosphere originated from within 

the magnetosphere. Thus the Earth joins the Sun 

and Jupiter as a source, within our solar system, of 

the energetic particles and low-energy cosmic rays 

found in the interplanetary medium. 

The Solar Wind. NOAA studied several models 

of the chemical composition of the solar wind. 

Some of the recent work addressed the historical 

puzzle of the large quiet period in Earth reactions 

to the solar wind from 1645-1715. This abnormally 

long quiet period, when there was visible evidence 

of absence of solar activity, was attributed to a 

steady-state solar wind. 

5 
Study of the Sun. NASA’s Orbiting Solar Observatory 8 (Os0 8) preserved its continuity of observation of the Sun by monitoring the new activity beginning with the upswing of the solar cycle. 

Aspects previously under study are the downflow 

circulation patterns in the solar atmosphere that 

were detected by Skylab; tiny magnetic regions that 

brighten like solar flares shortly after they appear; 

and x-ray bright points, which have a puzzling rate 

of appearance at solar minimum-twice the rat? 

observed when discovered by Skylab in the middle 

of the solar cycle. 

The findings of the x-ray observations taken by 

Skylab showed that holes in the Sun’s corona are 

sources of the high-speed streams of ejected matte1 

that strike the Earth’s magnetosphere. One of the 

major discoveries in study of the Sun in recent 

years, this knowledge has been used by National 

Science Foundation observatories to detect coronal 

holes, from Earth, in normal daily observations. Thc 

holes are reliable predictors of magnetic stornis on 

Earth. Corollary research has shown that the forni 

of the Sun’s corona is irregular. In part these irregularities account for the time differences in pal - 

ticles arriving at Earth. 

As part of the DoD program, Air Foxe scientists 

are studying the theory of processes leading to sohi 

flares and the time history of high-energy particle, 

from solar flares. Particularly they are studying 

variations in ultraviolet emissions from the Sun as 

reported by Atmospheric Explorers C, D, and E 

and sounding rockets. 

Study of the Moon and Planets 

The Moon and Meteorites. Study of meteorites 

continued to offer clues to the early history of the 

solar system: tiny platinum-bearing particles in 

meteorites may be interstellar materials that existed 

before the solar system did; composition of magnesium in meteorites indicates that radioactive 

aluminum-26 was present when the meteorites were 

formed, so the radioactivity may have provided the 

heat for the widespread early melting that took 

place on the Moon and planets. 

Studies of the Moon provided new models fo~ 

the major processes affecting the terrestrial planets. 

For instance, it now appears that 4 to 4.5-billion 

years ago the Moon had a strong magnetic field; 

when the Moon cooled, the field gradually disappeared. This relationship between heat and magnetism may offer better understanding of such 

planetary differences as Earth with a strong magnetic field, Mercury with a weak magnetic field, 

and Mars with much ancient volcanism but no 

magnetic field. 

The Planets. The discovery of rings around the 

planet Uranus was the most dramatic discovery of 

1977. Too faint to be seen by the largest telescope, 

the rings were found by their causing a gap in the 

observation of an occultation of a moderately 

bright star and their existence was verified by observations of several ground-based telescopes and 

the 90-centimeter telescope mounted in NASA’s 

specially equipped C-141 aircraft known as the 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory. 

On Mars, the Viking orbiters and landers continued to return data on the atmosphere, meteorology, surface chemistry, and the moon Phobos. The 

biology and organic chemistry instruments on the 

landers completed their useful life in 1977. The 

major question remains whether there is evidence 

of life on Mars. Intensive investigation continued. 

Two Voyager satellites were launched in August 

and September on a trajectory to Jupiter and then 

to Saturn. Depending on results, Voyager 2 may 

fly on to the planet Uranus. 

Development work on the Galileo mission was 

begun in 1977. It will consist of a probe that will 

descend into Jupiter’s atmosphere and an orbiter 

that will study the planet, its environment, and 

satellites for more than a year. 

The National Science Foundation used the 330- 

ineter-diameter radio-radar telescope at Arecibo, 

Puerto Rico, to produce contour maps of the surface of Venus. The high-quality data permit rapid 

accumulation ;ind analysis, providing information 

critical to the understanding of the chemical, structural, and topographic features of the Venusian 

surface. 

Studies of the Universe 

NASA launched a major astronomy satellite in 

August 1977, the High Energy Astronomy Satellite 

1 (HEAO 1). The largest automated satellite ever 

launched, HEAO 1 is the first of the three scheduled to be launched at intervals of a year. Instrumented for study of x-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic 

rays, these satellites are expected to return fundamental data on the nature of some of the new discoveries in the Universe, such as pulsars, quasars, 

and possibly black holes. During the first month 

HEAO 1 was operational, a rare and transient x-ray 

nova was observed; within days it became one of 

the brightest x-ray sources in the sky. 

Work continued on the development of the 

Space Telescope. Planned as a semipermanent 

space laboratory, the Space Telescope is a highresolution instrument that, beginning in 1983, will 

be able to observe objects much farther away from 

Earth than can any ground-based telescope. The 

European Space Agency will provide one of the 

6 
instruments as well as scientists to operate the experiments. 

The Smithsonian Institution continued its longterm analysis of data from the Uhuru satellite, publishing the Fourth Uhuru Catalog listing 339 

sources of x-ray emissions-nearly twice the numbei 

previously known. In addition to sources within 

the Milky Way associated with neutron stars and 

black holes, many extragalactic objects were identified, such as Seyfert galaxies, quasars, and clustei 5 

of galaxies. Items in the last category each contained some 1000 galaxies in a relatively complex 

grouping. These “super-clusters of galaxies” ai e 

apparently bound together gravitationally by va~t 

amounts of very hot, tenuous, hydrogen-helium gas. 

If such clusters are common throughout space, the 

mass of the previously undetected gas might piovide a significant percentage of the “missing mass” 

theoretically needed to close the Universe. 

Transportation 

Some of the science and much of the technology 

in aeronautics and space are devoted to devising 

new transportation systems or improving the efficiency and versatility of existing transportation 

systems. 

Space Transportation System 

The Space Transportation System, a major advance that marks a new way of doing business in 

space and a new plateau of maturity in the U.S. 

program of space exploration, moved steadily 

nearer to completion during 1977. The main components of the flight system-the orbiter, the 

solid-fuel booster motors, the external fuel tank, 

and Spacelab-were in various phases of testing. 

The Inertial Upper Stage-formerly the Interim 

Upper Stage-being developed by the Department 

of Defense to boost heavy payloads into orbits beyond the performance curve of the orbiter, was 

nearing the end of its intensive design phase. The 

Spinning Upper Stages, now in design, are being 

developed in two sizes as a private venture and 

are intended to loft lightweight payloads from the 

orbiter to higher orbits. 

The most visible progress on the Space Transportation System in 1977 was the series of approach 

and landing tests conducted at NASA’s Dryden 

Flight Research Center in California. A 747 commercial airliner was modified to serve as the carrier 

aircraft for piggyback captive flights of the orbiter, 

then for releasing the orbiter in mid-air to make 

free flights and landings. The Enterprise, the first 

orbiter, is to be modified and flown on the 747 to 

Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to be used in vibration testing. The second 

orbiter will be the first one to venture into orbit. 

It was being assembled and will be checked out in 

mid-1978 before being ferried on the 747 to Kenneciy Space Center, Florida, to be readied for the 

orbital flight tests. 

Less visible was. the progress on the ground facilities being readied at Kennedy Space Center and 

being planned at Vandenberg Air Force Base, 

(Mifornia, or on the flight components still under 

construction. The big solid-fueled boosters were 

test-fired for the first time in July 1977 and the 

hooster recovery parachutes firnctionetl well in 

tlrop tests. ’The External Tank, which will contain the fuel and oxydizer for the orbiter’s three 

rnain engines, is the one expeiitlablc portion of 

the Space Shuttle. ~[anufacturetl in ;I way that 

ciiiphasizes standardized, low-cost techniqrrcs, the 

first tank was shipped to the National Space Techiiology Laboratory, Mississippi, in September 1977 

lor testing. 

Spacelab, the orbital laboratory that can be fitted 

into the cargo compartment of the orbiter and provide support for manned or automated experiments, is being funded and built by the European 

Space Agency. In 1977 Spacelab moved past the 

halfway point in the design of components and 

systems; all designs are to be ready for the critical 

design review scheduled for February 1978. Manufacture of many components for the flight unit is 

under way; the completed unit is to be delivered 

to NASA in two segments, one late in 1979 and 

the other, early in 1980. Spacelab is scheduled to 

orbit for the first time in December 1980. 

The operational structure for the Space Transportation System is well advanced. In addition to 

the basic NASA and DoD missions, NASA has been 

negotiating launch agreements with organizations 

such as Comsat, Western Union, and Telesat/Canada. Also, in May 1977 the U.S. and U.S.S.R. 

signed a second five-year bilateral agreement continuing their space cooperation. In November 

NASA representatives met in Moscow with Soviet 

counterparts to discuss experiments that might be 

included in a long-duration space mission involving 

the American Shuttle and the Russian Salyut space 

station. Three meetings in 1978 would further evaluate experiments and recommend a program to the 

respective governments. Shuttle flights for 1980- 

1981 are now fully booked; cargo manifests have 

been developed for the first few years of Shuttle 

operations. A handbook for users has been published; user charges have been set for all classes of 

users for the first years of operations, subject to 

adjustment only for inflation. Advance deposits on 

7 
over 150 payload items were received by NASA 

from industry, educational institutions, and persons. 

When NASA invited applications for flight crew 

positions on STS, more than 20,000 persons requested application forms and more than 8000 

were received and processed. 

Expendable hunch Vehicles 

The United States space program had a total of 

26 launches in 1977; 24 of them were successful in 

orbiting 29 satellites. The two complete failures 

involved one Delta and one Atlas-Centaur vehicle; 

one of the lost payloads was for the European 

Space Agency and one-Intelsat IV-A-for the Comsat Corporation. A second Delta vehicle had an 

upper-stage failure, putting the European Space 

Agency payload into an orbit from which it is only 

70 percent effective. Other vehicles used were 

Scout, Atlas, Thor, and Titan 111. 

Research for Spacecraft Improvement 

A broad range of research projects sought ways 

to strengthen, lighten, improve electronics, and 

augment power sources on spacecraft. 

Materials and Structures. Thermal protection for 

re-entering spacecraft was improved by a new, reusable insulation material with improved strength, 

wear, and impact properties. Also a new thermal 

coating, called “second surface mirror,” prevents 

secondary thermal buildup from glare while saving 

weight. 

Structural weight may well be reduced by use of 

graphite-polydimide structures. In 1977 four such 

materials were identified as having potential for 

structural use at temperatures of 315°C for as long 

as 500 re-entry cycles; weight reduction was estimated at 28 percent. 

Electronics. A linear charge-coupled sensor array 

that can image in the near-infrared has been designed for remote sensing of Earth’s and other 

planets’ environments. Since it processes signals on 

the same chip as the imager, it saves significant 

amounts of size, weight, and power. 

NASA demonstrated in 1977 a robot that coinbines and coordinates vision, locomotion, and 

manipulation. A unique visual memory and improved computer techniques enable the robot to 

process TV images more than 10 times faster than 

previous systems. 

Space Propulsion. In liquid-fuel propulsion, 

components for a small, reusable, high-performance engine burning hydrogen and oxygen and 

intended for use on orbital transfer vehicles 

achieved a record specific impulse of 478 seconds. 

Solid propellants withstood the stringent sterilization standards for Viking and hence could be 

used to launch payloads from the surface of other 

planets without risk of contaminating the planetary 

surface. 

Aeronuutical Transportation 

As in space transportation, aeronautical transportation involves military and civil systems that 

are already operational or are in active development. 

Operational Aircraft and Airborne Systems. 

Among government agencies, DoD has the major 

concern for operational aircraft. 

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT.he F-16 multimission fighter 

was approved for full production in 1977; the first 

of 1388 aircraft will be delivered in August 1978. 

In May 1977 the European partners in the F-16- 

Belgium, Norway, the Netherlands, and Denmark 

-signed agreements to purchase 348 aircraft. The 

F-16 represents the largest co-production program 

ever attempted, with over $2 billion in contracts 

in Europe. The first customer outside the consortium was Iran, which signed an agreement to buy 

160 aircraft. 

The F-15 air superiority fighter continued to be 

produced at the rate of nine aircraft per month 

and more than 250 had been delivered to operational units by the end of the year. 

The F-18 carrier-based strike fighter, approved 

for full development in 1975, is scheduled to make 

its first flight in October 1978. It will complement 

the more sophisticated F-14A, which is now routinely making extended deployments on carriers 

in the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets. 

‘The A-IO close-air-support aircraft was in production, with some 75 of the approved 339 delivered. The first operational squadron was activated in June 1977 and initial operational 

capability was achieved three months ahead of 

schedule, in October. 

The AV-8B is the follow-on version of the successful AV-SA. the Marine Corps’ light attack 

vertical/short-takeoff-and-landing (V/STOL) aircraft. In 1977 it completed the first phase of windtunnel testing at NASA’s Ames Research Center. 

The data confirm the design intention that this 

version should double the range or payload of the 

AV-SA. Two prototype aircraft are under production contract. 

BOMBER AIRCRAFT. Although production of the 

B-1 bomber was halted, the three research, development, test, and evaluation aircraft continued their 

flight-test program at Edwards AFB, California. 

The flights measured overall performance and 

structural air loads and evaluated the avionics. 
TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT. The Advanced Medium 

STOL Transport (AMST) had four prototypes 

completing a Phase I flight-test program in 1977. 

In 1397 hours of flight, they demonstrated STOL 

performance and operational utility. 

HELICOPTERS.everal configurations of helicopters were continued in development toward a number of specialized functions. The Army’s UH-60A 

Black Hawk is intended to support ground forces, 

both in combat and service roles. The first of 1.5 

aircraft is scheduled for delivery in August 1978; 

there are contract options for another 353 over the 

next three years. 

The Advanced Attack Helicopter completed full 

engineering development in 1977, with emphasis 

on integration of the armament and fire control. 

Fabrication of additional prototypes was deferred 

until 1978. 

In the Cobra/Tow program, delivery of 290 retrofitted Cobra helicopters with the highly effective 

Tube Launched Optically Tracked Wire Guided 

(Tow) missile was completed in October 1977. 

The first of 297 new, upgraded CobrafTows was 

delivered in March 1977. The Army plans to retrofit another 400 Cobras and to modernize the entire 

fleet with, among other improvements, composite 

helicopter blades that will increase aircraft survivability and double the life of the blades. 

The Air Force completed initial flight testing in 

1977 of the H-3 combat rescue helicopter equipped 

with Pave Low 111. This sophisticated sensing system enables low-level penetration of unfriendly 

territory and recovery of air crews in total darkness 

and bad weather. 

CRUISE MISSILES. The Tomahawk is a long-range 

high-subsonic-speed cruise missile that can be fired 

through submarine torpedo tubes or from ships, 

aircraft, or mobile land platforms. It is under development in two versions: a conventionally armed 

anti-ship weapon for the Navy and a nuclear-armed 

land attack weapon for the Air Force. 

Operational Airwuy Systems. The Department of 

Transportation has responsibility for operation of 

the National Aviation System. Progress was made 

in several areas in 1977. 

AIR SAFETY. In 1977 the Minimum Safe Altitude 

Warning system was installed in all 63 major air 

terminals in the U.S. Begun in 1973, this computerized system provides automatic surveillance 

and altitude data to alert the controller to aircraft 

flying below minimum safe altitudes. A companion 

alert system will now be extended to the en route 

air traffic control system. Here the same kind of 

aircraft equipment will feed the computers at the 

20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers. A demonstration is scheduled for the fall of 1978. 

Wind shear is another threat to air safety in 

terminal areas. Since 1971 seven air carrier accidents have been involved with wind shear-a 

sudden change in wind speed or direction at the 

edges of airports where aircraft are flying close to 

the ground at low speeds as they approach or depart the airport. Research efforts were begun to 

measure and attempt to predict wind shear, and 

develop avionics that will enable pilots to cope 

with wind shear effects. 

The conflict-alert warning system was installed 

in the last of the en route stations in 1977 and efforts were begun to install it in terminals. This is 

another computer-based system in which the system projects the existing position of aircraft under 

surveillance, predicts any situations where aircraft 

come within 40 seconds of unsafe separation, and 

warns the. controller by audio and visual signal so 

that the pilots can be contacted. Field testing of 

terminal equipment was completed in 1977 and 

is to be installed in major air terminals by early 

1978. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. To meet the need for an 

improved instrument landing system in the U.S., 

the FAA has been developing since the early 1970s 

the Microwave Landing System. In 1977 the system reached its third phase-prototype development and evaluation. Two prototype Small Community systems and two Basic Systems were 

delivered in mid-1976 and have been in test and 

evaluation. Also the FAA-developed Microwave 

Landing System based on the Time Reference 

Scanning Beam was submitted to the International 

Civil Aviation Organization as the U.S. candidate 

for international standardization of landing systems. NASA joined FAA in demonstrating coupled 

approaches and automatic landings using the microwave system and a 737 transport where display, 

navigation, and flight control systems marked application of all-digital systems to a conventional 

transport aircraft. 

AIRWAYS MODERNIZATION. The Flight Service 

Stations provide pilots with weather briefings, 

process flight plans, and provide emergency assistance and search and rescue. The format in which 

the stations have traditionally operated is highly 

labor-intensive. Demand for services has grown 

steadily and is expected to triple by 1995. Both to 

minimize human error and to restrain costs, initial 

steps were taken to modernize the stations. 

Another modernization was to upgrade the automation capability of the Air Traffic Control Centers to control and coordinate the flow of air 

traffic. In 1977 a computer was installed in the 

center in Jacksonville, Florida, for this purpose 

and software was ordered for its use. When in op9 
eration in late 1978, this improvement in flow control should enable controllers to balance capacity 

against demand, thus improving the use of the airspace and saving aircraft fuel by minimizing the 

need for flying holding patterns. 

Research for Aeronuutics Improvement 

The Federal commitment to maintain the competitive edge for American commercial transports, 

military aircraft, and general aviation continued in 

1977 as NASA and DoD pursued research and development improvements for aircraft and airborne 

systems, and the FAA researched improvements in 

safety and efficiency in the air and ground segments 

of the National Aviation System. 

Aircrajt and Airborne Systems. In addition to 

research to minimize adverse environmental effects 

of aircraft (see the Earth's Resources section of this 

summary chapter), NASA pursued new technology 

that will reduce fuel consumption of future transport aircraft by as much as 50 percent. 

ENGINES. NASA seeks to reduce fuel consumption 

while lessening deterioration over time of current 

and future turbofan engines. Work began this year 

on redesigning the fan blades and improving the 

durability of the high-pressure seals. NASA also 

explored next-generation technology for a turbofan 

engine with much lower fuel consumption. 

AERODYNAMICS. Wind-tunnel testing provided a 

basic data base on the supercritical wing which can 

be applied to the design of future transport aircraft. Also identified for testing were other components such as winglets, propulsion system I'ntegration, and active controls for reducing wing 

loading. A Lockheed LlOll aircraft equipped with 

active controls began baseline data flights in 1977. 

The search for a supercritical wing of minimum 

weight has led to wind-tunnel testing of a full-scale 

wing section having the laminar-flow suction system integrated into the primary structure. The results are promising for future transports. 

STRUCTURES. Advanced composite materials were 

being researched by NASA in 1977 and components were being test-flown. One of these components-ten copies of the upper aft rudder of the 

DC-lO-was in routine flight in 1977 and a second, 

the vertical fin on the LIOll aircraft, entered design verification. 

In DoD each service has research projects in 

structures and materials. The Navy is seeking to 

replace the metal rotor blade on the CH-46 helicopter with a fiberglass one that is resistant to corrosion, small defects, and rapid failure propagation, needing only visual pre-flight inspections and 

lengthening the repair cycle by 500 percent. Four 

different components made of composites completed laboratory and fatigue tests and are being 

fabricated for testing on operational aircraft. The 

Army concentrated its structures and materials 

program on helicopter composite components because of the higher penalty that weight imposes 

on helicopters and the heavier vibration stresses 

that can induce metal fatigue. Both the Black 

Hawk and Advanced Attack Helicopter flew in 

1977 with aerodynamic surfaces and structural, 

fuselage components made of composites. Two 

other helicopters-the AH-1 Cobra gunship and the 

CH-47 cargo helicopter-were equipped with new 

composite rotor blades ;IS the beginning of a modification and improvement program. 

AIRCRAFT. In research on future long-haul aircraft, 

NASA found that the old formula for adapting 

subsonic aircraft to market demands by stretching 

or shrinking the length of the fuselage was not well 

suited to supersonic aircraft. The intricate interrelationship between wing and fuselage design on 

supersonic aircraft dictated a new approach. In 

1977 the U.S. applied for a patent on a different 

concept employing lateral rather than longitudinal 

fuselage changes, providing wider or narrower 

cross sections of the cabin area to alter the capacity 

of supersonic aircraft. 

In the short-haul sector, the Quiet Short-Haul 

Research Aircraft neared completion in 1977 with 

fabrication and installation of the new propulsivelift wing and the engine nacelles. Following its 

delivery to NASA in 1978, this aircraft is intended 

to validate in flight the technology the aviation 

industry needs to manufacture quiet short-takeoffand-landing aircraft. 

AIRCRAFT FIRE SAFETY. In 1977 the FAA continued its research and development toward reducing the hazards from postcrash fires. A two-year 

study was begun to design a system that ranks the 

interior materials in a transport cabin for their 

collective combustion hazards. A simulated widebody transport cabin was used in cabin-fire tests 

to assess hazards from the burning of materials 

inside the cabin and the by-products entering the 

cabin from fuels burning outside. Tests were performed with the Navy to evaluate an antimisting 

additive in aircraft fuels and the extent to which it 

minimizes the crash fireball. 

Airway Systems. FAA and NASA continued research to improve the safety and efficiency of the 

airway system. 

new, sophisticated systems are nearing readiness for 

incorporation in the next generation of jet transport aircraft: eg., active control systems, composite 

control systems, digital avionics, and digital flight 

IhfPROVEMENT OF LONGHAUL ANI) SHORT-HAUI. 

SAFETY OF FUTURE TRANSPORTS. A number Of 
control systems. Even though more complex and 

expensive than equipment they would replace, they 

are likely to be used because they promise operating efficiencies and lower operating costs not 

achievable by any other means. A broad program 

has been inaugurated by the FAA and NASA to 

determine guidelines for the certification of these 

new technologies. 

AVIATION SECURITY. Protection against acts of 

terrorism or sabotage on aircraft or at airports continued to receive research attention in 1977. An 

experimental automated radiation-cmtrast system 

demonstrated excellent ability to detect bombs in 

baggage. The system is being bought for operational use at airports. 

Other tests specified locations on commercial aircraft where any bombs found in flight could be 

secured with least risk to passengers and the aircraft. In all tests incorporating these least-risk procedures, damage was confined to levels that would 

permit the aircraft to land safeIy. 

Space Energy 

Research on exploitation of energy in space takes 

two forms: improvement of energy sources on 

spacecraft and exploration of Sun-related energy 

sources for Earth application. 

Space Power 

Electrical energy sources available for use on or 

by spacecraft have traditionally been batteries, 

solar cells, fuel cells, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Future missions and their powei 

requirements demand dynamic power systems that 

will generate substantially higher voltages over 

long mission profiles. 

Solar Cells, Batteries, and Fuel Cells. Experimental solar cells were produced in 1977 that were 

five times thinner and lighter than those now in 

use in space. A blend of the silver-zinc battery and 

the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell-the silver-hydrogen 

battery-was tested in 1977 in simulated synchronous orbit. Not only does it weigh half as much 

as conventional batteries, but use of the same fuel 

as the main propulsion system would offer further 

weight savings by eliminating redundant tankage 

and reserve fuel, 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators. The 

Viking spacecraft that operated on the surface and 

in orbit about the planet Mars in 1976 and 1977 

depended for long-term, reliable electric power on 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators supplied by 

the Department of Energy. Not only did the units 

survive the extremes of diurnal and seasonal temperature variations that are characteristic of Mars, 

but they supplied heat to some of the systems in 

the lander spacecraft during the colder periods. 

Similar evidence of durable performance came 

from DoD’s Les 8 and 9 satellites; since March 

1976 they have functioned without interruption. 

l2,ach of the two Voyager spacecraft launched in 

.\ugust and September 1977 has three large isotope 

generators on board that produce a total electric 

output of 475 watts per spacecraft. For the two 

spacecraft this totals as much nuclear power as all 

other missions currently in space. Not only are the 

power units expected to be functioning at Jupiter 

encounter in I979 and Saturn encounter in 1980- 

1981, but the power sources should he adequate 

for the approach to Uranus in 1986 and possibly 

for the pass of Neptune in 1989. Like the other 

flight-model nuclear power sources NASA has used, 

these are encased in proven containers that do not 

leak radiation even under the stress of accidental 

re-entry. 

Dynamic Power Systems. Experimental work continued on the materials and systems that might 

best be used in a dynamic power system for spacecraft that could produce electric power in the 1-2 

kilowatt range and beyond. The Department of 

Energy is investigating the competitive performances of the Rrayton and Rankine engine systems. 

Ground tests are scheduled in early 1978 to enable 

selection of the better system for development. 

Energy Systems Applications 

In 1977, the space program continued to coiltribute to the development and evaluation of new 

energy sources for use on Earth. 

Solar Cells. The Department of Energy sponsors 

work on reducing the weight and cost of solar cells 

for use on Earth. Two projects allocated to NASA 

are the Low Cost Silicon Array at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which attempts to reduce cost and 

increase the lifetime of solar arrays, and the Test 

and Applications Project at the Lewis Research 

Center, which experiments with applications of 

solar ceIls that might interest commercial users. In 

two years the market for solar cells has increased 

by a factor of ten, the cost of arrays has been cut 

in half, and the number of companies making 

solar arrays for domestic use has doubled. 

Satellitc. Power Systems. Since 1968 the intriguing concept of large power stations in geosynchronous orbit, converting the Sun’s energy into 

microwave energy and transmitting it to Earth, has 

stimulated interest and study. In recent years it 

was studied by NASA; in 1976 management responsibility was transferred to the Department of 

Energy. In 1977, the Department of Energy and 

11 
NASA embarked on a three-year program, ending bility for study of health, safety, and environin 1980, to investigate all the considerations in- mental questions; of socio-economic, international, 

volved in a decision to proceed with development. and other institutional issues: and of comparisons 

NASA continued defining the hardware systems with other major sources of electrical power. 

and the Department of Energy assumed responsi12 
National Aeronautics 

11 and Space Administration 

Introduction 

Since 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) has been the civilian 

agency of the United States government empowered to plan, direct, and conduct research and 

development pertaining to space and aeronautics. 

This program is carried out in concert with a number of other civilian government agencies-foreign, 

Federal, state, and local-who have research or 011- 

erational interests in these fields. The military 

space and aeronautics program is conducted by the 

Department of Defense (DoD) . NASA exchanges 

information and provides research and development assistance to DoD. 

Several broad objectives have shaped NASA’s 

space and aeronautics programs over the years. In 

space the goals have been the development of 

technology and techniques for more effective space 

operations; demonstration of the practical utility 

of space systems and technology; and scientific investigation of the beginnings, development, and 

processes of the Earth and its atmosphere, of the 

planets, moons, and Sun of our solar system, and 

of the intricate diversity of the Universe. In aeronautics the goals have been research and development to improve the aerodynamics, structures, 

engines, and overall performance of aircraft in 

ways that make them more efficient, safer, and 

environmentally acceptable. 

The year 1977 was marked by solid progress toward these goals. In space NASA had a total of 16 

launches, of which 14 orbited 15 satellites. Of these 

satellites, 10 were launched for international, national, or commercial customers, 3 were in furtherance of NASA’s own programs, and 2 were cooperative satellites. In aeronautics, a number of weightand energy-saving projects made good progress. 

Applications to Earth 

Experimentation with and demonstration of 

space systems that have potential application for 

use in the public or private sector proceeded in 

1977. Communications, environmental research, 

weather forecasting, and Earth resoiirces were the 

major targets. 

Communications 

Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS 6). In 

January 1977 ATS 6, now stationed over the midPacific opposite the U.S., began its third year in 

orbit with a program of 20 experiments. Most of 

these are in piiblic service disciplines, with the rest 

in space science and technology applications. Also, 

its location enables it to transmit experimental 

programming to the lrust Territories, Pacific Islands. 

Cornnziinications Technology Satellite (CTS 1). 

This joint Canadian-U.S. satellite, the most powerful transmitter yet launched, was orbited in 1976 

to experiment with satellite communications to 

low-cost ground stations on the 12-GHz frequency, 

which is allocated specifically for satellite broadcasting without power limitations. By the end of 

1977, 15 of the 18 U.S. experiments had started 

operations. They cover a wide range of educational, health, social services, and informationexchange investigations. 

Study of Fiitiire Communications. NASA continued research on improved components for space 

communications and demonstrated transmissions 

with experimental hardware to extend capabilities 

in transmission of voice, data, and television. In 

response to growing concern over present and impending overcrowding of the electromagnetic spectrum caused by the worldwide upsurge in use of 

communications, NASA 

tlevelopetl techniques for compressing bandwidth, thus making more effective use of the 

availa1,le frequency spectrum. 

studied means to open up new regions of the 

communications spectrum. 

studied, experimented with, and inodeled such 

problems as radio frequency interference between satellites and between satellites and 

ground communications, optimum spacing of 

satellites for commiunication, problems of intra13 
and inter-regional frequency and orbit sharing, and adverse propagation effects. 

NASA was deeply involved in supporting with 

technical consultation other Federal agencies that 

have policy, regulatory, or operational responsibility in communications-primarily the Office of 

Telecommunications Policy, Executive Office of the 

President; the Department of State; the Federal 

Communications Commission; and the Department 

of Health, Education and Welfare. An important 

part of this was NASA’s participation (with more 

than 50 technical papers) in the 1977 World Administrative Radio Conference on Broadcast Satellites. 

Even as this conference was taking place, NASA 

was also assisting in preparations for the 1979 

World Administrative Radio Conference. That 

conference is expected to completely revise the international radio regulations. NASA’s particular 

interest has been in such areas as remote sensing. 

Earth exploration, search and rescue, and public 

services broadcasting. 

Cornmzinications for Public Service. Studies were 

begun on the concept, technology, and economics 

of space communications for health care, education, and public safety applications. NASA solicited 

user involvement in defining requirements ancl 

economic viability. 

Data Collection via Satellite 

Three new initiatives in data collection were 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, with NASA 

support, began work on the National Water 

Resources Information Center, in Washington, 

D.C. 

0 the U.S. Geological Survey, assisted by the 

Comsat Corporation, began the evaluation 

of the potential use of commercial satellitesspecifically the Canadian Anik communications satellite-to transmit remote-station environmental data from the northeastern U.S. 

and Canada and from Virginia. 

0 the Department of Agriculture began operational use of space data collection from unattended data collection platforms in Utah 

and other western states. 

Satellitc-Aided Search and Rescue. The ability of 

satellites to aid in search and rescue of distressed 

land, sea, or air vehicles was demonstrated in September 1977 when a balloon with two crewmen, 

attempting to cross the Atlantic to France, was 

caught in a heavy snowstorm and forced down in 

the North Atlantic off Iceland. The storm had 

blown them far off course and disrupted their 

begun in 1977: 

radio communications. But aboard was an experimental transmitter sending signals to the Nimbus 

6 satellite; observers were able to track the balloon 

during the four days of its flight and locate its 

downed position within about 3 kilometers for the 

rescue helicopter. 

Approval was obtained in 1977 for the joint 

Canadian-U.S. Search and Rescue Mission to conduct a demonstration of locating aircraft and ships 

in distress. The space segment-an antenna, 

receiver, processor, and transmitter-would be 

mounted on a Tiros-N weather satellite to be 

launched in 1981-1982. Ground stations would bc 

sited to provide coverage of the continental US. 

and most of Canada. The Soviet Union and France, 

among other nations, have made commitments to 

participate in the demonstration. 

Earth Resources 

During 1977, use and evaluation of remotely 

sensed data from aircraft and satellites continued 

in a wide variety of uses. 

Both Landsat 1 and 2 weie operational throughout the year, although after five years in orbit the 

performance of Landsat 1 was degraded by the 

failure of band 4 of the multispectral scanner, deterioration of its power supply, and depletion of its 

attitude control gas. The portable Landsat ground 

station, which had been sending data from Pakistan 

for development of worldwide wheat estimates as 

well as for regional resources projects, ended operations in October 1977. 

During the year, Landsat-C neared completion, 

with launch scheduled for early 1978. Design and 

construction of Landsat-D, the second-generation 

Earth resources satellite intended for launch in 

1981, was opened to bids from industry in August 

1977. In April the new, sophisticated prime sensor 

for 1,andsat-D, the Thematic Mapper, began dcvelopment. Another type of Earth resources satellite, the spacecraft for the Heat Capacity Mapping 

Mission, was completed and undergoing final test 

at the end of the year, with launch scheduled for 

mid-April 1978. 

Three Earth resources experiments were selected 

for flight on the second Shuttle Orbital Flight Test 

in July 1979: (1) an adaptation of the Seasat radar 

for geological and other land applications; (2) a 

Shuttle multispectral radiometer to investigate for 

resources applications the newly accessible spectral 

bands in the infrared region of the spectrum; ancl 

(3) an ocean color experiment. 

The Applications Systems Verification and 

Transfer program is a mechanism by which discrete 

applications projects are brought to full development and released to users. In 1977 NASA and 

14 
users completed or nearly completed three projects; 

four new ones were approved in 1977. Those released to users were: 

the Coast Guard adopted for operational use 

on the Great Lakes the ice-monitoring techniques developed in the Icewarn project. 

a Water Management and Control project 

was completed for the Corps of Engineersusing Landsat data to predict run-off in floodprone areas. 

techniques developed in the Natural Kcsources Information System with the state of 

Mississippi have been adopted by the state of 

Georgia, relying on the capabilities of the 

Georgia Institute of Technology. 

Of the continuing experimental Earth resouices 

projects, one of the most extensive has been thc 

Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) . In 1977 it completed its thinl year of devising and 

testing techniques for accurately forecasting each 

year’s worldwide wheat production. LACIE is a 

joint endeavor by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and NASA. LACIE is 

scheduled for completion and final evaluation in 

mid-1978. Applied to the U.S. Great Plains, LACIE 

in the last two years had forecast wheat production with’? 10 percent of the forecasts of the Department of Agriculture’s Statistical Reporting 

Service for the winter wheat region. Spring wheat 

estimates were not as accurate, but new techniques 

are being tested to improve the projections. The 

Department of Agriculture has qcquired its own 

advanced imaging processing equipment to further 

test LACIE forecasting techniques. 

Weather and Climate 

NASA’s weather and climate program focuses on 

development of applications for weather observations from space: detecting, tracking, and predicting severe storms; forecasting the daily weather 

events; and defining the dynamics of climatic functions. In 1977 emphasis was on support of the International Global Atmospheric Research Program 

(GARP) and the National Weather Service, and 

extending the capabilities of our current satellite 

systems. NASA is also working with the National 

Science Foundation and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration to marshal the nation’s most appropriate resources under a U.S. 

Climate Plan. NASA’s participation will include 

satellite remote sensors, data applications, data 

management, and a variety of numerical modeling 

activities. 

Preparations for the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE), to be conducted during 1978-1979 

and involving 145 countries, are nearing completion. A series of preparatory Data Systems Tests 

IIX Iwen completed and the data analyzed by 

major modeling groups and other private and government research groups. For satellite-derived data, 

the two key sources are sounder-measured vertical 

temperature profiles and cloud-track-measured 

wind fields. Two research instruments on Nimbus 

6 contributed to the development of an improved, 

operational instrument and better sounding techniques that are expected to be integrated into the 

Tiros-N satellite in time for use in the FGGE. Over 

the last half of 1977, basic geophysical data sets and 

analyzed wintl-field data were distributed to the 

major modeling centers in the U.S. These are the 

most comprehensive sets of meteorological data 

ever assembled; they have been very helpful in experimental forecasting. 

I3y the end of 1977 five passenger airliners had 

been outfitted with automatic equipment that will 

collect meteorological data and immediately relay 

them to weather forecasters via communications 

satellites. In the future, this system can provide 

weather data from areas of the tropics and vast 

regions of the Southern Hemisphere that have seldom been reported on. Also these data will be 

beneficial to all other aircraft flying these routes 

in the form of up-to-the-minute flight planning, 

which offers economies in time and fuel and gains 

in flight safety. 

GOES satellites launched after 1980 will be able 

to observe the three-dimensional structure of the 

atmospheric temperature and water-vapor distribution with an instrument being developed by NASA. 

These new capabilities promise exciting advances 

in ability to detect, track, and monitor the evolution of severe storms, enabling earlier warning to 

the public. Extensive research and development 

will be needed to bring this technology to operational status. NASA is organizing and will conduct 

the necessary demonstration experiments in conjunction with NOAA. 

Work continued on the Atmospheric Cloud 

Physics Laboratory, scheduled to orbit in the Shuttle Spacelab 3 in 1981. It will be a versatile tool 

for studying basic physical factors in the formation, 

growth, and interaction of water droplets and ice 

crystals within the atmosphere. At the close of 

1977, proposals from the scientific research community at large were being reviewed for selection 

of those experiments that offer the fullest possible 

benefit from this research facility. 

15 
Environmental Quality 

The study of environmental quality is aimed at 

developing, demonstrating, and transferring space 

technology that measures and monitors those aspects of the environment which affect the quality 

of Earth’s atmosphere and water. 

The major focus of research in the upper atmosphere is on the continuing measurements of quantities and distribution of global ozone and other 

important stratospheric species and of how they 

change with time. One important dynamic process 

being studied is the interchange of gases and aerosols between the lower atmosphere (troposphere) 

and the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) -a process usually referred to as troIjosphere-stratosphere 

exchange. During the summer of 1977, NASA conducted an experiment from the Panama Canal 

Zone to measure this exchange as it takcs place in 

the tropics. It is thought that this region, known 

as the Intertropical Convergence Zone, is the lociltion of major upward transport from the ti-oposphere to the stratosphere. A related experiment, 

to measure the transport from the stratosphere to 

the troposphere, is planned for 1978 at the midlatitudes in the jet folding region, where majoi. 

downward transport is thought to occ~ir. 

Remote sensing techniques for mcasui-ing quantities of key tropospheric pollutants in the lower 

atmosphere continued to improve during 1977. 

NASA and the state of Maryland began a project 

in the fall of 1976 to measure the dispersion of 

aerosols emitted from power-generating plants. 

NASA used a ground-based Iitser radar (lidar) for 

the measurements. h4aryland’s Department of Natural Resources is using the data to improve the 

mathematical models used to predict the envii-onmental impact of powerplant emissions and to help 

the state pick the most suitable locations for future 

power plants. Another NASA experiment began in 

1976 over Lake Michigan, using an airborne scnsoi‘ 

to measure carbon monoxide in the urban plume 

generated by the cities of Chicago and Gary. The 

sensor, a developmental instrument called a gas 

filter correlation radiometer, succeeded in measuring carbon monoxide distributions as far as 160 

kilometers downwind. Maps of the distribution are 

being used to evaluate the rate of dispersion and, 

together with other measurements, to study the 

chemical reactions within iirban pollution plumes. 

The sensor is a prototype of one that will be flown 

on an early Shuttle mission to measure the differences in carbon monoxide concentrations between the heavily popdated northern hemisphere 

and the less populated southei-n hemisphere. 

Water-quality monitoring in 1977 foiind NASA 

active in studying both national and international 

environmental problems. When the Argo Merchanl 

spilled its cargo of oil in December 1976 off Nant ucket Isl;intl, NASA responded to a request from 

hrO;2i2 with ail-craft and satellite data on the 

ti-;ijectory of the oil slick. The data are being used 

l)y NO.A.2 to evaliiate mathematical models for 

improved prediction of the life cycle of oil spills 

at sea. 

In support of the International Joint Agreements 

on the Great 1,akes between the U.S. and Canada, 

N.4SAZ used remote imagery from Landsat satellites ;ind aircraft sensors to estimate the amount 

of setlinient entering the Lakes from their tributaries. The data were also used, together with 

me;isurements taken ;it the surface, to produce 

contour in;ips of other important pollution paranicters such ;IS Sccclii depth, silica, sulfates, and 

niitrients. 

Earth and Ocean Dynanzics 

I<arth dynamics :IIT monitored and studied to 

Iielp in the assessment of mineral and energy rcsource potential, to forecast earthquakes, and to 

do geodetic surveying. Applications derive from 

studies of such p1iysic;il characteristics of the solid 

Earth as its gravity and magnetic fields; the tectonic plates which form its crust; crustal deformation caiisetl I)y earthquakes, subsidence, and postgl~icial uplifting; the wobble of the Earth around 

its p01;ir axis: and variations in the Earth’s rotational rate. 

New models of the gravity field, derived from 

satellite-to-satelli tc tracking, provide better definition of the short wavelength components of the 

gravity fieltls. These gravity data, along with magnetic-field (lata from the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory and geophysical data, are currently being 

used to develop trial models of resources in interesting formations. A Magnetic Field Satellite 

(hlagsat) under development is a joint NASA/ 

U.S. Geological Survey project. To be launched in 

1979, it will provide an updated and more accurate 

model of the global magnetic field. 

In tectonic research, NASA has since 1972 placed 

niohile 1;isei- ixnging stations on sites on either side 

of the San Andreas Fault every two years and, by 

1-mging on satellites, tried to detect relative motion between the North American Plate and the 

Pxific Plate. Analysis of these long-term observations indicates that, for the first time, tectonic plate 

motion may have been detected. Additional measurements are planned for the fall of 1978 to verify 

these pi-eliininary conclusions. 

Another form of measurement is Very Long 

Baseline Interferometry. In 1976 NASA used this 

method to measure the distance between large 

16 
radio astronomy antennas in Boston and California 

with a repeatable accuracy of +10 centimeters. In 

1977, mobile lasers were deployed at these sites and 

a third antenna site in California to cross-compare 

the measurements from sateilite laser ranging with 

those from interferometry. Analysis is expected to 

confirm the absolute accuracy of both sets of distance measurements. 

Another use of laser ranging employs the Moon 

as target. Lunar laser ranging data are being acquired by the McDonald Observatory in Texas; 

the Haleakala Observatory in Hawaii; and a station 

near Canberra, Australia. Similar stations are being constructed in Japan, France, West Germany, 

and the Soviet Union. When completed, this widely 

distributed group of stations will be able to observe 

polar motion and variations in the Earth’s rotation 

rate with much greater accuracy than is attainable 

through the International Latitude Service using 

classical astronomical methods. 

Another form of Earth measurement that NASA 

is involved in is the experiment, at the request of 

the National Geodetic Survey, to attempt to resolve 

a discrepancy in the measurement of sea level on 

the Pacific coast, as determined by conventional 

land and ocean techniques. A mobile interferometry unit, the Geos 3 satellite, and Doppler satellite 

tracking have been used to acquire a set of data 

that are being analyzed by the Survey. 

Ocean Condition Monitoring and Forecasting 

In monitoring and forecasting ocean conditions, 

satellite data are used for understanding and forecasting the marinc environment, developing ocean 

sensing techniques, and evaluating the benefits of 

ocean satellite data. 

Data from Geos 3 continued to be used during 

1977 to refine models of the Earth’s gravity field; 

more precise definition of the shape of the geoid 

is needed to track ocean circulation features such 

as the Gulf Stream and to map the seastate (wave 

heights) in the North Atlantic. The more precise 

definition of the ocean geoid has led to much improved correlation with subsurface tectonic features 

such as ridges, escarpments, and trenches. The 

Geos 3 radar altimeter has also demonstrated a 

limited capability for mapping over land and ice. 

The promising new technology for ocean monitoring is the Seasat-A satellite, scheduled for 

launch in May 1978. A Seasat demonstration program got under way in 1977 at the request of commercial users to validate economic benefits. A series 

of two-year experiments will be conducted in several areas of ocean commerce, including offshore 

oil and gas exploration, marine fisheries, and maritime safety. To support these experiments, the users 

plan LO devote $20 million woi th of capital equipment and $1 million in operating and personnel 

expenses. 

Mapping of ocean-bottom topography in coastal 

1 egions or detection of ocean-surface pollutants has 

been done experimentally by the Airborne Oceanographic Lidar, which uses a scanning laser beam 

in either a bathymetric or fluoro-sensing mode. 

Data from the lidar are being used by DoD’s Defense Mapping Agency and NOAA’s National 

Oceanic Survey to define instrument specifications 

for an operational airborne bathymetric mapping 

system. The experimental data indicate that highquality bathymetric maps can be produced quickly 

and economically with this technique. 

Materials Processing in Space 

Work in 1977 on materials processing in space 

was mostly preparatory for the extended series of 

experiments that will begin with the Space Shuttle flights. 

Two short-duration rocket flights this year 

marked the first flights of two systems for containerless processing of materials in space. In one of 

these systems, electromagnetic fields simultaneously 

hold materials in place without physical contact 

and heat the materials. In the other system, stationary sound waves in an appropriate gas apply positioning forces on the materials; this positioning 

feature was tested on its first flight and means for 

sample heating will be tested later. Both systems 

will process materials that cannot be kept pure 

when heated in containers; experiments will also 

be possible with new glasses that could be converted into unwanted crystalline forms if melted 

in contact with foreign materials. 

Electrical separation of different types of living 

cell was tested in space on the Apollo-Soyuz flight 

in 1975 with encouraging results, but further progress has been slowed because there was at that time 

no efficient means of rapid measurement of the 

motion of different cells in an electric field. A 

ground-based system to measure such motion was 

designed and constructed in 1977, making it possible to predict the results of separation runs in 

space. It is also expected to have significant applications in general medical and biological research. 

The first solicitation for proposals of materials 

investigations to be performed on Space Shuttle 

flights was made and produced a total of 120 respcnses. A first group of 14 investigations was 

selected for flight on early missions and another 19 

1)rojects were marked for further development 

prior to selection decisions. The general objectives 

of the materials experiments on the early Shuttle 

17 
missions will be IUO develop understanding of fundamental processes and properties of materials and 

to demonstrate the value of space for materials 

work. Subjects of space investigations will include 

crystal growth from solutions, melts and vapor 

phases; production of specialized composite materials; containerless glass processing; and synthesis 

of large-size latex particles that are uniform in size. 

Science 

Study of the Earth's Upper Atmosphere 

The comprehensive plan that was drafted in 

1976 to develop a solid body of knowledge on the 

physics, chemistry, and transfer processes of the 

upper atmosphere was extensively reviewed by the 

scientific and technical communities, a stratospheric 

research advisory committee, and other Federal 

agencies. In implementing the plan, NASA has 

embarked on a broad-based program of reseaich. 

technology, and monitoring embracing over 120 

tasks. To sharpen the focus of the program, a 

strategy has been devised with the guidance and 

assistance of the advisory committee, clearly stating 

the key scientific questions and problems that now 

limit understanding of the stratosphere-especially 

the ozone-and specifying what measurements are 

required to answer those questions and how best 

to obtain them. 

As part of the study of the upper atmosphere, ;I 

combination of field measurements, theoretical calculations, and laboratory measurements have in the 

past year changed the understanding of the relative 

importance of man-made nitrogen oxide (NO,) 

compounds as compared to chlorine oxide (CIO,) 

compounds in the destruction of ozone. C10, is 

now thought to be a major contributor to the destruction of odd oxygen (including ozone) in the 

upper atmosphere. 

Six balloon profile measurements of chlorine 

(Cl) and chlorine monoxide (C10) have indicated 

that the amount of C10 in the stratosphere is 

highly variable. Other measurements have given 

readings simultaneously of the amounts of the 

oxygen radical OH, nitric oxide (NO), oxygen 

(0) , ozone (O,), C1, and C10. Latitude and altitude distributions of nitrous oxide (N,O) and the 

chlorofluoromethanes F-1 I and F-12 were also 

measured. The findings were that concentrations 

of each of these latter species drop off rapidly above 

12 kilometers altitude at latitudes greater than 

about 30". No interhemispheric differences were 

observed for concentration distributions of N,O 

(&lyo). For F-11 and F-12, only small differences 

of 10-12y0 were observed, indicating that the 

world's total atmosphere is mixing more quickly 

and efficiently than was predicted. 

Both spectroscopic and filter-collection measurements have been obtained of hydrogen chloride 

(HC1) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the stratosphere. These provide information about natural 

and man-made contributions to reactive species in 

the upper atmosphere. 

Backscattered ultraviolet measurements of ozone 

were obtained by the Atmospheric Explorer-E 

satellite until March 1977. When combined with 

recalculated data from the Nimbus satellites, these 

measurements should comprise the most complete 

data set for global ozone yet available. 

In the continuing effort to improve theoretical 

models, such models were expanded to incorporate 

radiative feedback, temperature feedback, scattering, and albedo effects. The diurnal effects on 

ozone depletion are being investigated in some detail, and work is under way to integrate chemistry 

into existing generxl circulation models and to 

study the effects and iniportance of aerosols on 

stratospheric phenomena. 

Measurements of new reaction rates between important minor species in the HO,, ClO,, NO,, and 

0, families, plus extension of existing rates to 

stratospheric temperature and pressure conditions 

have continued to improve data for the photochemical models. A complete list of reaction rates 

has been compiled for all known atmospheric reactions o€ importance. 

In assessing man-made effects, the predictions on 

depletion of ozone by Space Shuttle flights have 

been incorporated into a draft environmental impact statement and an aircraft assessment has been 

provided to the Federal Aviation Administration, 

Congress, the regulatory agencies, and the National 

Science Foundation. Assuming 60 Shuttle, flights 

per year, the model calculations predict that the 

mean ozone concentrations in the northern hemisphere will be reduced by about 0.25 percent with 

an uncertainty factor of two. Most of this reduction is prodiiced by chlorine compounds in the 

Shuttle exhaust. After replacement of the present 

fuel with a non chlorine-producing fuel, the ozone 

layer would return to normal in about five years. 

New calculations have been completed on the 

ozone reductions that would be caused by continued chlorofluoromethane (CFM) releases at the 

I975 rate. The National Academy of Sciences has 

defined error limits from uncertainties in chemistry, transport, and the release rates. When these 

error limits are applied, the prediction of ozone 

reduction becomes 4 percent to 30 percent. In the 

case of the CFMs, unlike the case of the Shuttle 

effluents, the return to an unperturbed ozone level 

is predicted to require many years because of the 

18 
slow diffusion of CFMs upward into the stratosphere. 

Study of the Sun and its Emth Reladionships 

It is now well known that certain effects in the 

Earth’s upper atmosphere-magnetic storms and 

short-wave fadeouts, for example-are associated 

with variations in the output of the particle and/or 

ultraviolet light fluxes from the Sun. NASA attempts to understand how changes in solar environment affect the Earth and, if possible, predict the 

occurrence of solar phenomena that shape and 

control the changing space environment of the 

Earth. This entails study of the Sun itself, the solar 

wind, and the effects on the Earth’s magnetic field 

and upper atmosphere. 

Study of the Sun. In its third year of operation, 

the Orbiting Solar Observatory 8 (OS0 8) combined continuation of established observation programs with a watch on the new solar activity marking the beginning of the new solar cycle. Among 

the programs already under way is the study of the 

newly discovered downflow circulation patterns in 

the solar atmosphere. This may be important in 

understanding the energy or mass transport into 

the solar corona and hence in the generation of 

the solar wind. The study of new activity includes 

observations of tiny magnetic regions which undergo flare-like brightening within hours after 

emerging through the Sun’s surface. Study of these 

simple features may provide new insight into complex flares in older active regions, in which explosive bursts of mass and energy can be expelled 

toward the Earth. Another new feature was detected by a soft x-ray telescope flown on two different sounding rockets in conjunction with the 

recent minimum of solar activity. The telescope 

found that the number of x-ray bright points at 

solar minimum was double the number observed 

during the Skylab mission. Since such bright‘ points 

are a direct measure of magnetic flux, these observations suggest that more magnetic fields are 

emerging at solar minimum than when Skylab first 

discovered them, near the middle of the solar cycle. 

This evidence may have considerable effect on our 

understanding of the nature of the solar cycle itself. 

The next stage of solar investigation will involve the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) . It will 

provide temporal and spatial high-resolution observations of solar flares in those gamma-ray, x-ray, 

and extreme-ultraviolet wavelengths where solar 

flares release most of their radiative energy. These 

wavelengths are also the ones absorbed by the 

Earth’s upper atmosphere and therefore are most 

likely to cause atmospheric effects. Also the SMM 

carries a special coronagraph capable of detecting 

mass ejections as they leave the Sun on their journey toward Earth. Both the spacecraft and the experiments are on schedule for launch in October 

1979. 

Study of the Solar Wind. An analysis finished in 

1977 showed the first visible evidence of the passage of a high-speed solar wind stream through 

interplanetary space. This occurred when the ion 

tail of comet Kohoutek (being observed by NASA’s 

Cometary Research Observatory in New Mexico) 

showed severe distortions as a result of interaction 

with a high-speed wind stream from a solar coronal 

hole (observed by solar telescopes on Skylab and 

measured in situ by Interplanetary Monitoring 

Platform 8). This same wind stream several days 

later caused a severe geomagnetic storm in the 

vicinity of the Earth. The unique series of observations offers an unparalleled opportunity for the 

study of the origin of solar wind streams and then 

their propagation in an area of space which so far 

has been little studied. 

Study of tho Solar Effects near the Earth. The 

two International Sun-Earth Explorer satellites 

launched in October 1977 into looping trajectories 

around the Earth mark both a high degree of international cooperation and the first time two satellites were designed to be used together to study the 

Earth’s immediate space environment. With one 

satellite managed by NASA and the other by the 

European Space Agency and with European and 

U.S. experiments on each, ISEE 1 and ‘2 will be 

investigating the interaction of the solar particle 

flux (solar wind) with the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

With their similar instrumentation and variable 

distance from each other, they can separate spatial 

plasma structures from the complex temporal effects caused by the impact of the solar wind on the 

magnetic field of the Earth. ISEE-C will be 

launched in 1978 and positioned farther out where 

it can measure the free-flowing solar wind and 

special solar events, such as flares, about an hour 

before the particles reach ISEE 1 and 2. With this 

kind of triangulation, the total set of data will offer 

a much more complete description of the complex 

interactions than has been possible until naw. And 

when the Solar Maximum Mission is in orbit, the 

three ISEEs will join the SMM in complementary 

studies of solar flares, the disturbances they cause 

in the solar wind, and the effects of these disturbances in the magnetosphere. 

Study of the Moon and Planets 

The Moon and Meteorites. Studies of the Moon 

and meteorites continue to unveil new, unique information about the origin and early history of 

19 
the solar system. Recent analyses of lunar rocks 

and of meteorites have produced the following discoveries: 

0 tiny platinum-bearing particles found in the 

Allende meteorite may be interstellar materials that existed before the solar system was 

formed 

0 the composition of magnesium in some meteorites indicates that radioactive aluminum-26 

was present when the meteorites formed; this 

radioactivity may have provided the heat 

needed for the widespread early melting that 

occurred on the Moon and planets 

0 recently opened cores of “lunar soil” are providing direct measurements of the history of 

the Sun’s activity for perhaps a billion years 

into the past 

the U.S.S.R.’s Moon samples returned by Imna 

24 and provided to NASA under the terms of 

the joint exchange agreement, are a chemically unique type of volcanic lava. They show 

that the volcanic history of the Moon is more 

complex in its chemistry than previously 

thought. 

Studies of the Moon also continue to provide 

new models for the major processes that affect the 

terrestrial planets-early melting, meteorite bombardments, widespread volcanic eruptions, and 

planetary magnetic fields. For example, recent investigations indicate that the Moon had a strong 

magnetic field in the far past (4 to 4.5 billion years 

ago) when it was hot and volcanically active, but 

that this field gradually disappeared as the Moon 

cooled. This relationship between thermal history 

and planetary magnetism may offer better understanding of other planets: the Earth, with its strong 

magnetic field and continuous volcanism; Mercury, 

with its weak magnetic field; and Mars, with its ancient volcanism and no magnetic field. 

The Planets. The most significant planetary discovery of the year was the rings around the planet 

Uranus. The rings were detected as being the 

cause of an unexpected gap in the observation of 

the occultation of a moderately bright star by 

Uranus. The discovery was verified by observations 

made with several ground-based telescopes and 

NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory, a (2-141 aircraft mounting a 90-centimeter telescope. The existence of rings around Uranus-a phenomenon 

hitherto known only in the case of Saturn-was an 

important and completely unexpected discovery. 

VIKING MISSIONS. The four Viking spacecraft 

(two orbiters and two landers) continued to operate normally and returned science data from the 

planet Mars. Major discoveries have been made in 

atmospheric composition, meteorology, surface 

properties and chemistry, and the study of the 

moon Phobos. Massive dust storms have been observed; seasonal variation in meteorology measured; a Mars quake detected; variations in atmospheric water vapor measured; large amounts of 

water discovered at the north pole; and nitrogen, 

krypton, and xenon gases found in the atmosphere. 

The moon Phobos is much less dense than Mars, 

indicating that the moon probably is a captured 

body. 

The biology and organic chemistry instruments 

on the Viking landers have completed their useful 

life. Results from these investigations continue to 

tantalize scientists; intense study and laboratory 

experimentation are trying to unravel the puzzle. 

Of major importance in the data is whether there 

is or is not evidence of life on Mars. The final results will affect understanding of the origin of life 

on Earth. 

PIONEERS 10 AND 11. Pioneers 10 and 11 continued to provide valuable data on interplanetary 

space as they cruise through the outer solar system. 

The spacecraft made successful flybys of Jupiter in 

1973 and 1974, after which 10 moved out toward 

interplanetary space and 11 used Jupiter’s gravity 

to swing onto a trajectory that will encounter Satiirn in September 1979. 

VOYAGER. Two Voyager spacecraft were launched 

successfiilly by Titan-Centaur boosters from Kennedy Space Center on August 20 and September 5, 

1977. Uoth spacecraft are operating normally as 

they cruise toward the planets Jupiter and then 

Saturn. Scientific observations of the former will 

begin in December 1978; Voyager 1’s closest approach to Jupiter will occur on March 5, 1979. 

Voyager 2 is on a slightly slower trajectory; it will 

begin science observations of Jupiter in April 1979 

and its closest approach will be on July 9, 1979. 

Both spacecraft will use Jupiter’s gravitational field 

to swing around toward Saturn, arriving in 1980- 

1981. After that encounter, Voyager 2 may be deflected into a four-year flight to the planet Uranus. 

PIONEER VENUS. One of the most challenging 

questions about Venus is why a planet that is so 

much like Earth in many respects has an atmosphere that is vastly different. The primary objective of the Pioneer Venus mission is to study the 

Venusian atmosphere. Two spacecraft will be 

launched: a Multiprobe-a bus with four atmospheric-entry probes-in August 1978, and an Orbiter in May 1978. Both spacecraft will arrive at 

Venus in December 1978. The probes will enter 

the Venusian atmosphere at the same time but at 

widely separated points. 

GALILEO. Begun in 1977, the Galileo mission 

will consist of an entry probe that will make 
direct measurements in Jupiter’s atmosphere and 

an orbiter that will orbit for over a year, studying 

Jupiter, its satellites, and its magnetosphere. The 

Federal Republic of Germany, by cooperative 

agreement with NASA, will provide the orbiter 

retropropulsion system and two of the experiments. 

The Galileo mission will be launched by the 

Shuttle/Inertial Upper Stage in January 1982. 

Studies of the Universe 

NASA’s research in astrophysics is pointed toward the solution of such fundamental questions 

as: what is the origin of the Universe? What is the 

origin of the elements of which the Earth and 

human bodies are constructed? What high-energy 

processes occur in space? 

The tools used in such research are satellites 

with differing assortments of specialized instruments; ground-based telescopes; and the specially 

instrumented sounding rockets, balloons, and aircraft that can fly high enough to escape most of the 

filtering of electromagnetic energy by the Earth’s 

atmosphere. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory. A major 

event in astronautical research was the successful 

launch on August 12, 1977, of the High Energy 

Astronomy Observatory 1 (HEAO 1). The spacecraft was boosted by an Atlas-Centaur rocket into 

a nearly circular, low-altitude, low-inclination orbit 

which will minimize the radiation background for 

the experiments. The largest Earth-orbiting unmanned scientific spacecraft ever to be launched, 

HEAO 1 is the first in a series of three of its kind, 

designed to make significant contributions io 

knowledge in the disciplines of x-ray and gammaray astronomy, as well as cosmic-ray research. 

HEAO-B and C are scheduled for launch in 1978 

and 1979. 

Data from these satellites are expected to provide valuable information on the nature of some 

of the most recently discovered and most mysterious 

objects in the Universe, including pulsars, quasars, 

and, possibly, black holes. From such information 

could come better understanding of high-energy 

processes in the Universe and new theories of 

energy production by these objects. 

All four experiments on HEAO 1 were operating 

and returning useful scientific data. During the 

first month of operation, a rare, transient x-ray 

nova was observed along with other sources in the 

scanned regions. Within days this previously unseen source became one of the brightest objects in 

the x-ray sky. HEAO 1’s observations are being 

analyzed by the investigators and several scientific 

papers have already been submitted for publication. The spacecraft spent the first three months in 

orbit in a celestial scanning mode, rotating slowly 

and mapping the sky for x-ray and low-energy 

gamma-ray sources; the next three months would 

be devoted to pinpoint observations of scientifically interesting x-ray sources. The four experiments, developed by six universities and Federal 

agencies, provide complementary data on the detected sources in terms of location, spectra, and 

time variations. 

Space Telescope. After several years of study and 

refinement, the Space Telescope was approved as 

a new start in NASA’s FY 1978 budget. It is conceived as a long-term program that will provide :I 

capability in astronomy not achievable by any current or foreseeable ground-based telescope. The 

Space Telescope is a high-resolution, 2.4-meter instrument which, when placed in orbit in kite 1983, 

will be able to observe objects at much greater distances in the Universe than can be reached by any 

ground-based telescope. It will differ from other 

unmanned satellites in that its design will permit 

in-orbit maintenance and repair by astronauts or 

pick-up by the Space Shuttle and return to Earth 

for refurbishment and relaunch. Any of the focalplane instruments can be replaced in either of 

these situations, encouraging updating of the instrumentation and the broadest use of the Space 

Telescope to meet scientific requirements arising 

over its lifetime, which is expected to exceed a 

decade. 

Contractors have been selected and contracts 

awarded for the detailed design and fabrication of 

the telescope and supporting systems. The first set 

of focal-plane instruments has been selected from 

among the proposals submitted by the scientific 

community. The European Space Agency has 

agreed to participate in the program by providing 

one of the scientific instruments-the Faint Object 

camera-as well as the solar array that will power 

the telescope system and personnel to man science 

operations. 

E,xplorel- Salellites. Explorer satellites are relatively low-cost payloads designed to explore new 

fields of scientific research, some of them targets 

of opportunity generated by inconclusive data 

from other satellites. In January 1978 the International Ultraviolet Explorer will be launched into 

a modified geosynchronous orbit to provide data 

on sources emitting energy in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum; it will be very important in 

designing instruments and operational techniques 

for the Space Telescope. The IUE is another international space venture; the United Kingdom 

and the European Space Agency are contributing 

essential hardware and the operations and satellite 

observations will be conducted from one ground 

station in the U.S. and another in Europe. The 

21 
geosynchronous orbit will enable observations by 

guest observers at each of the ground stations in 

a manner similar to that in ground-based optical 

observatories. 

Another international Explorer, the Infrared 

Astronomical Satellite, was begun in 1977 for 

launch in 1981. The U.S., the Netherlands, and the 

United Kingdom have designed this satellite to 

survey the infrared sky with a “first of its kind” 

cryogenically cooled telescope and focal-plane detectors. It should open up the infrared sky as did 

earlier Explorers in the x-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Of other Explorers designed to study select portions of the Universe, one that is still operating 

successfully is the Small Astronomy Observatory 3, 

which continues to provide unique data on recently discovered x-ray burst sources. An Explorer in 

the advanced study stage is the Cosmic Background 

Explorer, which could provide the first careful examination of radiation believed to be left over 

from the earliest stages of the expansion of the 

Universe. 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatories. OAO 3, 

named Copernicus, is still operating successfully. 

The unanticipated long life of this satellite has 

provided a rich scientific harvest, with more than 

200 scientific papers published in the field of ultraviolet astronomy. 

Suborbital Vehicles. Sounding rockets, balloons, 

and aircraft continued to make their contributions 

to the development of technology and to the advancement of science. For example, one NASA 

sounding rocket flight, building on earlier observations, offered new insights into the nature of 

quasars; also it indirectly suggested that the Universe is finite in size. In the NASA balloon program, one flight carried aloft the prototype of a 

new, highly efficient cosmic ray detector. The airborne astronomy program has already been mentioned with the Kuiper Airborne Observatory confirming the discovery of rings around the planet 

Uranus. 

Study of Life Sciences 

US. Experiments on Soviet Spacecraft. Cosmos 

836 flew 7 U.S. biological experiments. The 19-day 

flight ended on August 22, 1977, and the US. experiments were received at NASA’s Ames Research 

Center on September 25, 1977. Experiments included investigations with laboratory rats on the 

effects of weightlessness and normal gravity on the 

life span of red blood cells, on liver enzyme activity, on bone growth, and on muscle changes; as 

well as on dosages from high-energy particles and 

investigation by electron microscope of the genetics 

and aging of fruit flies in zero gravity. 

Space Transportation 

All operations in space, manned or unmanned, 

depend on some means of space transportation. 

Since the beginning of the space age, transportation has involved expensive, expendable launch 

vehicles. For six years a new Space Transportation 

System has been in stages of design, development, 

and testing. Pacing this effort is the Space Shuttle, 

which for the first time in the brief history of space 

exploration will be a space vehicle that is recoverable and reusable. The Space Shuttle is augmented 

by other components, developed and funded by 

other organizations: Spacelab, by the European 

Space Agency; the Inertial Upper Stage, by the 

Department of Defense; the Spinning Upper 

Stages, by private industry. 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle is the keystone of the Space 

Transportation System, which will begin providing 

frequent access to low Earth orbit in the 1980s. The 

world’s first reusable spacecraft, the Shuttle will 

offer cost savings and unique mission capabilities. 

Satellites can be serviced or repaired in orbit, or 

returned to Earth for refurbishment; scientific 

laboratories can be orbited and returned to Earth 

for examination. A crew of as many as seven persons can orbit in the Shuttle, exposed to much 

lower acceleration than on previous manned space 

systems, and can work in shirtsleeves in normal 

atmospheric pressure. Journey into space, for both 

people and payloads, should become routine and 

eliminate the need for costly expendable launch 

vehicles. 

Development of the Shuttle is now far advanced, 

on schedule for the start of the orbital flight tests 

in 1979. Major milestones achieved in 1977 included successful completion of the approach and 

landing flight tests, the first firing of the solid 

rocket motor, delivery of the first external fuel 

tank, and firing of the main engine for over five 

minutes at the rated power level. 

Shuttle Orbiter. The orbiter’s approach and 

landing tests were conducted at Dryden Flight 

Research Center, California. Captive flights atop 

747 carrier aircraft were conducted first and followed by free flights and landings of the orbiter, 

verifying its aerodynamic flight characteristics. This 

first orbiter, named the Enterprise, will be flown 

on the 747 to Marshall Space Flight Center in 

Alabama for use in full-scale vibration testing. The 

22 
second orbiter, which will be the first one to orbit 

the Earth, is now being assembled at the Rockwell International Space Division plant in Palmdale, California. After a final checkout, it will be 

ferried atop the 747 in late 1978 to the Kennedy 

Space Center, Florida, to prepare for the orbital 

flight tests in 1979. 

The orbiter main propulsion test structure was 

completed in June 1977 and shipped to the National Space Technology Laboratory in Mississippi. It will be joined to an external fuel tank 

and three main engines for the main propulsion 

test. Also a structural-test version of the orbiter is 

now being completed at Palmdale. It will be moved 

to Lockheed’s Palmdale plant for full-scale structural tests in 1978. Problems with avionics software and production of the external tiles providing thermal protection have largely been solved. 

Main Engine. Three main engines are clustered 

to the aft section of the orbiter. They are the 

major technological advance over previous systems; 

as such, they have had technical problems. The 

basic requirement for a very-long-lifetime reusable 

engine was a new frontier for rocket engines; to 

this was added a requirement for a large increase 

in operating pressure to provide a substantially 

higher thrust-to-weight ratio than existed in previous systems. The main engine problems are mostly 

in the high-pressure turbo machinery. Many problems have been resolved and testing continues. All 

components have now been tested at the rated 

power level and all except the flight nozzle have 

been taken to the full power level (109 percent of 

rated power). Despite some delays, engine tests 

have accumulated over 13,000 seconds of test time; 

accelerated testing is planned for 1978, allowing 

NASA to move with confidence into orbital flight 

tests in 1979. 

External Tank. This tank will contain in separate compartments the liquid hydrogen fuel and 

the liquid oxygen that drive the main engines. 

Since this is the one expendable component of the 

Space Shuttle, manufacturing and assembly of the 

tank have emphasized standard, low-cost techniques. The first tank, assembled by the Martin 

Marietta Corporation at NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility in Louisiana, was completed and 

shipped to the National Space Technology Laboratory in September 1977 for use in the main propulsion tests. Deliveries of structural test versions 

of the liquid-hydrogen and liquid-oxygen tanks will 

be completed early in 1978; a ground vibration 

test article will also be delivered early in 1978 for 

use in the full-scale, mated ground vibration test 

program. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The first test firings of the 

solid-rocket booster were in July 1977 and were 

pel formed on schedule by the Thiokol CorporaLion at Wasatch, Utah. Drop tests of the booster’s 

I ecovei y parachutes were also performed, and development of other systems proceeded on schedule. 

Lnzinch and Landing Facilities. Construction of 

launch and landing facilities at the Kennedy Space 

Center is on schedule. Facilities needed for the 

orbital flight tests include the orbiter landing fa- 

( ility ; mate/demate device; orbiter processing facilities; hypergolic maintenance; booster retrieval, 

disassembly, and parachute facility; ad modificaI ions to the Vehicle Assembly Building, Launch 

Pad 39A, and the mobile launcher. The computeriied launch processing system is largely complete 

:ind ground-suppoi t equipment is being installed. 

Construction has begun on the second line of 

gi ound pi ocessing stations needed for the Shuttle 

operational phase. 

Spacelab. Spacelab is an orbital facility carried 

within the cargo bay of the Shuttle; its flexible 

components offer a pressurized, shirt-sleeve laboratory (the module), an unpressurized platform exposed to the space environment (the pallet), and 

standardized support services. Designed to be used 

50 times over 10 years, each Spacelab can act as 

a short-stay space station that can remain in orbit 

for 30 days, though the normal mission lasts 7 days. 

Experiments can be operated by as many as four 

payload specialists; the intent is to provide ready 

access to space for a variety of experimenters in 

many fields and from many nations. Payload 

weights will range from 5500 to 9100 kilograms. 

The European Space Agency (ESA) , in its agreement with NASA, is responsible for the design, development, and manufacture of the first flight unit, 

an engineering model, two sets of ground-support 

equipment, and initial spares. The costs to ESA 

;tie now estimated at about $575 million. NASA 

is responsible for operations and development of 

connective items, such as the tunnel between the 

Spacelab and the cabin of the Shuttle. NASA plans 

to buy at least one production unit of Spacelab 

from ESA. 

In 1977 Spacelab moved past the halfway point 

in approved designs of components and systems, 

with the remainder expected to be ready for the 

overall critical design review in February 1978. 

Manufacture of many components for the first 

flight unit has begun. Developmental tests are pro- 

(ceding well for all subsystems, with integration 

begun in April 1977. With assembly and test 

of the engineering model under way, delivery to 

NASA is scheduled in mid-1979. The first flight 

unit is scheduled to arrive at NASA in two increments, one in late 1979 and the other in early 

1980. The first Shuttle mission that includes Spacelab is scheduled for December 1980. 

23 
In fulfilling NASA’s obligation for operational 

support of the Spacelab, a contract was let in 

March 1977 for Spacelab integration. The contract 

provides for the design, development, and fabrication of most of the Spacelab equipment that NASA 

is responsible for, plus the system engineering and 

integration needed to provide an operational capability for Spacelab. Also, in September 1977 NASA 

began work to modify the Operations and Checkout building at the Kennedy Space Center so that 

it can supgort preparations for launch of Spacelab hardware. Construction should be completed 

in September 1978. 

ZnertiaZ Upper Stage. The Inertial Upper Stage 

(IUS) (formerly the Interim Upper Stage) is designed to take Shuttle payloads out of low-Earth 

orbit and place them into orbits beyond the performance curve of the Space Shuttle. The solidpropellant IUS, with payload attached, will be 

carried into orbit in the cargo bay of the Shuttle 

orbiter, deployed, and the motor ignited. Two- 

;uid three-stage versions of the IUS will he availxble. Under development by Don, the IUS will 1~ 

used by both IIoD and NASA, with NASA me 

confined primarily to missions requiring geosyiichronous or planetary orbits. Validation is essentially completed, and full-scale development is 

expected to begin in the first qu;irter of 1978. 

working toward an operational date in 1980. 

Spinning Solid Uppel- Stages. Complementary to 

the IUS, the spin-stabilized solid-propellant stage 

will be used to inject payloads into geosynchronous 

orbits that are beyond the capability of the orbiter 

but call for less energy than that of the Incrlial 

Upper Stage. Designed primarily for the small commercial payload, it will be carried into orbit by 

the orbiter, spun up, and then deployed before 

ignition. The inherent simplicity of spin staliiliia 

tion and solid propellant motoi- will make for 

easy, economical transitioii to the Space Shuttl!, 

of payloads now using expendable launch vehicles. 

Two configurations are being developed by priv;it v 

industry at no cost to the government: one in the, 

Delta vehicle class, the other in the Centaur clacw. 

As many as four of the former or two of the lattri 

c-m be accommodated in one Shuttle flight. First 

flight is planned for 1980. 

Space Transportation System Ope?-utions. The 

Space Transportation System (STS) , consisting of 

the Space Shuttle, Spacelab, and an upper stage, is 

intended to provide routine, less expensive access 

to space for a wide variety of payloads, including 

those accompanied by their scientist operators. 

With the Space Transportation System scheduled 

to be in operation by 1980, the organizational 

structure, development of the ground-support 

equipment, and the operatioiial planning are Amost complete. 

In addition to planning NASA and DoD inissions, NASA has been negotiating launch agreements with such domestic and foreign commercial 

organizations as Comsat, Western Union, and 

‘I‘elesat/Canada to launch communications satellites. With these commitments and the government’s own requirements, cargo manifests have 

been developed for the first few years of Shuttle 

operations. Shuttle flights are now fully booked 

for 1980-1981. 

There has been an intensive preparation for operational flights, scheduled to begin in mid-1980. 

A user’s handbook has been published; user charge 

policies have been issued, establishing firm fixed 

prices for DoD, civilian U.S. government, and coniinercial users, including price lists for both standard and optional services. All users are guaranteed 

a firm fixed price during the early years of STS operation, subject only to adjustments for inflation. 

The objective is to encourage maximum use of the 

system by all classes of users while ensuring that 

NASA recovers operating costs over a reasonable 

period of time. Within that framework, special discounts are offered users who are willing to share 

flights or to fly on a “standby” basis. DoD will be 

charged less because there will be an exchange of 

launch and support services between the NASA 

facility at Kennedy Space Center and the Air Force 

f;icility at Vandenberg Air Force Rase in California. 

Acting within the bilateral agreement signed in 

hlay 1977 by the U.S. and U.S.S.R. continuing 

space cooperation for another five years, NASA 

representatives met in Moscow in November with 

Soviet technical people to examine experiments 

that might fit the format of a long-duration 

mission featuring the U.S. Space Shuttle and the 

Soviet Salyut space station. Representatives of the 

two nations were to meet three more times in 1978 

(in April, July, and October) to complete the 

evaluation of experiments and to develop a prograin to be recommended to their governments for 

considera tion. 

Particularly encouraging has been the enthusiastic response from American industry, educational institutions, and private individuals in response to NASA’s offer to fly small. self-contained 

payloads on a space-available basis for $10,000 or 

less. By the end of 1977 advance payments for more 

than 150 payloads had been received from industry, 

educational institutions, and individuals specifying 

their intentions to fly experiments on the Shuttle. 

It is hoped that many of these experiments will 

contain innovative ideas from small businesses and 

individual researchers who for the first time will 
have the chance to test their ideas in the space environment at a cost they can afford. 

Operations planning kept pace with the technical developments-technical and business management, procedures for integrated operations, and 

crew training. Since NASA’s astronaut corps was 

not large enough to cope with the projected number of yearly Shuttle flights, NASA solicited applications for additional flight crew positions, including 

the new mission specialist categories. More than 

20,000 persons requested forms and more than 8000 

applications were received and processed for final 

selection in 1978. 

Space Shuttle Life Science. A high-fidelity inockup of the Space ShuttIe/Spacelab combination was 

the scene of a demonstration test, conducted as a 

seven-day, single-shift Shuttle flight. The threeman crew performed 26 life-science experiments 

and 12 operational tests. Animals were used extensively in the tests. The crew, consisting of a 

mission specialist and two payload specialists, remained isolated in the mockup for the entire test, 

supported by “ground” flight control and payload 

operations staff. Six developmental flight laboratory items, produced and made available for this 

test, provided environmental control, waste management, animal handling, and feeding devices. 

The first model of a new, higher pressure spacesuit for astronaut use outside the Shuttle is now 

undergoing tests within NASA. Designed to afford 

greater mobility and to cost less to make, it offers 

adjustments in size for fitting of most people by 

modular selection of arms, legs, and torsos. 

Preparing for Space Shuttle operations, NASA 

developed medical standards tailored to the individual crew and passenger responsibilities. Space 

medical standards for selection of Astronauts 

(Class I), Astronaut Mission Specialists (Class 11) , 

and Payload Specialists/Passengers (Class 111) were 

published. These are the most concise and up-todate occupational medical guidelines in existence. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

During 1977 the expendable launch vehicles 

continued to provide transportation services to a 

variety of users, though marked by three launch 

failures, of which 1 had partial success, placing a 

satellite in elliptical rather than synchronous orbit. Of the total of 16 launches in the year, 12 

were for the several categories of customers who 

reimburse NASA for the cost of the launch vehicle 

and the support and launch services. 

Scout. The single launch of this vehicle system 

was of a Navy navigation satellite in October from 

the Western Test Range, California. 

Delta. The most used of the vehicle systems, 

Delta had 10 launches this year, 8 of them successful: communications satellites for NATO, Japan, 

and Indonesia; a research communications satellite 

for Italy; a meteorological satellite for Japan and 

one for NOAA; three satellites for the European 

Space Agency; and a NASA scientific Explorer 

satellite. Of the two failures, the first was in April 

during the launch of the European Space Agency’s 

GEOS mission, when the separation device between 

the second and third stages of the launch vehicle 

failed. This prevented the satellite from attaining 

synchronous orbit; it did go into a highly elliptical orbit, from which it is meeting about 70 percent 

of its mission objectives. After an investigation and 

corrective actions, the next three launches were 

successes. 

The second Delta failure occurred on September 

13, 1977, during another European Space Agency 

launch, this time an Orbital Test Satellite experimental communications satellite on a Delta 3914- 

series vehicle. The Delta had a catastrophic failure, 

exploding approximately 54 seconds after launch. 

The review board’s investigation indicated that the 

probable cause was failure of one of the Castor 

IV strap-on solid motors. Since then, Deltas using 

smaller Castor I1 solid motors were given clearance 

to launch the NASA-European Space Agency scientific explorers ISEE-A and B, a European Space 

Agency meteorological satellite, and a communications satellite for Japan. 

A tlar-Centaur. Three launches used AtlasCentaur vehicles: two Intelsat communications 

satellites for the Comsat Corporation and a NASA 

scientific high-energy astronomy satellite (HEAO 

1). On one of the Intelsat launches, conducted in 

September, the booster failed approximately 54 

seconds after launch, causing the vehicle to tumble, 

the Atlas stage to explode just after separation 

from the Centaur stage, and the Centaur stage to 

be destroyed by the range safety officer. Probable 

cause of failure was a ruptured line in the hot gas 

generator that drives the turbopumps on the two 

Atlas outboard booster engines. This caused a fire 

in the engine section. 

Titan ZZZ-Centaur. The largest of the vehicle 

systems successfully launched Voyager 1 and 2 on 

two boosters in August and September. These were 

the last missions now scheduled to be launched by 

this vehicle combination. 

Aduamced Studies 

NASA continued to conduct advanced studies on 

the feasibility and trade-offs between various new 

projects or program extensions, to provide both 

focus to long-range planning and a data base for 

25 
informed decision making. A major study looked 

at extended-duration missions of the Shuttle with 

Spacelab. Options which appeared feasible were: 

an evolutionary approach to large-scale space 

operations in which capabilities being developed in the Space Transportation System 

could be augmented by a small electric-power 

module (25 kilowatts) to supplement the 

Shuttle’s power system. Later this module could 

be increased in size so that the Shuttle could 

support communications, materials processing, 

and assembly of large structures in orbit, leading eventually to a space construction base. 

Approaches were defined for fabricating and 

assembling large structures in space, for developing orbital operations, and for deploying 

large antennas. Also included was a study of 

reboosting and reusing Skylab, the space station that has been in orbit since 1973. 

0 future Space Transportation System requirements through the year 2000 included a capability for orbit transfer well in excess of what 

the Inertial Upper Stage could provide. For 

example, extending manned flight to geosynchronous orbit would call for a large orbittransfer vehicle with payload capability from 

5 to 10 times that of the Inertial Upper Stage. 

For unmanned cargo transfer, solar-electric ion 

propulsion was investigated. 

For long-range planning purposes, an analysis is 

underway to set feasible goals and determine technology needs for future commercial use of the space 

environment, with emphasis on worthwhile objectives for space industrialization. 

Space Research and Technology 

NASA’s work in space research and technology 

provides advanced technology for future space 

missions. The principal areas of study include materials and structures; guidance, control, and information systems; space propulsion systems; and 

space energy systems. Although intended for use 

in space, some of the technology has applications 

on Earth as well. 

Materials and Structures 

Research in materials and structures provides 

technology advances for reliable, long-life, lightweight structural materials for building spacecraft 

and large orbiting space structures. These advances 

could save operational costs and increase payload 

capability for future space missions. 

Materials. In thermal protection for re-entry 

spacecraft, a reusable insulation material has been 

developed with improved strength, wear, and impact resistance. This material was selected for use 

on the Space Shuttle for those areas subject to 

wear, such as around doors and ports. 

A new thermal control coating was developed in 

1977. Known as “second surface mirror,” the coating has a diffuse surface which, by eliminating 

glare, prevents secondary thermal buildup and improves temperature control; it also saves weight 

over previous materials used. Because of these advantages, it was selected for use on the thermal 

control radiators in the Space Shuttle, which are 

located inside the payload-bay doors. This type of 

coating will find many uses in spacecraft of the 

future. 

Structures. As part of an effort to save weight in 

future space systems, composite structures made of 

a graphite-polyimide combination are being developed that can withstand temperatures 150°C 

higher than existing composites. During 1977, four 

polyimide materials were identified as having potential for use as structural materials at a temperature of 315°C for as many as 500 re-entry cycles. 

Techniques for fabricating structures made of 

these materials are being developed so that a typical control surface can be constructed and tested; 

if it verifies the predictions of structural integrity, 

the reduction in weight is estimated to be 28 

percent. 

Guidance, Control, and information Systems 

NASA’s work in guidance, control, and information systems in 1977 was designed to develop a 

technology base that would permit a 1000-fold increase in availability to the user of space-derived 

information, and reduce by an order of magnitude 

the cost of mission operations by stepping up the 

level of autonomous operations in spacecraft 

systems. 

Sensing and Detection. The first linear chargecoupled sensor array that can image in the nearinfrared region of the spectrum has been designed 

for remote sensing of Earth’s and other planets’ environments. The device achieves signal processing 

in real time directly on the same chip as the 

imager and significantly reduces weight and size 

as well as power needs. 

Guidance and Control. Pursuing the cost advantages of increased automation, NASA this year 

completed demonstration of a robot that combines 

and coordinates the functions of vision, locomotion, and manipulation. The speed at which this 

robot can process TV images was increased by more 

than an order of magnitude with improved computer techniques and the design of a unique visual 

memory system. 

26 
Data Reduction and Distribution. Work continued on the improvement of software tools and 

techniques that interface user software programs 

and applications computers. A breadboard for a 

compiler writer system that can translate a user‘s 

program into proven machine software in near-real 

time was developed this year. When operational, 

this system promises to reduce the cost of translation significantly. 

Space Propulsion Systems 

NASA’s work in space propulsion seeks to advance liquid, solid, and heat-electric propulsion so 

that future Earth-orbital missions and planetary 

explorations can have increased performance at 

reduced costs. 

Liquid Propulsion. Testing of components for a 

small, reusable, high-performance engine burning 

oxygen and hydrogen-designed for use in future 

reusable orbital-transfer vehicles-was a notable 

milestone in 1977. A thrust-chamber assembly, with 

a 400-to-1 nozzle area ratio, was successfully tested 

under simulated vacuum conditions. The specific 

impulse measured 478 seconds, the highest known 

value ever recorded for these propellants. 

Solid Propulsion. Significant progress was made 

in demonstrating heat-sterilizable propellants for 

solid rocket motors that could launch payloads 

from the surface of planets. Propellant charges as 

large as 71 centimeters in diameter (260 kilograms 

of propellant) survived the Viking sterilimtion requirement of 6 cycles of 54 hours each at 135°C. 

This capability is being extended to larger diameter motors. 

Electric Propulsion. Substantial progress occurred in the developdent of ion thrusters for 

both low-energy-level applications-such as station-keeping of geosynchronous satellites-and the 

higher energy levels of primary propulsion for 

planetary exploration. The station-keeper version4.5 millinewtons of thrust-successfully completed 

a 10-cycle thermal vacuum test and an acceleratedcycle life test (5000 cycles). The primary ion 

thruster (130 millinewtons of thrust) is targeted 

to a FY 1980 technology readiness standard to be 

applied to planetary exploration. One element is 

the development of the power processing systems 

that take raw power coming from the solar arrays 

and convert it into the currents and voltages 

needed to run the ion thrusters. Development versions of these power processors have been fabricated and tested. 

Space Energy Systems 

NASA’s research in space energy systems improves the longevity and efficiency of energy systems and tries to reduce their cost. The associated 

technology tries to meet the growing need for 

energy in space, with some spin-off for applications 

on Earth. 

Solar Cells and Arrays. Solar cell technology 

achieved a major advance in 1977 with pilot production of a solar cell five times thinner and lighter 

than those now in use in space. Secondary benefits 

from these thin solar cells are reduced fragility and 

the potential for lower cost since less silicon material is needed. As for solar arrays, a large step 

toward demonstrating the feasibility of lightweight 

solar arrays was the successful zero-g testing, using 

:t KC-13.5 aircraft, of the root section of a 66-wattper-kilogram solar array. 

Chemical Energy Conversion and Storage. A 

silver-hydrogen battery, a blend of the technologies 

of the silver-zinc battery and the hydrogen-oxygen 

fuel cell, has completed testing in simulated geosynchronous orbit. This prototype represents a potenti.al for halving battery weight. 

Having demonstrated the basic conipatability of 

the reactants-hydrogen and oxygen-in this new 

role, the technology offers promise that, since the 

same reactants are being used both for propulsion 

and power, the weight savings from elimination of 

redundant tankage and reserve fuel can he 

significant. 

Thei-?iial-to-Electric Conversion. Under a joint 

program with the Department of Energy, NASA 

has developed and delivered rotating units and 

recuperators for a 500-2000-watt Rrayton power system powered by radioiostope. Longevity of the rotating machinery has been the major technical 

limitation of Brayton conversion systems. In addressing this concern, a larger (10 kilowatt) Brayton unit has logged over 30,000 hours of endurance 

testing and will continue toward a goal of 50,000 

hours. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

Tracking and data acquisition represent the crucial links that return data to Earth for analysis 

and exploitation. These activities include tracking 

space vehicles for position and trajectory, receiving 

and processing science and engineering telemetry, 

transmitting commands to automated spacecraft, 

and providing voice communications for manned 

mission. 

The bulk of those services are provided by the 

facilities of NASA’s two worldwide tracking networks. The Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network is specialized to support all Earth-orbital 

missions. The Deep Space Network is designed and 

engineered to support planetary and interplanetary 

27 
missions at great distances from Earth. A NASA 

Communications System, employing a variety of 

communications links from simple land telephone 

lines to satellite relays, connects these facilities to 

provide instantaneous information flow between 

the spacecraft, the ground stations, and the project 

control centers. 

Operational Activities 

Throughout the year the networks continued to 

support more than 50 Earth-orbital spacecraft and 

some 14 interplanetary missions. This includes 

tracking and telemetry launch support that was 

provided to other government agencies, to commercial owners, and to a host of international cooperative and foreign missions, on a reimbursable 

basis. Sometimes post-launch support was provided 

as well. 

Support of the Iltternrttional Cornmultity 

In 1977 telemetry and tracking support were 

provided to the European Space Agency’s Meteosat 

weather spacecraft, several Japanese weather and 

communications satellites, and the Italian Sirio 

mission. Post-launch support normally involves 

maneuvering the spacecraft from its initial orbit 

into geosynchronous orbit and drifting the satellite 

to the desired geostationary position once in synchronous orbit. Then operational control is returned to the owner in a series of graduated steps 

for a smooth transition of the control function with 

little risk to continuing operational reliability. 

Network Progress 

Data Processing Improvements. At the Goddard 

Space Flight Center, important improvements were 

made in 1977 to the large-scale, common-purpose 

data processing facilities and the mission control 

centers for automated Earth-orbital spacecraft. A 

new telemetry processing system eliminates tape 

recording of data received at each station; data 

now enter a mass storage system directly from 

communications lines. This eliminates the delay 

for recording and the delay involved in shipping 

the tapes from the stations to the control center. 

Also the data are cataloged automatically as they 

are stored, avoiding another tape recording. With 

these improvements, much greater volumes of data 

can be processed and delivery of data to the experimenter is quicker. 

Control Center Improvements. A new capability 

in mission control will take effect early in 1978 

when the control room for the International Ultraviolet Explorer is activated. For the first time the 

participating scientist will be able to manipulate 

a spaceborne telescope just as if he were in a 

ground observatory. Now undergoing test and 

checkout, this unique facility enables the investigator to select the star he wishes to observe; a 

computer complex will generate commands, relay 

them to the spacecraft through the ground stations, and point the telescope to the desired star, 

all automatically. Not only is this popular with 

the scientist, but with him in the control loop, 

ixpid, flexible response is possible when confronted 

with unexpected results or brief phenomena. 

Deep Space Network Improvement. Capabilities 

of the Deep Space Network were improved by the 

completion of a number of modifications that reduced the noise generated by the antenna systems 

themselves. Antennas must be extremely sensitive 

to pick up spacecraft transmissions from hundreds 

of millions of miles away. In this situation the 

noise generated by the antennas themselves is a 

major component of the interference that must be 

overcome if we are to communicate with distant 

spacecraft and navigate them across vast distances. 

In addition the conversion of the 26-meter antennas to x-band frequencies began in 1977. X-band 

will enable satellites to transmit data at higher 

rates-and therefore return more data-than they 

can on S-band. The first of these dual-frequency 

antennas will be ready by late 1978 to assist in the 

simultaneous handling of the Pioneer Venus mission and the Jupiter encounters of the Voyager 

spacecraft. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA support of research and development in 

the field of energy includes reimbursed support to 

the Department of Energy and other agencies, and 

definition and understanding of ways in which 

space technology may be used to help solve energy 

needs on Earth. The reimbursed activity in 1977 

amounted to nearly $100 million and 400 equivalent man-years of effort from several NASA centers. 

‘The definition activity was largely funded by 

NASA. 

Solar Heating and Cooling 

NASA contributes to the development of systems for the National Solar Heating and Cooling 

Program and provides contract management and 

technical support for the commercial demonstration part of that program. NASA also participates 

in a joint program with the Department of Energy 

to install solar equipment on buildings in NASA 

centers. 
Improved solar heating components and systems 

are now being integrated into 45 operational test 

sites throughout the U.S. to test capabilities and 

performance in a wide variety of climatic zones. 

Seventeen of the 45 systems were completed in 1977. 

Prototypes of advanced cooling systems are being 

tested at three locations. These systems are a major 

step toward cost-effective solar cooling of singlefamily residences. The first of these Rankinecycle systems will be installed in a test building by 

mid-1978. Also, 10 buildings at 6 NASA centers 

in California, Texas, Alabama, Florida, and Virginia will be equipped with solar heating systems 

by mid-1978. 

Wind Turbine Generators 

The 100-kilowatt wind turbine (MOD-0) dedicated two years ago at NASA’s Plum Brook Station 

near Sandusky, Ohio, has undergone extensive 

testing. Early technical difficulties were overcome 

in 1977 and the machine now operates automatically, delivering power to the local utility company 

whenever the wind exceeds 11 kilometers per hour. 

Another machine, similar but rated at 200 kilowatts, will begin operation at Clayton, New Mexico, early in 1978. Two more of this model will be 

installed next year at Culebra, Puerto Rico, and 

Block Island, Rhode Island. Design and construction of two much larger machines was begun in 

1977. 

Photovoltaics (Soh Cells) 

As part of the Department of Energy’s National 

Photovoltaic Conversion Program, work continued 

on the Low-Cost Silicon Solar Array Project at 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Test 

and Applications Project at NASA’s Lewis Research Laboratory. The first project develops technologies to reduce the cost and increase the lifetime of arrays. The Lewis project experiments with 

a variety of applications intended to stimulate nearterm commercial use. 

Satellite Power Systems 

A joint study by the Department of Energy and 

NASA is under way, to develop by the end of 1980 

a first understanding of technical feasibility, economic viability, and social and environmental 

acceptability of the Satellite Power Systems concept. The Department of Energy will manage the 

effort and assess the economic, environmental, and 

social aspects in comparison with other energy 

alternatives. NASA will focus on technical issues, 

attempting to define the systems to the depth necessary to assess technical feasibility and thereby provide a baseline for the studies by the Department 

of Energy. 

Aeronautical Research and Technology 

NASA’s aeronautical research is aimed at (1) 

improving the energy efficiency of aircraft, (2) reducing aircraft noise and emission pollution, (3) 

improving aviation safety and terminal-area operations, (4) advancing long-haul and short-haul aircraft, and (5) providing technical support to the 

military to maintain the performance superiority 

of military aircraft. 

Improving the Energy Efliciewcy of Aircraft 

The Aircraft Energy Efficiency program, begun 

in 1976, has as its goal the development of new 

technology that can reduce fuel consumption of 

future transport aircraft by up to 50 percent 

t Iirough advances in engine systems, aerodynamics 

jind active controls, and structures. 

Engine Systems. Fy improving engine components in current engines, NASA intends not only 

to reduce fuel consumption but to minimize deterioration of performance in current and future derivative turbofan engines. During 1977 work was 

begun on redesign of fan blades and improving the 

high-pressure turbine seals; improvements in these 

components could reduce specific fuel consumption by about 2.5 percent. Research on seal flow 

effectiveness has led to design of a better seal configuration to reduce leakage and thereby reduce 

tiel consumption when the seals are used on components throughout the engine. 

Components identified for further development 

in 1978 include incorporating new materials and 

manufacturing processes, more efficient cooling, reduced leakage, improved bearings, and improved 

component aerodynamics. 

NASA also explored in 1977 the technology required for a next-generation turbofan engine that 

significantly reduces specific fuel consumption-by 

approximately 15 percent less than current highbypass-ratio engines. Work has begun on the advanced components-fans, compressors, combustors, 

and turbines. 

Aerodynamics and Actiue Controls. Testing in 

wind tunnels provided basic data on the aerodynamic performance of the supercritical wing for 

potential application to the design of future transport aircraft. Over 1000 hours in the wind tunnel 

were devoted to testing the effects of varying the 

wing aspect ratio, camber and sweep, and the configuration of the wing control surfaces. Items iden- 
tified for additional wind-tunnel testing are winglets, propulsion system integration, and active controls for alleviating wing loading. Work has begun 

on applying active controls and aerodynamic improvement, singly or coupled, to future transport 

aircraft. Baseline flights were begun in 1977 with a 

Lockheed Ll0ll aircraft equipped with an active 

control system. 

Work in laminar Bow control has focused on 

achieving a practical wing structure of minimum 

structural weight by integrating the flow-suction 

system with the primary structure. Wind-tunnel 

tests of a full-scale wing model having a 6-meter 

chord and a supercritical cross-section confirmed 

that laminar flow could be achieved with a wing 

design representative of a future transport aircraft. 

Research was conducted on the aerodynamic 

problem caused by the buildup of dead insects on 

the leading edge of an aircraft wing in flight. The 

results of the flight tests at locations throughout the 

U.S. demonstrated that a water spray on a Tefloncoated leading edge of a wing would eliminate 

boundary-layer transition from laminar to turbulent Bow otherwise caused by the layer of insects. 

Structures. So that performance predictions and 

manufacturing processes can be validated, NASA is 

developing and ground-testing six components of 

existing transport aircraft; these components have 

been made from advanced composite materials up 

to 30 percent lighter than metal. Ten upper aft 

rudders for the DC-IO were produced from coinposite materials in 1977. The second component, 

the vertical fin on the LlOll aircraft, completed its 

critical design review and entered design verification testing. Experience to date indicates that, 

when produced in sufficient quantities, the composite components will compare favorably in cost 

with their metal counterparts. 

Redzccing Undesirable Environmental Eflects 

Emissions Reduction. Work on experimental 

clean combustors, seeking to reduce the exhaust 

emissions from large turbine engines during landing and takeoff, has been completed. Emission 

levels were significantly below those of conventional engine combustors and comparable to the 

emission standards set for 1979 by the Environmental Protection Agency. The experimental data 

are being used by the Environmental Protection 

Agency in evaluating emission-level standards for 

all future engine classes. 

Work has begun on a program to reduce aircraft 

emission during stratospheric cruise. Concepts for 

fuel preparation and combustors are being sought 

which can reduce emissions of oxides of nitrogen 

at the power settings and atmospheric conditions 

of high-altitude flight. Such a reduction would reduce the possibility of destruction of atmospheric 

ozone. Laboratory tests in other studies have indicated that enriching fuel with hydrogen during 

fuel preparation is a concept which permits leaner 

fuel/air burning and thus reduces the formation 

of oxides of nitrogen. 

Aircraft Noise Reduction. One type of low-level 

nozzle being investigated is the inverted-velocityprofile nozzle. In this configuration the high velocity of the jet occurs in the outer region rather than 

at the center as in the conventional bypass exhaust 

systems. Combinations of inverted-velocity-profile 

nozzles and advanced multi-element mechanical 

suppressors were tested in wind tunnels in varying 

arrangements in 1977. Preliminary analysis of the 

data suggests that such sequences can prove fruitful in reducing high-velocity ,jet noise. 

Significant progress was also made in iindei,- 

standing of sound attenuation, propagation, and 

radiation from the engine inlet ducts. A new technique was developed which will aid in the rapid, 

efficient design of acoustic liners for ducts. The 

method accurately describes the far-field sound 

radiation pattern from ducts with far greater simplicity than was previously thought possible. An 

advanced bulk linear material was demonstrated in 

an integrated engine nacelle; it provides high 

acoustic efficiency with savings in weight. 

In the study of human response to aircraft noise, 

a major effort has been to improve the bases for 

relating laboratory findings to community responses. Several studies to improve the noise discriptor for specific types of aircraft have been completed. Critical aspects of the human stimuli in 

helicopter and supersonic aircraft noise have been 

identified. The data are being used in the development of national and international noise standards. 

In structural acoustics, development was begun 

of improved prediction methods for the transmission, absorption, and reflection of noise in airframe materials and structural configurations. Recent results show that structural weight requirements for noise attenuation may be reduced by as 

much as 50 percent by advanced design techniques. 

Improved Safety and Terminal-Area Operations 

Safety. Aircraft fires, either in-flight or postcrash, are among the serious threats to occupants 

of aircraft. NASA is exploring several ways of controlling the propagation and intensity of fires. 

Through thermochemical modeling, NASA resrarchers have provided a useful analytical tool 

for guiding materials designers in structuring 

panels and cabin liners in ways that will in- 
hibit flammability, rapid spread of fire, and the 

amount of smoke and toxic gas. New materials 

have been developed which offer potential gains in 

resistance to fires. Fire-resistant polyimide foams are 

being examined for possible use in seat cushions, 

one of the main sources of smoke and flame in aircraft cabin fires. 

In a crash, a major link between the ignition 

sources-hot parts of the engine, electrical shorts, 

friction sparks-and a fire is the fuel-mist cloud that 

is generated by rupture of fuel tanks and lines 

when the aircraft crashes. NASA is applying basic 

chemistry in the study of aircraft fuel treated with 

small amounts of high-molecular-weight polymer 

additives; test results indicate that these additives 

inhibit the formation of fuel mist in crash situations. 

Aircraft safety can also be improved if the persons who work in or use the national aviation system feel responsible and secure in reporting threats 

to safety which they have observed. In an effort to 

provide a buffer between the regulatory agency and 

these individuals, NASA has for the last two years 

operated the Aviation Safety Reporting System, in 

which complaints are submitted to it, synthesized, 

and worthwhile data are passed on to the Federal 

Aviation Administration for appropriate action. 

The system continues to be well supported by the 

aviation community, with more than 8000 reports 

submitted. Many of the reports have identified immediate safety problems; over 400 bulletins have 

been forwarded to the Federal Aviation Administration for investigation and corrective action. This 

year the emphasis has been on developing a computerized data base, from which it will be possible 

to analyze in detail the more pervasive safety problems. 

TerminaGArea Operations. All-weather use of 

helicopters can be a major factor in future transportation. To fit them into the total pattern of terminal-area operations, helicopters must be equipped 

with flight and navigation instruments that 

will enable them to fly precisely prescribed flight 

paths to small landing pads while maintaining the 

required separation from other aircraft in the traffic 

flow in and out of the airports. Since helicopters 

have vastly different flight characteristics than 

other aircraft and impose a greater workload on 

pilots, their equipment and operating techniques 

cannot be mere spinoffs from conventional aircraft 

systems. NASA has successfully demonstrated operating systems and piloting techniques for safe 

operation of helicopters in adverse weather and in 

congested terminal areas. These demonstrations include some 60 manual approaches to landing, using 

cockpit displays providing the pilot with information that enables him to perform complex approach 

trajectories in low visibility; they also include 30 

fully automatic (hands-off) landings. 

In cooperation with the Federal Aviation Administration, NASA is developing technology for advanced airborne systems and flight procedures that 

can improve terminal operations through effective 

use of advanced navigation, guidance, and communications systems being developed by the Federal Aviation Administration. One such system is 

the Microwave Landing System, a precision guidance system designed to replace the 35-year-old Instrument Landing System. A 737 aircraft, with display, navigation, and flight control systems representing the first application of all-digital systems to 

conventional transport aircraft, has demonstrated 

coupled approaches and automatic landings with 

the Microwave Landing System. The purpose of 

these flights was to demonstrate to representatives 

of the Organization of American States the maturity and integrity of the U.S. Microwave Landing 

System as a candidate for the new international 

precision-guidance landing system. 

Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft 

Long-Haul. Several significant advances have 

been made in identifying advanced technology for 

supersonic transport that are economically attractive and environmentally acceptable. The standard 

technique for tailoring the size of subsonic transports from a basic design to fit other range and 

payload demands was to lengthen or shorten the 

fuselage. This approach was found not to apply to 

supersonic transports with their highly integrated 

and blended wing/fuselage designs. This year the 

U.S. applied for a patent on a new concept which 

involves lateral fuselage changes to provide wider 

or narrower cross sections for the cabin area of 

supersonic transports. Also flight research with the 

YF-12 aircraft demonstrated for the first time that 

improved high-speed handling and ride qualities 

were achievable with a cooperative control system, 

which integrated aircraft, inlet, and engine controls. In ground-based research, structures made of 

superplastically formed titanium were tested, as 

were low-speed aerodynamic improvements for 

noise reduction and the verification of coannularnozzle acoustic suppression for concepts of the 

variable-cycle engines. 

Quiet Propulsive-Lift Technology. In August 

1977 the inflight measurements on the Boeing YC14 and the Douglas YC-15 aircraft were completed 

as part of the test and evaluation of the USAF 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport prototype aircraft. Now being compared with analytical estimates and ground-test data to develop improved 

31 
design techniques for future transports, these 

measurements included thermal and acoustic environment on the wing flap systems, interior and 

flyover noise, engine-inlet acoustics, and handling 

qua li ties. 

The Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft made 

substantial progress in 1977 with the completion 

of fabrication, assembly, and installation of the 

new propulsive-lift wing, new engine nacelles, and 

fuselage modifications. Scheduled for delivery to 

NASA in 1978, this aircraft will be used to validate 

in flight the design and operational technology 

needed by the US. aviation industry to develop 

quiet short-takeoff-and-landing transports and by 

Federal regulatory agencies to establish appropriate 

certification standards. 

Technical Support to the Militmy 

The support by NASA of military programs advances broad-based technology for use by the military in developing future generations of military 

aircraft. 

Stall-Spin Reseurch. Investigation of stalls and 

spins has proceeded for several years because of the 

undesirable departure and spin characteristics of 

modern fighter aircraft. Losses from spin-related 

xccidents have averaged 70 aircraft and 38 airmen 

per year. NASA’s Langley Kesearch Center, in cooperation with the USAF, has contributed to the 

reversal of this trend through its research in aerodynamics and control systems. The F-15, F-16, and 

F-17 aircraft are highly spin-resistant as a result of 

this research. Currently the aerodynamics and control systems of the F-18 are being tailored to provide a high degree of resistance to spin. Basic research on nose shapes for aircraft is seeking design data on spin resistance to be used early in 

the design cycle of future fighter aircraft. 

Airframe/Propulsion System Interactions. The 

very large turbofan engines being used in modern 

fighter aircraft have caused propulsion aerodynamics to react with the aerodynamics of the airframe for a larger effect on performance than in 

previous designs. NASA has used the F-15 in flight 

tests and models of the aircraft in wind-tunnel 

measurements to provide data for designers of 

future aircraft, enabling them to optimize performance by including the effects of propulsionsystem aerodynamics in their basic design. 

NASA/Military Flight Programs. The joint 

NASAjAir Force Highly Maneuverable Aircraft 

Technology program has moved to the point where 

the prime contractor has fabricated parts for the 

two flight vehicles and is now in final assembly, 

with delivery of the first vehicle planned for early 

in 1978. The NASA/Air Force Transonic Aircraft 

Technology program has been completed and its 

data are available to the industry, showing windtunnel-to-flight correlation for supercritical wings. 

NASA and the Air Force have two joint helicopter-research programs: the Rotor Systems Research Aircraft and the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. The first of these has completed its initial 

operational checkout flights and is being readied 

for research flight testing, using both the rotor system and wings for lift. The Tilt Rotor Research 

Aircraft has finished its initial hover flight tests and 

is now in the ground-test program that precedes the 

full-scale wind-tunnel tests and the first transition 

flight. 

32 
Department of Defense 

Introduction 

Department of Defense aeronautics and space 

developmental activities are fundamental to national security. Aeronautical activities support the 

national defense role in terms of tactical and strategic aircraft and cruise missiles, airborne early 

warning, ground and ocean surveillance, amphibious and ground/air assault mobility, and air mobile command, control, and communications. Space 

activities support the national defense role in terms 

of mission support for communications, navigation, 

weather and ocean forecasting, and surveillance. 

Space Activities 

Space Systems and Programs 

Military Satellite Communications Activities. Defense requirements for satellite communications 

call for three categories of service: (1) high-capacity, long haul trunking (point-to-point communications) , (2) modera,te-capacity mobile-user service, 

and (3) strategic-force command and control. 

Military communication links, including those 

using satellites, must have an anti-jam capability 

which civil systems do not need, so that hostile 

enemy activity cannot degrade our military satellite communication systems. In the near term these 

services are satisfied by (1) the Defense Satellite 

Communications System, Phase I1 (DSCS 11) , (2) 

the Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM) plus leased services on the maritime 

satellite (Marisat), and (3) the Air Force Satellite 

Communications System (AFSATCOM), consisting 

of the Satellite Data System (SDS) , FLTSATCOM, 

and other host satellites. At varying times in the 

future, these near-term systems will be replaced 

by (1) the DSCS 111, (2) the General Purpose 

Satellite Communications System (GPSCS) , and 

(3) the Strategic Satellite System (SSS). Each of 

these military satellite communications programs 

will be described in more detail. 

DEFENSE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. 

The primary mission of the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) is to provide rapid, 

reliable, and secure satellite communications for 

the National Command Authorities and to contribute to the Worldwide Military Command and 

Control System. The system has provided exceptional communications support to the National 

Command Authorities. 

The initial research and development phase of 

the Defense Communications Satellite Program 

provided a limited operational system from 1966 

through 1974. The space subsystem currently consists of four operational spacecraft: two DSCS I1 

satellites (numbers 7 and 8) launched in May 1977 

and deployed over the Atlantic and Western 

Pacific Oceans, DSCS I1 satellite (number 4) 

launched in December 1973 and recently moved 

from the western Pacific to the Indian Ocean, and 

NATO IIIB obtained on loan for temporary use 

over the eastern Pacific Ocean. A dual launch of 

DSCS I1 satellites (numbers 9 and 10) is scheduled 

for March 1978 to replace the Indian Ocean satellite and the NATO IIIB satellite, which must be 

returned to NATO in accordance with the temporary loan agreement. DSCS I1 satellite numbers 

11 and 12 will be available for dual launch in 

November 1978. In addition, the Air Force has 

contracted for four additional, higher powered 

DSCS I1 satellites (number I3 through 16) to replenish the DSCS space segment in 1979-1980. 

Ground terminals for DSCS are provided by the 

Army. During 1977, a total of seven new terminals 

with 19-meter antenna reflectors became available 

for operational use. Additional digital modulation 

equipment procured by the Army represents progress toward an all-digital system. 

The next generation of DSCS satellites will be 

DSCS 111 models. A contract was awarded in 1977 

for the development of one qualification model 

and two R&D flight models. The first R&D satellite 

(DSCS IIIA) is scheduled for launch in mid-1979 

for about one year of R&D test and evaluation. The 

second R&D satellite (DSCS IIIB) is scheduled 

33 
for launch in mid-1980 for about a six-month test 

peiiod. The DSCS 111 satellite will have multiple, 

independent transponders to efficiently handle both 

small and large terminals. Its communications 

channels will have improved anti-jam protection 

through the use of multiple-beam antennas capable 

of nulling or minimi7ing uplink jamming signals. 

In addition to the normal S-band tracking, telemetry, and command functions operated by the Air 

Force, the DCSC I11 satellite will have a superhigh-frequency (SHF) command capability, controlled operationally by the Defense Communications Agency. This capability will improve 

response time for controlling reconfigurations of 

communications channels. The satellite will conform to nuclear survivability guidelines and will 

have a design lifetime of about six years. Since the 

Space Shnttle will become operationally available 

during the life of the DSCS 111 program, the new 

satellite is being designed to be Shuttle-compatible. 

The SHF communications satellite requirements 

of the 1980s and beyond will be satisfied by the increased capability and flexibility of the DSCS I11 

satellite. 

FLEET SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. Moderate capacity, mobile-user service will be provided 

by the Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM) . Its objective is to develop, procure, and implement a satellite communications 

system to satisfy the most urgent, worldwide, tactical and strategic communications requirements of 

the U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force. Production contracts for the first thrce FLTSATCOM spacecraft 

have been awarded. The first launch is scheduled 

for early 1978. Installation of fleet broadcast receivers is virtually complete, with shipboard transceivers and information cxchange systems in ovei 

200 ships and 40 submarines. The third leased Marisat spacecraft became operational in 1977, thereby 

providing virtually woi ldwide UHF satellite communications. The shipboard terminal equipment 

will be operated through both the Marisat and 

FLTSATCOM systems. Installation of secuie voice 

shipboard terminals commenced in 1977. 

In the future, this class of service will bc 5atisfied by the General Purpose Satellite Communications System (GPSCS) to support mobile users of 

the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines. During 

1977, a joint program office was established for thc 

GPSCS. 

AIR FORCE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. 

The Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) System will provide command and control 

communications for strategic forces. The space segment includes UHF transponders on several spacecraft types, including FLTSATCOM and the Satellite Data System (SDS). 

'The AFSATCOM terminal segment will consist 

of airborne, mobile, and fixed terminals. Terminal 

deployment will begin in 1978. Planning for the 

concept for a Strategic Satellite System (SSS) as a 

follow-on to AFSATCOM is under way. 

ARMY SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS ACTIVITIES. 

The Army Satellite Communications Ground Environment includes the development of strategic 

and tactical satellite communications ground terminals for use by all services. Two major projects 

in this program element are the DSCS I1 and the 

Ground Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications Program. A third and smaller project in 

this program is devoted to the exploratory development required to support the two major projects. 

DEFENSE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 

SUPPORT. The US. Army has completed the modification of all existing DSCS ground terminals to 

upgrade their reliability and communications capacity. Two AN/FSC-78 terminals have been installed and are operational at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Seventcen more have been procured to satisfy 

the needs of the DSCS and, by the end of 1977, 

were installed worldwide. The contract for 21 AN/ 

MSC-61 medium terminals is scheduled to bc 

awarded by March 1, 1978. The AN/TSC-86 light 

transportable terminal contract was awarded September 30, 1977, for three terminals. A contract for 

an additional thee terminals was awarded on Octolxr SO, 1977. 

TACTICAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS. Several 

small SHF terminals have been under test sincc 

June 1975. These small terminals are now under 

contract for low-rate initial production. When 

fully deployed, those terminals will provide mobile, multi-channel communications for the 

ground mobile forces transmitting through thc 

DSCS satellites from the field. Engineering development has begun on a UHF manpack terminal 

and for a UHF vehicular terminal. 

The interim operational capability provided by 

the test models continues to support various contingencies and field exercises. Operational testing 

through the year has assisted in refining concepts 

for we of this significant transmission medium in 

support of combat readiness operations. 

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SPACE. The 

United States and the United Kingdom continued 

to operate under an agreement whereby the US. 

and the U.K. would exchange an essentially equivalent amount of satellite capability between U.S. 

DSCS and U.K. Skynet satellites, and to interoperate with each other's Earth terminals. 

The U.S., U.K., and NATO continued in agreement for a post-1975 communications satellite arrangement. The parties will exchange satellite 

34 
capacity during specified conditions and will allocate channels temporarily on a day-to-day basis 

when difficulties are experienced. 

As a result of an agreement signed in September 

1976 between the U.S. and NATO, the U.S. has 

had the exclusive use of the NATO IIIB satellite 

during 1977. This arrangement will continue until 

spring 1978. In return, the U.S. will provide NATO 

with equivalent DSCS satellite capacity at a time 

to be designated by NATO and agreed to by the 

us. 

Progress continues toward establishing the U.S.- 

U.S.S.R. Direct Communication Link, which uses 

satellite communication circuits via Intelsat and 

Molniya satellites. The link was created in accordance with the 1971 Strategic Arms Limitations 

Talks agreement between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. 

Since August 1976, the Molniya system has been usable 24 hours a day, and end-to-end testing continues, using both Intelsat and Molniya. 

Navigatiolz Satellite Activity 

The Navy Navigation Satellite System, referred 

to as Transit, achieved its twelfth year of operation 

in 1977. The purpose of developing Transit was 

to provide a worldwide, two-dimensional system for 

position fixing to an accuracy of better than one 

half of a kilometer-primarily in support of strategic ballistic missile submarines. Transit usage has 

been expanding, both militarily and commercially. 

It has been adapted to such diverse activities as 

offshore oil exploration and measurement of the 

drift of ice over the poles. The six satellites provide 

an opportunity for a user to take a position fix 

every two hours or less, depending upon the latitude. In October 1977, a modified Navy navigation 

satellite, was placed in orbit. In addition to navigation equipment, this Transit carries two specially 

instrumented transponders or radio relays called 

translators. These translators will be used to test 

a Trident Missile Tracking System (SATRACK) 

and to check out and calibrate range safety ground 

stations and equipment. 

Since the early 1970s, a Transit improvement 

program has been under way. The improved satellites will provide greater survivability, as well as a 

disturbance compensation system to adjust for orbital disturbances caused by solar radiation pressure and atmospheric drag. The first of these satellites is planned to be launched in the fall of 1979, 

the second in the spring of 1980. 

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System 

(GPS) is a joint service program to provide an 

increased capability for three-dimensional, highaccuracy, continuous, worldwide navigation. The 

operational NAVSTAR GPS will consist of 24 satellites in three orbital planes at 20,400 kilometers, a 

ground segment for calibration and control of the 

satellites, and 25,000 to 35,000 user equipments of 

various classes. The GPS will provide all-weather 

coverage using a common grid, enabling users to 

passively determine position to within 10 meters 

and velocity to within .03 meter per second. A 

lower cost receiver will provide less accurate inlormation (100-200 meters) suitable for most navigational purposes. The system may also be used to 

provide precise worldwide time transfer. 

NAVSTAR GPS is in the concept-validation 

phase. Six satellites will be launched by the end of 

1978. Development models of all classes of user 

equipment, including high-accuracy, low-cost, and 

man-pack models, will be extensively field tested. 

Navigation Technology Satellite Number 2 

(NTS 2), developed by the Naval Research Laboratory, was launched in June 1977. NTS 2 is principally a test bed for advanced frequency standards 

which are the key to the precise positioning capability of the NAVSTAR system. NTS 2 carries a 

navigation payload identical to that to be launched 

in 1978 in support of the system validation program. 

Defense Meteol-ological Satellite Program. The 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) 

continued to provide high-quality visual and infrared imagery and other specialized meteorological 

data to support military operations. The DMSP 

obtains weather data for the entire Earth four 

times a day, using two satellites in polar orbits. 

These weather data are stored aboard the satellites 

and later transmitted to Air Force Global Weather 

Central in Nebraska and the Fleet Numerical 

Weather Central in California. The imagery is also 

transmitted in real time to transportable read-out 

stations at key locations worldwide to support tactical operations. During 1977, the first of the new 

generation Block 5D satellites became operational, 

providing visual and infrared cloud cover imagery 

of heretofore unequalled quality. The second 

Block 5D satellite was launched into a dawn-dusk 

orbit and was declared operational in July 1977. In 

addition to imagery, both of these satellites provide 

high-quality vertical temperature and moisture 

profile data for the entire globe and provide precipitating electron counts from the auroral regions. 

The second of these satellites also provides data on 

the state of the ionosphere. 

A joint Air Force/Navy program was initiated in 

FY 1977 to develop and procure a four channel (19 

MHZ-94 MHZ) passive microwave imager for 

DMSP. The sensors will provide data on precipitation location, rate, and type; soil moisture; and on 

sea surface/atmosphere interface. Feasibility has 

35 

1 
been demonstrated by measurements conducted in 

1977 by the Naval Research Laboratory. Four of 

the sensors are planned for deployment on DMSP 

satellites in 1980-1984. DoD continued to cooperate with NASA and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration in development of 

the Tiros-N domestic weather satellite. The 

Tiros-N satellite will use an adaption of the 

DMSP Block 5D spacecraft but with different 

sensors. 

Space Shuttle. The Concept Validation Phase 

for the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) (formerly the 

Interim Upper Stage) development for Space Shuttle use is planned to be completed in February 

1978. This phase has defined four IUS configurations to meet the high-altitude mission requirements of the DoD and NASA. The Full Scale 

Development Phase of the IUS is planned to begin 

in March 1978. 

The Air Force acquisition efforts for a Shuttle 

launch and landing capability at Vandenberg Air 

Force Base, California, continue with definition of 

the facilities and support equipment requirements 

planned for completion during 1978. Design efforts 

for the planned facility construction in FY 1979 are 

well under way. The environmental statement associated with the planned construction activities 

has been released for public comment. 

Space Boosters. The DoD family of space boosters 

is comprised of the Atlas and Titan I11 standard 

launch vehicles and the surplus IRBM SM-75 Tho1 

and surplus ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles. These 

boosters launched 12 DoD space missions during 

1977: 5 Titan IIIs, 1 SM-75 Thor, 4 Atlas, 1 Scout, 

and 1 Delta (the Scout and Delta being launched 

by NASA for DoD) . To correct reliability deficiencies in the Titan 111, an effort to integrate the 

Inertial Upper Stage and its redundant avionics 

into the Titan I11 family of launch vehicles wa5 

initiated in June 1977. 

Space Test Program. The space test program provides spaceflight test and evaluation for DoD R&D 

experiments and certain operational spacecraft not 

authorized their own means for space flight. The 

two payloads flown in 1977 were the Navy Navigation Technology Satellite (NTS 2) and a geodetic 

package (NAVPAC), the first of three such geodetic satellites being placed in orbit. The remaining two NAVPAC’s are scheduled for FY 1978 

launch. 

Environmental experiments are to be flown on 

NASA’s Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) . The LDEF is a reusable, gravity-gradient-stabilized, 

free-flying structure on which many experiments 

can be mounted. It will be placed in orbit by the 

Shuttle and remain there for at least six months 

before being retrieved. This will allow the effects 

on materials to be tested. NASA agreed to assign 

at least four of the LDEF trays for DoD use on 

Orbital Flight Test No. 3. 

Space Research and Technology 

Space-related research and technology by the Department of Defense includes effort defining the 

space environment and assessing its effect on the 

performance of DoD systems operating within it. 

One program is to measure atmospheric density 

and composition by means of rocket observations 

and accelerometers on satellites. Another continued 

interest is the measurement and monitoring of 

charged particles and electric fields in space. Data 

from an earlier satellite (372-1) continue to be 

used for improving models of the particle population of the Earth’s Van Allen radiation belts. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) is developing concepts, designs, and 

technology for advanced strategic surveillance from 

space. New concepts in optics, detector arrays, and 

signal processing will provide a capability for a 

wider range of future mission options. The 

DARPA 301 gamma-ray spectroscopy project, to be 

launched in mid-1978, employs state-of-the-art intrinsic germanium sensors and newly developed 

long-lived mechanical cryogenic coolers for remote 

location and characterization of radiation sources 

in the upper atmosphere and near space. Responsibility for this project will be transferred to the 

Air Force at the end of FY 1978. Progress in detector arrays has allowed DARPA to initiate the 

Teal Ruby experiment to demonstrate detection of 

strategic vehicles from space. Currently scheduled 

for launch in March 1981, this experiment will 

gather spectral and spatial scene-intensity data and 

provide a demonstration of advanced detector 

technology. 

Solar Radiation Monitoring Program. The Navy 

solar monitoring program in 1977 consisted primarily of developing additional applications for 

operational predictions of propagation phenomena 

affecting HF and VLF radio systems. Solrad-Hi and 

GOES satellite data provided significant real-time 

solar measurements for the prediction system under 

evaluation at the Naval Communications Station, 

Stockton, California. The Naval Research Laboratory pursued basic research studies in solar physics, 

solar terrestrial relationships, and plasma processes 

to determine these solar effects on Navy systems and 

operations. 

As part of the continuing Air Force technology 

program in propagation-environment prediction, 

solar processes are being investigated and solar 

emissions are measured. The programs in solar 

36 
emissions include the theoretical study of the processes leading to solar flares, The Air Force Geophysics Laboratory works closely with the National 

Science Foundation’s Sacramento Peak Observatory. Air Force scientists are developing techniques 

to forecast the time-history of high-energy solar 

particles that may impact the Earth following a 

major solar flare. The Air Force is installing a 

worldwide radio-solar-telescope network for usc 

with the Solar Optical Observing Network. 

Air Force scientists are also participating in 

rocket and satellite observations of solar ultraviolel 

emissions. Working closely with NASA scientists, 

Air Force personnel are studying the variation of 

solar UV observed by spectrophotometers on Atmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. Rocket 

flights designed to measure solar UV flares between 

230 and 1220 Angstroms continue to be flown and, 

in conjunction with satellite measurements, used LO 

develop models of the solar UV emission spectrum. 

Environmental Remote Sensing. Significant Navy 

accomplishments in 1977 included the completion 

of the installation of the Satellite Data Processing 

Center at the Fleet Numerical Weather Central, 

Monterey, California. The center will process realtime data from the Defense Meteorological Satellites (DMSP), and will receive and process realtime satellite data from the NASA Seasat-A project 

after the satellite is launched in May 1978. Data 

from these satellites will provide global ocean data 

for inputs to atmospheric and oceanographic 01’- 

erational analysis and forecasts. Significant progress 

has been made in developing applications of infrared imagery from DMSP and NOAA satellite 

data in observing sea-surface thermal structures and 

locating oceanic fronts, eddies, and water masses. 

Several fleet exercises conducted during the year 

demonstrated the potential of using satellite-collected sea-surface temperatures for tactical applications in Antisubmarine Warfare and Undersea 

Warfare. The sea-surface temperature measurements and analysis capability also supports the 

National Climate Program. 

The Air Force Geophysics Laboratory continues 

to monitor space environment-induced effects as 

observed at the surface of the Earth. Using transmissions from beacons on both orbiting and geostationary satellites, scientists are measuring ionospheric scintillation and signal time delay at a 

number of ground stations around the globe. These 

measurements indicate signal statistics (fade margins, message reliability) for satellite communications systems and positional accuracy for navigation 

satellite systems and Air Force survelliance radars. 

The Air Force Space Technology program under 

overall management of the Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO) is oriented toward 

development and orbital demonstration of advanced prime mission equipment and supporting 

subsystems. The primary objectives of these new 

developments are performance, survivability, and 

reliability. 

In advanced space communications, the Lincoln 

Experimental Satellites (Les 8 and 9) concluded a 

highly successful test program which demonstrated 

spread-spectrum, jam-resistant EHF and UHF communications with aircraft, ships, and Earth terminals. Advanced electromagnetic and physical survivability techniques were tested. The Les 9 

satellite was turned over to Air Force Communications Service in October 1977 for operational employment. Research and development tests continued using the Les 8 satellite. 

The technology of satellite space power systems 

advanced with the fabrication and testing of highefficiency silicon and gallium arsenide solar cells 

and the orbital demonstration of a nickel-hydrogen 

bat tery, intended to replace current nickel-cadmium spacecraft batteries. 

In advanced early warning sensors for missiles, 

Space and Missiles Systems Office continued the 

development of critical components of a mosaic 

staring sensor. Such a sensor offers inherent performance and survivability advances over current 

line-scanning sensors. The objective is earlier, more 

precise detection of launches of hostile missiles. 

Space Ground Support 

DoD space activities are principally supported by 

the Army’s White Sands Missile Range; the Navy’s 

Pacific Missile Test Center; and the Air Force’s 

Eastern Test Range, Space and Missile Test Center, 

Satellite Control Facility, and Arnold Engineering 

Development Center. These facilities are available 

for use by Federal agencies, industry, and other nations and support a wide variety of test and evaluation activities. 

Eastern Test Range (ETR). The objective of the 

Air Force’s ETR is to provide support to a variety 

of DoD space and ballistic missile operations, 

NASA space programs, and commercial or international satellite launches under the sponsorship 

of NASA. Current improvement emphasizes the 

enhancement of telemetry, radar tracking and 

range safety. During FY 1977, ETR provided support to Navy testing of Poseidon and Trident ballistic missiles. Launch and data acquisition support 

were provided to NASA’s Viking program, satellites 

for commercial organizations and foreign governments, and operational space payloads for the Air 

Force and NASA. ETR was also actively engaged 

in conducting planning and analyses in support of 

37 
the Space Shuttle, which will be launched for orbital test flights from the Kennedy Space Center 

in 1979. 

Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC). SAMTEC manages, operates, and maintains the Western 

Test Range (WTR) in support of DoD and NASA 

tests. WTR is a national range providing range 

tracking, data acquisition, and flight safety support 

for all ballistic missile, space launches, and aeronautical tests at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The number of launches remains at approximately 50 ballistic and space launches and 

60 aeronautical flights per year. Major programs 

include Minuteman, Titan, F-15, E-3A, Bomarc, 

and Thor. SAMTEC is actively engaged in planning for Space Shuttle launches from Vandenberg 

AFR, which involves extensive construction of 

launch, maintenance, and logistic facilities. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF). The SCF continued to operate in a near flawless manner during 1977. Eighteen launches (13 DoD and NASA, 

5 ballistic), 63,220 satellite contacts, and 51,551 network hours were supported during FY 1977. The 

major portion of the restoration of Guam Tracking Station was completed. Modifications to the 

network to provide essential support to the early 

NAVSTAR-Global Positioning Satellites were 

made, and various communications and data systems improvements were also completed. To reduce 

data processing at remote stations, a four-year program to centralize data processing at the Satellite 

Test Center was begun. By eliminating unnecessary equipment and associated manpower, this consolidation will produce significant savings by 1982. 

Development of SCF-compatible Timed Division 

Multiplex telemetry equipment was completed. Its 

procurement and network modification will begin 

in FY 1978. Studies of SCF support requirements 

generated by the’ DoD’s transition to the Space 

Transportation System were continued. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC). AEDC is the Free World’s most comprehensive complex of technical and support facilities 

designed to simulate flight environments on the 

ground. AEDC’s work ranges from basic research 

and development associated with environmental 

testing to full-scale flight-hardware testing. In 1977, 

AEDC provided over 45,000 test hours in support 

of programs such as R-1 and F-16 aircraft, Air 

Launched Cruise Missile, Sea Launched Cruise 

Missile, and support to the Energy Research and 

Development Administration. 

AEDC is acquiring the Aero Propulsion Systems 

Test Facility (ASTF), which will be capable of 

simulating the severe flight environments experienced by present and future aircraft of larger sizes 

and higher speeds. With it, AEDC will be able to 

fully test air-breathing propulsion systems on the 

ground prior to flight, thus minimizing extensive 

flight tests and avoiding possible costly modifications to completed propulsion systems. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The 

Army’s WSMR continued to provide support to 

DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. A 

full spectrum of launch, flight, and recovery services was provided, including ground and flight 

safety, surveillance, command and control, data 

acquisition, and analyses. Army and Air Force programs include the Space Shuttle, Astrobee rocket, 

Aerospace Sounding Rocket Vehicle, and the Atmospheric Measurement Balloon Program. NASA 

programs that were supported included the calibration rocket program, upper atmospheric rocket 

sounding program using the Aerobee rocket, numerous smaller rocket systems, and a variety of 

astronomical test programs. 

Pacific Missile Test Center. The Pacific Missile 

Center operates an extensively instrumented Sea 

Test Range off the coast of Southern California. In 

addition, the Center has radar and telemetry capabilities at the Pacific Missile Range Facility on the 

island of Kauai, Hawaii. These facilities in 1977 

supported the DoD Global Positioning System, 

providing radar tracking, telemetry, and command 

destruct capability for the launch sequence, and 

using the NASA Advanced Technology Satellites 

(ATS 1, 3, and 6) for data relay. The Center is 

also engaged in planning support of the NASA 

Space Shuttle Orbiter. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). The Army‘s 

Kwajalein Missile Range continued to provide, 

maintain, and operate a national range to support 

technological advances in both offensive and defensive strategic weapon test programs. KMR is our 

only range with the technical capability to obtain 

critical data associated with terminal ballistics of 

intercontinental ballistic missiles and support defensive testing technology. KMR radars have also 

provided backup tracking data for the NASA space 

program. 

National Parachute Test Range. During 1977 

the National Parachute Test Range continued support of NASA and DoD space programs, primarily 

for programs requiring an application of parachute 

subsystems. Principal programs supported were: the 

Air Force aerial retrieval system, NASA Space 

Shuttle booster recovery system, and the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. 

38 
Aeronaut i ca I Activities 

Aircraft and Airborne Systems 

F-16 Multimission Fighter. After an extensive review of all aspects of the F-16 program, full production was approved; the first of the programmed 

1388 aircraft will be delivered in August 1978. The 

full-scale development test program continued on 

schedule, with five aircraft currently flying and 

three more scheduled for 1978 delivery. The F-16 

European partners-Belgium, Norway, The Netherlands, and Denmark-signed formal agreements in 

May 1977 for 348 aircraft. With almost $2 billion 

of F-16 contracts in Europe, this is the largest coproduction program ever initiated and a significant 

step toward standardization of NATO weapon systems. Iran became the first official Foreign Military 

Sales customer by signing an agreement to purchase 160 aircraft. : 

B-1 Bomber Program. Plans for production and 

deployment of the B-1 have been halted, but development and testing have continued, so the technical base will be available should alternate strategic systems run into difficulty. 

Three research, development, test, and evaluation aircraft are currently flying in the test program 

at Edwards AFB, California, to measure overall 

performance, gather data on structural air loads, 

and evaluate the offensive avionics subsystem. Primary emphasis has been placed upon low-altitude 

terrain-following penetration equipment, weapons 

delivery capabilities, navigation, communications, 

and overall system performance. 

A-10 Close-Air-Suppovt Aircraft. The Air Force 

plans to procure 733 A-10s to provide a specialized 

close-air-support aircraft. The A-lo’s research and 

development is complete, except for new systems 

being added to improve effectiveness. Of the 339 

aircraft approved for production, approximately 75 

have been delivered to Tactical Air Command. 

The first operational squadron was activated in 

June 1977; the planned initial operational capability was accomplished in October 1977, approximately three months ahead of schedule. Favorable 

reliability and maintainability have continued, so 

the anticipated low operating costs should be 

realized. 

F-15 Air Superiority Fighter. The last of the F-15 

development program milestones was successfully 

passed early in 1977. A limited development effort 

will continue to complete threat updates to the 

electronic countermeasures equipment and various 

other component improvements. 

Production deliveries of the F-15 continued at 

the rate of nine aircraft per month throughout the 

year and a total of more than 250 aircraft had been 

delivered to the Tactical Air Command and United 

States Air Forces in Europe by the year’s end. The 

second and third of a planned six combat wings 

were activated during the year at Bitburg AB, Germany, and Holloman AFB, New Mexico. 

I;-18 Carrier-Based Sfrike Fighter. The Navy’s 

McDonnell Douglas/Northrop F-18 aircraft will 

become the replacement for the remaining Navy and 

Marine F-4 Phantom fighters as they reach the end 

of their service life. An attack version of the same 

aircraft will begin replacing the aging A-7 light 

attack aircraft in the mid-1980s. Introduction of 

this aircraft into the fleet will provide the tactical 

commander at sea with a high-performance, agile 

strike fighter, capable of defeating the projected air 

threat and surviving over hostile territory. The 

F-18, though not as sophisticated as the F-14 Tomcat, will complement the F-14 in maintaining maritime air superiority. The Secretary of Defense has 

approved full-scale development of this aircraft, 

with first flight planned for October 1978. 

F-14A Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter. F-14A 

Tomcat squadrons are now routinely making extended deployments on carriers of the Atlantic and 

Pacific Fleets. Twelve operational and two training 

squadrons have completed transition to this aircraft 

and two additional squadrons are programmed to 

receive the Tomcat in 1978. The F-14A continues 

to prove its versatility as a highly maneuverable and 

agile fighter. 

AV-8B. The success of the AV-8A aircraft in satisfying the light attack vertical/short takeoff and 

landing (V/STOL) requirement of the Marine 

Corps has led to the development of the much more 

capable AV-BB. 

The AV-8B is an improved, vectored-thrust 

V/STOL aircraft based on the AV-8A concept and 

the current Pegasus 11 engine. The airplane incorporates a supercritical composite wing, redesigned 

inlets, and lift improvement devices. The AV-8B, 

produced by McDonnell-Douglas Corporation with 

Hawker Siddeley of the United Kingdom as the 

principal subcontractor, will be equipped with 

angle-rate bombing systems for improved accuracy 

in weapon delivery. 

The AV-8B program has completed the initial 

phase of full-scale wind tunnel testing at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center. The NASA data confirm 

that the AV-8B aircraft will have superior V/STOL 

characteristics with approximately double the range 

or payload of the AV-8A. Two YAV-8B (AV-8B 

prototype) aircraft are under contract with McDonne11 Douglas Corp. 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST). 

The AMST completed Phase I prototype program 

in 1977. Objectives of the advanced development 

program were to demonstrate STOL technology, 

39 
evaluate operational utility, and provide an option 

for modernization of our aging tactical airlift force. 

The AMST prototypes demonstrated these objectives. However, the projected production and operating costs of this sophisticated aircraft design are 

not sufficiently offset by its operational utility to 

justify continuing the program. 

The Boeing YC-14 and McDonnell Douglas YC15 prototypes completed their flight testing in August 1977. These four aircraft accumulated 1397 

flight hours and demonstrated satisfactory performance against all goals of the Phase I flight test program. 

UH-60A Black Hawk. The Army requires a helicopter that provides combat support and combat 

service support necessary to sustain ground forces 

engaged in land warfare. 

Air frame engineering development contracts 

were awarded to Boeing Vertol and Sikorsky in 

August 1972, with a contract to General Electric 

for development of the T-700 engine preceding the 

air frame awards in March 1972. During the competitive development phase, each airframe contractor built three flying prototypes and flew over 600 

flight test hours. The government flew over 700 

hours during the “fly-off” evaluation. The T-700 

engine experienced over 30,000 hours of development and field testing. 

Sikorsky was awarded an $83.4-million production contract on December 23, 1976, for 15 aircraft, 

with options for 353 additional Black Hawks over 

the next three years. First production delivery is 

scheduled for August 1978. General Electric was 

simultaneously awarded a $38.3-million engine production contract. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter. After a prime. airframe contractor was selected in December 1976 to 

continue development, Phase II-full engineering 

development-continued during 1977. The primary 

emphasis is the total systems integration of the 

armament and fire control. Competitive contracts 

were awarded in March 1977 for development of 

the target-acquisition-designation and pilot-nightvision subsystems, which are parts of the fire control 

system. Aircraft efforts were directed toward design 

and testing of the airframe modifications stemming 

from evaluation of the Phase I aircraft in 1976. 

Fabrication of the additional flying prototype aircraft was deferred until 1978 because of fiscal restructuring of the program. 

Cobra / Tow. The Cobra/Tow program, including a retrofit of 290 of the existing Cobra helicopters and purchase of 324 new aircraft with the 

highly effective Tube Launched Optically Tracked 

Wire Guided (Tow) Missile, was continued in 

1977. Deliveries of the retrofitted Cobra helicopters 

began in June 1975 and were completed in October 

1977. Testing the upgraded engine, transmission, 

and dynamic components-Improve Cobra Agility 

and Maneuverability (ICAM) -was completed in 

May 1975. These ICAM components are incorpoiated in the 297 new aircraft on which deliveries 

began in March 1977. The Army’s plans include 

the retrofit of an additional 400 Cobra helicopters 

and a modernization program of the Cobra/Tow 

fleet. The modernization program will substantially 

increase secondary armament capability; survivability; and the reliability, availability, and maintainability. The modernization program also includes a 

new main rotor blade of composite materials now 

in final demonstration in the technology base that 

will increase survivability and double the blade 

life. 

CH-17 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization program is designed to increase the life of the 

CH-47A, B, and C models and improve the performance of the A and B models. The intent is to 

modify three prototypes through development and 

testing of seven moderized systems; rotor, drive, hydraulic, electrical, advanced flight control, cargo 

handling, and auxiliary power unit. Integration of 

these systems will improve reliability, availability, 

maintainability, safety, and survivability. 

E-3A Airborne Warning and Contl-ol System 

(A WACS) . The first E-3A AWACS was delivered to 

the Tactical Air Command at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, on March 24, 1977. This delivery culminated 

a successful program to develop a high powered 

airborne surveillance system capable of detecting 

and tracking aircraft at all altitudes and over all 

terrains. 

EF-IIIA Tactical Jamming System. The EF-1llA 

is being designed to provide ground and airborne 

radar jamming in support of all tactical air missions. The peacetime mission will be to provide 

training in electronic countermeasures for our own 

air defense and tactical forces. Flight testing of the 

two prototypes was initiated in March 1977 and 

May 1977, respectively. All contractor flight testing 

was completed in September 1977. Government 

Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) and 

Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOT8cE) 

are scheduled from October 1977 through April 

1978. 

Tomahawk Cruise Missile. Tomahawk is a highsubsonic-speed, turbofan-powered, long-range cruise 

missile sized to be fired from a submarine torpedo 

tube, hut also capable of being launched from surface ships, aircraft, and mobile ground platforms. 

This missile is being developed in two forms, a conI entionally armed antiship version and a nucleararmed land attack version. 

The antiship Tomahawk is essential to Navy 

general-purpose forces in a sea-control offensive/ 

40 
defensive role. Tomahawk will provide an i-mportant complement to carrier-based air in extending 

the Navy’s antiship capability over a broad ocean 

area. If they are to have a flexible sea control capability, Navy forces must be able to challenge the 

enemy at sea when neither side has air support. 

Tomahawk is designed to provide this capability 

through deployment of long-range offensive power 

on a variety of platforms. The stand-off capability 

afforded by Tomahawk will pose a credible threat 

to enemy surfaces forces at minimum risk to our 

launch platforms. 

The primary need for the land-attack Tomahawk 

is in the theater role, where its single-warhead, 

high-accuracy, penetrativity, and survivability make 

it particularly suitable for use in limited nuclear 

attacks. 

Tomahawk is planned for installation on attack 

submarines, cruisers, and Spruance-class destroyers. 

A ground-launched version of Tomahawk is being 

developed for the Air Force. 

Pave Low ZZZ. The Air Force’s prototype H-3 

combat rescue helicopter equipped with Pave Low 

I11 completed initial flight testing in 1977. Using 

forward-looking infrared devices, terrain-avoidance1 

following radar, and inertial/Doppler navigation, 

the system permits low-level penetration of unfriendly territory and aircrew recovery under conditions of total darkness and adverse weather. An 

invaluable addition to the military rescue fleet, 

Pave Low I11 blends the latest, state-of-the-art 

electronics with a time-tested, long-range rescue 

vehicle to provide the only system of its type capable of surviving the intense hostile environment 

predicted for tomorrow’s combat situation. 

Joint Tactical Information Distribution System 

(JTZDS). The JTIDS program objective is to develop a highly flexible data network to satisfy multiple tactical operational users. When deployed it 

will provide high-capacity, jam-resistant, low-probability-of-intercept communications to interconnect 

all participants in an area of tactical military operations. JTIDS employs modern spread-spectrum 

and time-division multiple-access technology to 

provide multi-access, jam resistant communications 

as well as accurate relative navigation with other 

cochannel transmissions such as IFF and Tacan. 

With the Air Force acting as lead service, all 

services are participating in this program, and a 

joint program office has been established. Initial 

operational application of the early phase of JTIDS 

will be in the Air Warning and Control (AWACS) 

aircraft. When fully deployed, it is anticipated that 

JTIDS will afford the means for close coordination 

of forces of all services. 

Aeronautical ReseNch and Development 

Aircraft Structures and Materials Technology. 

Each of the services has research and development 

programs directed toward its needs for improved 

structures and materials for aeronautical and space 

applications. Among these is the Nayy’s engineering 

development program initiated to develop a fiberglass composite rotor blade as a replacement for 

the CH-46 metal rotor blade. The fiberglass rotor 

blade is designed to be corrosion resistant, provide 

no environmental degradation, be insensitive to 

small defects, have slow failure propagation with a 

change in stiffness warning, require only visual preflight inspections, and increase mean time between 

repairs by 500 percent. This blade will significantly 

increase the effectiveness of the CH-46 helicopter 

fleet. 

The Navy’s composite aircraft structures program continues to demonstrate significant progress. 

Components which have completed laboratory static 

and fatigue tests include the S-3 spoiler, F-14 overwing fairing, F-14 main landing gear door, and a 

wing for RQM-34E supersonic target vehicle. Additional components are being fabricated to be placed 

on operational aircraft and monitored over an extended period to answer critical technical questions 

as well as increase confidence in graphite composites. This program will provide the Navy with 

long-term experience in composite structures in an 

operational environment, extend design and fabrication technology to large primary structures, and 

establish greater confidence in acquisition/life 

cycle cost projections. 

After several years of development work, composite structures began to accelerate into the Army 

inventory in 1977. Both the Black Hawk and the 

Advanced Attack Helicopter began flying in 1977 

with composite aerodynamic surfaces and fuselage 

structural components. The AH-1 Cobra gunship 

received new composite main rotor blades and the 

CH-47 cargo helicopter got the composite rotor 

blades portion of its overall modification/improvement program. A plan to retrofit composite rotor 

blades onto the UH-I and OH-58 fleets was developed to reduce the life cycle costs of these operational aircraft. In 1977, research and development 

efforts continued toward producing from composite 

materials safer, lighter, and more durable rotor 

hubs, crashworthy landing gear, and less vulnerable 

fuselage structures, with savings in weight and cost. 

Aduanced Helo Rotor System. The Advanced 

Helo Rotor System’s objective is to prove the flight 

feasibility of the Circulation Control Rotor (CCR) 

concept with a full-scale system in which design-tocost goals and trade-off parameters will be established for the rotor system. The CCR system is to 

41 
be capable of replacing all existing helicopter rotor 

systems without any inherent operational limitation. Operating on the basic principle of a trailingedge boundary-layer blowing system, the rotor blade 

is provided cyclic control by air modulation, eliminating conventional rotor head complexities 

(swashplate, lead-lag hinges, and flapping hinges) , 

improving aircraft maneuverability, reliability, 

maintainability, and reducing overall vibration 

levels. The first full-scale CCR blade was fabricated 

during April and the first full-scale whirl test of the 

complete CCR system will begin in February 1978. 

The X-wing concept utilizes CCR technology and 

high-speed rotor technology (Reverse Velocity 

Rotor). The X-wing program will demonstrate the 

feasibility of the high-speed rotor and X-wing concept in parallel with the CCR program; both programs are scheduled for completion in FY 1979. 

Helicopter Acoustic Research. Experience gained 

by correlation of in-flight and wind-tunnel acoustic 

data has accumulated and a “quiet” rotor blade design has been initiated. Instrumentation for a permanent measurement system of in-flight far-field 

noise has been completed. A hover test facility is 

being calibrated, and an experiment to provide 

acoustic data for a parametric variation of rotor 

geometry is being initiated. These efforts are all 

aimed at reduction of acoustic detectability. 

Advancing Blade Concept (ABC) Demonstraloi. 

Aircraft. Helicopter technology has progressed to 

the point where many of the unsolved problems 

are concerned with high-speed maneuvering flight. 

One design concept which promises to alleviate 

some of these problems incorporates co-axial, counterrotating rotors. In December 1971, the Army 

contracted with Sikorsky Aircraft to design, construct, and flight-test this concept; the resulting aircraft is called the Advancing Blade Concept (ABC). 

The ABC completed its flight tests in the pure 

helicopter mode in the spring of 1977, attaining 

speeds up to 320 kilometers per hour. In a program 

just getting underway, the Army, Navy, and NASA 

have joined forces to fund high-speed (up to 550 

kilometers per hour) tests of this concept. The test 

aircraft has been fitted with thrusting engines 

(loaned by the Air Force) and is now preparing for 

further tests. 

Helicopter Rotor Aerodynamics. Both civil and 

military helicopters suffer from high vibratory 

loads. These vibratory loads increase operating costs 

by causing frequent replacement of components and 

contribute to pilot fatigue and passenger discomfort. A number of investigations are underway to 

understand the basic aerodynamic mechanisms 

causing these loads and to develop design techniques to alleviate them while improving or maintaining aerodynamic performance. 

The effect of the shape of the tip of the blades 

on noise and vibration is being studied. As a consequence of this program, the rotor tip on a test 

1JH-1 was modified into an ogee shape, rcducing 

noise and vibratory loads, and, for this particular 

rotor, increasing aerodynamic performance. A rotor 

with an ogee tip shape is presently being fabricated 

for testing next year on the AS-IS Cobra. 

The French and the U.S. Army are pursuing a 

joint program to understand thc role of transonic 

aerodynamics in vibratory loads. The French have 

completed experiments on a non-lifting rotor with 

both square and swept rotor tip shapes. The Army 

has found good agreement between these experiments and analysis for the square rotor tip and is 

now performing the analysis on the swept tip shape. 

An investigation of a high-energy rotor system resulted in the demonstration of an OH-58 modified 

to provide high rotor inertia that could autorotate 

safely from any altitude and speed. This investigation will continue next year to define tho design 

constraints of such a rotor system. 

Helicopter Aerodynamic Launch Environment. 

Attack helicopters experience a number of launch 

transients, such as vibration, rotor downwash, and 

rotation/translation of the aircraft. Because these 

f;ictors affect the first few mctcrs of a missile’s 

trajectory, the resultant errors cause impact dispersion at the weapon’s potential target. Model testing 

on thc AH-1G utilizing laser techniques, flow visualization, and rotor wake theory has aided mapping of the rotor flow field. In addition, low-airspeed sensors have been tested and strategically 

located on the aircraft to provide the pilot with 

previously unavailable airspeed readings. Investigations by the Army are continuing to utilize, these 

data for fire-control augmentation which should 

ultimatcly improve weapon accuracy. 

Rcrnotely Pi1otc.d Vehicles (RPV). The Army is 

conducting system technology program to demonstrate that a small airborne RPV can obtain reconnaissancc and target acquisition information beyond the forward edge of the battlc area. Its 

application is for those high-threat situations where 

probability of survival of manned systems is unacceptably low. The full-scale RPV, including a TV 

sensor and laser range finder/designator, has a 

wingspan of 3.7 meters and weighs 66 kilograms. It 

flies at speeds under 180 kilometers per hour, yet 

will be extremely difficult to shoot down. A contractor validation program consisting of 65 flights 

was completed in July 1977. The Air Force and 

Navy have limited RPV programs which complement this Army program. 

Helicopter Auionirs. After a successful competitive, design-to-cost engineering development program, thc AN/AShT-128 Doppler navigation sub- 
system entered production. The AN/ASN-128 will 

provide Army helicopters a self-contained tactical 

navigation capability. Range and bearing to ten 

checkpoints, as well as present position, are provided to the crew. First applications will be to the 

Black Hawk and the AH-1s. 

Competitive, design-to-cost engineering development contracts were awarded for the Integrated 

Avionics Control System (IACS). The IACS will 

provide an integrated panel for the control of up to 

ten avionics “black boxes,” (radios, transponder, 

automatic direction finder, etc.) . and save cockpit 

space and improve the man-machine interface. 

Prototypes will be delivered during FY 1978. 

Electronics For Aviation. The pervasive role of 

electronics in aeronautics and space continues to 

grow. The current generation of large-scale integrated circuits and techniques today is making 

many electronic functions that were promised by 

the transistor generation affordable and reliable. 

The greatest impact has been in the area of microprocessors for control, guidance, and built-in test. 

The advances in electro-optics and microwaves have 

also been impressive in their impact on the sensor 

capabilities of modern aircraft. 

The direction of advanced electronics for aeronautics can best be shown by examining three technologies-electro-optics, microwaves, and computers 

-and by how each affects a variety of systems. 

ELECTRO-OPTICS TECHNOLOGY. Electro-optics is 

still an emergent and rapidly growing technology. 

The revolutionary development of the laser and 

the evolutionary development of low-cost, compact 

television cameras have led to TV homing and 

laser designated precision weapons. However, electro-optics technology is also incorporated in many 

other devices, such as infrared imaging devices, 

charge-coupled imagers and signal processors, ring 

laser gyros, fiber optics, and displays. Recent significant applications are: 

0 Laser designators have progressed farthest toward operationa1 systems in the form of lightweight target designators and range finders. 

The PAVE SPIKE system, when integrated 

with the F-4’s avionics, permits daytime delivery of laser-designated ordnance by the designating or other aircraft. The PAVE TACK 

infrared imaging system will provide F-4Es and 

F-1llFs with a day/night capability for ranging, tracking, and designation. The PAVE 

PENNY compact laser search-and-track system 

will allow various close-air-support aircraft, 

such as the A-10, to pick up targets illuminated by either an airborne or ground-based 

forward air controller. 

Infrared imaging devices provide a night operation capability for optical search and track 

systems in addition to improved vision in inclement weather. One major emphasis has been 

the application of technology for cost reduction in the modular FLIR (Forward Looking 

Infrared) program, which will enable 

widespread employment of infrared imaging 

devices. A major thrust for the future is the 

development of two-dimensional arrays of infrared detectors to provide increased sensitivity, 

resolution, compactness, and reliability. 

‘1 nixjor advance in visible sensors has been 

achieved in the development of a miniature 

solid-state TV camera using charge coupled 

devices (CCD) . This provides self scanning of 

the scene, thereby eliminating the vacuum 

tube, electron beams, high voltage supply, and 

filament. Apart from its size and reliability 

advantage, the camera has exceptional dynamic 

range (500 to one), greater sensitivity than 

vidicon tubes for low-light level viewing, 10- 

megahertz data rates, and digital system compatibility with sampled data outputs. Current 

technology efforts are directed toward larger 

arrays for increased resolution and techniques 

to extend the long-wave length response into 

the infrared. 

0 Fiber optics research has led to fibers with very 

low loss and to military quality connectors and 

transmitter-receiver modules. Fiber optics installed on the A-7 aircraft demonstrated the 

potential for lower weight and volume by factors of 20, increased reliability, lower initial 

and life-cycle costs, elimination of radio frequency interference problems, and reduced vulnerability to battle damage. 

0 Ring laser gyros are the subject of a coordinated Air Force, Navy, and Army program 

from exploratory through advanced development. The ring laser gyro has no moving parts 

in the conventional sense; instead, the measurement of frequency change of the laser beam is 

used to detect attitude changes. This offers 

great potential for higher reliability and reduced support costs. In addition, the laser gyro 

will be more resistant to shock, vibration, acceleration, and other requirements of a quickresponse aircraft or missile environment. An 

experimental laser inertial navigator has demonstrated an accuracy of better than two kilometers per hour of flight time in actual flight 

test, which is about ten times better than 

previous laser gyro systems. Plans call for a 

completed navigation system in 1978 with 

production units available as early as 1980. 

0 Electro-optic displays using liquid crystals and 

light-emitting diodes are repIacing cathode ray 

tubes and incandescent lamps for those applica- 
tions where weight, volume, and ruggedness 

are at a premium. Current development efforts 

are aimed at cost-effective fabrication of larger 

area displays. 

RF AND MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY. Microwave 

technology for radar and communications is considerably more mature than electro-optics, but continues to show surprisingly vigorous evolution. 

First, for the signal generation function, solid-state 

devices satisfying the low power and low noise requirements at frequencies from UHF to millimeter 

waves have seen a decade of discovery and development. Second, there have been major advances in 

our ability to carry out sophisticated signal processing in ever shrinking package sizes. 

0 Gunn effect solid-state sources have completely 

displaced low-power klystrons for local oscillator and test generator applications from 5 

GHz (gigahertz) to 35 GHz because of their 

low AM and FM noise and convenient operating voltages, typically 12 volts and less. Reliable operation for over 100,000 hours is now 

commonplace. 

Impatt diodes have shown impressive efficiencies and power output in the range above 6 

GHz, where bipolar transistors have performance deficiencies. Combining the power outputs of several 3O%-efficiency diodes has produced over 50 watts at 10 GHz, offering a new 

potential for medium-power solid-state transmitters. The advances have been achieved by 

increased understanding of the technology of 

gallium arsenide material. 

0 Gallium arsenide is also important for the 

latest solid-state power source, the Field Effect 

Transistor (FET) . This device has recently 

demonstrated an output of more than one watt 

at 10 GHz, complementing its previously demonstrated low noise characteristics for signal 

detection. Its wide band-width and efficiency 

are of significance for electronic countermeasures where a single jammer must handle many 

threats at diverse frequencies. Current development efforts are directed toward increased yield 

to enable large scale integration of very-highspeed FET logic circuits. 

0 For fundamental reasons, vacuum tubes continue to s~~pply the high-power transmitter 

sources needed for search, acquisition, and 

tracking radars. The emphasis here has been 

an increased reliability and lower life cycle 

costs. Combining pulse and carrier-wave performance in the same tube package is being 

pursued to achieve capability for electronic 

countermeasures with reduced volume. 

A major technological thrust is in signal processing to sort out target returns from cluttered 

backgrounds and to identify threat radars in a 

dense electromagnetic signal environment. 

Charge-coupled devices, surface acoustic wave 

filters, and microprocessors have all played a 

role here. 

An emerging interest is that of millimeter 

(mm) waves, which refers to wavelengths of 

one to ten millimeters, or corresponding frequencies of 30 to 300 GHz. Potential applications for mm waves include target designation, 

air-to-ground imaging, guidance for beamriding missiles, low-angle tracking of surfacehugging missiles and aircraft, and short-range 

communications. Radiometric area correlators, 

which are airborne passive wave radiometers, 

are demonstrating the ability to navigate by 

using the natural radiation from surface features on the ground. If successful, the system 

will be very difficult to countermeasure and 

will operate in moderate rain and cloudy 

weather, where current infrared radiometer 

systems have difficulty. 

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY. Exploitation of the 

phenomenal growth of computer science is a major 

area of technological emphasis within DoD. Given 

the rapidly decreasing cost of hardware, a number 

of computer-based research areas offer the potential 

of providing a major impact on the aeronautical 

systems of the 1980s and 1990s. Major advances in 

hardware and software are occurring. 

Low cost, compact, and reliable microcom0 

puters will revoiutionize a variety of functions 

in missiles and aircraft. Air-to-ground missile 

target acquisition has been improved by adaptive threshold gating to enable the missile to 

distinguish a target from the ground clutter 

and noise. Computer correlation of terrain 

features, sensed by radar or passive radiometers, with previously stored mapping information can now be used to update the gyro controls for precise navigation over long distances. 

Present aircraft contain as many as a dozen 

minicomputers, handling functions such as 

navigation, altimetry, fire control, weapon delivery, search, and flight control. The Air 

Force’s Digital Avionics Information System 

(DAIS) is a test bed to evaluate new systems 

architecture, in which information is transferred rapidly between the various parts with 

data processing at each sensor and data management via similar executive processors. Increased flexibility and modularity are the potential benefits. 

44 
0 In addition to research aimed at developing 

better computer hardware, DoD is also placing 

increasing emphasis on using hardware capabilities more effectively, primarily through 

software improvements. The objective is cost 

reduction of the estimated $3 billion DoD 

spends annually on software-related problems. 

The approach is to develop better tools for the 

software designer and to standardize on a minimum number of higher order languages. 

Synthetic Flight Training Systems (SFTS). Two 

major events have occurred during 1977. First, the 

CH-47 Flight Simulator (FS), using a closed-circuit 

television camera which roves across a three-dimensional terrain model in response to the pilot’s control inputs, was completed. The significance of this 

first Army visual simulator is the ability to perform 

various flight maneuvers, emergency procedures, 

and instrument flight at less cost and in complete 

safety. 

Second, the Army will complete its acceptance 

for testing of the AH-1 Flight and Weapons Simulator (FWS) . Using a camera model board similar 

to the CH-47 FS, but with a wider field-of-view, the 

AH-1 simulator is the first to incorporate weaponv 

engagement along with the other flight maneuvers. 

The evolution will continue with the development 

of the UH-60 Black Hawk Flight Simulator which 

will use a camera model board for one cockpit and 

a computer-generated imagery visual system for the 

other cockpit. Testing, to be conducted in 1979 will 

evaluate the training benefits of these two technologies. Concept formulation is underway for the 

AH-64 Flight and Weapons Simulator, which will 

complete the evolution from the UH-I FS instrument training system to a full “combat mission 

simulator” with the capability to produce the 

sound and fury of the battlefield. Development will 

begin in 1979 with testing to be conducted in 1982. 

Research in Aircraft Propulsion Systems. The 

Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator (ATEGG) program is the main Air Force propulsion 

program assessing core engine components under 

realistic test conditions. The program has traditionally assessed performance and has been increasing in scope to include life cycle costing and structural testing earlier in the engine development 

cycle. Accomplishments in 1977 include several 

successful demonstrations of variable-area turbines, 

lower cost design concepts and manufacturing 

methods, and burners with increased durability. 

Also realistic structural test methodologies have 

been completed by all participating contractors. 

The Aircraft Propulsion Subsystems Integration 

(APSI) program is another joint Air Force/Navy 

program. High-pressure turbine engine cores from 

ATEGG are combined with low-pressure components (fans, compressors, and fan turbines) and 

inlets, exhaust nozzles, afterburners, and control 

systems to assess full-scale engines from the standpoint of installation considerations. The Joint 

Technology Demonstrator Engine (JTDE) program is part of APSI. Accomplishments include 

demonstrations of variable cycle engine concepts 

and verifying installed performance increases while 

reducing fuel consumption by matching the engine 

cycle to changing flight conditions. The JTDE efforts are progressing toward demonstrations in FY 

1978 and 1979. 

Alternate Fzicls Pyogram. The alternate fuels 

program is part of a long-term coordinated effort 

among the services, NASA, and the Department of 

Energy to ensure that liquid fuels obtained from 

domestic resources such as oil shale, tar sands, and 

coal will he acceptable in high-performance engines. The initial Don effort is an experimental 

program to produce aviation turbine fuels from 

shale oil and coal. Results to date provide encouraging evidence that the aviation industry can use 

fuel produced from the vast US. resources of oil 

shale. 

Research in Helicopter Propulsion. The helicopter drive train and power plant have been significant contributors to high acquisition and high 

operating costs. A number of programs are underway to reduce that cost by developing design techniques that permit a gas turbine to achieve high 

performance while maintaining a simple, durable 

design. An advanced centrifugal compressor program is underway to develop a high-pressure-ratio 

compressor with a single centrifugal stage to replace existing designs that have from two to five 

axial compressor stages in addition to the centrifugal stage. The Army entered into contracts with 

Allison Division, General Motors, and AVCO 

Lycoming Division for a four-year program to 

develop advanced technology demonstrator engines 

(ATDE) rated at 800 shaft horsepower. The ATDE 

will reduce fuel consumption by approximately 20 

percent while improving the power-to-weight ratio 

and reducing the instaIled vulnerable area by approximately 50 percent relative to current production engines. The ATDE program utilizes the results of previous Army component research to 

provide a significantly more durable engine at an 

affordable cost. 

The drive-train program has focused on’the potential for significant weight reductions with increased reliability. An advanced coupling program 

was completed this year that promises to provide a 

14-kilogram weight reduction in the UH-GOA. 

There are three active transmission programs to 

build and evaluate critical transmission compo45 
nents. If these components are successful, transmission weight could be reduced by as much as 20 

percent, while cost could be reduced by 20 percent 

and mean time between transmission removals 

could be increased by up to 100 percent. 

Airdrop. The Airdrop Development Program has 

solved the age-old problem of inversion-type malfunctions of the main personnel parachute. The 

anti-inversion net is a basketball-type nylon net 

added around the circumference of the parachute 

canopy at the bottom and extending 46 centimeters 

down the suspension lines. The net prevents panels 

of the parachute from blowing through opposite 

suspension lines during parachute deployment. The 

anti-inversion net has not only eliminated the inversion malfunctions, but has produced a bonus 

effect of practically no malfunctions of any type. 

In over 90,000 jumps with net-equipped parachutes, 

only two malfunctions occurred. This achieves reduced personnel injuries and reduced parachute 

maintenance previously caused by inversion burns. 

The modification program to add the anti-inversion net to field stocks was completed in 1977. All 

new main parachutes are equipped with the net. 

Relationship with NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) is the principal formal coordination mechanism between DoD and NASA. Major 

policy issues of mutual interest in aeronautics and 

space are addressed. 

Reimbursement for Shuttle Services. In June 

1976 NASA offered for comment a preliminary 

proposed policy on reimbursement for Shuttle services to DoD. This initial policy proposed considering all direct and indirect costs as a basis for establishing a price to DoD for a dedicated Shuttle 

flight. At the October 13, 1976, AACB meeting the 

Co-Chairmen agreed to explore simpler approaches 

to developing a fair, reasonable price for such services to DoD. An approach has now been agreed 

upon which is simple and encourages efficient operations, early transition from expendable launch 

vehicles to the Space Shuttle, provides pricing stability, and establishes a mutually acceptable price. 

The DoD reimbursement to NASA will be based 

on the costs of materials and services, to be mutually agreed upon. The DoD will provide the 

Vandenberg Shuttle launch support for all nonDoD users in return for provision by NASA of all 

Shuttle launch support from Kennedy Space Center 

and Shuttle flight operations support for all DoD 

flights. These services are projected to be of approximately equal value to each agency. DoD will 

be charged a fixed price for the first six years based 

on realistic average projected materials and services costs. For launches after the first six years, the 

price will be adjusted annually, based on forecasts 

of annual costs for that year for materials and 

services. Details of the policy based on this approach will be negotiated. 

FY 1978 DoDINASA Facilities Coordination. 

Preliminary coordination was begun between 

NASA and the Air Force for examination of facility programs most likely to be of mutual interest 

or with high potential for duplication. The normal 

budgetary review process within each agency reduced the number of proposals. The early start and 

detailed nature of the review, as well as the desire 

to make most effective use of resources, all contribute to assuring elimination of unwarranted 

duplication early in the process. The final DoD 

and NASA review involved 14 DoD projects estimated to cost $70 million, and 22 NASA projects 

totaling $162 million. These facilities were included in the President’ budget. 

National Aeronautical Facilities Program. Three 

facilities constitute the National Aeronautical Facilities Program: 

The Air Force Aeropropulsion Systems Test 

Facility design is complete, construction bidding is in progress, and the facility is proceeding within costs toward beginning operation in 

1981. Congress appropriated the full $437 million for ASTF in FY 1977. 

Modifications to the NASA 40-x-80-foot low 

speed wind tunnel are now in the preliminary 

design stage. Congress appropriated $6 million 

in FY 1977. The facility is scheduled for completion in 1982 at a total cost of $85 million. 

The NASA National Transonic Facility is in 

the site-preparation stage. Congress appropriated $25 million in FY 1977 and the facility 

is scheduled to operate in 1982. 

Higher-than-expected bids on the transonic-tunne1 shell and motor caused NASA to institute a 

joint DoD/NASA reexamination of the tunnel 

configuration. It was concluded that while the basic 

tunnel design is still valid, insulation and model 

angular travel capability need to be increased, so 

the total cost will be about $85 million. The increase is primarily in higher-than-estimated bids 

(inflation) although some is attributed to necessary 

design changes. DoD requirements have not been 

compromised either during design or as a result of 

cost increases. 

Shuttle Orbiter Fleet Size. The timely availability of an adequate national fleet of orbiters to support military as well as civil users of the Shuttle is 

essential if the full capabilities of the Shuttle are 

46 
to be realized. The fleet size must be based on total 

national traffic-foreign and domestic, civil and 

military-projected for the Shuttle. Extensive 

studies conducted by NASA, with Air Force support, over the past two years plus detailed reviews 

within the Administration have led to the decision 

that NASA should proceed with the production of 

four Space Shuttle orbiters. 

Use of Johnson Mission Control Center. Present 

DoD planning for its Shuttle launches is predicated 

on the use of NASA’s Johnson Mission Control 

Center (JMCC) for simulation, training, and 

Shuttle flight control for all DoD missions. However, as currently designed, JMCC cannot handle 

payload data for classified missions. A number of 

options for accommodating classified DoD launches 

in the JMCC have been evaluated over the past 

year by both DoD and NASA. Recently a low-cost 

approach has been defined to modifying JMCC 

which will adequately protect classified payload 

launches on the Shuttle with minimum disruption 

to civil users. The validation of this approach, the 

“controlled mode” concept, has been started. 

Joint Programs 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). A joint 

Army-NASA contract for the design and fabrication of two Rotor Systems Research Aircraft has 

produced two research aircraft which will serve as 

“flying wind tunnels” for helicopter research. The 

aircraft design will permit in-flight testing of fullscale main rotor systems having from two to six 

blades. The design also permits the addition of 

fixed wings and thrusting engines that will permit 

rotor testing at flight speeds up to 450 kilometers 

per hour. These two aircraft will provide data that 

will help solve aerodynamic problems that are 

currently mathematically intractible and cannot be 

solved without the aid of precise flight research results. The Rotor Systems Research Aircraft, with 

its first set of rotor blades, has completed its first 

phase of flight testing as a pure helicopter; it is 

presently being fitted with wings and thrusting engines to enter further flight testing in high-speed 

maneuvering flight. After establishing the basic 

capabilities of the research aircraft, they will be 

used to test and optimize the performance of various candidate rotor designs and to obtain data for 

improvement in rotorcraft prediction methodology. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (XV-15). Under a 

joint ArmyfNASA contract awarded in 1973, Bell 

Helicopter Textron completed the fabrication of 

two Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (XV-15) during 

the past year. The first of the two aircraft has been 

extensively ground tested on a tiedown test facility; 

its new design transmissions and vertical/horizontal 

running engines have now been operated for approximately 60 hours. The first aircraft has also 

flown three hours of hover and low-speed tests since 

its newdesign transmissions and vertical/horizontal 

XV-15 is completing operational tests under remote 

control in preparation for full-scale wind tunnel 

testing in the NASA-Ames 40-x-80-foot wind tunnel, 

LO be initiated in early 1978. The second XV-15 is 

being prepared for limited ground testing prior to 

entering contractor flight tests early in 1978 to 

establish the basic flight characteristics for both 

helicopter and airplane modes of operation. 

Spacecraft Churging Technology. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory (AFGL) is actively involved in the Joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft 

Charging Technology Program. In addition to developing theoretical and empirical models of the 

natural environment leading to spacecraft electrical 

charging at synchronous altitude, AFGL is preparing a handbook that will document the full range 

of variability of charged particles and fields that 

can be expected at this altitude. Data from the Air 

Force Scatha satellite, to be launched in 1979, will 

be included in a future supplement to the handbook. Scatha satellite instrumentation, supplied by 

the Air Force, will include electrostatic analyzers, 

charged particle flux spectrometers, and electron 

and ion beam systems to assess the feasibility of 

actively controlling satellite charging and discharging. Close coordination between the interdependent activities of the Air Force and NASA 

continue through the Joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft Charging Technology Program. Models of the 

energetic electron flux at satellite altitudes will be 

instrumented to measure energetic electrons in the 

range 110 MeV. These measurements are needed 

to determine the dosage rates that satellite microcomponents will be subjected to under operational 

scenarios. 

Seasat-A Data Processing. NASA and the Navy 

have agreed to a cooperative effort for Seasat-A 

data processing. The Navy will do real time processing of the NASA Seasat-A satellite data at the 

Fleet Numerical Weather Central, and make the 

processed data available to NASA for distribution 

to the user community. The Navy will also demonstrate the utility of the Seasat data as inputs to 

global atmospheric and oceanographic analyses. and 

forecasts. This NASA/Navy effort capitalizes on 

the significant Navy programs to develop oceanographic applications for infrared imagery from the 

satellite data, and to use the data in analysis of 

sea-surface thermal structures such as locating 

oceanic fronts, eddies, and water masses. The surface temperature measurement and analysis capability supports the objectives of the National Climate 

Program. Several fleet exercises conducted in 1977 
demonstrated the potential of utilizing satellitecollected sea-surface temperatures for tactical applications in undersea warfare. 

Standard Atmosphere. The joint effort between 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), NASA, and USAF which produced the 

U.S. Standard Atmosphere (1976) continues. The 

joint publication has disseminated the wealth of 

knowledge of the upper atmosphere obtained during the past solar cycle. Extensive rocket and satellite data acquired over more than one complete 

solar cycle are incorporated. This stratospheric 

measurement capability will provide important 

spin-off benefits to the National Plans for Stratospheric Research and Monitoring which are now 

being prepared at the Federal level as a result of 

the growing concern over ozone depletion and environmental deterioration. 

Astronaut Selection. DoD is fully cooperating 

with NASA in their selection of astronaut candidates for the Space Shuttle Program. The selections 

from over 8000 applicants would be announced in 

1978. At present (1977) DoD has eleven officers 

assigned as astronauts, many of whom have prior 

space flight experience. 

Technical Development Support. DoD has detailed a number of technically trained persons to 

NASA to assist in programs of mutual interest. The 

technological transfer back to DoD in unique functional areas is important. The total number of 

detailees under the program in FY 1978 is 59 (45 

from Air Force, 8 from Navy, and 6 from Army). 

They are working in a variety of operational and 

R&D programs but most are associated with the 

Space Transportation System. The latter activities 

include space mission planning, avionics and communications security, crew procedures, payloads 

software, logistics, and facilities construction. 

48 
IV Department of Commerce 

Introduction 

The Department of Commerce agencies contributing directly to the nation’s aeronautics and 

space programs include the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) , the Maritime 

Administration (MARAD) , the National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NIIA), and the Bureau of the Census. 

The long-range goals of these organizations are 

to ensure wise use of the environment and its resources; to provide standards and related services 

for uniform and reliable physical measurements, 

standard reference materials, and data to commerce, 

industry, and government; to improve ship communications, navigation, safety, and management 

techniques; to provide specialized engineering, management, and advisory assistance on national telecommunications issues to other Federal agencies; 

and to provide information on population trends, 

urban growth, and internal structure of national 

land areas. 

These goals are accomplished by operating and 

improving the nation’s operational environmental 

satellite systems; by providing data to assess the im- 

.pact of natural and man-induced factors on such 

things as global food supplies, national energy 

problems, and environmental quality; by conducting fundamental research to improve man’s understanding of the environment; by using satellite data 

and aerial photography for charting, coastal mapping, and geodetic research; by improving weather 

services through the automation of forecast and 01)- 

servation stations, better radar systems, and continued atmospheric research; by improving the 

assessment and conservation of all living marine 

resources; by conducting telecommunications and 

information policy analyses, and navigation, telecommunication, and remote sensing studies to support communications services; by providing basic 

measurement and calibration methods for operating 

technical systems and engineering data for the design and construction of sophisticated space and 

aeronautics equipment; by using satellites to improve navigation, communication, and surveillance 

of commercial ship operations; and by using satellite data for demographic studies and population 

estimates. 

Space Systems 

Satellite OperaAolzs 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. During 1977, the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) of 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operated two satellites, Noaa 4 and 

Noaa 5, of the Improved Tiros Operational Satellite (ITOS) series. Noaa 5 is the primary operational satellite and Noaa 4 is the in-orbit backup. 

Development of the Tiros-N series, the third 

generation of operational polar-orbiting satellites, 

is continuing. This series of satellites will replace 

the present ITOS series beginning in late 1978. 

Tiros-N, the NASA prototype, will be launched in 

mid-1978; Noaa A, NOAA’s first operational satellite of this series, is scheduled for launch in late 

1978. 

Installation of the l’iros-N series ground equipment began at the NESS Satellite Operations Control Center in Suitland, Maryland, in September 

1977. The major components of the ground system 

are the Data Acquisition and Control Subsystem 

(DACS) and the Data Processing and Services Subsystem (DPSS). The DACS equipment will be 

located at Wallops, Virginia; Gilmore Creek, 

Alaska; San Francisco, California; Suitland, Maryland; and Lannion, France. This system will acquire 

environmental and engineering data and facilitate 

complete operational control of the entire ground 

system and satellite. The data processing equipment 

will be located at the NESS computer facility and 

be integrated with the acquisition system and a 

wideband communication network. The acquired 

data then will be preprocessed and conditioned for 

storage and products developed and distributed to 

the users. The data also will be retained for archive 

by the Environmental Data Service. 

Geostationary Satellites. Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Goes 2 was launched 

49 
June 16, 1977. On August 15, Goes 2 was positioned 

over the equator at 75" West longitude to replace 

Goes 1 as the eastern operational satellite. Goes 1 

was placed on standby in an orbit centered at 105" 

West longitude. Synchronous Meteorological Satellite SMS 2 remained at 135" West longitude as the 

western operational satellite. 

In February 1977, NESS increased to 72 the daily 

number of Weather Facsimile broadcasts from the 

two geostationary satellites. Each broadcast lasts 7 

minutes and transmits both processed images from 

the polar-orbiting satellites and unprocessed sectors 

from the two geostationary satellites. Plain-language 

operational messages related to the schedules and 

planning activities are broadcast twice each day 

from the eastern satellite and once each day from 

the western satellite. These data are received and 

used by a growing number of Department of Defense and foreign meteorological agencies. In October 1977, a limited number of National Meteorological Center conventional weather charts were 

broadcast daily from the eastern satellite at times 

other than the normal weather facsimile broadcasts. 

These broadcasts and routine imaging operations 

were made simultaneously. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Determining Wind5 and Temperatures. During 

1977, research continued on the automatic computation of winds from cloud motions observed by geostationary satellites. One study compared simultaneous wind vectors from identical clouds tracked 

by both Goes 1 and SMS 2. Results showed that 

the objective geographic registration of the infrared 

images was accurate within 8 kilometel s. Median 

wind vector differences were 1.2 and 1.5 meters pel 

second for computer-derived winds and for manually computed winds respectively. 

In another study, an objective analysis procediire 

for editing low-level picture-pair winds derived 

from geoytationary satellite images has been tested 

with satisfactory results. The object is to eliminate 

inaccurate data. This technique will reduce the 

amount of manual editing by 12 percent. Also, the 

temperature slicing technique used to calculate 

low-level cloud motions has been modified by increasing the array size used in the calculations. This 

reduces the amount of inaccurate data and presents 

a more coherent wind. 

A technique is being developed to define the lowlevel wind field around a hurricane. The components are cloud motion wind vectors from high 

resolution visible images, the location of the hurricane center, and a hurricane intensity index. 

When applied to data from Hurricane Belle (August 1976), it produced results corresponding to an 

actual wind field. 

Research was continued to determine why the 

subtropical jet stream acts as a southern boundary 

to severe weather. An examination of five case 

studies was made to see if cold air in the high 

trsposphere north of the ,jet is a contributing factor 

to deep instability. Detailed 200-millibar temperature analyses showed a wedge of cold air between 

the subtropical and polar jet streams. Severe storms 

occurred where the 200-millibar cold tongue was 

superimposed over the surface warm tongue and in 

areas of weak calculated divergence at upper levels. 

Work was continued to improve methods for extracting meteorological information from the High 

Resolution Infrared Sounder data from the Nimbus 

6 experimental meteorological satellite. Processing 

of data was completed for the Global Atmospheric 

Research Program (GARP) Nimbus 6 Data Systems Test periods 5 and 6. These data will be used 

to provide specifications for the First GARP Global 

Experiment in 1978. 

Research was conducted using Scanning Microwave Spectrometer data from Nimbus 6. Results 

showed that the data would be adequate as a lower 

resolution back-up system to Tiros-N for deriving 

temperature soundings. These data also were used 

to estimate 790-millibar wind speeds in large typhoons and precipitable water amounts over tropical areas. The results showed fair agreement with 

conventional radiosonde measurements. 

Monitoring Global Radiation. Time averaged 

global heat budget data from Noaa Scanning Radiometers continued to be archived and compiled 

in 1977 and were used in many studies. In one case, 

radiative heating data for the 1975 and 1976 Southeast Asia summer monsoons were studied. The 1975 

monsoon had greater intensity than the one in 1976, 

and there were differences in radiative heating in 

Southern and Central Asia during the two spring 

and summer seasons. Also, snow cover over Soviet 

Central Asia was greater in the spring of 1976 when 

the monsoon was weaker. Substantial changes in 

radiative heating, likely related to monsoon development, were observed over much of the central 

and eastern tropical Pacific. Earth Radiation B~idget data from Nimbus 6 continued to be used for 

monitoring global incoming solar and outgoing 

terrestrial radiation and as a measure of the solar 

constant. These 'data will be valuable tools in conducting climate-related studies. 

Knowledge of the Earth's radiation budget is an 

integral part of the nation's total climate program. 

In 1977, NESS established a group of researchers 

to work with NASA on the development of an 

Earth Radiation Budget Satellite System (ERBSS) . 

50 
The object of the ERBSS is to acquire radiation 

budget data for understanding and predicting 

climatic change. The instrument designed to meet 

these objectives will measure reflected and emitted 

radiation over a broad range of spectral intervals. 

The ERBSS will derive radiation data from instrument? to be carried on future NOAA-Tiros-N 

satellites and a NASA A4pplications Explorer Mission satellite. 

Environmental Warning Services. Throughout 

1977, the GOES Data Collection System (DCS) 

continued to grow in size and variety of uses. There 

are now 22 national and international users participating in this program which incorporates nearly 600 Data Collection Platforms (DCP). Some 

of the new applications included deployment of 25 

magnetometer platforms for the International Magnetospheric Study Program, relaying hurricane data 

from a C-130 reconnaissance aircraft, and implementation of the first Aircraft-to-Satellite Data 

Acquisition and Relay platform on a commercial 

jet. Importance of the GOES DCS was realized in 

areas of the country where the National Weather 

Service (NWS) had DCPs located to detect flooding. NWS and NESS developed procedures to collect data hourly whenever a flood threat arises. 

These procedures were used several times in 

Pennsylvania, Colorado, Oregon, and Texas. Demonstrations of the GOES DCS also were presented 

to government officials in Santiago, Chile, and to 

participants in the World Meteorological Organization’s regional association meeting in Mexico 

City, Mexico. 

A major milestone in the development of the 

GOES DCS was reached when a second generation 

ground processing system became operational on 

June 15, 1977. The new ground system consists of 

computers located at the World Weather Building 

and the Wallops Command and Data Acquisition 

station, communication equipment between the 

computers, expanded channel capacity, real-time 

dissemination of collected data, and redundant 

equipment for emergencies. 

The GOES-Tap system, inaugurated in 1975 to 

provide sector-by-sector weather images from Goes 

satellites, was expanded during 1977 to serve 20 

Federal and 16 nonfederal users. The NWS also 

provided Tap service to users located near their 

Weather Service Forecast Offices (WSFO). During 

1977, WSFO Tap service was increased to 72 subscribers. Lanica Airlines of Nicaragua became the 

first commercial airline to use the GOES-Tap. 

During 1977, Lanica, along with eight other Miamibased Latin American Airlines, used GOES-Tap 

images for aircraft routing over the Gulf of Mexico 

and the Caribbean. Sectorized images were provided every half hour by the Miami Satellite Field 

Services Station. 

During the 1976-1977 winter, NWS forecasters 

received GOES enhanced infrared images that were 

used to display surface temperatures critical to frost 

predictions. The forecasting technique was tested 

operationally in support of the Florida citrus industry. In the 1977-1978 winter season GOES infrared 

data will be displayed in digital rather than image 

form. Digital temperature data are expected to be 

more timely, accurate, and economical. 

Using GOES infrared temperature data, NESS is 

developing a digital cloud-top height display to 

detect the position, movement, and growth of 

thunderstorms. This technique will be further refined using the NWS Automation of Field Operations and Services system. This will allow forecasters 

to monitor more objectively local thunderstorm 

development from satellite data. Also under development is a set of digital satellite products that 

show hurricane intensity, rainfall amounts, and 

solar insolation. 

A quantitative method for analyzing tropical 

storm intensity qes GOES enhanced infrared images. The procedure involves contouring the coldest 

cloud tops to show certain temperature patterns 

that are related to the storm’s wind speed, central 

pressure, and center location. This technique 

enables forecasters to estimate hurricane intensities 

at night when visible images are unavailable. 

GOES enhanced infrared images are used to 

detect high concentrations of low-level moisture. 

When skies are clear in the early evening, moist 

air in the boundary layer will cause the land 

beneath it to appear darker than land under dryer 

air. This is because land under moist air cools at a 

slower rate. It is in these areas where fog is most 

likely to form later in the night. Thus areas with a 

high probability of fog formation can be predicted 

several hours in advance. 

During 1977, specially enhanced visible images 

were used to locate fog areas and forecast the time 

of fog dissipation. Early morning images were analyzed for fog brightness. Brightness is related to fog 

dissipation time. 

Work continued on the detection of haze and air 

pollution from satellite images. Early morning and 

late afternoon visible pictures, taken when the sun 

angle is low, show these hazy, polluted areas particularly well. The haze often restricts visibility and 

can be a hazard to low-level aircraft operations. 

Thus satellite images aid in making short-range 

forecasts of restrictions to visibility. 

Search and Rescue Support. In 1977 NESS continued to provide satellite data to support the U.S. 

Air Force and U.S. Coast Guard Search and Rescue 

51 
operations. The California Wing of the Civil Air 

Patrol has been using satellite images for Search 

and Rescue missions since 1974. Satellite pictures 

show weather conditions at the time the pilots were 

in distress. Up to 40-percent reduction in mission 

flying hours has been achieved by using satellite 

data. 

The Coast Guard used satellite data in its Search 

and Rescue missions to determine sea surface temperatures and ocean current boundaries. Sea surface 

temperatures are important to mission planning, 

especially in the winter when temperature differences between the Gulf Stream and adjacent shelf 

waters can be more than 17°C. This can mean a 

difference in life expectancy, as affected by exposure, of several hours to several days and a radically 

different drift rate and direction. 

Determining Ocean Conditions. Seasat-A is a 

NASA oceanographic satellite scheduled for launch 

in 1978. It is designed to provide all-weather global 

monitoring of oceanographic conditions using an 

array of microwave instruments and one visibleinfrared instrument. NOAA will participate in a 

research and demonstration program using SeasatA data as they apply to NOAA requirements. 

Thirty-five experiments are planned in the open 

ocean and coastal zone on winds and waves, currents and circulation dynamics, surface temperatures, geodesy, and sea ice. Demonstration activities 

will involve meteorology, oceanography, geodesy, 

and living marine resources. In addition plans are 

under way to sponsor a few experiments by nongovernment organizations. 

Ocean color research continues in support of the 

Coastal Zone Color Scanner to be carried on Nimbus-G, scheduled for launch in 1978. The capability to acquire in situ optical measurements simultaneously with remotely-sensed radiance data was 

demonstrated by experiments conducted in late 

1975. A more extensive ship and aircraft field program was carried out in the Gulf of Mexico in 

October 1977, by scientists from NOAA, NASA, 

the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Texas 

A&M University. The objectives were to provide a 

prelaunch in-situ data base for development of 

chlorophyll and total suspended sediment models, 

to standardize measurement procedures for these 

parameters, and to test instruments for acquisition 

of spectral irradiance data. 

The Scripps Institution of Oceanography, supported by NESS, completed development on the 

bio-optical state of the ocean which can be characterized by determining certain optical parameters 

as a function of wavelength. Then bio-optical state 

can be related to chlorophyll concentrations, which 

further can be linked to other important biological 

features of the ocean. Satellite optical measurements, like those expected from the color scanner, 

can provide otherwise virtually unobtainable information on the detection, growth, and decay of 

plankton. Such information can provide a better 

understanding of marine ecosystems. 

Mean monthly sea surface temperature fields, 

derived from satellite infrared measurements, were 

compiled for the past several years. These data 

were used to construct annual-change and anomaly 

charts for possible use in long-range weather forecasting and climate dynamics studies. One interesting feature was a large cold-water anomaly that 

developed in the North Pacific in the autumn of 

1976 and reached peak intensity in February 1977. 

A similar anomaly appeared to be developing in 

the same general area in late summer 1977. 

NESS is using GOES visible and infrared digital 

data to produce composite sea surface-temperature 

gradient maps. By using GOES images at various 

times of the day, a cloud-free composite of the sea 

surface-thermal structure is displayed. During 1977, 

this daily composite was used to determine the position of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf of Mexico 

Loop Current. The Satellite Field Services Stations 

have provided this information to commercial and 

sports fishermen, recreational boaters, and the 

merchant marine. 

In March 1977, work began on preparing maps 

showing ice conditions in the Labrador Sea and 

Davis Strait. These maps, derived from Noaa 5 

and Goes 1 satellite images, were disseminated three 

times a week to the Coast Guard as an aid to navigation. Also, the Coast Guard was briefed on cloud 

conditions over its International Ice Patrol area, 

based on satellite images. This information saves 

aircraft time and reduces operating costs. NESS 

also continued to prepare and distribute ice maps 

of Alaskan Coastal waters for shipping interests for 

the fifth consecutive year. 

High-resolution images from Landsat 1 and 2 

were used by NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory to compile an atlas of underwater internal waves off the North American east 

coast, the first large-scale view of this phenomenon. 

The data were used to prepare two oceanographic 

investigations of internal waves. 

Scientists from NOAA’s Outer Continental Shelf 

Environmental Assessment Program used sea surface temperature data from NOAA satellites in conjunction with hydrographic data to map surface 

currents in the Gulf of Alaska. This program supports the University of Alaska in acquiring and 

cataloging remote sensing data from satellites and 

aircraft and distributing these data to scientists involved in Alaskan studies. 

NOAA’s Wave Propagation Laboratory developed a method of using satellite radar altimeter 

52 
data to determine sea state. This method has been 

applied to a limited amount of Geos 3 altimetei 

data, producing estimates of significant wave height 

to 0.6 meters accuracy over 70 kilometer-square 

areas. 

Determining Lnkr Conditions. Analysis of satellite infrared data over the Great Lakes during 

November 1976 showed the lake surface temperatures to be an average of 5°C cooler than on the 

same date in 1975. These low temperatures preceded one of the heaviest ice years on record. On 

February 7, 1977, Noaa 5 satellite data showed Lake 

Michigan was completely frozen over for the first 

time in 20 years. 

NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research 

Laboratory and NESS used satellite multispectral 

images to map reflectance patterns from calcium 

carbonate precipitation in the Great Lakes. This 

milky-water phenomenon, called a whiting, was examined over a 4-year period. Results showed that 

whitings occur regularly during the summer and 

fall in Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Michigan. 

Determining Hydrological Conditions. NESS continued to produce satellite maps of snowcover in 

about two dozen United States and Canadian river 

basins. Nearly 500 snowcover maps were compiled 

between November 1976 and June 1977. Users were 

the National Weather Service, U.S. Geological Survey, Corps of Engineers, Soil Conservation Service, 

and Bureau of Reclamation. These maps were used 

to help assess the extent of the 1977 drought in the 

western United States. Snowpacks in the high elevations of Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, California, 

and Oregon, were found to be the lowest or near 

the lowest on record. Using Noaa 5 VHRR images, 

mid-April areal snowcover for California’s Sierra 

Nevada Mountain Range was determined to be 

only one third of what it had been on the same 

date in 1975. Satellite derived snow and ice cover 

maps were transmitted daily to NWS hydrologists 

in the middle Atlantic and northeastern states. This 

information was used to prepare river and flood 

forecasts. Regional hydrologists found the information to be especially useful because this section of 

the country experienced one of the most severe 

winters in history. 

A technique for estimating hourly rainfall from 

convective clouds using enhanced infrared and high 

resolution visible satellite images was field tested in 

1977. Field tests were conducted by hydrologists at 

the Weather Service offices at Phoenix, Arkona, 

and Lubbock, Texas; the Kansas City, Missouri, 

Satellite Field Services Station; and the Division of 

Hydrology in Caracas, Venezuela. Preliminary results show successful identification of areas of no 

significant rainfall and reasonable estimates of total 

rainfall in heavy precipitation areas. This technique will aid in monitoring areas of convective 

ixinfall for agricultural uses and flash flood warnings. It is especially useful for areas where no reporting stations are present, or where surface reports arc delayed by poor communications. 

Also, GOES visible and infrared images were 

used to develop a digital enhancement technique 

for estimating rainfall rates and potential rainfall 

for tropical storms: The National Hurricane and 

Experimental Laboratory used this technique to 

prepare rainfall estimates for the National Hurricane Center’s warning services. The NWS River 

Forecast Center at San Antonio, Texas, used this 

information to monitor heavy rainfall continupusly 

as Hurricane Anita crossed the Texas-Mexico coast 

in September 1977. 

The NWS collected rainfall data from 61 unmanned sites in its Automatic Hydrologic Observing System. These data were transmitted to 

Kiver Forccast Centers via the GOES Data Collection System and were used in the river and flood 

forecasting program. 

NESS completed a series of satellite-derived snowcover maps and graphs of North America and 

Eurasia for the period November 1966 to September 1977. The maps showed the monthly variation 

of snowcover, and the graphs showed the monthly, 

seasonal, and annual variation of snowcover on 

each continent. A 12-month running mean of 

monthly values showed no significant fluctuations 

or trends for North America, but two large increases 

in snowcover were observed for Eurasia. One of 

these occurred in the 1971-1972 winter and the 

other in the 1976-1977 winter. 

A study was made of near-infrared reflectance 

from snow using Skylab multispectral scanner data. 

Results showed that reflectance over uniform snowpack is significantly lower in the near-infrared than 

in the visible red part of the spectrum, and that 

the near-infrared can be used to distinguish objectively between snow and clouds. More data are 

needed to clearly distinguish between snow reflectance nieasiirements made in the laboratory and 

those obtained from spacecraft and aircraft. 

Monitol-ing Agrirdtzil-a1 Conditions. In cooperation with the Great Plains Agricultural Council 

and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, NESS 

joined in an effort to develop a technique for estimating solar insolation over the Great Plains using 

GOES digital data. The parameters measured were 

surface brightness, cloud brightness, cloud cover, 

precipitable water, and surface pressure. The first 

three parameters were determined from satellite 

data ancl the last two from surface measurements. 

These data are presently being correlated with surface truth pyranoineter data provided by the Great 

Plains Council. Eventually, the insolation data may 
be incorporated into yield models for sorghum and 

wheat crops. 

Fisheries Monitoring. During 1977, NESS continued to produce charts showing ocean thermal 

fronts, observed from high-resolution satellite data, 

along the California coast. The Ocean Services Unit 

at Seattle began issuing similar information for thc 

offshore waters of Oregon and Washington. It is 

known that nutrients and plankton important to 

the food chain for fish are concentrated along these 

fronts as a result of seasonal upwelling. For the 

past three years, these charts have been used by 

West Coast tuna and salmon fishermen to locate 

productive fishing areas. In spite of increasing fuel 

costs and more stringent fishing regulations, the 

commercial fishermen have improved their efficiency and reduced overfishing of small areas. In 

1977, this service was expanded to the northwest 

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. The swordfish industry is being provided weekly Gulf Stream analyses, 

and some fishing ,companies are purchasing satellite images for direct use in their fishing operations. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service, in cooperation with other Federal and private agencies, 

initiated research to use satellites for tracking porpoise migration in the eastern tropical Pacific. A 

preliminary study was conducted by fitting trained 

porpoises with small transmitters capable of operating a year and relaying position data via the Nimbus 6 Remote Access Management System. Data can 

be received for up to 200 platforms within the satellite’s view and from 1000 platforms per orbit. 

The Fisheries Service also participated in Seasat-A prelaunch studies conducted off the coast of 

California during the spring of 1977 to determine 

if a scatterometer system would provide accurate 

measurements of wind stress for use in estimating 

water movement. Test results will be available early 

in 1978. The objective is to evaluate the potential 

of space-borne scatterometer measurements for improved yield predictions for certain estuarinedependent fish. The survival of these species is 

dependent on the egg and larval stages being transported by surface water currents to estuarine nursery grounds. 

The National Fisheries Engineering Laboratory, 

in cooperation with NASA and the Coast Guard, 

investigated the use of space-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar systems for fishery management and 

fishing vessel surveillance. Preliminary results were 

published this year describing tests of vessel surveillance conducted over concentrations of foreign 

vessels in the Bering Sea. Detection of a broad 

range of fishing vessels seems certain, but questions 

remain concerning additional information such as 

vessel speed, direction, activity, and size. 

Other Uses of Satellites and Space 

International Cooperatiow 

Shn~ing Data. More than 120 countries receive 

low-resolution Automatic Picture Transmission 

(APT) images, and ;I dozen countries also receive 

high-resolution images from NOAA polar-orbiting 

satellites. Another 20 high-resolution stations are 

planned, including one at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Ten countries in the Caribbean and in 

Central and South America also receive Weather 

Facsimile (WEFAX) images from geostationary 

satellites, and new stations soon will be operating 

in Western Europe, Africa, and some Pacific Ocean 

sites. 

The National Weather Service, under the Voluntary Assistancc Program for the World Meteorological Organization, established combination APT/ 

WEFAX stations with improved satellite video 

capability in Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala 

in November and December 1977. These stations 

can receive data from polar orbiting and geostationary satellites and will be the prototypes for eventual 

replacement of older APT equipment. The capability of the satellite to relay environmental data 

to ground stations within the satellite’s transmission range has improved the observation and prediction efforts of many nations. 

These data recently have been used by the U.N. 

Food and Agricultural Organization to suppress 

locust emergence and migration in northern Africa. 

They have been used to support exploratory oil 

drilling activities in the North Sea and Canadian 

Archipelago: to estimate snowfall in Norway for 

hydro-electric power generation; and to improve 

flight forecasting, flood control efforts, marine 

transportation, and research in weather modification in many countries. Much international good 

will has derived from cooperation and coordination among nations using this form of space techThe United States and the Soviet Union continued to exchange satellite cloud pictures during 

1977. During the year the Soviets launched a new 

series of satellite called Meteor 2. The visible and 

infrared radiometers on this satellite appear to have 

environmental monitoring capability close to our 

ITOS series. Photographs received from the satellite have a resolution of about 2 kilometers. In addition the United States received data from Meteors 

24 through 28 and sent data from Noaa 4 and 5 

to Russia. 

During 1977, the Department of State, Agency for 

International Development (AID) , was provided 

with cloudcover data over the sub-Sahara part of 

Africa and the Caribbean area for use in determining the probability of precipitation. As part of 

nology. 
the tropical storm surveillance program, high 

winds and potential flooding in tropical areas of 

the world also were monitored. 

Demographic Studies. The Bureau of the Census, 

supported by AID, demonstrated the use of Landsat 

data in demographic studies. Studies for Bolivia 

and Kenya were completed in 1977, and the results 

documented the use of satellite images in preparing 

Population and Housing Census operational maps. 

The reports also noted the relation of land cover 

to population density. 

The Census Bureau also continues to study the 

use of Landsat data in domestic census activities. 

An Applications System Verification and Transfer 

agreement was signed with NASA. The experiment 

will test the utility and cost effectiveness of using 

computer-processed Landsat data for delineating 

urban fringe zones around the nation’s m a j or metropolitan areas. Urban land cover, recorded by 

Landsat, is being compared with photographs from 

high-altitude aircraft and other cartographically 

prepared products. If Landsat proves useful and 

cost-effective for monitoring the geographic expansion of urban areas, a larger sample will be tested. 

Weather Modification 

NOAA’s National Hurricane and Experimental 

Meteorology Laboratory used satellite data for its 

research into the development and modification of 

convective cloud systems. Studies were initiated to 

apply rainfall estimates from satellite images to the 

analysis of cumulus modification experiments over 

an extended area. Satellite data promise to be important for diagnosing larger-scale effects of 

weather modification. 

The Laboratory also used satellite data in hurricane research. Data collected with satellites, aircraft, and radar from Hurricane Anita (September 

1977) are being analyzed to determine if systematic 

oscillations of cloud growth occur, if satellites can 

track cloud elements at speeds corresponding to observed wind speeds, and if characteristic cloud developments occur that can be related to present 

storm strength and potential for future development. 

Determination of the Earth’s Shape and 

Gravity Field 

NOAA’s National Ocean Survey and the Joint 

Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics made computer simulations of observations on the 1,ageos 

satellite by laser stations and determined geodetic 

station positions on the Earth with mean errors less 

than 5 centimeters. This method was limited in obtaining the desired accuracy because of limited 

knowledge of the Earth’s gravitational field. Improved Doppler data and more refined data processing have reduced positional errors to less than 50 

centimeters for 40 stations and 10 to 25 centimeters 

for differenced positions. Comparison with the exterm1 standards of Very Long Baseline Interferometry position determinations and the High 

Precision Transcontinental Traverse yielded comparable accuracies. A high-quality aerial camera is 

being developed and tested to provide higher density geodetic control more quickly and economically. 

The altimeter data base set up for the Geos 3 

satcllite now contains more than 1500 passes. These 

data have been enhanced through improved analysis techniques and have produced more accurate 

solutions for the Earth’s gravitational field. The 

Ocean Survey continued to work with NASA in 

setting up methods and programs for using altimeter data from Seasat-A for geodetic purposes. 

Analysis of Geos 3 and a Navy navigational satellite data for determination of ocean tidal amplitudes has confirmed that standard published ocean 

tide models are in error by a factor of one-third. 

As a result, a value for the acceleration of the Moon 

has been determined. This supports recent analysis 

of long-term astronomical observations. 

On January 10, 1977, the Survey, the Defense 

Mapping Agency, and the Groupe de Recherches 

de Ceodesie, France, started making Doppler observations at the Ukiah California Latitude Observatory, to support the French experiment to 

determine polar motion by Doppler tracking of artificial satellites. The Survey started a new project, 

Polar Motion Analysis by Radio Interferometric 

Surveying (POLARIS), to monitor polar motion 

and Earth rotation with improved spatial and temporal resolution using radio interferometry techniques. The POLARIS data will have wide application in deep-space navigation, celestial mechanics, 

relativity, and Earth evolution studies. 

The National Bureau of Standards has investigated the use of a single photo-electron laser ranging technique to reduce the cost and increase the 

accuracy of satellite ranging stations. Preliminary 

studies indicate a 1.5-centimeter accuracy in ranging to the Lageos satellite. Under development is 

a 3-wavelength ground-to-ground laser distance 

measuring system with a 50-kilometer range and 

an accuracy of one part in 20 million. The system 

is intended to provide accurate geodetic ties to a 

surrounding network of markers from a site whose 

location is determined by satellite or lunar laser 

ranging stations or long baseline interferometry 

stations. 

Thc use of high-accuracy range measurements to 

;in orbiter around the planet Mercury for testing 

gravitational physics was studied. A check on a 

possible change in the gravitational constant with 

55 
time may be possible. Much improved checks on a 

number of other aspects of present gravitational 

theory also could be performed with such a mission. 

Sntellite Communications 

Cornmimications Studies. The Office of Telecommunications published a study comparing the reliability of submarine cable and satellite communications. Data from the American Telephone and 

Telegraph Company’s overseas message telephone 

circuits from 1970-1975 were used. Comparisons foi 

each of the six years provided summaries of causes 

of cable outages and ways in which service was 

restored. Satellite communications were found to 

be more reliable. 

A study was published on the aspects of direct 

voice communications from a satellite to individual 

homes for natural disaster warnings. The use of 

home radios and television sets for receiving these 

signals appeared remote. 

Three computer programs were developed and 

published that will automatically check the compliance of fixed Earth stations with international 

power and antenna beam pointing restrictions; 

help engineers maximiLe satellite antenna coverage 

over particular portions of the Earth, while minimizing the effects of interference to other telecommunication systems; and calculate contours of 

power density measured at geostationary orbit. 

Conzmerczal Satellite Service. The Maritime Administration continued to expand its program of 

commercial satellite communications. In 1977 the 

Maritime Satellite (MARISAT) consortium announced commercial services from the Indian 

Ocean. The number of US-owned vessels equipped 

with MARISAT terminals tripled, and the world 

fleet doubled in 1977. The MARISAT satellite 

communications system has opened 24-hour telephone and teleprinter service to ships at sea. Luxury 

liner passengers can now make ship-to-shore telephone calls directly from their state1 ooms. Cargo 

ships can avoid ports shut down by strikes, pick up 

new orders, and shift cargoes from one ship to another enroute. Oil tankers operating between 

Alaska and other U.S. ports can keep in contact 

with the home office. Canadian ice-breakers, whose 

mission it is to keep Canada’s far-north sea lanes 

open for the shipping of supplies and equipment 

for re5ource development, can maintain constant 

communication with the Ministry of Transportation. Underway oil drilling rigs located in the Gulf 

of Alaska can conimunicate with their headquarters 

on shore. Satellite communications mean more 

efficient cost-cutting traffic management. 

Satellite Antennas. The National Bureau of 

Standards extended the development of near-field 

theory and measurement techniques for microwave 

antennas. It IS now possible to perform accurate 

near-field measurements in the laboratory. Accurate 

gain, pattern, and polarization data are obtained 

for prelaunch testing of complicated multiantenna 

satellite systems and the terrestrial evaluation of 

ground stations. 

Orbzling Stanrlarcts. Test and measurement methods for the Orbiting Standards Platform are being 

defined. The Hureau of Standards will provide the 

required standards and carry out the satellite postIauncli verification program. The platform will be 

accessible to virtually all users of satellite systems 

and will provide more reliable calibrations than 

can be achieved by other techniques. 

7’irric: Sc17ticcs. During 1977, time code transmissions on the 468-NHz frequency were continued 

lroiii both GOES satellites. Improved satellite position prediction techniques resulted in time code 

performance of Ixtter than 25 microseconds. A 

comniercial version of the GOES satellite clock 

system now is ;ivailable. The GOES time code is 

in use or heing considered for use in scientific data 

monitoring and correlation, navigation, communication systems, ;ind electric power networks. 

The Bureau of Standards has developed an extremely accurate atomic clock for satellite use. The 

device uses atomic hydrogen and has design features 

that are adapted to remote control in space. Other 

atomic clocks, based on cesium and rubidium 

resonances, were tested in a simulated space environmcnt. These atomic clocks are critical components in world-wide, satellite-based navigation 

systems intended for space, air, sea, and ground 

posi tion location. 

Space Support Activities 

W’eather Support 

I>airnching ActWities. During 1977, the National 

Weather Service provided meteorological support 

to the Space Shuttle, Landsat, Voyager, Seasat, and 

the Rocketsoride and Atmospheric Ozone Measurement Programs. For the Space Shuttle, support was 

principally background and planning studies of atmospheric conditions at launch and landing sites. 

1,andsat support required forecasts of cloud-free 

areas under the orbital path of the satellites. For 

the Voyager mission, forecasts were used to develop 

programs to maximize return signals from the 

spacecraft. Seasat support consisted of obtaining 

surface truth data for evaluation of the radar altimeter on Geos 3. Meteorological support was provided to the Wallops Flight Center for its rocketsonde and atmospheric ozone projects. 

56 
Solar Activity 

The NOAA Space Environment Services Center, 

operated jointly by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force, 

is the National and World Warning Agency for 

disturbances on the Sun, in space, in the upper atmosphere, and in the Earth’s magnetic field. Alerts 

and measurements of these disturbances are provided to scientists in space physics and geophysics 

for planning scientific studies and experiments. The 

largest of these, the International Magnetospheric 

Study (IMS) , is an international cooperative scientific program (1976-1979) designed to provide a 

better understanding of the dynamics of the Earth’s 

external magnetic field. The Center supported the 

IMS with data collection and dissemination, and 

predictions, that were used to schedule satellite operations, rocket launches, and ground-based experiments. Similar information was provided to both 

military and civilian communication satellites and 

military reconnaissance systems. The primary data 

systems used were the Space Environment Monitor 

and Solar Proton Monitor on the GOES and ITOS 

satellites, the Global Solar Flare Patrol operated 

by NOAA and the Air Force, and data collected 

from the International Ursigram and World Days 

Service. 

The Environmental Data Service operates the 

World Data Center-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 

Last year World Data Center-A established a temporary IMS Central Information Exchange Office. 

This office is responsible for informing satellite, 

rocket, balloon, and ground-based experimenters 

about accomplishments, programs in progress, and 

future program plans for the duration of IMS. Opportunities for program coordination are stressed 

and have resulted in satellite experiment reconfigurations, rocket launch schedule changes, and repositioning of experinknts from the surface to 

satellite altitudes. Prompt notification of special 

data collection opportunities based on multiple 

satellite configurations has been provided weekly 

to scientists. An address list of participating scientists was prepared and distributed to 2000 persons 

to facilitate direct contact between scientists. 

Monthly IMS newsletters carry the bulk of program information, maps, and news of preliminary 

scientific results. 

Space Processing Research 

New research elTorts were started by the Bureau 

of Standards to support NASA’s program of using 

the Space Shuttle as an orbital workshop for materials science. The advantages of low gravity conditions in materials processing and thermochemical 

measurements on reactive oxides were evaluated. In 

addition, measurements and calculations were initiated to determine the effects of gravity on liquid 

flow and flame propagation and inhibition. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Space Physics 

Interplanetary Physics. The NOAA Space Environment Laboratory made dynamic, multidimensional computer simulations of solar flares using 

Skylab observations as a guide. This work, performed in collaboration with the University of 

Alabama in Huntsville, enables simulation of disturbances that travel from the Sun to the Earth. 

Several models of the chemical composition (protons, electrons, and ionized helium) of the steady 

solar wind have been studied. One model considers 

nonradial flow near the Sun while another considers radial flow from the Sun to any point in 

space. Recent work has suggested that the period 

from 1645-1715, when there was visible absence of 

solar activity, showed a steady, magnetically featureless, low velocity, solar wind flow around the 

Eaxth’s magnetosphere. 

Hydrogen cyanide has been observed in the Jovian atmosphere in quantities greater than expected. Seeking to explain this, the Bureau of 

Standards has developed a mechanism to measure 

ihe ixte constant for hydrogen cyanide formation. 

Imlxoved thermodynamic values obtained through 

infrared absorption and mass spectrometric studies 

have been obtained for methyl and methylene radic;ils. These‘ species are important in the chemistry 

of Jupiter and are derived from the decomposition 

of methane by solar radiation. 

Tecliniques to analyze ultraviolet spectra are being developed using chromospheric models for solar 

active regions, and the study of wave modes in the 

solar chromosphere and transition i-egion is under 

way, using Os0 8 observations. Spectroheliograms 

ol>tained from the Naval Research Laboratory’s 

Skylab experiment have been used to study the 

formation of neutral and ionized helium lines in 

the solar atmosphere. Observations of cool stars 

have been analyzed to derive chromospheric models 

and estimates of the gravity-dependence of nonradiative heating in these stars. The first extremeultraviolet observations of a flare star, Proxima 

Centauri, obtained from an experiment on ApolloSoyuz, were analyzed in terms of coronal properties 

of this star. This information will be useful to radio 

astronomers all over the world. 

Atmospheric Physics 

Ionospheric Physics. Space Environment Laboratory scientists used solar x-ray measurements from 

the GOES satellites to detect solar flares. Research 

57 
was started to detect these explosions on the Sun 

before their x-ray and extreme ultraviolet flux intensity increased enough to significantly affect the 

ionosphere. One use of early flare-detection systems 

will be high time-resolution measurements to determine the ionospheric effects of solar flares. 

Magnetospheric Physics. Analysis of energetic ion 

data in the interplanetary medium outside the 

Earth's magnetosphere shows these particles have 

originated from the magnetosphere. The Earth thus 

joins the Sun and Jupiter as a source, within the 

solar system, of the energetic particles and lowenergy cosmic rays found in the interplanetary medium. Scientists have concluded that the extraterrestrial ring current is not composed of solar 

wind protons, but of heavier ions of helium or 

oxygen. The theory, proposed last year, that the 

ionosphere rather than the solar wind is the major 

sonrce of energetic radiation-belt ions, has been 

confirmed by observations that show ions of ionospheric origin jetting upward toward the outer 

magnetoyhere where they are trapped and produce 

the ring current. Evidence is mounting that the 

process which energizes ionospheric ions and injects 

them into the magnetosphere is the same process 

which jets electrons from the magnetosphere into 

the atmosphere to produce auroral displays. An 

auroral theory has been developed that the ionosphere's demand for electrical current from the 

magnetosphere leads to the creation of electric potential difference along the geomagnetic field line. 

The existence of such a potential difference would 

lead directly to the acceleration of electrons downward to produce the aurora and ions upward to 

produce the ring current. 

Data fi-om GOES magnetometers were used to 

begin development of techniques to predict geomagnetic disturbances called substorms. This effort 

will help the Space Environment Services Center to 

predict disturbed communication conditions and 

predict conditions which lead to electrical malfunctions onboard communication satellites. 

Stratospheric Physics. The NOAA Aeronomy 

Laboratory has obtained comprehensive measurements of nitrogen dioxide distribution in the stratosphere using ground and airborne spectroscopictechniques. Global measurements of stratospheric 

concentrations of fluorocarbons F-1 1 and F-12 and 

nitrous oxide also have been obtained using balloon-grab sampling methods. The nitrous oxide 

measurements yielded improved vertical transport 

coefficients that will allow better predictions of 

stratospheric oLone loss from manmade causes. Laboratory reaction rate measurements have substantially lowered the predicted stratospheric ozone 

destruction by supersonic aircraft and substantially 

raised the predicted stratospheric ozone destruction 

by chlorofluorocarbon release. 

A new Bureau of Standards instrument was used 

to nieasure calibration standards for a NASA satellite dedicated to mapping atmospheric ozone. Radiometric calibrations performed for NASA are important to NASA programs for monitoring solar 

radiation. 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

Phoiochemistty. The Bureau of Standards has 

demonstrated for the first time in laboratory experiments a possible method of sunlight destroying 

chloromcthanes in the troposphere. Solar radiation 

reaching the troposphere can break down chloromethanes if the chemicals are first adsorbed to 

the surfaces of sand or quartz particles. The extent to which these chemical pollutants may be removed from the troposphere is being assessed. 

The Bureau is participating in an interagency 

program to predict the effects of halocarbons. and 

nitrogen oxides on the ozone concentration in the 

stratosphere. The possible buildup of halocarbons, 

their global distribution, and fate requires analytical measurements at extremely low concentrations. 

Rate constants have been determined for the reactions of chlorine and oxygen atoms with chlorine 

nitrate over the temperature range 225" to 273°K. 

The rates indicate that the chlorine reaction is not 

important, but the .oxygen atom reaction competes 

with solar photodissociation above 30 kilometers. 

Nitric acid is an important molecule that connects 

the hydrogen and nitrogen oxide reaction cycles in 

the Earth's stratosphere. The details of its decomposition by solar radiation are necessary to understand the reaction cycles of ozone production and 

depletion. 

Data Programs 

Environmental Data 

Oil Storag~. The Environmental Data Service's 

Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis 

uses the GOES Data Collection System to obtain 

hourly observations of ocean circulation patterns 

from a prototype Salt Dome Environmental Monitoring System in the Gulf of Mexico. Under the 

Strategic Petroleum Program, salt domes or caverns 

are used for oil storage. The enlargement of these 

caverns by leaching presents a problem of brine dispod in the coastal waters. The monitoring of potential salt brine disposal areas provides the data 

needed to characterize and predict brine disposal 

patterns. 

World Food Assessments. The Large Area Crop 

Inventory Experiment (LACIE), a cooperative ef58 
fort of NOAA, NASA, and the Department of Agriculture, has demonstrated technology to monitor 

global weather patterns, identify current anomalous 

weather situations, and make quantified estimates 

of the weather’s influence on potential crop yields. 

Statistical climate crop yield models developed by 

the Center for Climatic and Environmental Assessment support this experiment. LACIE also is provided periodic assessments of the effects of weather 

and climate on crop production over the major 

agricultural regions of the world. These assessments 

utilize environmental satellite data to supplement 

information available from the limited network 

of ground based weather stations. Research leading 

to operational precipitation estimates from satellite 

data was initiated with NESS in August 1977, to 

enhance the global assessment capability. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Amornutical Chmts 

The National Ocean Survey, in response to a request from the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA), will certify obstacle and terrain data for 72 

air terminal sites in the United States. This is in 

support of FAA’s Minimum Safe Altitude Warning system, which alerts air traffic controllers when 

an aircraft descends below a safe flight altitude 

within a 120-kilometer radius of an air terminal 

facility. Fifteen major sites were analyzed in 1977. 

The FAA and the Ocean Survey also have developed product requirements and specifications for 

an Airport Facility Directory for the coterminous 

United States. It will be comprised of 7 volumes to 

be phased in over a period of 6 months beginning 

in late 1977. The Directory will be made available 

through subscription and will be updated every 8 

weeks. 

As air traffic and the complexity of regulations 

and control procedures increase, more specialized 

aeronautical charts are needed more quickly. TO 

keep pace with this demand, the Ocean Survey.organized an Aeronautical Chart Automation Project. 

The automated approach to aeronautical chart production was demonstrated this year when Radar 

Video Maps, generated by this system, were rated 

by the FAA as superior to those produced manually. 

This project is expected to make more efficient use 

of personnel and increase responsiveness to chart 

preparation deadlines. 

Use of Sensor Data from Aircraft 

Safety Services. The NOAA Atmospheric Physics 

and Chemistry Laboratory continued to conduct 

tests of a prototype clear-air turbulence detector 

and alarm system using NASA’s C-141A, Learjet, 

and Convair 990 aircraft. The infrared radiometer 

detects anomalies in the water vapor ahead of the 

aircraft and gives 2 to 5 minutes advance warning 

of clear-air turbulence. 

The NOAA National Severe Storm Laboratory 

used aircraft, conventional and dual-Doppler 

radars, a 444-meter weather-instrumented tower, 

and a mesonetwork of surface stations to investigate 

the Doppler radar’s potential to locate and depict 

thunderstorm turbulence by measuring wind variations. Doppler radar capabilities in optically clear 

air were studied for depiction of wind shear associated with thunderstorm gust fronts which endanger aircraft during airport landings and takeoffs. 

Pollution Monitoring. The Ocean Survey’s Ocean 

Dumping Program Office conducted an experiment 

in the Gulf of Mexico during July and August 

1977, to characterize the physical and chemical 

oceanographic conditions at an industrial waste 

disposal site. NASA aircraft acquired multispectral 

scanner and aerial photographic data over an organic sludge so as to track the distribution of paste. 

A similar experiment followed in December 1977, 

;it :I Deepwater Dumpsite in the Atlantic Ocean. 

59 
Department of Energy 

Introduction 

In the twenty years of the Space Age, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessors, the 

Energy Research and Development Administration 

and the Atomic Energy Commission, have had a 

growing role in our country’s exploration and exploitation of space. From a few early earth-orbital 

missions through lunar landings to long-term outerplanetary journeys, the compactness, reliability and 

life of nuclear isotope power supplies have been 

essential to mission success. A continuing primary 

goal is to support the nation’s civilian space exploration efforts with particular orientation toward 

NASA missions which depend upon delivery of 

adequate electrical power while operating in a 

remote, hostile, or specialized environment. 

In addition to the space applications of nuclear 

power, the practicability of using space for applications that bear directly on the nation’s energy 

problems is being investigated. One can foresee the 

possible adaptation of today’s spacecraft and satellites to the needs of tomorrow’s world. New space 

technologies and spin-offs from today’s technologies 

will undoubtedly play an important role in resolving our energy problems. 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

Progrmn Objectives 

various resources with the following intent: 

In supporting NASA and DoD, DOE applies its 

to exploit fully the results of prior research in 

nuclear fuel and special materials, thermoelectric elements, and candidate engine systems; 

0 to develop, analyze, and design toward the 

specific performance and environmental requirements established for the mission; 

0 to deliver environmentally acceptable, operationally safe, and technically qualified nuclear 

energy systems to the user agencies; 

0 to develop power systems technology for future 

requirements directed toward increased power, 

improved conversion efficiency and safety, and 

lower cost per electrical watt; 

0 to ensure the effectiveness of safety and environmental requirements for space nuclear systems operations; 

0 to perform data reduction analyses on 

launched or deployed nuclear power systems 

for comparison with predictions and for guidance toward future design alternatives; 

0 to initiate studies on the technology of alternative power sources, such as reactors, for potential high-power-demand applications. 

In support of these objectives, the expertise at 

governmen t-owned, contractor-operated laboratories is critical. DOE has recently completed construction of new plutonium-238 fuel fabrication 

laboratories and plant facilities at the Savannah 

River Plant site. Supporting research in fuel and 

advanced heat source design is conducted at the 

new Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Plutonium 

Facility. Continuing research and improvement in 

containment capsule materials is pursued at Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory and at the Mound Facility where heat source assembly functions are 

;I Is0 performed. 

Program Abstract 

DOE’S Ofice of Space Applications is the keystone in the structure linking nuclear materials and 

their technology with the space power requirements 

of other government agencies. The Atomic Energy 

Commission, fulfilling its historic role in the development of special nuclear materials for peaceful 

uses, provided the technical base for production of 

plutonium-238 in suitable quantities for space applications. This radioisotope has become the workhorse heat source for the majority of systems past, 

present, or future. Its 87.7-year half-life and its 

alpha-emission decay scheme combine to enable design and development of space power supplies with 

light weight, little shielding and long-term operational reliability. 

In one of its essential roles, the Ofice of Space 

Applications seeks to effectively couple its expertise 

in nuclear technology with the skills of commercial 

contractors. These contractors provide the develop60 
ment, fabrication, and support functions needed 

to deliver safe and efficient systems to convert the 

radioisotope decay heat into electrical energy. The 

so-called static conversion systems use solid state 

thermoelectric couples providing up to 500 watts 

of stable direct current to the spacecraft. Development of static converters is continuing, pointed toward higher efficiency and greater modularity. Dynamic conversion systems transfer the isotopic decay 

heat to a working fluid, which actuates a generator 

through either a piston or turbine system. Two 

such systems are currently under development, with 

expected efficiencies in the range of 18-30 percent, 

suitable to power requirements in excess of 1000 

watts. 

In its corollary role, the Office of Space Applications maintains liaison with NASA and DoD to 

explore and fulfill their needs for space nuclear 

power. The instrument of liaison is the coordinating committee; the vehicle of implementation is an 

interagency agreement supported by appropriately 

funded procurement requests. Mutual fulfillment 

is evident at launch or deployment; mission support for these culminating events also is provided 

to ensure complete nuclear safety coverage, where 

required, and to assist in data review on a postlaunch basis. 

Studies of trends and national needs of the future 

have indicated a potential requirement for reactorbased power systems to provide 10-100 kilowatts of 

electrical power for specialized applications. Advanced dynamic conversion systems are expected to 

be used with these reactors as schedules develop. 

Program Progress 

The following table provides a brief recapitulation of space nuclear power systems (radioisotope 

thermoelectric generators (KTGs) or reactors) 

supporting the indicated successful NASA or DoD 

missions: 

Summary of U.S. Space Nuclear Power Systems (1961-1977) 

System Mission Launch Date Sta tzis 

Snap-3A RTG 

Snap-3A RTG 

Snap-SA RTG 

Snap-9A RTG 

Snap-1OA Reactor 

Snap-19B3 RTG 

Snap27 RTG 

Snap27 RTG 

Snap-27 RTG 

SLtap19 RTG 

Snap-27 RTG 

Triad-RTG 

Snap-27 RTG 

Snap19 RTG 

Snap19 RTG 

MHW RTG 

MHW RTG 

Transit 4A 

Transit 4B 

Transit 5BN-I 

Transit 5BN-2 

Snapshot 

Nimbus 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 14 

Apollo 15 

Pioneer 10 

Apollo 16 

Transit 

Apollo 17 

Pioneer 11 

Viking 1 8c 2 

Les 819 

Voyager 1 ,% 2 

6 / 291 6 I 

IlllS/Sl 

9/28/63 

12/05/65 

4/03/65 

4/14/69 

I 1 / 14/69 

712617 I 

4/16/72 

9 /02 / 72 

1/31/71 

3/02/72 

12)07)72 

4/05/73 

8120175 X. 

3/14'/76 

8/20/77 8c 

9/05/77 

~~~~ 

,4chievetl orbit 

Achieved orbit 

Achieved orbit 

Achieved orbit 

Achieved orbit 

Achieved orbit 

Placed on lunar surface 

Placed on lunar surface 

Placed on lunar surface 

Operated to Jupiter 

Placed on lunar surface 

Achieved orbit 

Placed on lunar surface 

Operated to Jupiter; on way to Saturn 

Landed on Mars 

Achieved orbit 

Launched on way to outer planets 

Current Status. As of the end of 1977 

. The Transit, Snapshot, and Nimbus systems 

are in up to 4000-year-lifetime orbits after 

fulfilling numerous program objectives and in 

certain cases indicating areas for design improvements. 

0 The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) units were established by the 

Apollo explorers in five different locations on 

the Moon. Specifications called for a one-year 

operating life for the first four ALSEPs and 

two years for the Apollo 17 station; all have 

exceeded this requirement by delivering power 

up to the official termination date of September 30, 1977. As a consequence of the reliable 

performance of both the power supplies and 

the scientific instrumentation, NASA has accumulated evidence of approximately 10,000 

moonquakes and 2000 meteorite impacts, in 

addition to obtaining data on charged particles 

in the Moon's atmosphere and on the magnetic environment and interior lunar structure. 

0 Twenty trajectory months after its launch in 

March 1972, Pioneer 10 encountered Jupiter, 

performed close-up studies of the planet, its 

moons, and its environment, and transmitted 

these data to eager scientists on Earth. The 

four radioisotope thermoelectric generators on 

this spacecraft continue to report their own 

power output and scientific data after 5.6 years 

of service and from a distance exceeding 1.9 

61 
billion kilometers from both the Earth and the 

Sun. System performance is following an expected trend, while the spacecraft follows a 

solar system escape trajectory. 

Pioneer 11, technologically a twin but programmatically different, performed a Jupiter fly-by 

maneuver and then was targeted for Saturn encounter in 1979. Power system performance data, 

reported in flight from a distance of 1 billion kilonieters from Earth, again indicate a stable, predictable output after 4.5 years of operation. 

0 The Viking landers were successfully positioned at two selected sites on the planet Mars 

on July 20 and September 3, 1976 after launch 

on August 20 and September 9, 1975, respectively. The soil sampling apparatus, the complex sensors and analytical laboratories on 

board the landers, and the telemetry and television equipment transmitting information to 

Earth were dependent upon the radioisotope 

thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for continuing power supply. These units remained 

viable throughout the diurnal and seasonal 

temperature variations characteristic of the 

Mars weather patterns. In fact, some heat from 

the generators also was diverted periodically to 

keep certain lander equipment warm during 

the colder periods. Latest reports from the 

lander telemetry system indicate stable performance at a predictable power output level, 

after more than a year on the Martian surface. 

0 The Lincoln Experimental Satellites (Ides 8/9) 

were launched in March 1976 as communications satellites. The radioisotope generators on 

board not only provide necessary operating 

power but also are to demonstrate the dependability and survivability of a satellite powered 

in this manner for long-term operation in a 

hostile environment. At last check, the nuclear 

power supplies were delivering power slightly 

in excess of expectations, and performance was 

very satisfactory. The record of Les 8/9 generator performance lends encouragement to 

use of the Multi-Hundred Watt (MHW) units 

in other applications where Earth-orbital 

power supplies are required. 

The two Voyager spacecraft (formerly designated Mariner Jupiter/Saturn) were 

launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 

August 20 and September 5, 1977, respectively. 

Each was powered for its scientific mission 

studies by three MHW generators. Their combined output was on the order of 475 watts 

per spacecraft. The total nuclear power allocated for this mission essentially equals the 

total of all previous missions currently in 

space. Reports telemetered from the Voyagers 

indicate stable operation of the MHW generators and favorable prognosis for data retrieval 

at Jupiter encounter in 1979 and Saturn encounter in 1980-1981. It is anticipated that 

the generator lifetime will be adequate to return information from the approach to Uranus 

in 1986 and possibly from Neptune in 1989. 

Trends in Technology. Materials technology and 

generator design have shown a steady evolutionary 

improvement as the space nuclear power program 

advanced to meet the challenges of ever more 

stringent mission requirements. Selection of fuel 

material was limited initially to plutonium-238 

metal or an alloy with zirconium; these materials 

yielded 6-7 thermal watts per cubic centimeter of 

iuel, but were not compatible with typical capsule 

metals at elevated temperatures. Plutonium-238 

oxide microspheres, fused to high density with a 

plasma torch, were much more stable in contact 

with containment metals at elevated temperatures, 

but suffered from a low power density of 2.5-3.0 

watts per cubic centimeter. Significant improvement was achieved with molybdenum-coated particles, hot-pressed into a disk. This fuel form was 

much more stable toward its environment and 

showed a power density in excess of 4.0 watts per 

cubic centimeter. Further advantages were achieved 

with a hot-pressed sphere of plutonium-238 oxide, 

welded into an iridium capsule, and cushioned in 

a protective fibrous graphite impact shell. This 

fueled unit not only operates at high temperatures 

but is designed to withstand reentry heat and impact and to resist corrosive action in any environment. 

Throughout the design history of space nuclear 

power systems, severely competitive trends in specification are evident. Increasing power demands 

have been tempered by constraints on payload 

weight; as a consequence, engineers used beryllium 

and specialized graphites to reduce power system 

weight. Increasing safety requirements for launch 

and possible reentry situations result in multiple 

encapsulation with resistant metals; in response, 

fuel specialists developed fuel forms with higher 

power density and improved mechanical and chemical stability. 

Similarly, the development of thermoelectric converter materials has been responsive to the demands 

for additional power without weight penalties. The 

lead telluride modules of earlier systems were improved in efficiency by use of a tellurium-antimonygermanium-silver leg; by this expedient, the 

conversion factor rose from 5.0 to 6.3 percent. ,4n 

additional increment in efficiency was achieved by 

62 
adoption of silicon-germanium couples; conversion 

rose to 6.7 percent, and the higher operating temperature enabled greater wattage output. 

Representative materials and their performance 

parameters are tabulated to show the steady progress to date: 

Generator Snap-3 Snap-Pi Snap-19 MHW 

Mission Transit 4 

Fuel Form Pu-metal 

Thermoelement P bTe 

Specific Power, w/lb 0.67 

Conversion efficiency, percent 5.0 

~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ 

.4pollo Pioneer Les 8/9 

PuO, microspheres PuO, Mo cermet Pressed PnO, 

PbSnTe PbTe-TAGS SiGe 

1.06 1.36 1.90 

5.0 6.3 6.7 

Trends in Systems. To date, the static thermoelectric conversion systems have satisfied requirements for up to 500 watts of electrical power, delivered reliably for mission durations of up to ten 

years. Conversion efficiencies in the range of 5 to 7 

percent, however, may limit payload weights and 

therefore scientific opportunities may not be realized. Research has proceeded on a class of selenide 

thermoelement materials which have shown 8.5 

percent conversion factors in the laboratory, and 

appear to be capable of development toward 10-15 

percent efficiency. When achieved, the synergistic 

benefits of nuclear power and optimal conversion 

factor will provide striking advantages in retrieval 

of scientific data from outer-planetary missions. 

In anticipation of near-term requirements for 

nuclear electric power supplies capable of delivering 500-2000 watts, DOE has coupled its nuclear 

expertise with industry in the development of both 

a Brayton cycle engine and an organic Rankine 

cycle engine. It is expected that either of these systems, when chosen for flight development, will have 

efficiencies approaching 30 percent. 

The trends in technology and systems, pursued 

with adequate and well-managed resources, will 

lead toward continuirig progress and new outreach, 

as suggested. by the charts. 

Program Planning 

In the summer of 1977, Congress approved 

and began funding the Jupiter Orbiter/Probe, a 

NASA mission scheduled for launch in 1982. Its objective is to further explore the environment, atmosphere, topography, and structure of that fascinating planet. In support of this endeavor, DOE 

has undertaken to develop the selenide isotope generator, incorporating the higher efficiency selenide 

conversion materials and the flight-qualified MHWheat source. Two generators delivering 240 watts 

each comprise the nuclear power complement. 

Additional NASA missions proposed as FY 1979 

“new starts” include the solar-polar mission for 

launch in 1983; this mission is sponsored jointly by 

NASA and the European Space Agency. In anticipation of this requirement, DOE has initiated 

design and materials studies on a general purpose 

heat source, which would be coupled with a selenide thermoelectric converter. Improved performance and safety benefits are expected from this 

combination. 

On the horizon are DoD requirements which 

indicate a need for (a) systems supplying electrical 

power in the 1-2 kilowatt range, and (b) considerably more substantial systems delivering 10-100 

kilowatts. To support the indicated near-term need 

for the lower power levels, DOE is actively exploring the relative merits of two candidate dynamic 

systems, the Brayton isotope power system and the 

kilowatt isotope power system. The latter system 

employs an organic Rankine cycle engine. Development and engineering are progressing in each area; 

ground demonstration tests are scheduled for early 

1978 and detailed evaluation will be pursued to 

enable selection of that system best fulfilling its 

functional specifications and best suited to the conditions of Shuttle launch. A demonstration flight 

test in 1982-1983 is contemplated as part of the 

DoD space test program. Affirmative results from 

that demonstration flight test would be significant 

input to the selection of the power system for the 

global positioning satellite, deep space surveillance 

systems, and general purpose satellite communications system. 

For the higher kilowatt range, isotope power converters are not viable candidates; rather, spaceborne reactors are appropriate. Numerous groundbased reactor systems already have shown promise 

and studies leading to development of their specific 

utility for space applications are planned as a continuing element of the DOE space power program. 

Space Disposal of Nuclear Wastes 

A cooperative study with NASA/Lewis Research 

Center in FY 1972 investigated the feasibility of 

nuclear waste disposal in space. It was determined 

that space disposal could reduce but not eliminate 

the need for terrestrial disposal methods. It was 

;ilso concluded that additional processing would 

63 
Progress in Space Nuclear Power: 

DOD Missions 

I I 

I 

I 

Lincoln Experimental Satellite, I 

I I I 

100 1 

I 

I 

Transit 

I +: *: I 

I 

I I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

B 

B 

1958 1962 

1 L 

1966 1970 1974 1978 

I 

* I982 

be required to concentrate the long-lived radioactivity fraction for transport to space. During the 

past year, DOE provided further information to 

NASA to support a study to more specifically identify the possible applications of the use of the Space 

Shuttle for such disposal. The NASA study is 

scheduled for completion in 1979. 

Satellite Power Stations 

Satellite Power Stations (SPS) in geostationary 

orbit, which would convert solar energy to microwave energy for transmission to Earth and ultimate 

use as a terrestrial energy source, were first sugProgress in Space Nuclear Power: 

NASA Missions 

Jupiter Orbiter/Probe 

Viking 

Pioneer 

Nimbus 

gested in 1968 and in recent years were under study 

by NASA. In 1976 the lead management responsibility for the SPS endeavor was transferred from 

NASA to DOE. 

During 1976 a DOE task group studied the SPS 

concept, including the NASA activity, and concluded that, while no obvious or clearly unsurmountable problems were identified, insufficient information was avaiIable for any significant program 

decisions. The task group recommended a three-year 

program of studies leading, in 1980, to a recommendation regarding the advisability of continued 

development efforts. In recognition of the technical 

64 
breadth of the recommended study, an SPS panel 

of a DOE/NASA coordinating committee was established in late 1976. This panel prepared, in May 

1977, a program plan for the development and evaluation of the SPS concept. In this plan, NASA is 

responsible for systems definition; DOE is responsible for health, safety, and environmental factors, 

socio-economic issues, and comparative evaluations 

with terrestrial alternatives. During 1977 joint efforts by NASA and DOE in implementing this plan 

were accelerated. 

65 
VI Department of the Interior 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior is responsible for 

the nation’s public lands and for maintaining a 

balance between the use and conservation of natural resources on these lands. Effective resource 

management and research require accurate and 

timely data, whether collected on the ground, from 

high- or low-altitude aircraft, or from satellites. In 

some investigations data from more than one level 

of observation and from various sensors such as 

multispectral scanners, cameras, and radars are useful. To collect data, the department relies on aircraft for acquiring aerial photographs, carrying 

experimental airborne instruments, and executing 

programs such as selection of utility corridors, 

cadastral surveys, and resource inventories. 

The need for surveying and repetitive monitoring of vast and often inaccessible areas has also 

created a growing interest in the department in 

satellite data, primarily from the experimental 

Landsat system because of its synoptic, repetitive, 

and uniform coverage. Digital Landsat data have 

made possible the extraction of information by 

computerized techniques. Because of the flexibility 

that digital data offer in collecting and managing 

large volumes of information, resource managers in 

some bureaus of the department are incorporating 

this new technology into their activities. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program 

The purpose of the Interior Department’s Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program 

is to develop, demonstrate, and encourage applications of remotely-sensed data acquired from aircraft 

and spacecraft which are relevant to functional responsibilities of the department. The primary areas 

of activity are: 

applications demonstration and research 

user assistance and training 

data reproduction and distribution 

The key facility of the EROS program is the 

EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, the principal archive for remotely sensed 

data collected by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

aircraft, by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) research aircraft, and by 

Landsat, Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini spacecraft. 

Training and user assistance in applying remotely-sensed data are also major functions of EDC. 

To facilitate regional applications, the EROS 

program operates three Applications Assistance Facilities where the public may view microfilm of 

imagery available at the EROS Data Center and 

receive assistance in searching and ordering data 

via computer terminal link to the central computer 

complex at Sioux Falls. 

Application Demonstrutions and Research 

EKOS program scientists seek new applications 

of remote sensing to significant resource and environmental problems, commonly in cooperation with 

other organizations. One example is the Pacific 

Northwest Land Resources Inventory Demonstration Project, sponsored by the Pacific Northwest 

Regional Commission in cooperation with the 

EROS program, the Geography program of USGS, 

and NASA. This project has demonstrated the utility of Landsat data from these programs for resource management in the states of Idaho, Oregon, 

and Washington. It is estimated that use of Landsat 

data will permit a forest inventory of western 

Washington (40,500 square kilometers) to be completed in one half the time and at one tenth the 

cost of standard methods. A survey monitoring 

urban change was done with 98 percent accuracy 

in 1 man-month using Landsat data from these 

programs versus 15 man-years using standard 

methods. Because of the useful results already 

;ichieved, an operational resource inventory system in the Pacific Northwest based on the use of 

I .andsat data from these programs is planned. 

Other current application demonstrations include: 

Delineation of glacial moraines in the northern midwest by visual analysis of subtle terrain 

features on a mosaic of 54 Landsat images acquired during spring 1972-1976. 

66 
Experimentation with optical and digital enhancement techniques on Landsat images of 

the Santa Barbara Channel to facilitate detection of oil in coastal waters. 

Application of the Australian concept of land 

systems mapping to the California Desert Conservation Area. The Bureau of Land Management and EROS are cooperating in this study, 

using aerial photographs, Landsat data, and 

interactive computer analysis to classify the 

soil, vegetation, landform, and other surface 

properties. 

Use of Landsat imagery of the Trust Territories in the Pacific to aid in delineating shallow 

bottom features. Through special arrangements 

with NASA, band 4 of the multispectral 

scanner was operated in the high-gain mode, 

thereby enhancing the underwater features in 

the shallow seas. 

Use of Landsat data in Project 143 of the 

United Nations Educational and Scientific and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) -sponsored 

International Geological Correlation Programme. 

v 

0 Training and consultation for a Landsat inventory of natural resources of five Central 

American countries, to be performed by the 

EKOS program and Purdue University with 

funds from the InterAmerican Development 

Bank. 

0 Use of Geostationary Operational Enviroiimental Satellite (GOES) and Landsat data 

collection platforms to monitor stream flow, 

water levels, snow pack, weather, and volcanic 

events in Chile and Bolivia. Performed CQO~ 

eratively with those two countries by the EROS 

program and the Water Resources Division of 

USGS. 

Data Reproduction and Distribution 

Since its establishment in 1972, 

tributed approximately 1.8 million 

from the nearlv 6 million images in 

EDC has disreproductions 

the data base. 

Half of the reproductions we; from Landsat imagery, and in addition to images, nearly 6000 coniputer-compatible tapes of Landsat data have been 

supplied to users. 

Dollar volume of all products sold in 1977 

amounted to about $2,500,000. Landsat products, 

while comprising only 18 percent of the data base, 

accounted for $1,674,000 or 62 percent of the total 

sales. Of that total, digitally enhanced scenes 

amounted to $137,000, and computer-compatible 

tapes $374,000 or more than 30 percent of total 

Landsat sales, reflecting the increasing trend toward 

digital processing of Landsat data. Foreign users 

and industry are the principal purchasers of Landsat data, accounting for approximately 32 and 27 

percent respectively, of the total sales. The Federal 

government is the next largest category, at about 

24 percent. 

A digital image processing system is being 

readied by NASA and EDC to provide products 

from Landsat-C data, expected in 1978, which will 

be superior to those from Landsats 1 and 2. During 

1977, about 175 Landsat images were computerenhanced for special orders, approximating the 

image quality that will be routinely available with 

the new system. 

National Cartographic Information Center 

EDC also supports the National Cartographic 

Information Center, it facility of USGS which provides cartographic data and information on aerial 

photographs from Federal, state, and private organizations as well as data collection plans of those 

organizations. TO facilitate the purchase of imagery from satellites and aircraft by the public, a 

number of NCIC ofices located throughout the 

country are connected by remote terminals to the 

central computer complex at EDC. 

Monitoring the Environment 

Alasku 

To provide data with which to aiialyLe the environmental impact of oil exploration on the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska, the USGS 

Geography program made a digital classification of 

the lmd cover and vegetation on ten Imidsat 

images covering the area. 

Changes in the Gulf of Alaska shoreline since 

1!)41 were an;tlyzed from various sets of aerial photographs to assess ;I potential staging area for offshore oil and gas development. 

During two months of Alaska‘s dry summer, 

more than 500 fires burned about 8100 square 

kilometers of forests. The state used a Landsat 

rangeland inventory to decide where to concentrate 

fire protection. 

Mining Activities 

Because of the increase in surface mining activities, Conservation Division of USGS is using aerial 

photographs and satellite imagery to delineate various categories of surface mining operations and 

stages of reclamation in the Powder River basin of 

Montana and Wyoming and in southeastern Idaho. 

Aerial photographs and Skylab and Landsat images 

are being evaluated for use in mapping land use, 

67 
vegetation, and drainage in preparing environmental analyses and impact statements. 

Bureau of Mines has funded four new remote 

sensing projects as part of its State Liaison Program. In New Mexico, the Navajo and McKinley 

coal mines, Grants uranium district, and potash 

mining areas are being monitored from Landsat 

imagery. Digital analysis of Landsat data is being 

used for monitoring phosphate mines in Florida 

and kaolin mines in Georgia and South Carolina. 

The Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration is using aerial photographs and satellite multispectral imagery to identify linear features that 

may be related to fault and fracture systems, to 

evaluate mine ground stability, and to locate and 

monitor leakage and movement of mine embankments in surface and underground mines. These 

efforts to identify potentially hazardous ground in 

mine areas have been applied to over 100 sites in 

26 states. 

Indim Lands 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs, NASA, and USGS 

cooperated to obtain high-altitude aerial photographs of all Indian lands. The project was extended to include orthophotoquads, which will be 

used in a census of Indians in 1980 by the Bureau 

of the Census. 

Data Collection Systems 

The Satellite Data Relay Project of the USGS 

Water Resources Division coordinated the installation of field radios (Data Collection Platforms) 

at 100 hydrologic sites in the United States for testing the GOES telemetry system. Field installation 

of 11 Comsat General platforms has begun in 

preparation for a 1978 demonstration of the commercial system. 

USGS Geologic Division is cooperating with 

NOAA in a study of the Earth’s magnetic field. The 

GOES system is used to relay information from 25 

strategically placed magnetometers to the NOAA 

facility at Boulder, Colorado, where quick access is 

available to researchers via computers. 

USGS geologists are also using the GOES system 

to monitor variations in the abundance of helium 

in the soil in remote Nevada locations. The information is med in earthquake prediction research. 

Research 

Geology 

Planetary studies. The USGS provided scientific 

leadership and technical support in planning the 

Viking mission, in orbiter and lander imaging, and 

in geochemical analysis of the materials on the surface of Mars. Large-scale maps were made of the 

landing sites, and uniform scale mosaics were made 

of large areas of the planet photographed by the 

orbiter. These will serve as a basis for a new planetwide map series for Mars. 

USGS Minerals Land Assessment Program. Methods developed for discrimination of hydrothermally 

altered rocks by ratioing and contrast stretching 

and mapping of major structural lineaments with 

Landsat data are being applied in a new exploration model for southern Arizona. 

In the Powder River Basin, Wyoming, Landsat 

images are being used in developing techniques for 

detecting subtle changes in vegetation cover, which 

may indicate the presence of altered rocks and 

mineralized areas. Data beyond the spectral range 

of the Landsat multispectral scanner were acquired 

by an airborne scanner. 

Hydrology 

USGS hydrologists are studying sea ice in Arctic 

and Antarctic regions as part of the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment, using data from aircraft 

and from the scanning microwave radiometer on 

Nimbus 5. These data indicated that there was only 

a 50-percent concentration of ice in 100,000 square 

kilometers of the Arctic ice pack. Four years of 

data show that the morphology and dynamics of the 

ice are far more complex than was hitherto realized. 

Landsat and NOAA satellite imagery were used 

in USGS research on sea ice dynamics and zonation 

in the Beaufort Sea and their relation to bottom 

morphology and geologic processes. The use of artificial islands, placed to modify the ice zonation, 

was proposed to make the offshore environment less 

hostile. 

Bureau of Reclamation uses imagery of clouds 

from GOES to analyze storm systems in a research 

study of harsh winter climate in the Sierra Nevada 

Mountains and to forecast and control experimental 

events in Project Skywater, a weather modification 

program. Aircraft are used for data collection and 

cloud seeding in these experiments. 

Lard Use 

The Geography program devised efficient computer techniques to produce a land cover map of 

the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area compiled 

from October and April 1973 Landsat data. Part of 

a six-map folio at a scale of 1:1,000,000, the map 

is overprinted with place names and landmarks as 

well as census tracts on the Universal Transverse 

Mercator rectangular coordinate system. 

68 
In 1977, NASA and the USGS started a three-year 

cooperative Application Systems Verification and 

Transfer project to test the feasibility of the operational use of Landsat digital data for change detection and updating land use and land cover maps 

being produced by the USGS Geography program. 

International Activities 

In addition to the remote sensing workshops 

conducted for foreign participants by the EROS 

Data Center, USGS cooperated with the Department of State and various international organizations in offering technical assistance, consultations, 

and briefings on the applications of remote sensing 

data to 60 other countries. 

USGS with the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID) sponsored the Fourth CENT0 

Workshop in Turkey, and contributed to the development of remote sensing in Iran, Pakistan, and 

Turkey. Iran is also being assisted in starting a 

Landsat data center as an adjunct to their planned 

ground receiving station. 

Also in cooperation with AID, USGS scientists 

participated in discussions about applications of 

Landsat data in a series of television programs 

(AIDSAT) relayed to 26 countries by the ATS 6 

communications satellite. A program with Thailand 

establishing a remote sensing center for reproducing data and training staff has been extended for 

another year. A photomosaic was prepared for a 

Philippines land reform program. New faults were 

discovered on Landsat images of Jordan in a geologic mapping program. 

In USGS bilateral agreements, Landsat data 

were among the tools used in selecting a site for 

Nigeria’s new Federal capital city; a Landsat applications office was established in Saudi Arabia to 

aid in assessing the petroleum and mineral resources and preparing base maps of that country. 

Scientists from Iceland, Iran, Japan, Lesotho, 

Poland, Spain, and Thailand spent all or part of 

1977 working in USGS facilities on remote sensing 

projects. 

69 
Department of Transportation 

1 n t rod uct ion 

The Department of Transportation manages a 

significant aeronautical research and system development program through its aviation component, 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) . This 

program supports FAA’s major missions of assuring 

the safe and efficient use of the national airspace, 

fostering civil aeronautics and air commerce at 

home and abroad, and promoting air safety. 

Air Safety 

Mirtimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW ) 

The Federal Aviation Administration initiated 

this program in 1973 in response to a National 

Transportation Safety Board recommendation. The 

initial effort concentrated on enhancing automation 

in the terminal area of air traffic control by introducing new computer software for the Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS-111) at 

major airports. The altitude warning system receives surveillance and altitude data from properly 

equipped aircraft that are being tracked by the air 

traffic control system. These data are compared with 

highest-points-of-ground-elevation data contained in 

a terrain map stored in the terminal computer 

memory. Whenever an aircraft is flying too low to 

the ground, the system provides the controller with 

both an aural and a visual alert; the controller in 

turn issues a radio warning to the pilot that he has 

descended below a minimum safe altitude. 

The altitude warning system was successfully 

developed in an experimental environment in late 

1974 and given a field evaluation in 1975; by late 

1976, the program was fully operational at three 

major terminals: Los Angeles, Washington National, and Dulles International. In 1977, this 

warning system became operational at the remaining 60 ARTS-111 terminals. 

FAA has also validated the requirement for altitude warning in the en route air traffic control 

system. Like its terminal counterpart, En Route 

Minimum Safe Altitude Warning will be a groundbased aircraft altitude monitoring system tied to 

the large central computer coniplex installed in 

each of the 20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers 

(ARTCCs) in the contiguous 48 states. Demonstration of this safety feature to the operating services is planned for the fall of 1978. 

Wind Shear 

Since 1971 there have been seven air carrier accidents in which wind shear-abrupt change in 

wind speed or direction in the approach/departure 

zone-was a major contributing factor. During 

1977, FAA sponsored research and development in 

three areas in its search for solutions to this problem: 

Development of a ground-based hazardous 

wind shear detection and tracking system; 

0 Development of avionics to assist pilots in coping with wind shear encounters; 

0 The testing of improved techniques for forecasting low-level wind shear associated with 

frontal zones. Ground-based sensor testing was 

conducted at six airports using additional 

anemometers mounted in the approach/departure zones to detect wind shear; airborne simulation studies were also employed. Techniques for displaying aircraft ground speed 

versus indicated airspeed were developed for 

airborne evaluation in late 1977. Improved 

forccasts of wind shear are still being pursued. 

Conflict Alert 

During the last two calendar years, FAA has been 

actively engaged in installing and bringing into 

operational use a conflict alert system at Air Route 

Traffic Control Centers and at congested airport 

terminal areas. By the summer of 1977, the agency 

had successfully implemented conflict alert in nearly 

all en route ATC airspace and had begun concentrating on a parallel program for terminal 

areas. Terminal conflict alert functions with the 

Automated Radar Terminal System; it is similar 

operationally to the system in use in the en route 

airspace. The computer software “looks ahead” 

70 
along the flight paths of controlled aircraft. If two 

or more planes are predicted to approach unsafe 

separations within 40 seconds, the terminal controller is alerted to the potential conflict by a 

buzzer and the flashing of “CA” on the screen of 

his display consoles. The controller then takes the 

necessary action with the pilot to assure safe separation. 

In early 1977, the terminal conflict alert coniputer program began undergoing system test at 

FAA’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental 

Center, at Atlantic City, New Jersey. Field testing 

and evaluation in an operational environment were 

successfully completed at the Houston International Airport control tower in the fall of 1977. 

Transport Safety 

New technology is emerging that has a high probability of being used in the next generation of jet 

transport aircraft. Examples of this emerging technology are composite structures, active control systems, digital avionics, and digital flight control 

systems. While these advances will lead to more 

efficient transports that will produce a higher rate 

of return on investment by reason of improved 

productivity and lower operating costs, they posc 

safety and certification problems that FAA has 

never before encountered. 

Composite structures are stronger and lighter 

than conventional aluminum structures; at the 

same time, their lack of yielding deformation before failure makes their behavior under crash loads 

uncertain. Similarly, active control systems and airborne digital computers introduce different airworthiness concerns from those of the past. Thew 

include software validation, reliability assessment 

verification, lightning and electromagnetic interference effects, and failure detection. 

Accordingly, in concert with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, FAA embafked 

in 1977 on a broad program to examine the research and development areas pertinent to the certification implications of these technological advances. 

Fire Safety 

FAA research and development activities during 

the reporting period in reducing the hazard of postcrash fires included: 

0 Initiating a two-year effort to develop a 

method for ranking a transport cabin’s interior 

material for its collective combustion hazards. 

This approach to improving the postcrash fire 

safety of cabin interiors is novel because it 

relates the combustion properties of a cabin 

material to physiological tolerances within the 

emergency-evacuation environment found during postcrash fires. 

Conducting full-scale cabin-fire tests in a simulated wide-body air carrier cabin at FAA’s 

National Aviation Facilities Experimental 

Center. The tests were designed to assess hazards caused by burning cabin-interior materials 

and by the byproducts of burning fuel entering the cabin. These tests are expected to 

quantify hazard sources. 

Performing tests with the U.S. Navy using an 

antimisting additive in the fuel to minimize 

the crash fireball. The test results proved promising. Efforts will continue to assess and evaluate the additive’s compatibility with existing ‘ 

fuel systems. 

Aviation Security 

The goals of FAA’s civil aviation security program are to deter acts of terrorism or sabotage 

aboard aircraft and at airports. Research and development programs in this area are designed to 

develop new deterrent systems as well as evaluate 

existing systems that may be used in the security 

program. These activities are coordinated with 

other U.S. agencies active in bomb detection and 

counterterrorism. In calendar 1977, FAA 

Demonstrated an experimental automated 

radiation contrast system to detect bombs in 

luggage. Tests at three airports using normal 

passenger luggage with and without simulated 

bombs produced excellent detection rates and 

low false-alarm rates. Procurement of the system for operational use at airports is under 

way. 

0 Identified locations aboard cominercial aircraft 

where bombs discovered during flight might be 

placed with least risk to passengers and aircraft. In all tests with live explosives that followed these least-risk procedures, damage was 

reduced to levels that would have permitted 

the aircraft to land safely. 

Developed and demonstrated low-cost barriers 

and locker modifications that significantly reduce the potential death, injury, or cfamage 

from explosions in airport lockers. These 

straightforward design techniques limit damage to the immediate vicinity of the explosion. 

Completed an air-cargo bomb security study 

that included procedures to prevent bombs 

from being brought aboard aircraft with cargo. 

Evaluated all commercially available explosivevapor detectors. None met FAA’s requirements 

for aviation security. 

71 
Started development of an experimental bomb 

detector system using thermal neutrons, after 

successfully demonstrating the concept in the 

laboratory. 

Successfully tested an experimental nuclear 

magnetic resonance explosive detection system 

in the laboratory. The development of preproduction prototypes was started. 

Aviation Medicine 

FAA medical research activities during the reporting period focused on certain areas of high 

relevance to air safety-namely, occupant survival 

in air transport accidents and aircrew medical characteristics affecting flight performance. 

Among the more significant studies undertaken 

in this area was an examination of the relative 

toxic hazards of 75 aircraf t-cabin materials when 

these materials are subjected to fire. The materials 

included urethanes, polyvinyl chlorides, and various natural products, including wool. The findings 

of this study, when combined with other available 

information and applied to aircraft manufacture, 

will help to improve survivability in future aircraft 

accidents involving fire. 

An investigation was also undertaken of the potential problems related to the emergency evacuation of handicapped passengers from aircraft. The 

study included an analysis of the movement of 

handicapped individuals within the cabin and the 

results of evacuation tests (using an emergency 

evacuation simulator), in which a portion of the 

test subjects either were handicapped or simulated 

handicaps. Data were generated on assistance required by handicapped passengers, effects on evacuation time of a group of such passengers, 

including seating location, floor slope, and exit 

design. An FAA report on these findings included 

suggestions by handicapped subjects and a summary of recent accidents involving evacuation of 

handicapped passengers. 

When aircrew members approach middle age, 

correction for near vision often becomes necessary, 

especially for dim light conditions, as found in 

night flying. The traditional correction has been 

for reading, particularly with regard to aeronautical 

charts. During flight activities, however, precise 

vision at the intermediate distance, where the instruments are located, is also highly significant, so 

that many crewmembers require trifocal lenses-a 

relatively unusual lens combination among the nonflying public. For this reason a special study was 

conducted of intermediate visual correction, and a 

report made available for aviation medicine personnel and others concerned with pilot-vision factors. 

Jn another vision study, it was found that pilots 

dependent on visual cues alone during night operations may make approaches that are too low-a 

tendency produced by visual illusions. An FAA report detailing these findings warns pilots that they 

must be aware of this tendency to approach runways at excessively shallow angles under night conditions. This information will be of importance 

to pilot training and safety education programs. 

In view of periodic questions that arise concerning an FAA rule making mandatory the retirement 

of airline pilots at age 60, FAA’s Office of Aviation 

Medicine undertook an intensive review of the 

scientific literature on the effects of aging. It was 

concluded that there is no sound basis for -predicting the extent to which the aging process will degrade pilot performance. Until reliable criteriabased on a valid psychophysiological age index-are 

established, the current medical data support the 

continued use of age 60 as the age beyond which 

pilots should discontinue serving as airline pilots. 

Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation 

Microwave Lading System (MU) 

The present instrument landing system (ILS) , a 

product of the 1940s, has a number of disadvantages: terrain, structures, and aircraft interfere with 

its signals; it can provide flight path information 

for only one approach path; its limited number of 

frequency channels cannot meet future growth demands. None of these drawbacks is a feature of the 

Microwave Landing System, a system under development by FAA since the early 1970s and now in 

its third phase-prototype development and evaluation. 

In mid-1976, FAA took delivery of two prototype 

Small Community systems and two prototype Basic 

Systems. These prototypes are now undergoing test 

and evaluation at the National Aviation Facilities 

Experimental Center and at Crow’s Landing, California, by FAA, NASA, and the military services. 

Meanwhile, the system developed by FAA, the 

Time Reference Scanning Beam system, was submitted to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as the U.S. candidate for international standardization. After an assessment of all 

proposals by ICAO’s All Weather Operations Panel, 

the U.S. system was selected and recommended to 

the Air Navigation Commission. This recommendation has been placed on the agenda for discussion 

and possible selection as an international standard 

at a world-wide ICAO/All Weather Operation 

meeting scheduled for April 1978. 

72 
Flight Service Station Modernization 

The mission of FAA’s Flight Service Stations 

(FSS) is to promote safety in flight by (1) providing preflight and inflight weather briefings; (2) accepting and processing both instrument flight rule 

(IFR) and visual flight rule (VFR) flight plans; 

(3) providing inflight emergency assistance; (4) 

performing search and rescue operations; and (5) 

preparing and distributing notices to airmen 

(NOTAMs) . 

Current FSS operations are highly labor-intensive. The flight service specialist has to search 

through voluminous papers to retrieve the necessary data for pilot briefings and flight plan handling-a slow, error-prone, and expensive process. 

Although eighty percent of the current annual $150- 

million operating expense for the system represents 

personnel staff costs, the demand for flight services 

is forecast to triple by the year 1995. If FAA met 

this demand by expanding the manual system, the 

annual operating cost would approach $360 million. Rejecting that alternative, FAA has undertaken to modernize the flight service station system. 

The following modernization efforts were completed during 1977: 

0 A master plan, concentrating on specialist automation and direct user access to the system 

for weather briefing and flight plan filing, was 

devised. The objective was to meet the present 

and projected long-term demand for flight 

services without a proportional increase in staff 

and commensurate operating costs. 

0 Extensive system configuration analysis and 

design work were performed and a procurement specification written for acquisition of 

the automation system required by the master 

plan. 

Field testing and evaluation of the Aviation 

Weather and NOTAM System (AWANS), a 

prototype automation system originally installed in 1975, were completed at Atlanta, 

Georgia. 

Demonstration of the operational concept of 

co-locating a flight service station with an Air 

Route Traffic Control Center and of performing the functions of several flight service facilities at a single site was completed at Leesburg, 

Virginia. 

Experiments with Pilot Self-Briefing Terminals 

were conducted at 14 locations throughout the 

ZJnited States involving over 1450 pilots. 

0 An experimental Voice Response System was 

completed and is expected to be operationally 

demonstrated in early 1978. 

0 A mass weather dissemination engineering 

model was assembled at NAFEC for demonstration in early 1978. 

0 A successful operational evaluation of an improved method of pilot briefing by telephone, 

without flight service specialist assistance, was 

completed at New York’s La Guardia Airport. 

The method permits segment updating of data 

and eliminates the common rotary message 

and the participation of the flight service specialist. 

Cewtral Flow Control 

A major step to reduce “inflight time” and conserve fuel has been taken by the FAA through upgrading the automation capability of the Central 

Flow Control Facility in the Air Traffic Control 

System Command Center. Established within FAA 

headquarters in 1970, the Control Center exercises 

control and coordination of air traffic flow in the 

National Airspace System. 

After program approval early in 1976, a series of 

acquisition-related activities followed in 1977: 

e A contract was awarded for computer software 

development. 

0 The installation of a dedicated computer system in the flow control area of the Jacksonville 

Air Route Traffic Control Center. Computer 

checkout was completed in late summer. 

0 The start of system integration, leading to an 

initial system test by the end of calendar year 

1977. 

OST Research Support 

In addition to the R&D efforts undertaken by 

FAA, the Office of the Secretary of Transportation 

(OST) pursues research and analysis in areas affecting the nation’s air transportation system. The 

principal OST aeronautical research activities during 1977 involved noise abatement, advanced telecommunications systems, advanced aviation transportation concepts, and fundamental studies in 

intermodal relations and demand forecasting. The 

prime objective of this work is to augment FAA 

efforts and ensure that the department fulfills its 

responsibility in providing timely national leadership in the evolution of the nation’s aviation transporta tion sys tem. 

During 1977, OST complemented FAA’s environmental efforts by reviewing Concorde noise data 

collected by FAA and by preparing rulemaking 

guidelines that led to the Secretary’s decision, in 

September 1977, to open up on a trial basis specified 

U.S. airports to the existing Concorde fleet. In another action in the noise-abatement area, the Of73 
fice assisted FAA in implementing its December 

1976 noise rules on engine retrofit by providing 

support during the negotiations that produced legislative proposals on such key issues as planning 

and financing of required airport noise abatement 

programs. 

Telecommunications play an increasingly iniportant role in modern transportation by providing 

more efficient and safer operation. Because of the 

pervasive nature of telecommunication, cooperative 

arrangements and close liaison with other agencies 

are a major concern; OS?’ serves as a focal point 

for DOT coordination. This was clearly evidenced 

by the extensive efforts in 1977 in the revision of 

DOT’S National Plan for Navigation, which lays 

the groundwork for U.S. policy on navigational 

systems, including airspace coverage. 

Innovative airport networks, advanced system 

concepts, and actual aircraft technologies are often 

identified and studied by Office special task force 

groups. Many advanced concepts in civil aeronautics systems were evaluated during 1977 at its 

Transportation Systems Center. In addition to 

work on new system concepts, OST personnel participated in hearings and multigovernmental study 

groups on topics such as advanced V/STOL evaluation. 

OST often functions as the focal point for transportation intermodal studies and analyses. In 1977, 

continuing studies analyzing aviation’s evolving 

role in the nation’s transportation system were 

conducted and long-range forecasts made in an attempt to identify transportation trends and determine how aviation systems will affect and be 

affected by future technical developments and service demands. 

74 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth orbit Earth escape Year 

Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 .................. 0 1 0 0 

1958 5 8 0 4 

1959 9 9 1 2 

1960 16 12 1 2 

1961 35 12 0 2 

1962 .................. 55 12 4 1 

1963 .................. 62 11 0 0 

1964 69 8 4 0 

1965 .................. 93 7 4 1 

1966 .................. 94 12 7 ‘1 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

Earth orbit Earth escape Year 

Success Failure Success Failure 

1967 .................. 78 

1968 .................. 61 

1969 .................. 58 

1970 .................. 36 

1971 .................. 45 

1972 .................. 33 

1973 .................. 23 

1974 .................. 27 

1975 .................. 30 

1976 .................. 33 

1977 .................. 21 

Total ............. 889 

4 10 0 

15 3 0 

1 8 1 

1 3 0 

2 8 1 

2 8 0 

2 3 0 

2 1 0 

4 4 0 

0 1 0 

2 2 0 

127 72 15 

‘This Earth escape failure did attain Earth orbit ancl 

therefore is included in the Earth orbit success totals. 

NOTES: The criterion of success or failure used is the atta’inrnent of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than a juclgment of mission success. 

This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating coun- 

“Es(.APE” flights include all that were intended to go to at 

tries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles. 

least an altitude equal to luuar distance from Earth. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year UAted 

States 

United People’s 

of China 

U.S.S.R. Fraucc Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom 

1957 ...................... 1958 .................... .5 

1959 ................... .IO 

1960 ................... .I6 

1961 .................... 29 

1962 .................... 52 

1963 .............. 

Total ............. ,695 

..................................................................... 1 ........................ ............................................ 

9 ......................... .......................................... 

20 .......................... ................... .................... 

..................................................................... 

............. 

............. 

....................... 

98.. ................................... .2.. ..................................... 

1075.. ........ .IO. .......... .8.. ......... IO.. ......... .7.. ......... .I.. ......... .I 

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple 

NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft. 

75 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successf u I U .S. Launches- 1977 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Jan. 28 

NATO 111 B 

5A 

Delta 

Feb. 6 

Defense 

7A 

'Titan IIIC 

Mar. 10 

Palapa 2 

18A 

Delta 

Mar. 13 

Defense 

19A 

Titan IIIB 

hpr. 20 

Geos 

29A 

Delta 

May 12 

DSCS 11-7 

34A 

Titan IIIC 

May 12 

34B 

Titan IIIC 

May 23 

Defense 

38A 

Atlas-Agena D 

DSCS 11-8 

Spacecraft data 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 

orbit over equator for use by NATO. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped 2.2-m in diameter, 2.23-m 

long, with overall length of 3.1-m including ailtennas. Weight at launch: 670 kg. Weight after 

apogee motor fire: 310 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite to provide transmission 

of television, voice, and other data throughout 

Indonesia. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8-m in diameter and 3.3-m 

high; spin stabilized; Earth oriented anteuna 

assembly affixed on top of spacecraft. Provides 12 

RF channels, two of which will bc protected 

channels for the 10 traffic carrying channels: 

23,000 solar cells mounted on spacecraft exterior. 

Weight at launch: 574 kg. Weight after apogee 

motor fire: 281 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight tccliniquc\ 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronoua 

transfer orbit. Spacecraft to provide data on 

magnetic and electric fields 36,000 k above Earth. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape, 132-cm long and 

162-cm in diameter: eight booms extend from 

spacecraft-four radial and four axial-with 

length between 1.5 and 20 m; carries seven primary experiments. Weight at launch: 574 kg. 

Objective: Communications. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Communications. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

35,962 

35,463 

1432.3 

2.8 

35,755 

35,532 

1436.0 

0.1 

36 250 

35,915 

1451.2 

0.1 

329 

141 

89.1 

96.4 

11,710 

24 1 

2127.8 

26.0 

Final: 

38270 

21 06 

718.2 

26.4 

35,762 

35,438 

1426.7 

2.4 

35,792 

35,781 

1436'. 1 

2.4 

35,855 

35,679 

1435.1 

0.2 

Second of three planned NATO 

c o m m u n i c a t io ti sa t e 11 i t e s 

launched by NASA for NATO. 

Apogee boost motor fired Jan. 30 

and satellite stationed at 15" west 

longitude above the equator. 

Still in orbit. 

Launched for Indonesia's satellite 

communication system. Successfully placed into transfer orbit. 

Apogee boost motor fired Mar. 12 

and spacecraft placed in stationary equatorial synchronous orbit 

at 770 east longitude, just south 

of India. Became operational 

Apr. 15. 

Ikcayetl from orbit May 26, 1977. 

Launched by NASA fot the Euiopeati Space Agency. A malfunction of the booster placed rpacecraft in unsatisfactory transfet 

orbit, from which geostationai) 

position could not be attained. 

Apogee boost motor fired Apr. 27, 

placing satellite in the most desirable orbit. All experiments ale 

ieturning useful data. Based on 

NASA criteria, mission adjudged 

unsuccessful. 

Still in orbit 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

76 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1977 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

May 26 Objecti\e: To launch satellite into transfer orbit. 

Intelsat IV-A F-4 Satellite to provide 6250 two-way voice circuits 

41A plus two television channels simultaneously or a 

Atlas-Centaur combination of telephone, TV, and other forms 

of communications traffic. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical shaped satellite, overall 

height of 6.99-m and 2.38-m in diameter. Consists of two main elements: rotating cylindei 

covered with solar cells contains power subsystem; 

positioning and orientation subsystem; despun 

Earth-oriented platform atop rotating cylindei 

contains 20 communications repeaters (transpondders) , new antenna reflectors, and telemetry and 

command subsystems. Antenna reflectors are supported by a single tubular mast. 134.6-cm transmit and 88.9-cm receive quasi-square reflectors are constructed of a metallic mesh on an open 

web frame. Feed horn arrays and global horns 

are cantilevered from the base of the mast. Telemetry and command omnidirectional bicone 

antenna is mounted on the mast tip. Weight at 

liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 

825.5 kg. 

June 5 

AMS 2 

44A 

Thor-Burner 2 

June 16 

Goes 2 

48A 

Delta 

June 23 

NTS 2 

53A 

Atlas F 

June 27 

Defense 

56A 

Titan IIID 

Objective: To support the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program. 

Spacecraft: Similar to the NASA Tiros-N (to be 

launched in 1978). 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a synchronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable it to 

provide the capability for continuous observations of the atmosphere on an operational basis. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 190.5-cm in diameter and 

344-cm long from the top of the magnetometer 

to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. Apogee 

boost motor is ejected after synchronous orbit is 

reached. Thrust tube located in center of satellite supports radiometer/ telescope instrument. 

Scanning mirrors look out through an opening in 

cylindrical solar array whose panels cover spacecraft exterior walls. Instruments include a visible 

and infrared spin Scan radiometer (VISSR) to 

provide day/night cloud cover data, a meteorological data collection and transmission system, and 

a space environmental monitor (SEM) system to 

measure the magnitude and direction of the 

magnetic field, the intensity of solar x-ray radiation, and energy level and quantity of energetic 

particles. Spin stabilized. Weight at launch: 635 

kg. Weight in orbit: 293 kg. 

Objective: To test technology for the Global Positioning System (Navstar) . Spacecraft: Carries cesium clocks for precise timestandard testing, and a solar array to test 14 Navy 

experiments on solar cells. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

35,755 Third in a series of improved In35,346 telsat IV-A spacecraft with al1425.0 most two thirds greater commu0.3 nications capacity than Intelsat 

IV. Launched by NASA for 

ComSat COT., manager of Intelsat. Apogee kick motor fired May 

27 and satellite placed on station 

at 34.5" west longitude over Atlantic Ocean. To serve as backup 

for Intelsat IV-A F-1 launched 

Sept. 25, 1975, and F-2 launched 

Jan. 29, 1976. 

864 

817 

101.7 

9912 

36,304 

35,267 

1436.0 

0.9 

Still in orbit. 

Second operational spacecraft of a 

series of Geostationary %erational Environmental Satellites; 

launched by NASA for NOAA. 

Spacecraft placed in successful 

transfer orbit, and apogee boost 

motor fired June 16 and satellite 

placed in synchronous orbit at 

75" west longitude replacing Goes 

1. Satellite turned over to NOAA 

for operational use on July 29. 

Goes 2 will provide coverage of 

most of North and South America and the Atlantic Ocean. Goes 

1 moved to 105" west longitude 

as a backup spacecraft. 

20,187 Still in orbit 

19,545 

705.2 

63.3 

227 

173 . 

Decayed from orbit Dec. 23, 1977. 

88.3 

97 .O 

77 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful US. Launches- 1977 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

July 14 Objective: To launch satellite into a synchronous 

GMS (Himawari) transfer orbit accurate enough to allow the space65A craft to enter a stationary synchronous orbit; day/ 

Delta night meteorological observation on nearly continuous basis, collection and transmission of data, 

monitor solar activities, and improve Japanese 

as well as international meteorological services. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 3.1-m long and 2.1-m iii 

diameter. Solar panels on satellite outer surfacr. 

Visible and infrared spin scan radiometer 

(VISSR) instrument provides images of clouds 

and Earth's surface, and measures temperaturr 

of both surface and cloud tops; collection and 

transmission system; measurement of solar protons, alpha particles, and elecmtrons. Spin stabilized. Weight at launch: 670 kg. Weight iii orbit: 

280 kg. 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Kemarks 

35,779 

95,531 

1429.4 

1.2 

Aug. 12 Objecthe: To obtain high resolution, experimental 455 

HEAO 1 data on astrophysical phenomena by surveying 43'5 

75A 93.5 

Atlascentaur 150 electron volts to 10 million electron volts, 22.8 

the x-ray and gamma ray sky over the range from 

measure size and location of x-ray sources in the 

range of 1 thousand to 15 thousand electron volts, 

determine the contribution of discrete soiirccs 

to the x-ray background, and determine temporal 

behavior of x-ray sourccs; to ciemonstrate spacecraft capability of supporting the onlmard experiments for six months. 

Spacecraft: Irregular hexagon 4.1-m long and 2.4-m 

in diameter. Satellite equipment module (SEM) 

contains all functional subsystems necessary to 

operate and control the observatory and experiments. Solar cells mounted on exterior panels. 

Experiment module (EM) contains four scientific 

instruments, the large x-ray survey, cosmic x-ray. 

scanning modulation collimator, and hard x-ray 

and low gamma ray. Six-sided configuration provides maximum experiment aperture area while 

minimizing overall observatory length. Weight: 

2560 kg, including 1220 kg of experiments. 

Aug. 20 Objective: To investigate the Jupiter and Saturn TransVoyager 2 planetary systems and the interplanetary medium. Jupiter 

76A Scientific objectives: To conduct comparativr trajectory; 

Titan IIIE-Centaur studies OE the Jupiter and Saturn systems, in- later may 

cluding the environment, atmosphere, surface rendezvous 

and body characteristics of the planets: one or with Uranus 

more of their satellites; and thc nature of Saturn's and escape 

rings. from the solar 

propulsion module which is ejected after boosting mission module into Jupiter transfer trajcctory. Mission module a 10-sided framework with 

IO electronics packaging compartments, 47-cm 

high and 1.78-m across from flat to flat; 3.66-m 

diameter high-gain parabolic antenna supported 

by tubular trusswork; three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) in tandem on deployable boom; twin 10-m whip antennas: four 

magnetometers mounted on 13-m deployable 

boom. Weight at launch: 2080 kg. Weight after 

propulsion module separation: 822 kg. Weight 

at end of mission: 722 kg. 

Spacecraft: Consists of a mission module and a system 

Launched by NASA for the National Space Development Agency 

of Japan (NASDA) as part of 

World Weather Watch program. 

Apogee boost motor fired ]uly 15 

and satellite was placed in synchronous orbit at 140" east longitude above eqnator due south of 

Tokyo. 

First in a series of three NASA 

High Energy Astronomical 01,- 

servatories. Launched successfully 

into orbit, all experiments operational and returning excellent 

data. Largest Earth-oriented nnmanned scientific satellite ever 

launched. Observatory configuration based on modular concept 

maximizing commonality among 

the three planned missions. Dnring first 100 days of operation 15 

previously unknown x-ray sonrces 

locatetl. First six montlis to he 

spent mapping the sky. 

First in twin Voyager series, following July 1979 Jupiter flyby, spacecraft will use gravitational assist 

of planet to change course to 

Saturn for projected 1981 rendezvoiis. Spacecraft may fly by Uratins in 1986. Voyager functioning 

normally and a11 instruments are 

operational. By Jan. 1, 1978. 

spacecraft was 162 million k from 

Earth. Named Voyager 2 though 

launched first because it will be 

overtaken by Voyager 1 before 

they reach Jupiter. 

78 
APPENDIX A-3-Coutinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1977 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft dab 

Aug. 25 

Sirio 

80A 

Delta 

Sept. 5 

Voyager 1 

84A 

Titan HIE-Centaur 

Sep. 23 

Defense 

94A 

Titan IIIB 

Oct. 22 

ISEE 1 

102A 

Delta 

~~ ~~ ~~ 

Objecti\e: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 

tiansfer oibit. Satellite to conduct various communica tions experiments. 

Spaceciaft: Cyliudrical 1.438-m iti diametci and 

0.954-m in height, 2.0-m in length with apogee 

boost motor nozzle and Super-High Frequency 

(SHF) antenna. Despun telecommunication antenna, poiuted to Earth, made of aluminumhoneycomb and polyester fiberglass. Satellite spin 

stabilized. Weight at launch: 398 kg, including 

the 200-kg apogee htmst motor. 

Objective: To investigate the Jupiter and Saturu 

planetary systems and the interplanetary medium. 

Scientific objectives: To conduct comparative 

studies of the Jupiter and Saturn systems, including the environment, atmosphere, surface 

and hly characteristics of the planets; one 01 

more of their satellites; and the nature o'f Saturn's 

rings. 

Spacecraft: Consists of a mission module and a 

propulsion module which is ejected after boosting mission module into Jupiter trausfer trajectory. Mission module a 10-sided framework with 

10 electronics packaging compartments, 47-cm 

high and 1.78-m across from flat to flat; 3.66-m 

diameter high-gain parabolic antenna supported 

by tubular trusswork: three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) in tandem on deployable boom: twin IO-m whip antennas; four magnetometers mounted on a 13-m deployable boom. 

Weight at launch: 2080 kg. Weight after propulsion module separation: 822 kg. Weight at end 

of mission: 722 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight rechniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

36,327 

342'10 

1469.7 

0.2 

Objective: To measure thc structure of the magnetosphere boundaries and their fluctuations from 

space and to obtain sample near-Earth mrasurements of the solar wind. 

16-sided cylinder 173-cm across flats by 

161-cm high; main body of one aluminum honeycomb equipment shelf supportcd by eight struts 

on a 84-cm-long thrust tube; one sob array 

locatcd forward of equipment section and second 

approximately 25-cm below the shelf. 13 scientific 

instruments on board. Spin stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 328.95 kg, including 93.50 kg of scientific 

instrumentation. 

Spacecraft: 

TransJupiter 

trajectory; 

after passing 

Saturn may 

pass beyond 

solar system 

355 

134 

89.1 

96.5 

138,124 

280 

3446.8 

28.7 

Remarks 

Launched by NASA for the Consiglio Nazionale delle RicercheNational Research Council of 

Italy (CNR) -into succewful 

transfer orbit. Apogee boost 

motor fired Aug. 27 and spacecraft placed in stationary orbit 

over the South Atlantic at 15" 

west longitude above the equator. 

Satellite turned over to Italy Sept. 

24. Spacecraft operating satisfactorily. 

Second in dual Voyager series. Following a Mar. 1979 flyby of Jupiter, spacecraft will alter course for a Nov. 1980 rendezvous with 

Saturn. Voyager 1, on a faster 

trajectory, passed its sister spacecraft on Dec. 15. By Jan. 1, 1978, 

spacecraft was 164 million k from 

Earth. Interplanetary explorer 

functioning normally and all instruments are operational and returning useful data. 

Decayed from orbit Dec. 8, 1977. 

Launched successfully as part of 

twin payload to make scientific 

measurements from two points in 

space. Separation of spacecraft 

successfully accomplished. All experiments, except one U.S. instrument, turned 011 and returning 

data. 

79 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U .S. Launches- 1977 

Launch date (G.m.t.J 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Inclination to 

equator 

Spacecraft data Period Remarks 

(degree) 

Oct. 22 

ISEE 2 

102B 

Delta 

Oct. 28 

Transit 

106A 

Scout 

Nov. 23 

Meteosat 1 

lO8A 

Delta 

Dec. 8 

Defense 

112A 

Atlas F 

Dec. 8 

Defense 

Atlas F 

Dec. 8 

Defense 

iizn 

112E 

Atlas F 

Dec. 11 

Defense 

114A 

Atlas-Agena D 

Objective: To measure the structure of the magnetosphere boundaries and their fluctuations from 

space antl to obtain sample near-Earth measnrements of the solar wind. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.14-m high with a diameter 

of 1.27-m; single equipment platform with solar 

array covering spacecraft exterior, except at batton1 where scientific instrument parts and protrusions are located; S-hand antenna on spacecraft 

top, supported by three struts; three hinged 

booms, each about 2.25-m long, a pair of radially 

extending wire booms each 15-m long which serve 

as antennas for onboard experiments antl a deployable experiment antenna parallel to the spacecraft spin axis. Eight scientific instruments. Spin 

stabilized. Weight: 157.72 kg. 

To place satellite into an orhit which 

will enable the Navy to provide a worldwide, twodimensional system for position fixing to an accuracy of better than .5 k. 

Eight-sided cylinder wit11 four deployable solar panels: two specially instrumented 

transponders or radio relays called translators. 

Weight: 94 kg. 

Objective: 

Spacecraft: 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow the 

spacecraft to achieve a stationary synchronous 

orbit. European contribution to the World Metrorological Organization's World Weather Watch 

program. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.1-m in diameter and 4.3- 

m high: payload consists of telescope radiometer 

for observation of the Earth and cloud masses, 

and a system for data relay and transmission of 

the meteorological information. Spin stabilized. 

Weight at launch: 697 kg. Weight after apogee 

motor fire: 345 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

antl technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not atinoancetl. 

and technology. 

Ohjectite: Delelopmetit of 5paceHight technique* 

Spaccciaft: Not announced. 

antl technology. 

Objectile: Delelopment of rpaccflight techniqitr\ 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

138,330 

279 

3453.8 

28.7 

1106 

1067 

107.0 

89.9 

35,692 

54.915 

1411.5 

0.7 

1169 

1054 

107.5 

63.4 

1169 

1 054 

107.5 

63.4 

1168 

1055 

107.5 

63.4 

35,855 

35,679 

1435.1 

0.2 

Built for the European Space 

Agency by the STAR consortium, 

launched by NASA as a secondary payload. Scientific instrnments retnrning valnahle data. 

Launched by NASA for the Navy 

The Navy Naligation Satellite 

System, referred to as Transit, 

provides an opportunity for thr 

user to take a position fix evei) 

two houis or less, depending 

upon the latitude. The satellite 

will be used to test a Trident 

Missile Tracking System (SATRACK) and to check out and 

calibrate range safety ground 

stations and equipment. Spacecraft placed in desired orbit and 

returning data. 

Launched into successful transfer 

orbit by NASA for ESA. Apogee 

motor fired Nor. 23 and spacecraft placed in geostationary orbit 

above the Gulf of Guinea at 0" 

longitude. Satellite serves as part 

of ESA's contribution to the 

Global Atmospheric Research 

Program (GARP) . Experiment? 

to become fully operational Mav 

1978. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orhit. 

Still iii orbit. 

80 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1977 

Launch date (6.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogef: and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Dec. 15 Objective: To place satellite into a successful 

CS (Sakura) synchronous transfer orbit: development of a 

118A domestic communications satellite system for JaDelta pan: experimentation with K-band and C-band. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.18-m in diameter and 

3.48-m high: spin stabilized: solar cells mounted 

on spacecraft exterior: antenna horn reflector 

mounted on outer despun section of the Drive 

Motor Assembly, extends 128.8-cm above the upper edge of the solar array: six K-band channels 

pnd two C-band channels provide communications link. Weight at launch: 677 kg. Weight 

after apogee boost motor fire: 340 kg. 

36,157 Japanese National Space Develop35,568 ment Agency (NASDA) satellite 

1440.0 launched into synchronous transfer orbit by NASA. Apogee boost 

motor fired Dec. 16 and' spacecraft placed in synchronous orbit 

above equator at 135O east longitude above New Guinea and 

due south of Japan. 

0.1 

81 
.L\PPENDIX B-l 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1973-1977 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 20, 1973 

Aug. 24, 1975 

Dcc. 13, 1973 

Jan. 19, 1974 

Apr. 13, 1974 

May 30, 1974 

Oct. 10, 1974 

Nov. 21, 1974 

Sov. 23. 1974 

Dec. 19, 1974 

May 7, 1975 

May 22, 1975 

Aug. 27, 1975 

Sep. 26, 1975 

Dec. 13, 1975 

,Jan. 17, 1976 

,Jan. 30, 1976 

Feb. 19, 1976 

Mar. 15, 1976 

Mar. 26, 1976 

Apr. 22, 1976 

May 13, 1976 

June 10, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

July 22, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Jan. 2&, 1977 

Mar. 10, 1977 

May 12, 1977 

May 26, 1977 

Aug. 25, 1977 

Dec. 15, 1977 

Anik 2 (Telesat 2) 

Intelsat I\' (F-7) 

DSCS 2-3,4 

Skynct 2A 

IVestar 1 

ATS 6 

IVestar 2 

Intelsat IV (F-8) 

Skvnet 2B 

Symphonic 1 

Anik 3 (Telesat 3) 

Ititelsat IV (F-I) 

Symphonie 2 

Intelsat IV-A (F-I) 

RCA-Satcom-l 

CTS-1 

Intelsat IV-A (F-2) 

Marisat 1 

LES 819 

RCA-Satcom 2 

h'ATO IIIA 

Comstar 1 

Marisat 2 

Palapa I 

Comstar 2 

Marisat 3 

NATO IIIB 

Palapa 2 

DSCS II-7,8 

Intelsat IV-A (F-4) 

Sirio 

Sakura 

COMMIJNICATIONS 

'rhor-Delta (TAT) I.;iunchcd for Caiiatla. 

Atlas-Centaur 1:ifth iu high-capacity sciics. I'ositioiietl o\ci' Atlantic.. 

Titan IIIC Follo\v-on to IISCS 2- 1 ,?. 

Thor-lIelta (T'AT) I.aiinclietl for the IJiiitetl Kingdom iii ~'~S~OIIW to a11 iigreemellt 

to augment tlie 1)SCS program. Spacccrnft failed to achieve 

the proper orbit. 

'I'hoi-Delta (TAT) 1,aunchetl for the !Vcstrrii Union Co. to cs1al)lisli ;I domestic 

communications link. 

Titan IIIC hlultipurpose expel-imenral satellite especially tlesigiietl for regional services in Sort11 Aincrira and later India. 

'I'hor-Delta (TAT) 1,aunchetl for the IVestcrii I'nioii Co. as pxrt of tlieii. tlomectic 

commuiiications liiiks. 

Atlas-Centaur Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Tlior-Delta (TAT) 1,aunclictl for the Unitctl Kiiigtlom in response to an agreemeill 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over 

Indian Ocean. 

First of LWO experimental satellites for France and \<'est Gcrmany. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. 

'l'hor-Delta (TAT) 

Tlior-Delta (TAT) 1.aunclietl for Caiiada. 

A tlac-Centaur Eighth in high-capacity sei-ics. Positioned over Indian Oceaii. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) L;riuiclictl for Fraiicc ;ind !\'est Ckrmany. Positioned over the 

Atlas-Centaur First of a ne~v series tlouhle the capacity of its predecessors. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 1.aunchetl for KCA as ' first of their communication$ sa tellilc 

Thor-Delta (TA'T) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Positioned over Atlantic. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of three. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT-) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Intloncsian domestic communications. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Dclta (TAT) 

Tlior-Delta (TAT) Second of a new series. 

Tlior-Delta (TAT) Intlonesiali domestic communications. 

Titan IIIC Defense communications. 

A tlas-Ccn taur Positioned ovci- Atlantic. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) I talian experiment. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Japaiicsc experiment. 

Atlantic. 

Positioned over the Atlantic. 

scrics. Positioned over the Pacific. 

Canadian-U.S., most powerful experimeiital satellitc. 

For maritime usr by Comsat, over the Atlantic. 

Experimental satellires with radioisotope power sources. 

First of new series. 

Placed ovcr Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

For maritime use hy Comsat, over the Pacific. 

Placed south of the United States foi- AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

82 
APPENDIX B-l -Con tinued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1973-1977 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Nov. 6, 1973 

May 17, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

Feb. 6, 1975 

June 12, 1975 

Oct. 16, 1975 

Tulv 29, 1976 

:iune 16, 1977 

July 14, 1977 

Nov. 23, 1977 

Jan. 22, 1975 

Apr. 9, 1975 

May 4, 1976 

Oct. 30, 1973 

Jul. 14, 1974 

Oct. 12, 1975 

Sep. 1, 1976 

June 23, 1977 

Oct. 28, 1977 

NOAA-3 (ITOS F) 

SMS- 1 

NOAA-4 (ITOS C) 

Ximbus fi 

SMS-2 

Goes 1 

NOAA-5 fITOS H) 

Goes 2 

H imawari 

Met cosa t 

Landsat 2 

Geos 3 

Lageos 

NavSat 0-20 

NTS 1 

Tip-2 

Tip-3 

NTS 2 

Transit 

WEATHER OBSER\'ATION'* 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

'I'hor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Second generatioti operational meteorological satellite. 

Fii-st full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Secoiitl geiicratioii operational meteorological satellite. 

Second full-time weather satellite iii synchronous orbit. 

To I,uiltl numerical models for Glolml Atmospheric Research 

I;ilst fully operational synchronous weather satellitr. 

Second gcncration operational satellite. 

Second of this series. 

Japanese geosynchronous satellite. 

European Space Agency gcosynchroiious satellitr. 

Progt-am. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Tlior-Delta Second rxperimeiital Earth resources techiiology satellite. Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water resources, marine resources, mapping and charting. and thc 

environment. 

GEODESY 

Tlior-Delta 

'Thor-Delta Lasei gcotlyiiamic satellite. 

scout 

Atlas F Navigatioii tecliiiology satellite. 

scout Transit Improvement Program. 

Scout Transit Improvement Program. 

Atlas F Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System 

Scout Developmental model. 

To measure gmnietrp aiitl topography of ocean surface. 

N XVIG ATION 

'* Does not include Department of Defensc weather satellite5 which are not iiidi\idually identified by launch. 

a3 
APPENDIX B-2 

US-Launched Scientific Payloads 1973-1977 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

June 10, 1973 

Oct. 26, 1973 

Dec. 16, 1973 

Feb. 18, 1974 

Mar. 9, 1974 

June 3, 1974 

July 16, 1974 

Aug. 30, 1974 

Oct. 15, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

May 7, 1975 

June 21, 1975 

Aug. 9, 1975 

Oct. 6, 1975 

Nov. 20, 1975 

Mar. 15, 1976 

May 22, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

Apr. 20, 1977 

Aug. 12, 1977 

Oct. 22, 1977 

Radio Astronomv 2 

(Explorer 49) ' 

IMP 10 

(Explorer 50) 

(Explorer 51) 

Atmosphere 

San Marm 4 

UK X-4 (Miranda) 

Hawkeye 

(Explorer 52) 

Aeros 2 

ANS 

Ariel 5 

INTASAT 

SAS-C 

OSO-8 

COS-B 

Atmosphere 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 53) 

(Explorer 54) 

(ExDlorer 55) 

Soirad HiA/HiB 

SESP 74-2 

P-76-5 

Geos 

HEAO 1 

ISEE 1, 2 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Thor-Delta 

scout 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

scout 

Titan IIID 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas- Cen tau r 

Thor-Delta 

Measure galactic and solar radio noise shielded from Earth by 

Study of interplanetary environment particle and fuel interPhotochemical processes in absorption of solar UV. 

Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Italian 

payload and launch.) 

Measure densilty of Sun-reflecting particles near the spacecraft, 

and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Plasma properties of the magnetosphere over the north polar 

cap. 

Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar 

UV. (German payload.) 

Study steller U\' antl x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) 

Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United Kingdom 

Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irreguMeasure x-ray emission of discrete extragalactic soiirces. (ItalTo study minimum phasc of solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satelPhotochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measuic. 

Measure radiation ant1 particles at close to 120,000 km circular. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measnrements up to SO00 km. 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic antl electric lieltl* 

X-ray antl gamma ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA a~~tl 

the Moon, by use of lunar orbit. 

actions in the distant magneto tail. 

payload.) 

larities and scintillation. (Spanish payload.) 

ian-launched.) 

lite.) 

spatial distribution of ozone. 

from geosynchronous orbit (not attained) . 

European Space Agency respectively) . 

84 
APPENDIX B3 

U .S. -Launc hed Space Probes 1973-1 977 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 6, 1973 Pioneer 11 Atlas-Cen taur 

Nov. 3, 1973 Mariner 10 Atlas-Centanr 

Dec. 10, 1974 Helios 1 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 

Sep. 9, 1975 Viking 2 

Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECen taur 

Aug. 20, 1971 Voyager 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Jupiter flyby mission. Passcd Jupiter on Dec. 2, 1974, returning 

pictures and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn 

before accelerating out of the solar system. 

\'enus antl Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5, 1974. 

returning good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on 

Sep. 21, 1974, rcturning 500-600 good quality pictures. Passed 

Mercury again on Mar. 16, 1975. Other data were also returned. 

Flew in highly elliptic orbit to within 44 million km of the 

Sun, measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and comic rays. 

Payloatl hatl 7 West German experiments, 3 U.S. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, 

while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, 

tested soil sam'ples for signs of life, and took measurements 

of the atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, 

while Orbiter circled the planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, 

tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements 

of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of the 

Sun, measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic 

rays. Payload hatl same West German antl US. experiments as Helios 1 plus a cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Was to swing around Jupiter 

in Tuly 1979 and arrive at Saturn in 1981, possibly going on 

to Uranus by 1986. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing I'oyager 2 on the way, 

was to swing around Jupiter in Mar. 1979 and arrive at 

Saturn in Nov. 1980. 

85 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryReds tone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

Soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6,1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3 1962 

May 15, 1963 

,June 14, 1963 

,June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15. 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3,1966 

,July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3. 1969 

May 18, 1969 

July 16, 1969 

Oct. 11,1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

lames A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Tohn W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Tames A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

Tames A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volvnov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunov 

Tames A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

1 h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 rnin. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 rnin. 

260 h 9 min. 

94 h 5.1 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

241 h 1 min. 

192 h 3 min. 

195 h 9 min. 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

118 h 50 min. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First long US. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space: within 5-km of Vostok 

First 3-man crew. 

5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual ma21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 0.3 m of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket). 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

First initial rendezvous; first tethered flight; 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (AlCosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

min) . 

neuvers in orbit. 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1372 km) . 

drin, 5 h 37 min) . 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit (s) of Moon; first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned 

flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining with 

command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock 

and soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observation. 
APPENDIX C--Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Apollo 12 

Apollo I3 

Soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

Soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz I3 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

,June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

,June 6, 1971 

,July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 18, 1975 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

,July 15, I975 

,July 6, 1976 

Sep. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, ,Jr, 

Alan L. Bean 

Tames A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, ,Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Vladislav Nikolayevich 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

Dohrovolski y 

Volkov 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly, I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

,Joseph P. Kenvin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lehedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarafanov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliv Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Georgiy Grechko 

Vasilev Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Petr Klimuk 

Vitaliy Sevastiyanov 

Aleksey Leonov 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris Volynov 

Vitaliv Zholohov 

Valeriy Bykoyskiy 

Vladimir Aksenov 

Vyacheslav Zudov 

Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor Gorbato 

Yuriy Glazkov 

Vladimir Kovalenok 

Valeriy Ryumin 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Georgiy Grecho 

244 h 36 min. 

142 h 55 min. 

424 h 59 min. 

216 h 2 min. 

47 h 46 min. 

570 h 22 min. 

295 h 12 min. 

265 h 51 min. 

501 h 52 min. 

627 h 50 min. 

1427 h 

9 min. 

47 h 16 min. 

2017 h 

16 min. 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h 12 min. 

142 h 24 min. 

709 h 20 min. 

20 min. 

1511 h 

142 h 31 min. 

217 h 28 min. 

20 min. 

1182 h 

189 h 54 min. 

48 h 6 min. 

425 h 23 min. 

48 h 46 min. 

24 min. 

- -- 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled Moon, with 

crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reentry. 

Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 

17 days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not 

hoard space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyut 11 crew occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capsule recovery on June 30. 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apollo ”J” series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight 

EVA of 38 rnin 12 s was performed during 

return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landDocked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired 

Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

ing, again with roving vehicle. 

damaged station. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources 

experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space station for over 14 days. 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with SalTest of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

during a 29-day flight. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew re- covered after abort. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

during a 63-day mission. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint ex- periments ASTP mission. 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments 

of ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salvut 5 and occupied station 

Earth resources study with multispectral camduration mission. 

yut 3. 

during 49-day flight. 

era system. 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salvut 5 and occupied station 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

during 18-day flight. 

station. 

1978. 

Docked with Salyut 6: flight continued into 

87 
-4PPESDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust Max. Max. Payload (kg) (in 

kilo- dia' Heiglit 550-km First 

ne\\ tons) (m) (m) orbit Escape launch 

Vehicle Stages Propellant '' 

scout 1. Algol IIIA Solid 

2. Castor IIA Solid 

3. Antares IIB Solid 

4. Altair 111 . Solid 

Thor-Delta 2900 series 1. Thor plus 9 TX LOX/RP-1 

Atlas F/TE 364-4 

Atlas-Agena 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIID 

Titan III(34)D 

Titan 

Thor 

Thor 

5DIII(34) D/IUS 

LV-ZF 

SLVSAIBlock 

-2 

35G5 Solid 

2. Delta (DSV-3) 

3. TE 364-4 Solid 

1. Atlas booster & 

2. TE 364-4 Solid 

N,O, / Aerozine 

sustainer LOX/RP-1 

1. Atlas booster & 

(SLV/3A) LOX/RP-1 

2. Agena IRFNA/UDMH 

1. LR-87 N,O,/Aerozine 

2. LR-91 N,O,/ Aerozine 

3. Agena IRFNA/UDMH 

1. Two 5-segment 3.05- 

2. LR-87 N1O, / Aerozine 

3. LR-91 N-0, / Aerozine 

4. Transtage N-O,/Aerozine 

1. Two 5-seement 3.05- 

m dia Solid 

m dia Solid 

2. LR-87 N20, / Aerozine 

3. LR-91 NrO, / Aerozine 

1. Two 5%-segment 

3.05-m dia ..... Solid ..... 

2. LR-87 .......... N20,/Aerozine .. 

3. LR-91 . .... N20r/Aerozine 

.I. Two 5I/-segment .. Solid .......... 

2. LR-87 ........... N,O,/Aerozine .. 

3. LR-91 ............ N,04/Aerozine .. 

4. IUS 1st Stage ..... .Solid ........ 

5. IUS 2nd Stage .. Solid ......... 

.l. Thor .......... LOX/RP-1 ... 

2. TE 364-4 ...... Solid ........... 

3. TE 364-15 ..... ..Solid ......... 

. 1. Thor plus 3 LOX/RI-1 "- 'rx 964-5 Solid 

2. TE 364-4 Solid 

3. TE 364-15 Solid 

481.7 

281.1 

126.8 

26.9 

911.9 

440.4 

45.8 

66.7 

1970.6 

66.7 

2237.5 

71.2 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

11,565.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

71.2 

11.565.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

1 1,540.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

1 1,5401.4 

2353.1 

444.8 

191.3 

71.2 

756.2 

66.7 

44.5 

756.2 

689.5 

66.7 

44.5 

1.12 

2.44 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.05 

3.0.; 

3.05 

2.44 

2.44 

22 

35 

2 

40 

48 

40 

4 

48 

I8 

2 

24 

185 ' 

1750 ' 

1500 ' 

2720 ' 

3630 ,-, 

- 

1,100 ti 

2,750 ' 

1905' 

512 'I' 

653 

38.6 ' 1972(60) ' 

476 1973 (60) 

1977(60) ' 

454' 1968(60) ' 

1966 

1461' 1965 

1971 

1981 

1905" 1980 

1976(66) ' 

1980(63) 

'The date of first launch applies to this latest modification 

'Set of 3. 

with a date in parentheses for the initial version. 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid 

Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant 

combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; 

Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH: Nitrogen Tetroxide and 

~JDMH/N,H,-N,O,/Aerozine; Liquid Oxygeii and Liquid 

Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

' Due east launch. 

Polar launch. 

' Polar 115 km (nominal). 

' Synchronous equatorial (nominal). 

' Polar 115 km (current estimate). 

" Synchronous equatorial (current estimate) 

'" Polar 520 km (from WTR). 

88 
Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

21-y~~~ BUDGET SUMMARY-BIIDGET AUTHORITY 

(In millions of dollars) 

1959 ................ 1960 ................ 1961 ................ 1962 ................ 1963 ................ 

1964 ................ 1965 ................ 1966 ................ 1967 ................ 1968 ................ 1969 ................ 1970 ................ 1971 ................ 1972 ................ 1973 ................ 1974 ................ 1975 ................ 1976 ................ T.Q.9 ................ 1977 ................ 1978 Est. ............ 1979 Est. ............ 

NASA Com- Interior Agricul- NSF Total Total Soace ture Space 1 Defense Energy merce 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1824.9 

3673.0 

5099.7 

5249.7 

5174.9 

4965.6 

4587.3 

3990.9 

3311.2 

3306.6 

3406.2 

3036.9 

3229.1 

3550.3 

931.8 

3817.8 

4062.8 

4370.3 

3745.8 

260.9 489.5 

461.5 560.9 

926.0 813.9 

1796.8 1298.2 

3626.0 1549.9 

5016.3 1599.3 

5137.6 1573.9 

5064.5 1688.8 

4830.2 1 663.6 

4430.0 1921.8 

3822.0 2013.0 

3547.0 1678.4 

31013.3 1512.3 

307 1 .O 1407.0 

3093.2 1623.0 

2758.5 1766.0 

2915.3 1892.4 

3225.4 1983.3 

849.2 460.4 

3440.2 2411.9 

3621.7 2713.8 

JR4R.5 3364.9 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

43.0 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

93.8 

97.8 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... ) .- 

.- 

1.1 

1 .9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.7 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

t.. 

... 

... 

.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1 .G 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

7.9 

... 

.1 

.6 

I .s 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

784.7 

1065.8 

1808.2 

3294.6 

5434.5 

6831.4 

6955.5 

6969.8 

6741.5 

655 1.4 

5975.8 

5340.5 

4740.9 

4574.7 

4824.8 

4640.3 

4914.3 

5319.9 

1340.5 

5982.8 

6483.5 

7374.2 

Excludes amount3 for air transportatioIl. 

* T.Q.-Transitional Quartei. 

Source: Oftice of Management and Budget. 

U.S. Space Budget - Budget Authority 196811979 

BILLIONS OF (May not add due to rounding) 

DOLLARS 

8.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

FISCAL YEAR 1/ T.Q. -- TRANSITIONAL QUARTER 

3 EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

- OTHER 

........... ssssssx. ........... 

........... DEFENSE 

1-1 NASA3 

89 
.\~rcsnrx E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of doll.ii~) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1977 1978 1979 1977 1978 1979 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal space programs: 

NASA' ....................................... 3440.2 362 1.7 3848.5 3599.5 3567.4 3802.9 

Defense ............................. 2411.9 2713.8 3364.9 1832.7 2443.6 3104.3 

Energy ...................................... 21.7 34.4 43.0 22.2 28.4 40.0 

Commerce ........................... 90.8 93.8 97.8 86.9 93.4 96.0 

Interior ....................................... 9.5 9.7 9.7 9. I 9.6 9.6 

NSF ................................ 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

Total ....................................... 5982.8 6483.5 7374.2 5559.1 61512.5 7063.1 

Space Right .................................... 2137.9 2198.0 2247.2 2251.7 2191.9 2264.2 

Space science, applications and technology ...... 963.9 1055.6 1209.7 1006.1 1018.3 1150.3 

Air transportation ............................. 377.6 441.1 521.8 344.3 415.0 465.9 

Supporting operations ......................... 341.3 369.4 392.9 344.6 358.4 389.7 

Less receipts' ................................. - 2.9 -1.3 -1.3 -2.9 - 1.3 -1.3 

Total NASA ................................. 3817.8 4062.8 4370.3 3943.8 3982.3 4268.8 

Agriculture .............................. 6.3 7.7 7.9 6.3 7.7 7.9 

NASA: 

Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

Includes amounts for Trust Funtls. 

Source: Oflice of Management antl Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(111 millions of dollars) 

Budget Ail thority 

1977 1978 1979 

Actual Estimate Estimatr 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA' ............................................................ 377.6 441.1 521.8 

Department of Transportation :: ..................................... 93.5 97.6 93.6 

Total ............................................................ 2727.1 3111.1 2733.4 

Department of Defense' ............................................ 2256.0 2572.4 2118.0 

Research antl Development, Construction of Facilities, :: Oflice of Secretary of Transportation and Federal Aviatioii 

Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of AirSource: OtFicc of Maiiagcmcnt ;tiicl Uudgct. 

Research and Program Management. 

craft and rclatecl equipment. 

:\tlmiiiistratioii Ilescarcli antl Development. 

90 

f? U.S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 0-211-343