Aeronautics 

and 

Space Report 

of the 

President 

Fiscal Year 

1992 

Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

Fiscal Year 

1992 

Activities 

1993 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 

Table of Contents 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 1 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration ................................................................................................................ 1 

Department of Defense ............................................................................................................................................................ 2 

Department of Commerce ....................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Department of Energy .............................................................................................................................................................. 4 

Department of Interior ............................................................................................................................................................. 4 

Department of Agriculture ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Communications Commission ................................................................................................................................. 5 

Federal Aviation Administration ...................................................................................................................................... 6 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation .................................................................................................................... 6 

Environmental Protection Agency ......................................................................................................................................... 7 

Smithsonian Institution ............................................................................................................................................................ 7 

Department of State .................................................................................................................................................................. 7 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ............................................................................................................................. 8 

United States Information Agency ......................................................................................................................................... 8 

National Science Foundation .................................................................................................................................................. 7 

Space Launch Activities 

Space Shuttle Missions ............................................................................................................................................................. 9 

Expendable Launches ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 

Space Science 

Astronomy and Space Physics .............................................................................................................................................. 11 

Solar System Exploration ....................................................................................................................................................... 14 

Other Space Science ................................................................................................................................................................ 15 

Space Flight and Space Technology 

Space Shuttle ............................................................................................................................................................................ 17 

New Launch System ............................................................................................................................................................... 18 

Other Launch Systems ........................................................................................................................................................... 18 

Satellites .................................................................................................................................................................................... 19 

Space Station Freedom ........................................................................................................................................................... 21 

Safety and Mission Quality ................................................................................................................................................... 24 

Other Space Technology ........................................................................................................................................................ 24 

Energy ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 

Space Communications 

Communications Satellites .................................................................................................................................................... 27 

Space Network ........................................................................................................................................................................ 28 

Communications and Data Systems .................................................................................................................................... 29 

Ground Network ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29 

Aeronautical Activities 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation ...................................................................................................................................... 37 

Weather-related Aeronautical Activities ............................................................................................................................. 39 

Flight Safety and Security ...................................................................................................................................................... 40 

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors .............................................................................................................................. 42 

Technological Developments ................................................................................................................................................ 31 

Studies of the Planet Earth 

Uses of Remote Sensing ......................................................................................................................................................... 43 

Environmental Concerns ....................................................................................................................................................... 45 

Atmospheric Sciences and Oceanography .......................................................................................................................... 45 

i 
Other Aeronautical and Space Activities 

Arms Control of Space Related Weaponry ......................................................................................................................... 51 

Cooperation with the Former Soviet Union ........................................................................................................................ 52 

Other Foreign Policy Issues ................................................................................................................................................... 52 

Regulation of Commercial Space Industries ....................................................................................................................... 55 

Commercial Development of Space Technology ............................................................................................................... 56 

Space Education and Publicity .............................................................................................................................................. 58 

Glossary ................................................................................................................................................................................... 61 

International Conferences ...................................................................................................................................................... 55 

Appendices 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

B-1 

B-2 US.-Launched Scientific Satellites. 1986-1992 ......................................................................................................... 83 

B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes. 1975-1992 ................................................................................................................... 84 

C 

D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ........................................................................................................................................ 94 

E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government-Historical Budget Summary-Budget Authority ............................. 96 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ............................................................................................................................................... 97 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget ..................................................................................................................................................... 97 

F-1 Landsat Remote Sensing Strategy ............................................................................................................................. 98 

F-2 Directive on Space Exploration Initiative ............................................................................................................... 100 

F-3 Directive on Space-Based Global Change Observation ........................................................................................ 102 

F-4 Agreement Between the United States and the Russian Federation .................................................................. 105 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record ......................................................................................................................... 73 

World Record. Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ........................................................... 74 

Successful U.S. Launches. Oct . 1. 1991-Sept . 30. 1992 ............................................................................................. 75 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites. 1986-1992 ................................................................................................... 82 

U.S. and Soviet Human Spaceflights ......................................................................................................................... 85 

Index ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 109 

ii 
Executive Summary 

Note: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 

directed that theannual Aeronautics and Space Report include 

a “comprehensive description of the programmed activities and 

theaccomplishments of all agencies of the United States in the 

field of aeronautics and space activities during the preceding 

calendar year.” This year’s report (like last year’s) has been 

prepared on a fiscal year basis, which is consistent with the 

budgetary period now used in programs of the Federal Government. The Administration is working with Congress to amend 

the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 accordingly. 

Fiscal Year (FY) 1992 was a significant one for U.S. 

aeronautics and space efforts. It included Seven Space 

Shuttle missions and 14 Government launches of Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) carrying a variety of 

payloads ranging from NASA missions to classified payloads. In addition, there were eight launches of ELVs by 

commercial launch service providers operating under 

licenses issued by the Department of Transportation’s 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation. On December 7,1991, the Air Force achieved initial launch capability for the new Atlas I1 launch vehicle in a commercial 

launch by General Dynamics with support from the Air 

Force. The other ELV missions launched four Navstar 

Global Positioning System, two Defense Satellite Communications System, and one Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program satellites as well as two classified payloads and four NASA spacecraft. The Shuttle missions 

included one using the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1) to study the Sun and 

our atmosphere as well as the first flight of the newest 

orbiter, Endeavour, which rendezvoused with, retrieved, 

and replaced the perigee kick motor of the INTELSATVI 

(F-3) satellite that the International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) controllers then deployed into its intended orbit. In aeronautics, efforts 

have ranged from development of new civil and military 

aircraft and technologies to research and development of 

ways to reduce aircraft noise and improve flight safety 

and security. A key environmental effort in FY 1992 was 

monitoring ozone depletion. One of the major Earth 

science highlights of the year was finding that, like the 

ozone layer over the Antarctic regions with its welldocumented annual depletion, the ozone layer in the 

Northern Hemisphere is increasingly vulnerable todepletion by synthetic chemicals. Several Federal agencies 

have cooperated to study this and other environmental 

problems so we can improve the prospects for future 

generations, who will inhabit the Earth. In these and 

many other ways discussed below, the budgcts for aeronautics and space-distributed among 14 different Federal agencies-have promoted important advances in 

the Nation’s scientific and technical knowledge, promising to enhance the quality of life on Earth through improved scientific understanding, provide a more viable 

economy and healthier environment, and ensure we live 

in a safer world. 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) 

In a variety of areas during FY 1992, NASA advanced theNation’saeronautica1 and spacegoals. FY 1992 

proved, for example, to be a year of significant findings in 

the area of space science, highlighted by the results from 

NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). In what 

may be one of the discoveries of the decade, the COBE 

team of scientists announced in April 1992 the discovery 

of the largest and oldest objects ever detected in the 

universe, showing for the first time that the big bang was 

not perfectly smooth and uniform. In another area of 

astronomy, the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) 

has found that a number of quasars, previously knownas 

intense emitters of optical and radio radiation, also exhibit intense emission of very high energy gamma rays. 

Launched on June 7,1992, the Extreme Ultraviolet 

Explorer (EWE) was opening the virtually unexplored 

window in the electromagnetic spectrum, the extreme 

ultraviolet. The first spacecraft in a new series of Small 

Explorers, the Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric 

Particle Explorer (SAMPEX), launched on July 3,1992, is 

designed to investigate anomalous cosmic rays and other 

phenomena of space physics. Yohkoh, a joint mission 

between NASA and Japan’s Institute for Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), has been providing insights 

into the physics of solar flares, including their topology, 

energetics, and timing. The Geotail satellite, launched on 

July 24,1992, is the first mission in the International SolarTerrestrial Physics initiative, an effort to derive thephysics of the behavior of the solar-terrestrial system so as to 

predict how the Earth’s atmosphere will respond to 

changes in the solar wind. 

In planetary astronomy, Mars Observer (MO), a 

spacecraft that will enter a near-polar orbit around Mars 

in August 1993, successfully launched from Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station, FL, on September 25,1992. 

Also, by theend of September, Magellan had successfully 

mapped over 99 percent of the Venus’s surface. 

In space flight and space technology the Space 

Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) program continued its aggressive test activity. The Advanced Solid Rocket Motor 

(ASRM) program made significant progress in facility 

construction and motor design. During 1992, the strategic planning process for use of Space Station Freedom 

(SSF) began. Two Shuttle missions this year successfully 

tested Space Station equipment and operations concepts. 

The United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML-11, 

launched June 25, 1992, was the first Spacelab flight 

dedicated solely to microgravity research. This flight 

served as a “dress rehearsal” for Space Station Freedom, 

and the knowledge gained from the investigations will 

assist NASA in preparing for work on Freedom later in 

the 1990s. Other life sciences-related missions included 

I 
the 8day International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-1) 

mission launched on January 22, 1992, and Spacelab J 

(SL-J), launched on September 12, 1992, a reimbursable 

mission with Japan. 

With respect to the environment on Earth, results 

from the second Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

(AASE-II),a&month study of theatmosphere using NASA 

research aircraft, correlated with observations from the 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), contributed 

to increased understanding of the degree and nature of 

ozone depletion in the Northern and mid-latitudes. Measurements from NASA's Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer revealed that ozone levels over the Antarctic regions 

once again reached record lows in October 1991. A major 

step in understanding the Oceans came on August 10,1992, 

when the U.S. and France successfully launched the joint 

Ocean Topography Experiment, TOPEX/POSEIDON. 

NASA's Space Network continued to provide tracking and communications services to a variety of Earthorbital missions. UsingitsTrackingand Data Relay Satellite 

System (TDRSS) Space Network4 space-based system 

providing communications plus command and control 

services to low Earth-orbiting spacecraft4uring FY 1992 

the network provided communications services to three 

new customers: the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, 

launched September 12,1991; Extremeultraviolet Explorer, 

launched June7,1992;andTOPEX/POSEIDON. Thegrowth 

inTDRScompatible, low Earth-orbitingsatellitesrequiring 

TDRS services resulted in a 38 percent increase in minutes 

of service provided in FY 1992 over FY 1991. 

Also in 1992, among other activities, NASA's Office 

of Space Communications redesignated the Packet Data 

Processor facility, initially designed to meet the unique 

requirements of the Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), as a 

multi-satellite facility to enable the processing of scientific 

data received from NASA's next generation of Earthorbiting spacecraft. The Office of Space Communications 

evolved a new Transportable Payload Operations Control 

Center architecture, which used high power workstations 

instead of large central computers to provide service faster, 

better, and more cheaply. And during FY 1992, NASA's 

Ground Network facilities also provided communication 

services during the launch, flight, and recovery of highaltitude balloons and rockets employed for research in such 

scientific disciplines as geophysics, astrophysics, and 

astronomy. These facilities provided spacecraft 

communications as well to the Space Shuttle; to planetary 

spacecraft; and to Earth-orbiting spacecraft performing a 

variety of Earth observing missions. 

In theaeronautical arena, theIntegrated High Performance Tu rbi ne Engine Technology ( IHPTET) initiative was 

a coordinated DoD/NASA/industry effort to double 

turbopropulsion capability and reduce cost for military 

aircraft engines with no compromises in propulsion system 

life, reliability, and maintainability. NASA's Subsonic Arcraft Research during FY 1992 focused on developing selected new technologies to ensure the competitiveness of 

U.S. subsonic aircraft in the world market and enhance the 

safety and productivity of the Nation's airspace. Much of 

NASA's research focused on reducing drag and improving 

lift. 

NASA was also engagxi in high-speed research, 

focused on resolving critical environmental issues and 

laying the technological foundation for an economical, 

next-generation supersonic transport expected to becritical 

to the competitive posture of the American aerospace industry in the next century. During 1992, NASA's testing 

and modeling showed that it would be possible to lower 

emissions and noise levels for such an aircraft to within 

program goals. Among other aeronautics programs, 

NASA's Hypersonic Research program supported fundamental research into the physical processes of flight at 

hypersonic speeds; it is also developing new, innovative 

technologies that will allow future air-breathing, hypersonic vehicles to operate safely in the hypersonic environment. NASA'sCritical DisciplinesResearchduring FY 1992 

focused on pioneering the development of innovative concepts and providing physical understanding and theoretical, experimental, and computational tools required for 

efficient design and operation of advanced aerospace vehicles. 

As part of its program to encourage private sector 

involvementand investment innew,high-technology,spae 

related products and services, in November 1991, NASA's 

Officeof Commercial Programs (OCP) established two new 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDS) 

to specialize in advanced satellite communications and 

other space-based telecommunications technologies. These 

two new centers brought the total number in the CCDS 

programto 17at theendof the fiscal year. WhilemostCCDS 

technologies were still in theexperimental phaseat theend 

of FY 1992, there had already been significant results in 

materials processing and biotechnology. In another area, 

OCP has co-funded 12 projects with industry in the second 

round of the Earth Observation Commercial Application 

Program, which promotes the development of new or 

improved products and services in the area of remote 

sensing. In the area of technology transfer, Regional Technology Transfer Centers (RTTCs), established in six regions 

spanning theU.S.,beganoperatingin January 1992. Togive 

but one example of results in this area, NASA's Stennis 

Space Center and the Wilmer Eye Institute at the Johns 

Hopkins Medical Institution have developed a Low Vision 

Enhancement System to aid the vision impaired. 

Department of Defense (DoD) 

For the DoD in M 1992, the Air Force launched 

four Delta 11s carrying Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. The Air Force successfully launched 

2 
two Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) 

satellites with the Atlas 11, and there was a single Atlas E 

launch on November 28, 1991, supporting a Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program satellite. The Air Force 

also launched a Titan IV with a classified DoD payload on 

November 7,1991, and on April 25,1992, it launched a 

Titan I1 booster, likewise carrying a classified DoD payload, from Vandenberg AFB. Additionally, on November 24-25/1991, the crew of Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS 

44) and an Inertial Upper Stage successfully launched an 

enhanced Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite, the 

third in the ”DSP-I” block of satellites. 

The Taurus standard small launch vehicle 

capitalized on the Defense Advanced Research Project 

Agency’s (DARPA’s) previous investment in the Pegasus 

air-launched vehicle to produce a ground-launched rocket 

with greaterpayload capacity. The rocket passed a major 

milestone this year with the successful integration and 

testing of the full-scale engineering vehicle. In satellite 

technology, the existing mix of 4 developmental and 15 

operational GPS satellitcs at the end of the year provided 

world wide, two-dimensional, navigational coverage 24 

hoursa day and Worldwide, three-dimensional coverage 

at least 21 hours a day. In 1992, the Air Force also had 

several modernization projects underway to sustain and 

improve DSP’s warning and surveillance capabilities. 

The DSCScontinued to serveas the long-haul, high 

capacity communications system supporting the worldwide command and control of the US. Armed Forces and 

other Government agencies. The DSCS program successfully launched two new DSCS I11 satelli teson February 10 

and July 2, 1992. These launches marked the start of a 

replenishment program for the DSCS constellation. Still 

in development was Milstar, programmed to be the 

cornerstone of the DoD’s Military Satellite Communications architecture in the future. The first Milstar satellite 

was on track at the end of the fiscal year for delivery in 

December 1992, with satellites 2 and 3 at 90 and 60 

percent completion, respectively. Meanwhile, the Fleet 

Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM) provided worldwide Navy and DoD Ultra High Frequency 

(UHF) satellite communications through a constellation 

of four Navy-owned FLTSAT and three leased satellites 

positioned in geosynchronous orbit at four locations 

around the Earth. 

The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization engaged during FY 1992 in a wide-ranging research program. It continued work, for example, on the development of miniaturized and accurate subsystems for interceptors. The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) continued 

in FY 1992 to develop technology allowing space systems’ survivability in hostile environments. 

In the field of aeronautics, the DoDs Pilot’s Associate Program applied many of the technologies being 

developed under the Strategic Computing Program of 

DARTA and the U.S. Air Force to assist pilots in making 

decisions in potential combat situations. The program 

culminated in FY 1992 witha successfuldemonstration in 

an advanced flight simulator representative of the fighter 

aircraft projected for the mid-1990s. Another important 

research and development effort involved the National 

Aero-Space Plane (NASP), a Presidentiallydirected, joint 

DoD-NASA program. Its objective was to develop and 

validate technologies for an entirely new generation of 

aerospace vehicles, some of which will be single-stageto-orbit space planes that fly at hypersonic speeds to 

provide flexible, efficient space-launch capability with 

horizontal takeoffs and landings on runways. Another 

capability will be a long-range hypersonic cruise within 

the atmosphere. The NASI‘ program has fabricated 

component hardware, manufactured materials, and performed aerodynamic, mechanical, and thermal ground 

tests. 

In another development program, the X-31A Enhanced Fighter has demonstrated increased maximum 

turn rates and a decreased turning radius, resulting in an 

ability to point its nose rapidly. FY 1992 achievements 

included a post-stall flight to 50 degrees Angle of Attack 

(AOA) on November 19, 1991; a post-stall flight to 70 

degrees AOA; and a full-stick velocity vector roll to the 

same AOA, both on September 18,1992. Throughout the 

envelope, the aircraft exhibited pilot-friendly handling. 

Other programs to develop or upgrade aircraft for the 

DoD-the FA-l8E/F, the B-2, the AX (a multi-mission 

aircraft to replace current medium/long-range strikeinterdiction aircraft in the Navy and Air Force), the X-29 

Advanced Technology Demonstratorrand the Advanced 

Fighter Technology Integration program-all made notable progress during FY 1992 as well. 

In another area of the DoD’s responsibilities, the 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program provided 

timely, high quality, worldwide, visible and infrared 

cloud imagery and other specialized environmental data 

to support strategic missions. To meet the ongoing 

needsof the system’s users, the first of the improved 

Block 5D-2 satellites launched on an Atlas E on November 28,1991, fromvandenberg AFB,CA. Ina related area, 

the Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on (GFO) satelliteprogram, the Navy awarded a contract that will lead to the 

launch of an operational radar altimeter satellite in support of tactical oceanography. The contract provides for 

the first satellite to be launched in late 1995. 

Department of Commerce (DOC) 

The DOC and its components continued to perform 

a variety of aeronautics and space-related activities. For 

3 
example, astronomers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) used data from the Hubble 

Space Telescope (HST) to determine that there were 15 

parts of deuterium per million parts of ordinary hydrogen in interstellar gas, an amount suggesting less matter 

in the universe than many scientists believed. This 

indicates that the universe could continue expanding 

forever, as it has been doing since the beginning, according to the big bang theory. In other areas of astronomy, 

NET scientists completed model studies of gravitational 

wave emissions during the slow in-spiral of compact 

stars to massive black holes that are hypothesized to be 

the nuclei of galaxies. The results suggest that such 

sources may beobservable from an orbiting gravitational 

wave observatory. 

To improvecurrent propulsion systems and achieve 

the performance demands of future propulsion system 

designs, NIST engineers were characterizing new 

materials that reduce friction and wear. NIST scientists 

havealso constructed the first stageof a vibrationisolation 

system for the National Science Foundation (NSFIsponsored Laser Interferometric Gravitational 

Observatory complex. 

In atmospheric studies, NIST and the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) were 

collaborating on measurements of concentrations of various chemicals and compounds. Scientists were compiling data from these and other measurements into database tables that will enable atmospheric modelers to 

predict equilibrium conditions for the atmosphere and 

its chlorine pollutants. Relatedly, NET scientists sought 

in a separate project to identify regional and global 

sources of important ”greenhouse” gases-carbon monoxide, ozone, carbon and sulfur aerosols, and others that 

affected the quality of the atmosphere and the climate. 

Meanwhile, the NOAA series of satellites continued to 

providedataonozonedepletionand the weather. NOAA 

scientists were in the process of analyzing the data set for 

the time histories of globally-distributed total ozone 

amounts and of the annual depletion of ozone over 

Antarctica. During 1992, scientists within NOAA were 

also in the process of combining satellite-derived information with climatic data observed from the surface of 

the Earth to better understand the influence of urbanization on long-term temperature records. And National 

Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service 

(NESDIS) scientists plus the associated cooperative institutes were engaged in a variety of studies of severe 

storms. 

In June, the Doc’s Office of Space Commerce and 

NASA briefed industry on the potential role of commercial ventures in the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI), 

President Bush’s challenge to establish a permanent outpost on the Moon and explore Mars. The President 

designated the DOC as the lead agency for encouraging 

private sector activities in support of SEI objectives. 

Also, following the June Summit Meeting between 

President Bush and President Yeltsin of Russia, the DOC 

conducted a space technology assessment mission to 

Russia in July. The purpose of the trip was to allow 

technical representatives of U.S. industry to gain firsthand knowledge of the capabilities of Russian space 

industry before engaging in commercial discussions. 

The mission provided an unprecedented level of access 

to Russian space facilities and represented a new level of 

opennessby Russia toward commercial cooperation with 

U.S. industry. In these and other ways, DOC contributed 

to the U.S. aeronautics and space goals. 

Department of Energy (DOE) 

The DOE continued the restart of its program to build 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) to convert 

heat from Plutonium-238 into electric power. For example, 

in FY 1992, the Modular Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MOD-RTG) program focused on the design, development, manufacture, and test of improved multicouples 

both in an electrically-heated engineering, 8-multicouple 

test module configuration and in individual mu1 ticouple 

test stations. The MOD-RTG design with its capability to 

tailor power to meet specific mission requirements should 

providea significant advanceinRTG specific power (watts/ 

kilogram) and in improved efficiency for use in NASA’s 

lunar, Martian, and solar system exploration as well as in 

DoD missions during the next decade. The DOE also 

continued its work on the SP-100 Space Reactor Program, 

whch sought the development of a power system for civil 

and defense missions using a nuclear reactor capable of 

providing electric power in the range of tens to hundreds of 

kilowatts. Progress has also been made on technology for 

the separate thermionic space reactor. 

In response to the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) 

announced in 1989, DOE in cooperation with NASA has 

begun to develop Nuclear Propulsion, which promises to 

reduce costs, decrease the size of spacecraft, and provide 

shorter piloted Mars planetary missions. In addition to U.S. 

concepts, evaluation has begun of Russian fuel forms and 

testing capabilities. 

Department of the Interior (Dol) 

The Do1 engaged in multiple applications of remote sensingfromsatellitesand aircraft. Forexample,in 

1992 the U.S. Geological Survey acquired over 237,000 

square kilometers of additional Side-Looking Airborne 

Radar (SLAR) coverage for geologic, hydrologic, cartographic, and engineering applications in AL, MS, GA, FL, 

KS, CO, and UT. The Bureau of Reclamation continued 

numerous applications of remote sensing to a variety of 

4 
resource management objectives including mapping irrigated lands in the Upper Colorado River basin from high 

altitude, color-infrared aerial photographs. The Bureau 

of Indian Affairs continued to conduct resource inventory and assessment projects to support its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. Landsat Thematic Mapper data served, for example, to classify land 

cover, with emphasis on modeling fire fuels potential on 

the Jicarilla Indian Reservation, NM, and for woodlands 

mapping on reservations throughout southern SD. 

The Bureau of Land Management obtained both 

satellite data and aerial photographs to aid in public land 

management. The National Park Service continued its 

extensive work developing vegetation community types 

from Landsat Thematic Mapper data in the Alaskan 

national parks. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has assembled 

a multidisciplinary team to study the utility of remote 

sensing for characterizing and inventorying mine waste 

aspart of its Hazardous Waste Program. And, to give one 

other example, the Minerals Management Service was 

using theGlobal Positioning System (GPS) asa surveying 

and mapping tool in a pilot project to locate and position 

low water features accurately in the Gulf of Alaska to 

support offshore natural resource management activities. 

In a very different area, using radar images from 

Magellan, the U.S. Geological Survey, under charter from 

NASA, has begun to provide maps that support scientific 

studies of the geologicai properties of Venus. Also during 1992, the U.S. Geological Survey completed topographic mapping of Mars at four different scales, using 

previously acquired Viking Orbiter images. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) 

The USDA had a plethora of uses for remote sensing from either satellites or aircraft for agricultural assessment and resource management in such areas as 

insect infestations, drought, fires, vegetation changes, 

wildlife applications, crop assessment, and foreign market supply. A broad-based research program, using 

information from aircraft and satellites-especially 

Landsat, of whose data the Department was the largest 

user outside the DoD-continued to provide essential 

information on procedures for operational applications. 

Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC) 

In December 1991, the FCC approved the first 

commercial use of the C-band satellites leased by Columbia Communications from NASA on the TDRSS satellites 

located at 41 and 174 degrees West Longitude. The 

Commission has also authorized three companies to 

experiment with small, low Earth-orbiting satellites for 

communications purposes. On July 20, 1992, the FCC 

authorized Afrispace, Inc., an experimental license for 

the construction, launch, and operation of a geostationary satellite that will provide Broadcastingsatellite Sound 

services to Africa and the Middle East. Then on August 

5,1992, the FCC authorized four companies to conduct 

experiments involving low Earth orbiting satellites operating above the frequency of 1 gigahertz. 

FY 1992 featured several important international 

meetings and conferences, including notably the 1992 

International Telecommunication Union’s (ITUs) World 

Administrative Radio Conference (WARC), which met 

from February 3 to March 3,1992, at Torremolinos, Spain. 

The FCC spoke on behalf of the United States on issues 

from 1 to 3 gigahertz. The conferees reached agreements 

on most issues as a result of compromises following 

strenuous negotiations. Generally, the United States was 

able to secure worldwide frequency allocations that will 

enable its low Earth orbiting satellites to be employed in 

providing global telecommunication services including 

paging, data transfer, and voice broadcasting. To assist 

in implementing these services the FCC completed a 

negotiated rulemaking on low Earth-orbiting satellites 

below 1 gigahertz in August 1992. WARC also made 

several primary and secondary allocations for the Mobile 

Satellite Service, some worldwide and some regional, in 

frequencies between 1 and 3 gigahertz. 

With respect to flight safety, in August 1992 the 

FCC amended Part 87 of its rules to establish technical 

standards and licensing procedures for Aircraft Earth 

Stations. The stations provided communications in support of domestic and international air traffic, including 

air traffic control and safety-related communications. 

In other areas of FCC purview, an Ariane 44L 

launch vehicle successfully launched the INTELSAT VI 

(F-1) satellite, its fifth and last VI-series spacecraft, on 

October 29, 1991, from Kourou, French Guiana. Then, 

following its repositioning in May 1992, INTELSAT VI 

(F3)became the fifthVI-seriesspacecraft in theINTELSAT 

network. The following month-on June 9, 1992- 

INTELSAT’s highest powered satellite to date, the 

INTELSAT-K, was launched on an Atlas IIA from Cape 

Canaveral, FL. It brought to 19 the total number of 

satellites being operated by INTELSAT. 

Meanwhile,on Dcvember 16,1991,theINMARSAT2 (F-3) satellite-the third of the International Maritime 

Satellite Organization’s new generation of global, commercial, mobile communicationssatellites-waslaunched 

aboard an Ariane 4 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana. 

An Ariane 4 rocket also launched the fourth and final 

5 
INMARSAT-2 satellite (FA) from Kourou on April 15, 

1992. It completed the organization’s second generation 

of satellites. 

In addition, the FCC authorized a satellite system 

to operate in the previously unused 20/30 gigahertz 

frequency bands (Ka-band). This system, licensed to 

Norris Satellite Communications, Inc., will provide a 

variety of fixed-satellite services to users throughout the 

United States. In the established 4/6 gigahertz (C-band) 

and 12/14 gigahertz (Ku-band) frequency bands, there 

were three new domestic, fixed communications satellites launched for the United States during FY 1992. All 

of them were commercial replacement satellites launched 

into locations of satellites nearing the ends of their fuel 

lives. These launches raised to 33 the total number of 

domestic fixed satellitesinorbitbetween69degrees West 

Longitude and 139 degrees West Longitude on the geostationary orbital arc. 

Department of Transportation (DOT) 

Federa/ Avia fion Adminisfra fion (FAA) 

The FAA continued a growing research and development program to support its mission of ensuring civil 

aviation safety and efficiency. Under its ongoing Capital 

Investment Plan, the agency made progress on its Advanced Automation System, which will include new 

computer software, processors, tower position consoles, 

and workstations for air traffic controllers. At the same 

time, the Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation program worked to optimize terminal traffic flow by incorporating proven automation technology into the system. 

For example, the Controller Automation Spacing Aid 

project sought to use recently developed techniques in 

new applications to improve throughput of aircraft to the 

runway. The agency also pursued development of the 

Terminal Area Surveillance System to enhance air traffic 

control within terminal areas into the early 21st century. 

The FAA worked with NASA on the Center-Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) Automation 

System (CTAS), designed to increase safety while reducing delays, permitting more fuel-efficient aircraft descents, and decreasing controller workload. Under its 

Airport Surface Traffic Automation Program, the FAA 

sought to develop techniques to prevent runway incursionsand morefullyautomateground movement, thereby 

speeding traffic flow and increasing all-weather airport 

surface capacity. Research efforts to improve airport 

runways included preparing a preliminary design for a 

national airport pavement dynamic test facility. As the 

U.S. Navstar Global Positioning System neared full operational status, the FAA cooperated with NASA and 

international organizations to ensure that the benefits of 

satellite technology will be fully applied to civil aviation. 

Progress also continued on three efforts the FAA 

began with other agencies to improve aviation weather 

services-the Aviation Gridded Forecast System, the 

Aviation Weather Product Generator, and the Integrated 

Terminal Weather System. The FAA continued development of the Terminal Doppler Weather Radar, which 

provides timely detection of hazardous wind shear in 

and near airport terminal approach and departure corridors. The agency’s actions to combat the hazard of icing 

included investigations of deicing fluids and aircraft 

surface ice detection technologies. The FAA continued 

deployment of the airborne Traffic Alert and Collision 

Avoidancesystem (TCAS) and implementation of a transitional program to monitor the performance of TCAS I1 

systems. Among many other safety-related programs 

were aircraft crashworthiness tests, aging aircraft research, and airport bird hazard studies. 

In the area of civil aviation security, the FAA was 

engaged in a number of efforts to comply with the Aviation 

Security Improvement Act passed by Congress in 

November 1990. For instance, the agency pursued an 

extensive research and development effort to improve 

security through the use of explosives’ detectors, x-ray 

technologies, and vapor/particle detection devices. The 

FAA also continued research into realizing the full civil 

potential of rotorcraft and tiltrotors. Among its projects 

to deal with environmental issues, theagency developed 

a computer tool known as Integrated Noise Model (INM) 

Version 3.10 to provide better simulation of aircraft 

performance . 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

(OCST) 

OCST provided regulatory oversight and inspection for eight launches (six successful, one partly successful, and one unsuccessful) in FY 1992. It issued two 

launch licenses to Engineering and Economic Research 

Systems, one a transfer from another company and the 

other a new operator’s license, issued in August 1992. In 

March 1992, the Office published Federal Register Notice 

92-4, ”Commercial Space Transportation; Evaluation 

Criteria for Issuance of Vehicle Safety Approval for the 

COMET Reentry Vehicle System.” The Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET) is a new commercial 

space vehicle that returns to Earth after its space mission 

is completed. In May 1992, OCST published an environmental impact statement for commercial reentry vehicles. 

During the year, the Office represented DOT at international and domestic aerospace conferences and exhibitions and, among other duties, it administered and provided support for meeting sand activitiesof thecommer6 
cia1 Space Transportation Advisory Committee and its 

working groups. 

U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) 

The EPA routinely conducted research and provided technical support using remote sensing as part of 

its overall environmental monitoring program. The 

agency used large-scale aerial photography to develop 

site characterization data during the remedial investigation and feasibility study conducted as part of remedial 

actions under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, compensation, and Liability Act, as well as to 

support site selection and monitoringat hazardous waste 

facilities operated under the Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act. In this connection, airborne multispectral 

scanner data and satellite imagery also played a part in 

helping engineers develop detailed site characterizations. The agency developed and used remote sensing 

systems to support the provisions of the Clean Air Act. 

Aerial photography and satellite data also supported a 

broad variety of pollution, global change, pollution prevention, compliance, and other ecosystem monitoring 

studies in FY 1992, such as those of critical-habitat areas 

for wildlife. Inaddition, the EPA was usingand developing (with NASA support) light detection and ranging 

systems to monitor urban plumes and emissions sources 

as well as to measure levels of ozone, sulfur dioxide, and 

particulates. Finally, the agency was using a geographic 

information system for data integration and analysis in 

support of many of its programs. 

National Science Foundation (NSF) 

In 1992, astronomers at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Tucson, AZ, reported observations at millimeter wavelengths with the 12-Meter Telescope on Kitt Peak that have revealed the existence of a 

massive, gas-rich object at a distance of roughly 12 billion 

light years. It appears to be a galaxy in the process of 

formation. Using the 1,000-foot Arecibo radio telescope 

in PR, a staff member of the National Astronomy and 

Ionosphere Center discovered the first planets beyond 

our solar system. Since 1988 NASA has pursued the 

development of a new, long-duration ballooning capability, supported logistically by NSF. This capability 

takes advantage of the unique geographical, meteorological, and political situations offcred by Antarctica. 

After several test flights, this new research opportunity 

reached the operational phase. During the austral summer of 1991-92, two experiments measured gamma and 

x-rays from solar flares as well as the composition and 

isotopic mass of heavy cosmic rays. The new ballooning 

technique has potential application in many fields, including astronomy and astrophysics; cosmic ray physics; 

auroral, ionospheric, and magnetospheric physics; and 

the chemistry and physics of the stratosphere. 

Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution has continued to contribute to the Nation’s space goals in a variety of ways 

through basic research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, MA, and at the Center 

for Earth and Planetary Sciences and the Laboratory for 

Astrophysics at the National Air and Space Museum in 

Washington, DC. For example, a scientist from SA0 

worked with data from both the Hubble Space Telescope 

and the International Ultraviolet Explorer to coordinate 

observations of Supernova 1992A. The outer shell of the 

exploded star seemed heavily laced with nickel and 

cobalt, suggesting unexpected outflow and mixing of 

materials from the interior or, perhaps, an initial explosion that extended to the exterior. Scientists from SAO, 

using data from the Roentgen Satellite on the Andromeda Galaxy, not only revealed stars undetected in High 

Energy Astronomy Observatory-2 (HEAO-2) images but 

also showed that many previously observed objects had 

changed in intensity over a decade, suggesting an unexpected variability in x-ray sources. Additionally, a group 

of international scientistsat the SAO’s WhippleObservatory in AZ achieved the first detection of gamma rays 

with energies equivalent to a trillion electron volts, coming from a source ou tside our own galaxy. In conjunction 

with AASE-I1 (mentioned above), reported results of 

lower-than-expected ozone losses over the Northern 

Hemisphere included data provided by an SAO-built 

far-infrared spectrometer flown aboard a NASA DC-8 in 

January-March quarter. The experiment also set new 

upper limits for hydrogen bromide in the atmosphere, a 

first step toward understanding the potential impact of 

ozone-threatening bromine compounds. 

Department of State (DoS) 

During 1992, the DoS supported Space Shuttle 

activities by providing a direct link to U.S. embassies in 

countries with emergency landing facilities. It participated 

in a first-ever coordinated NASA, U.S. Space Command, 

and DoS exercise to evaluate Space Shuttle Emergency 

Support Operations (Apollo Griffin). It also updated 

agreements in this area with The Gambia, Morocco, and 

Spain. 

7 
The DoS's Bureau of International Communications and Information Policy represented U.S. Govcrnment interests in the International Telecommunications 

SatelliteOrganization (INTELSAT) and the International 

Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). This Bureau also continued to further the intcrests of other, 

privately-owned international satellite companies. The 

dramatic retrieval and reboost of the INTELSATVI (F-3) 

in May was a vivid capstonc of successful cooperation 

among several U.S. agencies, private companies, and 

INTELSAT. During the year, INTELSAT launched another satellite and made dccisions to procure three more. 

Seven other satellites were in production, with U.S. companies the prime contractors for all of these satellites. 

U.S. companies-Pan American Satellite and Columbia 

Communications-continued to make inroads into the 

international market by gaining permission to operate in 

a number of new countries. INTELSAT, in recognition of 

the inevitable growth in competition, moved to reduce 

the burden of treaty-mandated, proforma reviews of such 

independent systems. 

Reflecting the new relationship between the U.S. 

and Russia, Presidents Bush and Yeltsin signed a new 

space cooperation agreement at the Washington Summit 

in June 1992. Pursuant to the agreement, NASA and the 

Russian Space Agency established ambitious projccts in 

manned space flight and planetary exploration. Also in 

FY 1992, the U.S. participated actively in the work of the 

U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Spacc. 

DoS, supported by NASA, DoD, DOC, and DOE, managed U.S. involvementina widerangeof thecommittee's 

activities, including the celebration of the International 

Space Year and the negotiation of non-binding principles 

on the use of nuclear power sources in outer space. 

U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament 

Agency (ACDA) 

During FY 1992, representatives of ACDA participated in the Delegation to the bilateral Defense and Space 

Talks (DST) with the former Soviet Union. At the June 

1992 Washington Summit, Presidents Bush and Yeltsin 

agreed to work together to develop the concept for a 

Global Protection System to defend against limited ballistic missile attacks. U.S. and Russian high level delegations have met twice, in July and September 1992, to 

develop theconcept for such a system aspart of an overall 

strategy regarding the non-proliferation of ballistic missiles and weapons of mass destruction. 

ACDA again this year was the lead U.S. agency at 

the Conference on Disarmament, at the United Nations 

First Committee, and on a United Nations Study Panel 

where confidence-building measures in outer space were 

discussed. Discussions at the Conference on Disarmament enhanced understanding but did not identify issuesappropriate for multilateral negotiations. Theunited 

States abstaincd in a U.N. First Committee voteon a draft 

resolution on outer space arms control, introduced during FY 1992 by non-aligned states, because the resolu tion 

callcd for negotiations at the Conference on Disarmamcnt on measures to "prevent an arms race in outer 

space." ACDA was also involved during the year with 

interagency committees on evolving Missile Technology 

Control Regime issues. 

U.S. Information Agency (USIA) 

The USIA explained U.S. space achievements to 

audiences abroad. It used a newly amalgamated system, 

Network Systcm for TV and Radio (NETSTAR), providing new services in the area of broadcasting, such as 

Direct to Affiliate Digital Service. This service carried a 

new program, Worldsource, which delivered programs 

to broadcasters in Europe for retransmission on radio 

stations. The Voice of America (VOA) covered many 

facets of the US. space program in news stories, correspondcnt reports, and science documcntaries. These 

fcatures were carried in English and 46 other languages 

to audiences around the globe. The USIA also conducted 

a number of teleconference programs with foreign journalists and scientists. A USIA publication, Dialogue, a 

quarterly published in ten languages and distributed 

worldwide, featured such items as a striking picture of 

Venus from the Magellan space probe. The agency's 

Wireless File, which carries articles for placement in 

foreign periodicals, carried over 70 news stories and 

features on U.S. space achievements during the fiscal 

year. The USIA's WORLDNET satellite television broadcasting system, similarly, did 15 interactive dialogues on 

a host of space-related topics involving journalists and 

science writers around the globe and over 90 individual 

space-related segments on WORLDNET's Newsfile, 

which features 2 to 3 minutc clips for placement on 

overseas television networks. Other USIA activities in 

this area included nine exhibits of Moon rocks in foreign 

cities and two U.S. astronauts who lectured abroad with 

USIA sponsorship. 

8 
Space Launch Activities 

Space Shuttle Missions 

During Fiscal Year (FY) 1992, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) successfully 

completed seven Space Shuttle missions. These were, in 

order of flight, STS-44 (STS standing for Space Transportation System), STS-42, STS-45, STS-49, STS-50, STS-46, 

and STS-47. 

STS-44 (using the Space Shuttle Atlantis) was a 

Department of Defense (DoD) mission that launched on 

November 24, 1991, from the Kennedy Space Center 

(KSC), FL. The primary objective of the mission was the 

deployment of a Defense Support Program satellite (see 

below under SpaceFlight and Space Technology). Atlantis 

landed safely at Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB), CA, on 

December 1,1991. 

The first flight of the new calendar year was STS42 (Discovery), launched on January 22, 1992. This 

mission flew the International Microgravity Laboratory 

(IML), which included 16 countries’ experiments in the 

behavior of materials and life in a nearly weightless 

environment. The Discovery returned safely to EAFB on 

January 30,1992. 

The next mission, STS-45 (Atlantis), began on 

March 24, 1992. Its primary objectives were to 

study the Sun, the upper reaches of the Earth’s 

atmosphere, and astronomical objects using the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science 

(ATLAS-1)-a combination of instruments from the 

United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Japan to study the Sun 

and our atmosphere. NASA extended this flight an 

extra day to gather more scientificdata. STS-45 returned 

safely to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on April 2,1992. 

The first flight of the newest orbiter, Endeavour, 

was STS-49, which launched on May 7, 1992. This mission rendezvoused with, retrieved, and replaced the 

perigee kick motor of the INTELSAT VI (F-3) satellite, 

which the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) controllers then deployed into 

its intended orbit. Retrieving the satellite proved much 

more difficult than expected, resulting in 4 days of extravehicular activity. That effort made this flight the only 

one ever to have three astronauts walking in space at the 

same time. The Endeavour returned safely to EAFB on 

May 16,1992. 

STS-50 (Columbia) launched on June 25, 1992. In 

orbit for 14 days, this became the longest Shuttle mission 

yet flown. The Microgravity Lab on board studied effects 

of weightlessness on plants, humans, and materials. The 

Columbia returned safely to KSC on July 9,1992. 

On July 31, 1992, STS-46 (Atlantis) launched successfully. It deployed the European Retrievable Carrier 

(EURECA), which a subsequent Shuttle mission will 

retrieve in 6 to 9 months. The Shuttle crew also deployed 

the Tethered Satellite System (see below). Atlantis returned safely to KSC on August 8,1992. In addition to 

their primary missions, all six of these Shuttle flights 

carried secondary payloads to support DoD experiments. 

The final flight of FY 1992 wasSTS-47 (Endeavour), 

which launched September 12,1992. This mission was a 

joint venture between NASA and the Japanese National 

Space Development Agency (NASDA), involving studies of the effects of weightlessness on life sciences and 

material processing. Endeavour returned safely to KSC 

on September 20,1992. 

Expendable Launches 

Both NASA and the DoD employed numerous 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) during the course of 

the year. Four of NASA’s ELV missions successfully 

launched through the end of September, beginning with 

the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) on a U.S. Air 

Force (USAF)-provided Delta I1 vehicle from Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS), FL, on June 7. On 

July 3, a Scout vehicle launched the Solar, Anomalous, 

and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX) from 

Vandenberg AFB, CA. This marked the last launch of a 

NASA payload on the Scout, which has compiled an 

impressive record of 87.8 percent reliability in 115 launches 

since 1960, and 96.6 percent reliability in 88 launches 

since recertification in 1964. The remaining three Scouts 

in NASA’s inventory will be used to support DoD launch 

requirements through 1993, after which NASA will end 

its Scout program. 

On July 24, NASA conducted the first Delta I1 

launch under a Medium ELV (MELV) contract with 

McDonnell Douglas, successfully placing the Geotail 

payload into orbit. Geotail is a joint project of the Japanese Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and 

NASA to investigate the geomagnetic tail region of the 

magnetosphere. The mission also carried the Diffuse 

Ultraviolet Experiment (DWE), a secondary payload 

attached to the Delta second stage. 

This was followed by the launch of Mars Observer 

(MO) on September 25, sending the spacecraft on its 1- 

year journey to the Red Planet. A commercial Titan 111 

vehicle at Cape Canaveral boosted MO into low Earth 

orbit. Then a commercial Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) 

placed it into its interplanetary trajectory. This mission 

was the last scheduled launch of a commercial Titan I11 

for NASA and the first launch of the TOS commercial 

upper stage. The Air Forceassisted with thislaunch, after 

which it began to convert the Launch Complex40 facility 

at Cape Canaveral to a Titan IV/Centaur capability. 

9 
During FY 1992, NASA continued the pattern established with the Small ELV (SELV) and MELV contracts by initiating preparation of a competitive solicitation for Intermediate ELV (IELV) launch services to support its intermediate-class launch requirements into the 

next decade. The IELV procurement, like its predecessors, will include a mix of firm and optional missions. It 

will aggregate launch requirements into a quantity buy 

designed to maximize the business base for the successful offeror while providing the Government the cost 

advantages of economies of scale. NASA expects to 

release the IELV Request for Proposals to industry in 

November 1992. 

NASA worked in 1992 to expand the ELV secondary payload program begun in 1991. Following DUVE in 

1992, three additional NASA secondary payloads are 

manifested on USAF Delta I1 launches in 1993. There 

were several new proposals for secondary payloads in 

1992, and NASA was analyzing available margin on 

future planned ELV launches as the year ended so as to 

identify flight opportunities for some of these payloads. 

The goal of the program is to maximize low cost flight 

opportunities. In the case of DUVE, for example, launch 

as a secondary on the Geotail mission provided the 

payload with significantly longer experiment time at 

about half the cost of a commercial-sounding rocket. 

For the DoD in FY 1992, the Air Force launched 

four Delta 11s carrying Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. The dates of these launches (using 

local times) were February 23, April 9, July 7, and September 9,1992. The Air Force also launched the Delta I1 

in support of NASA’s EUVE on June 7and supported two 

Delta I1 commercial launches on May 13 and August 31, 

1992, plus another Delta launch on July 24. On December 

7, 1991, meanwhile, the Air Force had achieved initial 

launchcapability for thenew AtlasIIlaunch vehicle. This 

was a commercial launch by General Dynamics (GD) 

with support from the Air Force. On February 10 and July 

2,1992, the Air Force successfully launched two Defense 

Satellite Communications System (DSCS) satellites with 

the Atlas 11, and it supported two other GD commercial 

launches on March 13 and June 9, 1992. A third GD 

commercial launch effort in August for the Galaxy IR 

satellite, also with Air Force support, was unsuccessful. 

When one of the two Centaur upper stage engines failcd 

to spin up, causing the Ccntaur to tumble, controllers 

terminated the launch progression because the vehicle 

exceeded its safety envelope. At the end of the fiscal year, 

a failure investigation was still in progress. Additionally, 

in FY 1992 there wasa single Atlas E launch on November 

28, 1991, supporting a Defense Mctcorological Satellite 

Program satellite, from Vandenbcrg AFB, CA. The Air 

Force also launched a Titan IV with a Classified DoD 

payload on November 7,1991, and on April 25,1992, it 

launched a Titan I1 booster, likewise carrying a classified 

DoD payload, from Vandenberg AFB. 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

(OCST) in the Department of Transportation (DOT) provided regulatory oversight and inspections for six successful, one partially successful, and one unsuccessful 

launches in FY 1992, as shown in the table below: 

Company 

EER Systems 

General Dynamics 

General Dynamics 

McDonnell Douglas 

General Dynamics 

General Dynamics 

McDonnell Douglas 

EER Systems 

Payload 

Consort 4 

Eutelsat 

Galaxy 5 

Palapa B-4 

Galaxy IR 

Satcom C4 

Consort 5 

INTELSAT-K 

Date 

11 /16/91 

12 /07/91 

03 / 13 /92 

05 / 13 /92 

06/09/92 

08 /22 /92* 

08/31 /92 

09 / 10/92** 

“Failed launch; see paragraph above. 

**Second stage ended a few seconds early and the payload was disturbed by fluctuations, causing the 

microgravity portions of the experiments on board to fail, 

although other experiments were successful. (See also 

below undcr Space Communications and Commercial 

Development of Space Technology.) 

10 
Space Science 

Astronomy and Space Physics 

It is scarcely an exaggeration to state that from its 

earliest days, NASA has revolutionized the practice of 

space science, but this has been particularly true in recent 

years with the discoveries resulting from data sent back to 

Earth by NASA's spacecraft. FY 1992 proved to bc a year of 

significant findings, highlighted by theresuItsfromNASA's 

CosmicBackgroundExplorer(C0BE). In what may beone 

of thediscoveriesof thedecade, theCOBE teamof scientists 

announced in April 1992 the discovery of the largest and 

oldest objects ever detected in the universe. These extremely faint ripples in the brightness of the cosmic background radiation stretch across the whole sky and contain 

the seeds from which the universe evolvcd. They show for 

the first time that thebigbangwasnot perfectly smoothand 

uniform. Instead, it produced regions with differing temperatures, densities, and sizesareas that would eventually 

evolve into the complex objects now seen in the Cosmos. 

The discoveries made by COBE, launched in November 

1989,lend new support to theinflationarycosmologymcdel, 

which states that the universe underwent a period of exponential expansion when it was only 10 to 35 seconds old. 

These findings scem to resolve one of the scat mysteries of 

modem cosmology: what caused the big bang to result in 

planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. 

In other advances in cosmology, astronomers at the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NET) 

used data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to 

measure the primordial abundance of deuterium+ne of 

theveryfewavailable testsof thebigbang theoryofhow the 

universe was formed all at once some 15 billion years ago 

from a point of immense density. Astronomers measured 

the deuterium abundance in interstellar gas by analyzing 

ultraviolet spectra of atomic hydrogen and deuterium. 

Using the Hubble's High Resolu tion Spcctropaph built 

and managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center (and 

thus known as GHRS), they determined that there were 15 

parts of deuterium per million parts of ordinary hydrogen, 

anamount suggestinglessmatterin the universe than many 

scientists believed. This indicates that the universe could 

continue expanding forever, as it has bccn doing since the 

beginning, according to the big bang theory. 

The HST, NASA's first Great Observatory launched 

in April 1990, continued to produce other significant scientific data, resulting in the publication of more than 102 

scientific papers by the end of FY 1992. Its discoveries 

included the first resolved image of a planetary nebula in a 

neighboring galaxy; striking images of a bright jet and the 

core of the giant elliptical galaxy M87, which provide 

evidence of a potentially massive black hole; clearly resolved observations of globular clusters of stars 100 times 

younger than ever seen before; the most distant gravitational lens ever sccn;evidence for a massive black holea t the 

center of the nearby galaxy M32, weighing 3 million times 

themass of thesun; an image thought to bca ringof material 

fueling a black hole across the center of the spiral galaxy 

M51; observationsof faintlyflickcringstars known asCep 

heid variables, pluscalculations of their distance-a first step 

in redetermining the expansion rate of the universe; coordinatcd data regarding Jupiter and its moons from HST and 

the international spacecraft Ulysses; confirmation of the 

continuing activity of volcanoes on Jupiter's moon, Io; and 

remote, unusual galaxies never before resolved by optical 

telescopes on Earth-perhaps interacting or mergingembryonic galaxies. 

Scientists also used the HST's GHRS to study stellar 

atmospheres. The GHRS had two hollow cathode calibration sources for on-board wavelength calibration using a 

platinum spcctrum. NIST has measured the precisc wavelengths of the platinum spectrum and incorporated that 

data into thecalibration codes for IhcCHRS. Scientistshave 

used the same data to calibrate the ultraviolet spectra 

obtained from the International Ultraviolet Explorer 

(IUVE) and other satellites. NET scientists published a 

complete atlas of the platinum spectrum in 1992. 

A Smi thsonian Astrophysical observatory (SAO) 

scientist also worked with both HST and IWE, coordinating observations from both satellites of Supernova 1992A. 

These provided ultraviolet spectra identifying it as a Type 

Ia Supernova, probably a white dwarf. More interesting, 

the outer shell of the exploded star sccmed heavily laced 

with nickel and cobalt, radioactive elements usually found 

at thecore, thussuggestingunexpcctedoutflowandmixing 

of materials from the interior or, perhaps, an initial explosion that extended to the exterior. 

The second of NASA's Great Observatories, the 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) launched in 

April 1991, continued tobeexceptionally productivescientifically as it conductcd its all-sky mapping of the universe 

at gamma-ray energies. Its discoveries have added a whole 

new dimension to our understanding of the nature and 

location of gamma-ray bursts-mysterious, powerful objectsemi ttinga thousand timesmoreenergyingamma rays 

than our galaxy sends out at all wavelengths in fleetingly 

intense bursts. Compton's uniquecapability to pinpoint the 

location of the bursts has led to the discarding of the 

previously accepted theory for their origin and stimulated 

a flurry of theoreticalactivity toexplain theobserved spatial 

distribution of the underlying sources. 

In a totally different area, Compton has provided a 

startling new discovery in extragalactic astronomy. Before 

the launch of Compton, only a small number of objects 

located beyond our galaxy were known to emit gamma 

rays. Compton has found that a number of quasars, previously known as intense emitters of optical and radio radiation, also exhibit intense emission of very high energy 

11 
gamma rays. Using Compton, astronomers have detected a dozen such objects, providing a critical new clue 

to the nature of these most powerful sources of radiation 

in the universe. Compton has also provided new observations of phenomena that had been observed at lower 

levels of sensitivity in previous missions. It has provided 

unprecedented observations of gamma rays from solar 

flares and obtained the first ”image” of the Sun in neutrons. Ithasalsoconfirmed theexistenceofadiffuseglow 

of gamma raysresulting from the decay of large amounts 

of radioactive aluminum present in the disk of our galaxy, possibly produced by explosions of novae and supernovae during the past 10,000 years. 

In 1992, in response to budget pressures NASA 

restructured the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

(AXAF), the third of its four proposed orbiting Great 

Observatories. The restructured AXAFxonsisting of 

two highly focused, smaller missions in place of the 

originally envisioned, larger observatory-will complement theobservations made by the Hubble and Compton 

Observatories and will study stellar structure and evolution, large-scale galactic phenomena, active galaxies, 

quasars, and cosmology in the x-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The first (imaging) mission may 

launch as early as 1998, while the second (spectroscopy) 

mission probably will follow a year later. 

A fourth Great Observatory, the Space Infrared 

Telescope Facility (SIRTF), remained the highest priority in space astronomy, but fiscal constraints have compelled astronomers to reexamine its structure and content, resulting in substantial reductions in mission cost 

and complexity. While no formal developmental efforts 

for an infrared astrophysics mission will begin until 

sufficient funding is available, strong support for infrared science makes the initiation of SIRTF a viable goal 

during this decade. In the meantime, NASA has continued to make considerable progress in the development of 

infrared detector technology, a field pioneered by American industry, with substantial investment by the DoD 

and NASA, and one that is critical to both U.S. competitiveness and the success of future potential scientific 

missions. 

Among NASA’s other astronomical missions, the 

Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), jointly funded with Germany and the United Kingdom, continued its scientific 

observations during FY 1992. Working in concert with 

the Compton GRO, it solved an almost 20-year-old mystery about the nature of the bright, gamma-ray source 

Geminga, clearly showing it to be a pulsar. Scientists 

were unclear about the source of Geminga’s power and 

why it shined so brightly. Using data from the two 

satellites, they discovered that it was a rotating 300,000- 

year-old neutron star. In another application of ROSAT, 

NIST astronomers studied the extreme ultraviolet emissions from the hot coronae of active binary stars. These 

so-called RS Canum Venaticorum binary systems contain themost x-ray luminousstar sthat arecooler than the 

Sun; they provide an excellent laboratory for determining the physical processes that heat stellar coronae. 

Meanwhile, ROSAT imagery of the Pleiades and 

Alpha Persei star clusters, obtained by scientists from the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, provided new 

insights into the relationship between x-ray emissionand 

the age and mass of stars, at the same time revealing 

many stars not seen in previous optical surveys. Similar 

ROSAT studies of the Andromeda Galaxy not only revealed stars undetected in High Energy Astronomy Observatory-2 (HEAO-2) images but also showed that many 

previously observed objects had changed in intensity 

over a decade, suggesting an unexpected variability in xray sources. Also, based on data from the HEAO-2 x-ray 

data, an SA0 scientist and colleagues found strong evidence that Nova Muscae (a Southern Hemisphere star 

that exploded in 1991) was a binary system in which the 

primary star was probably a black hole. 

Launched aboard a Delta I1 rocket from Cape 

Canaveral on the 7th of June, 1992, the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EWE), began its 6-month all-sky survey in 

July. Making observations of distant stars, collecting 

important information about their age, temperature, 

chemical composition, and energy level, EUVE was opcning the virtually unexplored window in the electromagnetic spectrum between ordinary ultraviolet radiation 

and x-rays-the extreme ultraviolet. In 1993, once it 

finishes its 6-month task of determining the position, 

brightness, and temperature of all EUV-emitting objects, 

EUVE will begin a 12-month study of individual targets. 

The first spacecraft in a new series of Small Explorers, the Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle 

Explorer (SAMPEX), launched on July 3, 1992, is designed to investigate anomalous cosmic rays (thought to 

be interstellar matter), galactic cosmic rays in the vicinity 

of Earth, solar energetic particles, and other phenomena 

of space physics. Among its instruments is a Heavy Ion 

Large Telescope from the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany. At theend of FY 1992, the 

spacecraft operated as planned, but it was still too early 

for the full significance of its data to be understood. 

Yohkoh,a jointmissionbetweenNASAand Japan’s 

Institute for Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), has 

beenoperatingasdesigned sinceitslaunchonAugust30, 

1991. Its prime mission is to study high energy phenomena in solar flares during the solar maximum. It collected 

scientific data throughout FY 1992. Comparisonsof data 

from the joint U.S. / Japanese Soft X-ray Telescope and the 

Japanese Hard X-ray Telescope are providing insights 

into the physics of solar flares, including their topology, 

energetics, and timing. For example, Yohkoh provided 

12 
excellent coverage of the very large solar flare on November 15,1991, while in December 1991 it obtained especially interesting observations of a small-loop flare. 

The Geotail satellite, launched on July 24, 1992, is 

another joint mission with Japan. Its purpose is to study 

energy storage in the Earth’s magnetic tail, stretched out on 

the night side of the Earth as a result of the solar wind. 

Instruments aboard the satellite are investigating the flow 

of energy and its transformation in the magnetic tail and 

then clarifying the mechanisms of input, transport, storage, 

release, and conversion of mass, momentum, and energy in 

the magnetic tail. In early September 1992, Geotail successfully executed its first lunar swingby that will enable the 

spacecraft to orbit on the night side of the Earth. Following 

the lunar swingby, controllers successfully deployed the 

spacecraft‘s antennas, beginning the collection of scientific 

data. Geotail is the first mission in the International SolarTerrestrial Physics initiative, an effort to derive the physics 

of thebehaviorof the solar-terrestrial systemsoas to predict 

how the Earth’s atmosphere will respond to changes in the 

solar wind. 

Launched on October 6,1990, Ulysses is a cooperative European Space Agency/NASA mission to study the 

unexplored polar regions over the Sun. On February 8, 

1992, Ulysses flew by Jupiter, successfully using the gravity 

of the largest planet in our solar system to make a nearly 90 

degree turn “south” into the required polar orbit over the 

Sun. While flying close to Jupiter through its intense 

magnetic and radiation fields, Ulysses made a number of 

discoveries about the Jovian environment: (1) the belt of 

ionsaround Jupiter, trailingin theorbitofitsvolcanic moon, 

Io, was patchy and variable in its density and radio emission; (2) there was a ”polar hole” in the magnetosphere 

where radiation levels were low; (3) auroral-type radio 

emissionand intensestreamsof ionsand elcctronsoccurred 

on the high-latitude, evening side of Jupiter; (4) the ions in 

the magnetosphere could generally be identified by their 

composition as coming from Jupiter’s ionosphere, Io, and 

the solar wind; (5) the magnetic field on the evening side 

was being dragged back into Jupiter’s magnetotiil by the 

solar wind. Ulysseswasschcduled to arrive at the southern 

solar latitudes in mid-1994 and the northern latitudes in 

The Tethered Satellite System (TSS), a cooperative 

program between NASA and the Italian Space Agency, 

flew aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-46), launched 

July 31,1992. The TSS was an effort to demonstrate, study, 

and develop the technology of large tethered structures in 

space. The objectives of TSSl were to determine and 

understand the electromagnetic interaction between a satellite tethered to the Shuttle and the ambient space plasma; 

to investigate and understand the dynamic forces acting 

upon a tethered satellite; and to develop the capability for 

future tether applications. Due to problems with the demid-1995. 

ployment mechanism and the tether, the Atlantiscrew was 

able to deploy the tethered satellite to only 256 meters 

instead of the goal of 20 kilometers. Although none of the 

primary scientific objectives could be achieved, TSSl provided important data. For example, the TSS was more 

stable than predicted due to natural damping of the satellite/tether system; measurements of induced voltage and 

current verified predicted values; and all satellite systems 

worked as planned. The limited deployment also provided 

encouraging results for SA0 experiments designed to test 

electrodynamic processes in the upper atmosphere and the 

forces affecting a tethered payload. As the year ended, 

NASA wasinvestigating the causeof the deploymentproblems. Preliminary analysis suggested it was a 1/4-inch 

diameter bolt that prevented part of the reel mechanism 

from travelling back and forth. 

Voyagers 1 and 2, launched in 1977, and Pioneers 10 

and 11, launched in 1972 and 1973 respectively, continued 

to send back data. During FY 1992, they wereexploring the 

solar wind, magnetic fields, and cosmic rays in the outer 

reaches of the solar system. They have confirmed that the 

22-year magnetic cycleof thesolar magnetic field extends to 

beyond the orbit of Pluto. Scientists were planning for 

encounters with the shock wave and “heliopause” at the 

outer edge of the solar wind, and for penetration into the 

interstellar gas. The Voyagers will be the first spacecraft to 

pass through this region, which scientists believe existed 

somewhere from 5 to 14 billion miles from the Sun. 

In addition, as part of the Astrophysics and Space 

Physics Sub-orbital Program, rockets, balloons, and aircraft provided NASA a means to make preliminary observations, conduct selected low-cost investigations, test instrumental concepts, and train the next generation of scientists and engineers how to develop instruments for future 

space missions. In 1992, NASA supported approximately 

40 balloon flights, 40 sounding rocket launches, and more 

than 350 flights on its research aircraft. For example, the 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAGa C-141 Starlifter at 

Ames Research Center, equipped with a 0.97-meter telescope) flew more than 60 research flights. At last count, 

more than 49 researchers had earned Ph.D.susing the KAO 

for their research. 

In Other Areas of Astronomy, NIST scientists completed model studies of gravitational wave emissions during the slow in-spiral of compact stars to massive black 

holes that are hypothesized to be the nuclei of galaxies. The 

results, while dependent on a number of assumptions such 

as thedensityof starsinagalacticnucleus,suggest that such 

sources may be observable from an orbiting gravitational 

wave observatory. 

NIST scien tists havealso constructed the first stageof 

a vibration isolation system for the NSF-sponsored Laser 

Interferometric Gravitational Observatory complex, consisting so far of separate ObSerVdtoneS in WA and LA plus 

13 
two being built in Europe. The system may be used to 

upgrade vibration isolation of the mirrors in four large 

terrestrial gravitational wave detectors in the U.S. and 

Europe. 

NIST spectroscopists have made precise measurements of wavelengths and isotope shifts for ultraviolet 

transitions of doubly-ionized mercury to satisfy NASA 

requirements for more accurate atomic data. NASA's 

need arose from an observation by the Goddard Space 

Flight Center of the star "chi Lupi" using the HRS aboard 

HST. Use of previous wavelength and isotope shift data 

for mercury proved inadequate for NASA astronomers 

to interpret the stellar data. Using the new NIST data, 

astronomers discovered that chi Lupi's atmospheric 

mercury is virtually all an isotope, mercury-204, that 

constitutes only 7 percent of terrestrial mercury. This 

result disagreed with predictions of stellar atmospheric 

theory, thereby providing scientists with important new 

information for understanding the evolution of heavy 

element abundances in stars and interstellar media. 

Additionally, a group of international scientists at 

the SAOs Whipple Observatory in AZ achieved the first 

detection of gamma rays with energies equivalent to a 

trillion electron volts, coming from a source outside our 

owngalaxy. The source, Markarian421, a compact object 

about 400 million light years from Earth, was first detected by NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 

(GRO), but at energy levels some 1000 times lower. 

Also during 1992, astronomers at the National 

Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in Tucson, AZ, 

reported observations at millimeter wavelengths with 

the 12-Meter Telescope on Kitt Peak that have revealed 

the existence of a massive, gas-rich object at a distance of 

roughly 12 billion light years. It appears to be a galaxy in 

the process of formation. Astronomers first saw the 

object in the infrared and then identified it with an optical 

emission source exhibiting highly redshifted spectral 

lines. The NRAO observers have detected emission lines 

of the carbon monoxide molecule as well as those of 

neutral atomic carbon. These spectral lines are signatures of star formation processes. The mass of molecular 

gas in this object, as inferred from the observations, is 

roughly 1,000 times that of the Milky Way, or a trillion 

times the mass of the Sun. This has led astronomers to 

conclude that they have seen this object at an early point 

in its history, before the bulk of the gas has been assembled into stars. 

Using the 1,000-foot Arecibo radio telescope in PR 

(the world's largest and most sensitive single telescope 

for collecting radio signals from space), a staff member of 

the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center discovered the first planets beyond our solar system. Strikingly, 

the two planetsdiscovered do not orbit a normal star like 

the Sun; instead, they circle a neutron star called 

PSR1257+12, a 10-mile-diameter stellar remnant as dense 

as the nucleus of an atom. The masses of the two planets 

are 2.8 and 3.4 Earth masses, and they orbit the neutron 

star every 98.2 and 66.6 days, respectively. 

At the Kitt Peak National Observatory in Tucson, 

AZ, scientists have obtained images of 15 extremely 

distant quasars. These images showed extended nebulous emission associated with the quasar point source; 

they have typical sizes of 5 times the diameter of the 

Milky Way and typical radiated power of 50 billion suns. 

Their optical features are elongated, with the axis of 

elongation aligned with observed radio emission (previously the only spatially resolved feature associated with 

distant quasars). This implies the existence of a gascloud 

around the quasar that contains up to a trillion solar 

masses of gas. 

In preparation for proposed observing programs 

for the European Space Agency's Infrared Space Observatory, scheduled for launch in 1993, members of the 

Laboratory for Astrophysics at the SmithsonianNational 

Air and Space Museum (NASM) analyzed coronal lines 

from highly ionized atoms in the spectra of novae and 

galaxies; they discovered that some might be radiated as 

lasers and masers, especially in active galaxies. Scientists 

were conducting similar analyses of hydrogen and maser 

activity observed in stellar disks. 

Solar System Exploration 

Not just the study of the wider universe but also of 

our own solar system has continued to be an important 

focus of American science. One of the highlights of 

efforts in this direction during FY 1992 was the continuingflow of excitingresultsfromNASA'sMagellanspacecraft. Magellan's mission, since its launch aboard the 

Space Shuttle Atlantis in May 1989, has been to map the 

surface of Venus and explore the planet's interior structure. During FY 1992, Magellan completed its second and 

third 243-day mapping cycles. By the end of September 

1992, the spacecraft had successfully mapped over 99 

percent of the planet's surface at least once and had 

produced stereoscopic observations of about 23 percent 

of the surface. In late September, Magellan began to 

acquire full-time gravity data. Throughout the fourth 

cyclc, it will continue to collect data on Venus' gravity 

ficld. Termination of spacecraft operationsisprojected to 

occur on May 15,1993. 

Using radar images from Magellan, the U.S. Geological Survey, under charter from NASA, has begun to 

provide maps that support scientific studies of the geological propcrties of Venus. It has designed a succession 

of general and specialized maps to this end and will 

formally publish them in their "preliminary" forms in an 

14 
attempt to provide timely access to the massive Magellan 

data for students of Venus. These maps are preliminary 

in the sense that they represent incomplete, early-generation data, but the Survey has processed these data to the 

fullest practical extent before converting them into formal maps. Formal mapping will continue for many years 

after Magellan’s closeout occurs. 

Galileo, the first mission to perform a close, continuous study of Jupiter, began its 6-year trip to the solar 

system’s largest planet on October 18,1989. On October 

29, 1991, Galileo passed within 1,600 kilometers (1,000 

miles) of asteroid 951, Gaspra, providing the world with 

its first close-up observations of the asteroid, displaying 

craters and ridges as small as 180 feet. This showed that 

despite a stuck main antenna, the spacecraft can return 

good data from Jupiter. During its encounter with Jupiterbeginningin 1995, Galileo’s instruments will conduct 

detailed studiesof the Jovian system,inciuding the planet, 

itsring, its four major moons, as well as the structure and 

physical dynamics of the planet’s magnetosphere. The 

Galileo entry probe will make measurementsdeep inside 

Jupiter’s atmosphere. The available low-gain antenna 

system should allow the spacecraft to complete 70 percent of its projected Jovian studies even if planned efforts 

to free the high gain antenna do not succeed. 

Mars Observer (MO), a single spacecraft that will 

enter a near-polar orbit around Mars in August 1993, 

successfully launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station, FL, aboard aTitan III/TransferOrbit Stage (TOS) 

combinationon September25,1992. MO will perform the 

first detailed study of the red planet since the Viking 

missions in 1975-6. Following the launch, the spacecraft 

and instruments completed a preliminary checkout, and 

all systems were functioning well as the year ended. 

Instruments on the spacecraft will map and study the 

entire surface and atmosphere of Mars for a full Martian 

year (687 Earth days), beginning late in 1993 after insertion into Martian orbit. These observations will determine the planet’s global chemical and mineral surface 

composition and will provide a thorough exploration of 

Mars’ atmosphere, gravitational field, topography, and 

magnetic field. In addition, MO carries a radio relay 

system, provided by France, to send back data from 

surface packages to be deployed on Mars by Russia’s 

Mars-94 mission, scheduled to arrive at Mars in late 1995. 

In related developments, during 1992, the U.S. 

Geological Survey completed topographic mapping of 

Mars at four different scales, using previously acquired 

Viking Orbiter images. The Survey also derived a digital 

elevation model of Mars. These products supported the 

MO mission and were being used by planetary scientists 

to reach a better understanding of the geologic processes 

on Mars. The Survey has also prepared the first Compact 

Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) optical disks 

containing planetary cartographic data. These disks 

contain geometrically registered digital image mosaics 

(made from Viking Orbiter images) and a digital 

topographic model of Mars. They permit scientists and 

mission planners to examine interactively the character 

and structure of the Martian surface, and they provide a 

compact delivery medium of data for geographic 

information system applications and compilation of 

special map products. 

Cassini, a joint endeavor with the European Space 

Agency, will conduct a comprehensive scientific investigation of the Saturnian system, including the planet’s 

rings, moons, and magnetosphere. Constraints on the FY 

1993 budget led to the cancellation of the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF)portionof theCRAF/Cassini 

program and necessitated a 2-year delay in the Cassini 

launch. In addition, NASA initiated and executed a 

restructuring of the Cassini program during FY 1992. 

Thc goals of this restructuring included maintaining the 

program’s scientific viability, mission-unique capabilities, and high potential for discovery, while reducing the 

developmental costs of the program. The launch is 

scheduled to be aboard a Titan IV ELV in October 1997, 

with arrival at Saturn expected in 2004. 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO), launched on May 

20,1978, continued to operate for over 14 years,collecting 

an impressive set of data on our sister planet, including 

the first maps of the surface of Venus using a radar 

altimeter and thousands of pictures of the planet’s cloud 

patterns. Originally designed to operate for just one 243- 

day period, the spacecraft displayed a longevity surprisingeven to itsdesigners. During FY 1992, PVOcontinued 

collecting data on the planet’s atmosphere and surface. 

In August and September, it completed a number of 

maneuvers to maintain its orbit for as long as possible 

given the remaining on-board propellant. These maneuversbrought the spacecraft down into partsof the planet’s 

atmosphere lower than had ever been reached before, 

enabling scientists to conduct additional studies of the 

chemical and physical processes of Venus‘ upper atmosphere, especially its interaction with the solar wind. 

PVO ceased transmitting just after the end of the fiscal 

year, on October 8,1992. 

Other Space Science 

As NASA prepares to extend human presence 

beyond Earth’s orbit in the 21st century, there is an 

increased need for expanded knowledgeabout the roleof 

gravity on living systems. Using Spacelab, a reusable 

15 
modular laboratory developed by the European Space 

Agency (ESA) for installation in the Space Shuttle cargo 

bay, the %day International Microgravity Laboratory 

(IML-I) mission launched on January 22,1992, was the 

first in a series of NASA flights dedicated primarily to 

microgravity and life sciences research. Through 6 international space science research organizations in 14 countries, more than 220 scientists from around the world 

collaborated on the IML-1 mission. The Space Shuttle 

crew, including payload specialists from Canada and 

Germany (representing ESA), conducted 42 experiments 

in life and materials sciences. These investigations studied how conditions in space affect terrestrial life forms, 

including humans, insects, plants, and individual cells. 

Results of these investigations will expand the knowledge of how life forms adapt to weightlessness and 

respond to cosmic radiation. Scientists will use these 

results to develop measures that enhance the quality of 

lifeon Earthand in space,as well as to counterpotentially 

harmful physiological responses to microgravi ty. Investigations in the area of materials science concentrated on 

crystallization, casting and solidification technology, and 

on condensed matter physics. 

The United States Microgravity Laboratory 

(USML-I), launched June 25,1992, was the first Spacelab 

flight dedicated solely to microgravity research. Over 30 

investigations made up the payload, covering 5 basic 

areas: fluid dynamics, crystal growth, combustion science, biological science, and technology demonstrations. 

This flight served as a ”dress rehearsal” for Space Station 

Freedom and the knowledge gained from the investigations will assist NASA in preparing for work on Freedom 

later in the 1990s. It was the longest Shuttle flight to date, 

lasting 14 days, and used the Extended Duration Orbiter 

Medical Program to ensure crew health and safety. This 

involved Spacelab, middeck, and pre- and post-flight 

investigations to assess the medical status of the crew. 

Spacelab J (SL-J), launched on September 12,1992, 

was a reimbursable mission with Japan to conduct lowgravity research in the broad disciplines of microgravity 

and life sciences. Seven of the NASA-sponsored experiments were in the field of life sciences and two were in 

materials science. Japan provided 34 experiments plus two 

that were joint. The flight crewincluded a Japanesepayload 

specialist to assist with the experiments. The life sciences 

researchcollecteddataon humanadaptation tolow gravity, 

explored the effectsof microgravity and radiation on living 

organisms,andgathereddataon the fertilizationand development of organisms in the absence of gravity. Investigations in microgravity science concerned the disciplines of 

biotechnology, fluid physics and transport phenomena, 

combustion science, and acceleration measurement. All of 

theseinvestigationswilladd to thebaseof experience for the 

operation of Space Station Freedom. 

To expand such efforts, on July 12, 1992, NASA 

and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) signed an 

interagency agreement for ccoperation in biomedical 

research. The agreement aims at expanding access to and 

stimulating new opportunities for research in space for 

the biomedical research community. NIH will have the 

lead role in ground-based work, while NASA will have 

the lead in space flight research. The agreement also 

provides for a special joint program of space flight experiments to enable greater numbers of biomedical and 

behavioral scientists access to space. Areas of emphasis 

at the end of FY 1992 were the neurosciences, musculoskeletal physiology, and biotechnology. Additional areas 

under considera tion included cardiopulmonaryphysiology and immunology. A major theme for cooperation 

was the use of the unique environment of space and the 

technological impetus provided by the space program to 

help solve medical problems on Earth. 

Since 1988, in a totally different area of space 

science, NASA has pursued the development of a new, 

long-dura tion ballooning capabili ty withNSF‘s logistical 

support. This capability takes advantage of the unique 

geographical, meteorological, and political situations 

offered by Antarctica. After several test flights, this new 

research opportunity reached the operational phase. 

During the austral summer of 1991-92, two large, highaltitude balloons ascended from McMurdo, Antarctica. 

Each balloon made more than one complete circumnavigation of the South Pole while remaining above 99.5 

percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. The first balloon went 

up on December 16,1991, and flew at altitude for nearly 

10 days before parachuting back to Earth at radio command. The experiment measured the composition and 

isotopic mass of heavy cosmic rays by using a large, 

superconducting magnet to deflect the trajectories of the 

particles. The principal investigators were from Boston 

University and the University of Utah. 

The second balloon ascended on January 10,1992, 

and flew for nearly 13 days, after which commands 

returned it to Earth. By using large, cooled germanium 

detectors, the experiment measured gamma and x-rays 

from solar flares. The investigators from the Berkeley 

and San Diego campuses of the University of California 

plan to improve the experiment and refly it during the 

austral summer of 1992-93. Constant solar heating and 

the continuous view of celestial objects make Antarctic 

long-duration ballooning much more effective than similar efforts at mid-latitudes. The new ballooning technique has potential application in many fields, including 

astronomy and astrophysics; cosmic ray physics; auroral, ionospheric, and magnetospheric physics; and the 

chemistry and physics of the stratosphere. 

16 
Space Flight and Space Technology 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle’s primary purpose remained in 

FY 1992 to transport people and cargo safely into lowEarth orbit (100 to 350 nautical miles above the Earth). As 

of the end of the year, there were four active Orbiters: 

Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Each 

one could accommodate up to seven crew members. 

Typical missions have ranged from 4 to 9 days in duration, with crews numbering from five to seven. The 

newest orbiter, Endeavour (OV-lO5), had its first flight in 

May 1992. New improvements to the fleet begun since 

the end of FY 1991 included a solid state star tracker and 

an enhanced master events controller. In addition, work 

continued in 1992 on the Extended Duration Orbiter 

(EDO). During June 1992, an ED0 mission on Columbia 

recorded the first 14-day orbit on a Shuttle mission. In 

cooperation with its international partners, NASA continued to develop and deploy hard ware for use on Shu t tle 

missions. For example, it used Spacelab carrier system 

hardware on the International Microgravity Laboratory 

(IML) and Spacelab-J missions. Also during FY 1992, 

many material and life science studies looked towards 

producing new materials, improving known processes, 

and developing new ones. 

The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) program 

continued its aggressive test activity during 1992, as well. 

Engineers conducted more than 100 ground tests, accumulating more than 36,000 seconds in support of development, certification, and flight programs. The Block I1 

controller completed certification and operated for the 

first time in April. This component has demonstrated a 

greatly reduced failure rate over the Block I whileproviding superior performance in memory capacity, fault detection, and accuracy of measurement. For the first time 

this year, NASA also certified and flew an improved 

High Pressure Fuel Turbopump, which increased its time 

between overhauls from three to four flights to eight to 

nine. Moreover, the Technology Test Bed Program completed the initial SSME test series, designed to characterize the internal operating environments and complete 

the first full-scale testing of a turbopump featuring liquid 

oxygen feed and hydrostatic bearings in an SSME-class 

engine. 

Meanwhile, NIST developed and tested cryogenic 

flowmeters for the SSME fuel and oxidizer (LOX) ducts. 

As the year ended, the LOX meters were scheduled to be 

tested on the Technology Test Bed engine at Marshall 

Space Flight Center. More generally, to improve current 

propulsion systems and achieve the performance demands of future propulsion system designs, NET engineers were characterizing new materials that reduce 

friction and wear. NET was testing new materials, 

including ion-implanted surfaces and coatings such as 

Diamond-Like-Carbon (DLC), for aerospace bearing systems. The work at NIST on DLC coatings showed an 

order of magnitude lower friction and two orders of 

magnitude lower wear than for 44OC stainless steel (the 

material used until now on the SSME). NET has recently 

completed work on the wear rate and coefficient of 

friction for 440C, encompassing the range of speed, load, 

and temperature thought to exist in the SSME. NIST was 

also investigating the tribology of Si,N, ceramic/DLC 

couples for aerospace applications. 

The Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) 

program made significant progress during FY 1992 in 

facility construction and motor design. The expectation 

is that the new motor will increase safety and reliability, 

improve performance of the booster, and improve overall 

efficiency of operation. Except for the Yellow Creek 

facility at Iuka, MS, which was 96 percent designed, 

architectscompleted all of the facilitydesip. Construction 

was about 30 percent completed at the end of the fiscal 

year, with the Babcock and Wilcox facility at Mount 

Vernon, IN, in operation on time and under budget. The 

ASRM program has also made significant technical 

progress in designing, building, and testing hardware. A 

preliminary design review held in March identified no 

issues that would impede the progress of the program. 

ASRM engineers have conducted six successful subscale 

(48-inch diameter) solid rocket motor static firings to 

evaluate nozzle and insulation development. The 

program also carried out 11 live-propellant, continuousmix pilot plant runs, resultingin propertiesfor propellant 

materials equal to or exceeding requirements. Five case 

segments have been completed, with 42 others in various 

stages of completion. The Babcock and Wilcox facility 

successfully welded and heat treated some of these case 

segments (150-inch, short length cylinders). 

The Solid Rocket Booster continued to perform 

without significant problems in seven Shuttle flights 

duringFY 1992. There wasonestatic testfiringofamotor 

manufactured before the Challenger accident that was 

used to qualify a new igniter design with improved seals. 

There was also one static test firing of a production 

configuration motor used to qualify the new igniter 

design and to verify the constancy of manufacturing 

processes. Activities have begun towards development 

of a new, non-asbestos insulation material to replace 

asbestos-containing materials in the existing motor as 

well as towards the developmental testing of a design 

modification to the aft skirt, which will improve its 

structural safety. 

In the area of Shuttle Systems Integration, the 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update (DOLILU-I) system operated throughout all missions during FY 1991. This system tookinto account theactual windsonlaunchday and 

17 
updated the pitch and yaw software directions to improve the Shuttle’s ascent trajectory significantly. This 

has reduced structural loads during ascent, thereby providing a higher probability of launch. Development of 

the DOLILU-I1 system further improves the ascent trajectory by uplinking, on the day of launch, the main engine 

control tables, solid rocket trim data, and aerodynamic 

control data. This improved system should be certified 

by the end of 1993 and operational starting in 1994. 

Relatedly, in FY 1992, NASA space technology 

researchers put a Ground Processing Scheduling System into use to help reduce the cost of processing and 

readying each Shuttle for its next flight. Using artificial 

intelligence, the system maintains schedule efficiency by 

predicting scheduling conflicts. Its use saved $182,000 

for STS 50 alone and could result in an annual savings of 

approximately $1,700,000 annually in time spent at scheduling meetings and in making paper schedules. In another achievement, NASA’s transportation technology 

program successfully completed a series of tests on an 

advanced fabrication technology that can significantly 

lower the cost and time for fabricating combustion liners 

for future rocket propulsion systems. Combined with a 

new technique for casting the structural outer shell of the 

main combustion chamber, this technology offers savings in production time of approximately 3 years. The 

estimated cost savings from this technology is 85 percent 

of the current cost for fabricating a main combustion 

chamber for the SSME. 

New Launch System (NLS) 

On April 16,1991, Vice President Quayle and the 

National Space Council directed NASA and the DoD 

jointly to pursue the development of a new space launch 

system with the objective of achieving significant improvements in reliability, responsiveness, and operational efficiency. The goal for the New Launch System 

(NLS) was for it to be uncrewed but human-rateable and 

to offer reductions in launch costs. National Space Policy 

Directive4,issued on July 10,1991 (see Appendix Fof last 

year’s report), further reinforced these objectives, stipulating that NLS would provide a range of launch capabilitiesand be susceptible to changeasrequirementsevolved 

and new technology became available. The NLS program underwent a detailed review in FY 1992 in order to 

define its requirements and ensure that its baseline vehicles were meeting the Nation’s civil, military, and 

commercial launch needs. The Air Force and NASA 

determined that the modular family of vehicles needed 

only to span the range from the medium launch vehicle 

class to a booster supporting Space Station Freedom’s 

resupply missions. As a result, the program deleted the 

NLS-1 vehicle (135,000 pounds to low-Earth orbit). The 

NLS-2 vehicle (50,000 pounds to low-Earth orbit) and the 

NLS-3 (20,000 pounds to low-Earth orbit) remained unchanged. The review modified the propulsion system, 

the upper stage, the cargo transfer vehicle, and the facilities, but they remained in the baseline program. As a 

result of these changes, NLS development costs declined 

by $1 billion. From a hardware standpoint, the program 

defined the Space Transportation Main Engine (STME) 

as designed to be operable, low-cost, and highly reliable. 

At the end of the year, the NLS program was ready to 

send out a request for proposals in early 1993 for engine 

development. 

In separate tests, NIST demonstrated that the liquid hydrogen (LH,) tank to the LH, pump duct of the 

STME could be cooled by passive recirculation rather 

than by venting gaseous hydrogen (GHJ from the pump 

end duringcool-down. Also,during 1992, NASA’s transportation technology program completed development 

of a new turbopump bearing for the STME. This bearing 

provides the advantage over the current state-of-the-art 

technology by offering essentially unlimited life and 

durability through creating a fluid film that provides 

shaft support inside the turbopump. The new design will 

help produce a lower cost and lighter weight turbopump 

for STME as well. 

Other Launch Systems 

The Pegasus booster, developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and the Defense Advanced Research 

Project Agency (DARPA), was a three-stage, solid-propellant, inertially guided, winged launch vehicle that 

was nearing fully operational status in FY 1992. An 

optional hydrazine-propelled fourth stage could be added 

as required for additional performance or precision orbital injection. Launch procedures for the Pegasus involved being carried aloft by a conventional transport or 

bomber aircraft and released at 40,000 feet, where the 

first-stage motor ignited. As the yearended, the payload 

fairing was undergoing redesign to resolve problems 

identified in the last flight on July 17, 1991, and to improve reliability and contamination control for future 

flights. At the conclusion of ground testing of these 

modifications, DARPA planned to transition the program to the Air Force. The next flight of the booster was 

expected in the second quarter of FY 1993. As FY 1992 

ended, a new version of the booster called Pegasus XL 

was under development in a jointly managed effort 

between the Air Force and NASA. The XL offered 

increased performance in that a payload of 500 pounds 

(up from 430) could be boosted to a 400 nautical mile 

polar orbit by stretching the length of the original Pe18 
gasus' first and second stages. The Air Force was acquiring Pegasus XL for launch of Space Test Program payloads. The first Air Force launch of Pegasus XL was 

scheduled for the first quarter of FY 1994. 

The Taurus standard small launch vehicle capitalized on DARPA's previous investment in the Pegasus 

air-launched vehicle to produce a ground-launched rocket 

with greater payload capacity. Taurus used the three 

Pegasus solid rocket motors (with the wing removed) 

stacked atop a Peacekeeper first stage to construct a 

vehicle capable of placing 1,900 pounds into a 400 nautical mile polar orbit. Taurus was fully road-transportable 

and could operate from austere launch sites independent 

of existing space launch centers. Requiring only a bare 

concrete pad, the Taurus team could establish a launch 

site within 5 days of arrival. The rocket then required 

only an additional 72 hours for final preparation and 

launch operations. This capability will provide assured 

access to space for moderate-sized payloads despite hostile action or natural disasters that could deny the use of 

existing facilities. The rocket passed a major milestone 

this yearwith thesuccessful integration and testingof the 

full-scale engineering vehicle, which was identical to a 

mission-ready rocket except that the solid rocket motors 

were filled withinert propellant. Contractor and DARPA 

personnel validated stacking procedures and conducted 

flight simulations as part of this critical test. They will 

conduct this engineering vehicle integration-known as a 

pathfinder operation-three more times, including once 

at the actual launch site, before beginning preflight operations withlive motors. The first launch was scheduled 

for 1993. 

TheInertial Upper Stage (IUS) continued to be the 

most accurate upper stage in the Air Force inventory. 

Without IUS, a Titan IV delivered the Defense Support 

Program(DSP) Spacecraft to low-Earth orbit at about 150 

nautical miles, whereasafter launch froma Spaceshuttle, 

two different burns of the IUS solid stages produced a 

geosynchronous orbit at over 22,000 nautical miles. The 

Air Force planned for the IUS to continue to support the 

DSP into the next century. Additionally, the Air Force 

would continue to support NASA by procuring IUSs to 

support upcoming Shuttle missions, such as the launches 

of the Tracking, Data, and Relay System (TDRS) spacecraft. 

The Navy was considering use of a cooperative 

research and development agreement as the primary 

mechanism for completing the development of the Sea 

Launch and Recovery (SEALAR) system. SEALAR offered the potential for a low cost, fully reusable, twostage vehicle. Launched at sea, it would provide a very 

attractive blend of responsiveness, flexibility, and environmental acceptability not associated with more traditional launch concepts. 

Satell i tes 

The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) 

was a space-based, radio-navigation system satisfying 

requirements for highly precise, worldwide, threedimensional position, velocity, and timing data for 

military (and secondarily, civilian) aircraft, ships, and 

ground operations. The system consisted of user, satellite, 

and control segments. GPS satellites operated in inclined, 

semi-synchronous (i.e., 12-hour) orbits. At the end of FY 

1992, the system was still being deployed, with four 

operational GPS satellites (Block IIA) launched during 

the year. In 1992, approximately 80,500 DoD receiver 

terminals were on order or in use. The system's control 

segment updated the satellitebroadcasts, which provided 

positional accuracies to within 16 meters for military 

users and to 100 meters for civilian users. 

Initial deliveries of user equipment to all three 

armed services began in 1989. Their installation was well 

along on many different ships and aircraft at the end of 

FY 1992. The then-existing mix of four developmental 

and 15 operational satellites provided worldwide, twodimensional coverage 24 hours a day and worldwide, 

three-dimensional coverage at least 21 hours a day; the 

completed constellation of 24 satellites will provide fulltime, three-dimensional navigational information covering the entire globe. 

In a related development, DARPA took deliveryof 

its first two miniature GPS receivers this year. These 

space-qualified devices weighed only 8 pounds and required only 12.5 watts of power. They will permit satellite navigation to an accuracy of 4 meters without interaction with satellite ground stations. The flight demonstration of these receivers, scheduled for 1993, will be a 

key stepin increasing satelliteautonomy. Suchoperation 

by the satellite, independent of ground contact, should 

contribute greatly to reduced life-cycle costs in future 

space systems. 

More generally, DARPA's Advanced Space Technology Program (ASTP), of which the miniature GPS 

receivers were a part, has sought to develop leading 

technologies to enhance the performance, capabilities, 

survivability, and accessibility of military space systems 

while simultaneously minimizing the size, weight, cost, 

and power consumption of these systems. The generic 

space technologies being pursued by DARPA will be 

applicable to both large and small defense satellites and, 

additionally, they may benefit other sectors of Government space endeavors. DARPA has sponsored over 40 

advanced space technology projects during the past few 

years, many of them completed this year. 

The Defense Support Program (DSP) provided 

a highly available, survivable, space-based surveil19 
lance system to detect and report missile and space 

launches as well as nuclear detonations in near real time 

for theNational Command Authorities. The DSP system 

consisted of a constellation of satellites in geostationary 

orbits, fixed and mobile ground processing stations, one 

multi-purpose facility, and a ground communications 

network. On November 24, 1991, the crew of Space 

ShuttleAtlantis(STS44)and an IUS successfully launched 

an enhanced DSP satellite, the third in the DSP-I block of 

satellites. ThisDSPsatellitecompleted anon-orbit checkout and became operational 25 days after launch-5 days 

ahead of schedule. DSP-I satellites will provide the DoD 

with enhanced missile warning and surveillance capabilities. They include a second-color focal plane array 

and a mission data message rebroadcast capability. 

In 1992, the Air Force had several modernization 

projects underway to sustain and improve DSP's warning and surveillance capabilities. These projects included 

the replacement of obsolete hardware associated with 

the reception, transmittal, and recording of satellite data 

at the fixed ground stations; of data processing computers at the fixed ground stations; of mission processing 

and support software to enhance capabilities and supportability at the fixed ground stations; and an upgrade 

of DSP's survivable mobile ground system to enhance 

survivability and compatibility with the DSP-I block of 

satellites. These projects will allow DSP to maintain a 

viable warning capability until it is replaced by the 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/ Attack Assessment (ISB, TW/AA) system (previously known as 

Follow-On Early Warning System) in the next decade. 

This ISB, TW/AA system will capitalize on the 

infrared sensor technology developed since the first DSP 

satellite went into orbit 2 decades ago. The new system 

will be intended to provide a high probability of detection against the threats of the future, characterized by 

shorter-range and dimmer missile launches deployed in 

numerous third-world countries around the world. The 

ISB, TW/AA system will be designed to meet this threat 

with continuous, worldwide coverage. It will also provide quicker warning messages to the field commanders 

than DSP offers. Engineers will design the satellites for 

longer lifetimes to reduce life-cycle cost and will use 

crosslinks to eliminateoverseas ground stations. Through 

these design improvements, the ISB, TW/AA system 

should be ready to support future conflicts anywhere 

with just a moment's notice. (See also coverage below of 

DoD communications and meteorological satellites.) 

A new satellite named ALEXIS (Array of LowEnergy X-ray Imaging Sensors) was the first such spacecraft developed and integrated by the Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM. Just a concept in 1988, ALEXIS 

was ready for launch in the late summer of 1992 but had 

to wait until Pegasus was fullyoperational. Then, the Air 

Force was scheduled to provide launch aboard a Pegasus 

air-launched booster (seeabove). Collaborating with Los 

Alamos on this project were the Department of Energy's 

Sandia National Laboratories; the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory; Ovonics, Inc.; and AeroAstro, Inc. 

ALEXIS will allow scientists to demonstrate a wide-field, 

ultrasoft X-ray telescope, determine the background signals that might fool the telescope, and observe astrophysical objects. It will also allow a study of ionospheric 

effects on the discrimination and distortion of very-highfrequency signals originating from the Earth. Furthermore, it will permit Los Alamos scientists to apply small 

satellites to many problems in technology development 

for basic research and national security. 

In the area of Technology Supporting Space Science, final tests of metal meshes, developed by the National Air and Space Museum in collaboration with the 

Naval Research Laboratory for use on the ESA's Infrared 

Space Observatory, have shown them to be ten times 

better than previously available receivers. 

NASA's space technology program was developing technologies for a high-efficiency, low-power travelling-wave tube amplifier to transmit all of the data from 

the Cassini mission from Saturn back to Earth. During 

1992, engineersbaselined this technology to fly on Cassini. 

The new amplifier used technology that made it possible 

to increase output power and efficiency and to recover 

energy being used for data transmission for reuse. Such 

advances will enable Cassini to send greater volumes of 

information back to Earth with low distortion and less 

energy than currently used, enhancing scientific returns. 

Also, in the separate area of aerothermodynamics, 

NASA engineers have used computer simulation to plan 

how to "aero-brake" the Magellan spacecraft so as to 

move it into a lower, more circular orbit around Venus, 

thereby enhancing theresolution of its mapper with little 

useof the minimal on-board fuel. Mission planners were 

still evaluating this plan as the year ended. 

And in support of future astronomical missions, 

NASA's space science technology program completed 

low background tests fora high-tech imaging array. This 

technology will directly enhance scientific returns through 

a large format that allows simultaneous imaging of four 

timesasmucharea as the current state-of-the-art technology. Also, the program demonstrated a simple control 

algorithm that can reduceby2,OOO times thevibrationsof 

current flight coolers for sensitive scientific instruments. 

This technology will improve instrument resolution and 

simplify spacecraft design necessary to deal with vibrations for future missions. 

Because research in a laboratory environment on 

Earth cannot always guarantee the success of a technology in space, NASA created the Space Flight Experiments program. It provides industry, universities, and 

20 
NASA the opportunity to validate technologies in the 

space environment. In the past year, the program 

launched the Environmental Verification Experiments 

for the Explorer Platform aboard a Delta I1 vehicle. This 

experiment measured spacecraft contamination caused 

by outgassing in combination with the effects of radiation and atomic oxygen. Results should contribute to 

better spacecraft design in the future. 

NET was assisting the Johns Hopkins University 

Applied Physics Laboratory in a separate project developing and calibrating vacuum instruments and techniques used to determine outgassing rates from space 

materials and satellite assemblies. Outgassed materials 

could obscure optical images and cause catastrophic 

discharges in electronic assemblies, among other problems. Prevention and evaluation of these phenomena 

required quantitative measuresof outgassed characteristics, NIST has evaluated instrumentation, developed a 

new primary standard for water vapor, and calibrated 

both transfer standards and satellite instrumentation to 

be used for contamination studies. 

Scientists, the majority of whom were principal 

investigators on NASA space flight experiments, used 

synchrotron radiation at the NIST Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility as an absolute standard of spectral 

irradiance to calibrate spectrometer sensitivity over a 

wide range of wavelengths. NET was also working with 

the Fault Tolerant Power Technology Group at NASA's 

Lewis Research Center. NIST has developed fiber-optic 

current and voltage sensors for power measurements on 

both aircraft and spacecraft with 20 KHz AC power 

systems. NIST has delivered two fiber-optic current and 

two fiber-optic voltage sensors with high stability over a 

range of temperatures and acceleration levels. 

NISTcompleted research for the Air ForccMaterials 

Laboratory on the use of composite materials containing 

solid lubricants in components of space satellites. The 

goal of the project was to develop a fundamental 

understanding of the tribology of self-lubricating 

composites and to study materials for actual systems. A 

final report to the Air Force made recommendations on 

candidate materials (both metal- and ceramic-matrix 

composites) and on deposited solid lubricant films for 

new designs of bearings and other moving mechanical 

systems. 

Space Station Freedom 

During 1992, the strategic planning process for use 

of Space Station Freedom (SSF) began. This established 

plans for research on Freedom for a 5-year planning 

horizon. For this first cycle, NASA and Canada each 

developed preliminary partner utilization plans that de 

fined payloads to be flown and operated on Freedom 

from the delivery of the U.S. Laboratory Module at the 

end of 1996 through 1997. ESA and Japan participated in 

the strategic planning process but will not provide their 

plans for launch of their laboratories until 1993. The first 

SSF utilization conference occurred in Huntsville, AL, 

August 3-6. There, NASA presented plans and opportunities for research on Freedom. At the conference, NASA 

released both an SSFuser's guide developed for prospective researchers and the first SSF brochure, "Gateway to 

the Future," describing its utilization plans. 

Japan's Science and Technology Agency and its 

National Space Development Agency together conducted 

a successful preliminary design review and initial safety 

review of the Japanese Pressurized Module and Exposed 

Facility in July of 1992. The Canadian Space Agency 

(CSA) has made progress toward the development of the 

Mobile Servicing System, its contribution to the Space 

Station. In FY 1992, CSA also conducted numerous 

design reviews. ESA completed a requirements review 

of the Attached Pressurized Module System in the summer of 1992, and NASA reached agreement with the 

Italian Space Agency on Italian-provided Mini-Pressurized Logistics Modules for use on Space Station, signing 

a memorandum of understanding on December 6,1991. 

At the same time, Freedom program participants 

have been busy producing thousands of detailed engineering design drawings, from which SSF flight hardware will be manufactured. The program has also been 

busy performing the preliminary design tasks necessary 

to expand the Space Station design from the humantended capability configuration to the permanently 

crewed capability configuration. This effort continued to 

involve systems architecture definition through engineering analyses and development test programs. 

Thus, FY 1992 included significant testing and 

development milestones. Engineers constructed many 

test articles-such as thecrew restraints to keep astronauts 

anchored while working in the weightlessness of space, 

which Space Shuttle Columbia tested during its JuneJuly mission-to evaluate design integrity and hardware 

functionality. To accommodate design changesresulting 

from the Freedom restructuring during the fall of 1990, a 

"crew-tended capability phase" preliminary design review took place in November 1991. It added substantial 

technical detail to the baseline and reaffirmed the viability of the current design. There were also preliminary 

design reviews for the laboratory, node, and cupola 

during FY 1992. Program engineers completed the first 

article configuration inspection of the data management 

system software as well as extensive developmental testing. The Lewis Research Center developed test beds for 

both the photovoltaic power and the power and power 

21 
management distribution systems in order to accommodate various model development and qualification tests. 

As the year ended, the SSFprogram was outfitting 

facilities and developing mission planning and user interfaces for operations/utilization capability. The prime 

contractors for SSF, as well as astronauts and SSF users, 

were involved in planning and developing requirements 

to assist the design, development, and operation of the 

SSF. The Space Shuttle plays an important role in supporting the development of the SSF operations concepts. 

Two Shuttle missions this year successfully tested SSF 

equipment and operations concepts. In April, a flight 

experiment for "equipment translationaide/extravehicularactivity development" flew aboard the Shuttle Atlantis. 

This tested several concepts for facilitating the mobility 

of crew members across the exterior of the SSF during 

extravehicular activities. In August, the "station heat 

pipe advanced radiator element" flight experiment I1 

flew aboard Atlantis to test an advanced-technology, 

erectable heat pipe radiator that could reduce the weight 

of large, high-temperature space radiators by half. 

As related in part above, the Space Shuttle has also 

performed missions involving materials and life sciences 

that will affect how research is performed aboard SSF. 

(See coverage above of IML-I, USML-I, and Spacelab J 

and the treatment in last year's report of Space Life 

Sciences-1.) What is more, successes like the Long Duration Exposure Facility, with its 5 l /2-year mission (April 

1984-January 1990) to test advanced materials for prolonged space exposure, have increased NASA's options 

to build better, longer-lasting spacecraft. In FY 1992, 

NASA conducted simulation studies of the benefits that 

active damping, a process for controlling vibrations, can 

provide to the Shuttle's Remote Manipulator System 

(RMS). To date, six astronauts have trained with the 

technique and indicated significant improvements in the 

RMS's performance that can be applied to SSF assembly 

operations. 

Energy 

The United States has successfully used 37 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) on over 20 

spacecraft launches covering a variety of different space 

applications. An RTG is a device without moiling parts 

that directly converts the heat from the decay of radioisotope Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) to electricity. Research and 

development has increased the conversion efficiencies of 

radioisotope power systems from less than 5 percent to 

almost 7 percent, which increases the power output or 

reduces the weight of the power supply-both critical 

design factors. A new model RTG with a more efficient 

fuel design called the General Purpose Heat Source 

(GPHS) RTG is the latest in a series of nuclear power 

sources developed for space applications by the Department of Energy (DOE). 

DOE program activities in FY 1992 focused on 

planning and restart activities for the production of both 

GPHS components and GPHS-RTG thermoelectric converters, in order to be prepared to meet the anticipated 

NASA GPHS-RTG power system requirements for the 

Cassini mission to Saturn, scheduled for 1997. DOE'S 

restart of GPHS component production and assembly 

facilities has made significant progress. Oak Ridge, TN, 

has fabricated clad vent sets for use at Los Alamos 

National Laboratory in fuel-clad weld development, product characterization programs, and pre-production operations. Start-up activities for fuel processing at the 

Savannah River Plant, SC; fuel-clad fabrication at Los 

Alamos; and RTG assembly and test at the Mound Plant 

of EG&G Mound Applied Technologies in Miamisburg, 

OH, have been extensively reviewed, with approvals 

obtained for operations. The prime system contractor's 

principal efforts have continued to focus on reestablishing production capability for thermoelectric unicouples. 

Production of test hardware for unicouple qualification 

began in 1992. Other activities included the continued 

development of a new RTG shipping package and the 

initiation of the development, design, and qualification 

of a 1-kilowatt thermal shipping package suitable for 

fuel, fuel clads, and GPHS modules. The contractor 

produced engineering and qualification test hardware 

for the respective programs. 

In FY 1992, the modular radioisotope thermoelectric generator program (MOD-RTG) focused on the design, development, manufacture, and test of improved 

multicouples both in an electrically-heated engineering, 

8-multicouple test module configuration and in individual multicouple test stations. An 8-multicouple, highpurity test moduleexhibited normal performance through 

5,040 hours under simulated service conditions. An 

electrical heater failure interrupted the test in September, 

however. A second, high priority test module continued 

operating after 2,050 hours of successful performance. 

Tests of individual multicouples were continuing after 

the successful completion of approximately 11,000 hours 

for 4 units and 2,700 for 4 others, through the end of FY 

1992. The MOD-RTG design with its capability to tailor 

power to meet specific mission requirements should 

provide a significant advance in RTG specific power 

(watts/kilogram) and in improved efficiency for use in 

NASA's lunar, Martian, and solar system exploration as 

well as in DoD missions during the next decade. 

The DOE also continued its work on the SP-100 

Space Reactor Program, which sought the development 

of a power system for civil and defense missions using a 

22 
nuclear reactor capable of providing electric power in the 

range of tens to hundreds of kilowatts. In this area, an 

updated SP-100 Generic Flight System (GFS) design has 

demonstrated that a 100-kilowatt system with a mass of 

no more than 4,600 kilograms is achievable. Researchers 

have identified a thaw concept allowing the reactor to 

restart after shutdown using an auxiliary cooling loop. 

Engineers have completed development of fabrication 

techniques for the reactor, fuel, and fuel pins. They have 

tested the fuel pins to the equivalent of 7 years of operation at full power. The systemcontractor was developing 

the final steps to assemble the thermoelectric cells that 

will produce 25 times the electric power available from 

the thermoelectric cells used in the 1989 Galileo mission. 

Two materials test loops containing lithium at 1,350 

degrees Kelvin have successfully demonstrated the welding and fabrication techniques for high-temperature, 

refractory niobium alloys. One operated for over 3,000 

hours and the other for 1,000 hours. Engineers have 

completed tests for void and thaw characterization of 

lithium. Thaw and extrusion tests have confirmed that 

the reactor design accommodates lithium thaw with 

minimal stress on reactor components. Engineers have 

also made significant progress in developing the selfactuating thermoelectric electromagnetic pumps that will 

transport the lithium from the reactor to the power 

conversion system. They have demonstrated techniques 

for explosively forming the pump ducts and bonding 

thermoelectric cells to the ducts. 

Progress has also been made on technology for an 

in-coreThermionic Space Reactor. In 1992 DOE awarded 

two contracts and work began under the Thermionic 

Space Nuclear Power System Design and Technology 

Demonstration Program. Its goal is to provide a baseline 

thermionic nuclear space system point design at 40 kilowattselectric, scalable over 5 to 40 kilowatts. One of the 

contracts will develop a multicell Thermionic Fuel Element (TFE) design, while the other will develop a singlecell TFE design based primarily on Russian technology. 

The TFE Verification Program began in 1986 to resolve 

feasibility issues surrounding long-life, high-power (2 

megawatts) thermionic space reactors. It has expanded 

the data base on performance and lifetime of TFEs and 

has demonstrated a TFE lifetime of about 18 months. To 

date, the program hasidentified no physical mechanisms 

that could limit lifetimes to less than 2 years. In response 

to changing DoD requirements (such as shorter lifetimes 

and lower power), the DOE reorganized the program late 

in FY 1992 to support theThermionic System Design and 

Technology Demonstration Program. The TFE Verification Program will be phased out by the end of FY 1994, at 

which time technologies required by each 40 kilowatt 

system design will be demonstrated through the system 

design contractors’ efforts. 

In response to the Space Exploration Initiative 

announced in 1989, DOE, in cooperation withNASA, has 

worked on technology for Nuclear Propulsion, which 

promises to reduce costs, decrease the size of spacecraft, 

and provide shorter piloted planetary missions. Several 

key DOE activities in the fuels and materials areas began 

in FY 1992. Researchers obtained the melting points and 

vaporization constants for very high temperature carbide fuel forms. They made progress in using a new 

cryochemical process to fabricate a variety of fuel forms 

and in the development of a new organo-metallic coating 

process to resist attack by the hydrogen propellant at 

very high temperatures. There has also been progress in 

the fabrication of all the leading fuel types under consideration in the program. In addition, reestablishment of 

the previous fuels-making capabilities in the former 

Rover/NERVA program has begun. 

DOE has also cooperated with NASA in defining 

reactor/engine concepts that could be used in theNASA 

missions. In addition to U.S. concepts, evaluation has 

begun of Russian fuel forms and testing capabilities. The 

Russians had continued development of nuclear rocket 

fuels after the U.S. discontinued that work in the 1970s. 

The results of the Russian efforts in advanced nuclear 

propulsion fuels and their testing may be useful to the 

U.S. The DOE also participated with NASA and the DoD 

in planning for future activities in nuclear propulsion. 

The capability of DOE laboratories was an important 

national asset in this regard. 

The DoD’s Strategic Defense Initiative Organization 

(SDIO) has also worked to bring about the transfer of 

former Soviet space nuclear power technology to the U.S. 

with the acquisi tion of the technology from the TOPAZ I1 

space nuclear reactor. Also acquired from the 

Commonwealth of Independent States were electric 

thrustersbased on theHalleffect principle. Theuniversity 

of New Mexico was integrating these technologies into a 

flight experiment using the TOPAZ I1 to power electric 

thrusters for raising spacecraft into orbit. Thisexperiment 

will study the physics of the interaction with the space 

environment and the spacecraft of plasmas generated by 

electric thrusters. NASA will benefit from the 

fundamental knowledge acquired as well as the creation 

of a space-qualified nuclear electric propulsion/power 

system. 

Meanwhile, NASA’s space technology program 

made significant progress towards completing nuclear 

and energy conversion technologies to provide lightweight Space Power systems. It validated the design of 

the primary cooling pump for a reactor system. In the 

area of power conversion, it made improvements in 

thermoelectric materials that could reduce the weight of 

a power system by 10 to 15 percent. In addition, it 

fabricated a high-performance Stirling cycle dynamic 

23 
power conversion system. Thiscould increase theelectricalpowerproduced byanuclearreactorbya factorof five 

while only doubling the weight. In particular, engineers 

fabricated a critical component of the system-a superalloy heater head. Providing heat from the reactor to the 

energy conversion system, this technology demonstrated 

a 50-percent performance margin over required power 

levels. 

Safety and Mission Quality 

The complex technical and scientific nature of 

NASA’s mission required not only careful planning but 

frequent troubleshooting. Despite occasional operational 

flaws such as failures in-orbit, problems with ground 

hardware,and softwareanomalies, several NASA robotic 

spacecraft have continued successfully to carry out their 

missions. Examples have included the Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST), the Compton Gamma Ray Observa tory 

(GRO), and Galileo. The Space Shuttle recovery and 

relaunch of the INTELSAT-VI satellite provided another 

instance of real-time problem solving. Understanding 

and resolving in-orbi t spacecraft problems accomplished 

two goals: continued and often enhanced mission 

performance, and setting forth lessons learned that were 

applicable to current and future spacecraft design and 

operations. 

To theseends, a coalition of NASA, contractor,and 

academic technical organizations concerned with safety, 

reliability, and quality assurance have developed tools 

and methodologies to track down the causes of failures 

and anomalies affecting spacecraft and ground stations 

and then to determine the most appropriate ways to 

resolve them. As a result of such efforts, for example, the 

HST continues to produce a wealth of valuable and often 

unexpected astronomical data (as related above), often in 

combination with GRO and other scientific spacecraft. 

The problem resolution activities associated with the 

HST on-board main computer’s recent partial loss of 

memory best illustrate this process. 

During the 15 days from July 19 to August 2,1992, 

the main computer memory #4 failed to operate properly, so Mission Operations at Goddard Space Flight 

Center (GSFC) took it off-line and replaced it with unit 

#5. Previously, on May 2, 1991, computer memory #3 

had failed and was similarly taken off-line and replaced 

with unit #6. The memory #3 Failure Review Board at 

GSFC isolated the failure mechanism to the memory 

module bit-driver electronics. These two failures left 

four of the six existing memory units operating, and the 

computer continued to exercise proper control of the 

HST. On August 4,1992, a Failure Review Board began 

to isolate the cause of the most recent memory #4 failure 

and to develop recommendations for recovery. Use of 

modern fault tree analyses, unique in-orbit and ground 

engineering tests, and probabilistic risk assessments 

helped in the process. With them, engineers were able to 

isolate the failure mechanism to the power supply in the 

failed memory unit. 

As a result of this process, the December 1993 

mission to service the HST and install instruments that 

will correct the errors in the primary mirror will also be 

able to repair its computer. Thereview board process has 

also provided a lesson learned that will avoid a repeat of 

the computer failures. This sort of ”do it right” philosophy achieves better, faster, and cheaper solutions to 

problems on the ground and in flight without compromising safety. 

In a different area, NIST has developed a theoretical model capable of predicting pyrolysis and smoldering of cellulosic material in a microgravity environment 

using experimentally measured thermal degradation kinetics in a normal gravity. NET researchers have extended the modcl to include ignition and subsequent 

flame spread in three dimensions by incorporating gas 

phase oxidation chemistry to examine the fire safety in 

spacecraft. NIST has examined NASA’s material flammabilityscreening test by comparingit witha setofNIST 

flammability characterization test methods, using selected NASA materials. 

0 t h e r S pace Tech n o I ogy 

Besides developing technologies for specific applications in space, NASA engaged in a great deal of basic 

research and development. Universities throughout the 

country play a key role in this basic research and technology program. In April 1988, NASA announced the 

competitive selection of nine University Space Engineering Research Centers. They foster creative and 

innovative concepts for future space systems while conducting focused research in one or more of the traditional 

space engineering disciplines and in cross-disciplinary 

combinations. This enhances engineering education by 

directly involving students in space engineeringresearch 

tied to NASA‘s future mission needs. In the past year, 

students and faculty at the University of Michigan made 

considerable progress towards developing devices that 

can measure the chemical makeup of the upper atmosphere. This research will help NASA both to study and 

to understand global change issues such asozone depletion. (See also below under Aeronautical Activities, 

Tcchnological Developments, entries dealing with basic 

research and computational methods.) 

The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization 

(SDIO) also engaged during FY 1992 in a wide-ranging 

24 
research program. It continued work, for example, on the 

development of miniaturized and accurate subsystems 

for interceptors. It has reduced the weight of an inertial 

guidance system to about 900 grams, with the goal bcing 

to reduce it to less than 500 grams. Other achievements 

in this area included a tiny divert rocket motor using 

new, high-temperature material that reduced the weight 

of the interceptors by 30 percent and a new seeker telescope with a 75 percent weight reduction that can be built 

at greatly reduced cost. In the area of sensors and radars, 

SDIO has developed a star tracker camera with a wide 

field of view, using a silicon-charged, coupled device 

with a weight of less than a quarter of a kilogram and an 

ultraviolet/visiblecamera of the samematerial weighing 

less than half a kilogram. With respect to phenomenology, among the many achievements of SDIO in the past 

year were new, large-format missile warning infrared 

detectors using indium antimonide to track missiles at 

unprecedented distances with very clear imaging. Finally, in the field of airborne compu ter technology, among 

many achievements in FY 1992, SDIO has successfully 

tested silicon carbide for computer memory, with the 

advantage that information is retained when the power is 

off. This new semiconductor material provides a drastic 

reduction in the size of spaccbornc computers and in the 

electric power required to operate them. 

The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) continued in 

FY 1992 to develop technology allowing space systems’ 

survivability in hostile environments. The agency continued development of a survivable, I-million-bit, static 

randomaccess memory plus hardening and producibili ty 

technologies for the high density integration method of 

electronic chip packaging to meet the increased rcquirements for on-board data processing on satellites, with 

reduced weight and volume. These new technologies 

will have increased fault tolerance and be able to survive 

the environments present in the Earth’s trapped radiation belts, as well as those due to solar flares and cosmic 

radiation. The hardened optics program has significantly advanced the state of the art in hardened optical 

components technology, critical to space-based survcillanceand optical communications functions, as wcll. For 

example, DNA’s hardened optics program has dcveloped reflective coatings for space optics that are resistant 

to atomic oxygen, charged particles, and ultraviolet radiation; they are also hardcncd against x-rays from a 

nuclear burst. 

The NASA space technology program also recently developed the first comprehensivc engineering 

code capable of conducting shielding analyses of highenergy space radiation, covering single nucleons through 

heavy elements such as iron. More than 100 times faster 

than conventional methods of analysis, it will help mission planners to predict the effectiveness of spacecraft 

and planetary habitat shielding against solar flares and 

cosmic radiation. It is expected to become the industry 

standard. 

25 
3 pace Lorn m u n icatio n s 

Com m u n icati on s Satel I i tes 

An Ariane 44L launch vehicle successfully 

launched the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT VI [F-11) satellite, its fifth 

and last VI-series spacecraft, on October 29,1991, from 

Kourou, French Guiana. INTELSAT,a consortiumestablished in 1964 and consisting (by the end of 1992) of 124 

countries, managed and operated the global communications satellite system of which INTELSAT VI was a part. 

Likeitspredecessors, the new satellite had 38 C-band and 

10Ku-band transponders that could simultaneously carry 

as many as 120,000 telephone calls and 3 color television 

channels during its planned 13-year lifetime. 

OnMay 14,1992, the INTELSATVI (F-3) satellite's 

replacement booster motor, attached to the 4 1 /2-ton 

spacecraft the previous night by the crew of NASA's 

Space Shuttle Endeavour, fired successfully, dispatching 

the F-3 into super-synchronous transfer orbit. 

INTELSAT's telemetry, tracking, and command station 

in Gandoul, Senegal, commanded the motor to fire after 

receiving approval from Mission Control at the INTELSAT 

headquarters in Washington, D.C. INTELSAT subsequently separated from the satellite the replacement 

booster and the capture bar the Shuttle crew had attached. Then, on May 21, 1992, INTELSAT placed the 

satellite into geosynchronous orbit, completing the deployment of the solar drum and antenna array on the F3 (also known as the 603) on May 23. The newly positioned satellite was expected to have an 11.5-year lifetime, becoming the fifth VI-series spacecraft in the 

INTELSAT network. Positioned over the Atlantic Ocean, 

it joined two sister satellites there, while two were then 

located over the Indian Ocean. Thirteen INTELSAT V/ 

V-A satellites completed its network, providing communications to countries around the world. 

The following month, on June 9,1992 (local time), 

INTELSAT's highest powered satellite to date, the 

INTELSAT-K, was launched on an Atlas IIA from Cape 

Canaveral AS, FL. Built by General Electric and destined for a position over the Atlantic Ocean, the new 

satellite would provide such services as satellite news 

gathering, television and radio transmission to the eastern half of North America, all of Europe as far east as 

Moscow, and the major urban areas of South America. It 

is INTELSAT's first satellite to operate in the K-band (11- 

12/14 gigahertz) and brought to 19 the total number of 

satellites being operated by INTELSAT. 

Meanwhile, on December 16, 1991, the 

INMARSAT2 (F-3) satellite, the third of the International Maritime Satellite Organization's (INMARSAT's) 

new generation of global, commercial, and mobile communications satellites, was launched aboard an Ariane 4 

rocket from Kourou, French Guiana. INMARSAT is a 

London-based international cooperative founded in 1979. 

With 64 member nationsat theend of 1991, theorganization provided telephone, facsimile, telex, electronic mail, 

data and position reporting, and fleet management services, including distress and safety communications, for 

land mobile, aeronautical, and maritime customers. The 

new F-3 satellite entered into service on January 19,1992, 

over the Pacific Ocean, where it provided coverage for 

the western United States, eastern Asia, Australia, New 

Zealand, and most of the Pacific Ocean. 

An Ariane 4 rocket also launched the fourth and 

final INMARSAT 2 satellite (F-4) from Kourou on April 

15,1992. It completed the organization's second generation of satellites and was scheduled to become operational in May 1992 over the western Atlantic Ocean 

Region. In addition, F-1 provided service over the Indian 

Ocean Region, while F-2 served the eastern Atlantic 

Occan Region. As the year ended, a contractor was 

constructing INMARSAT's third generation of satellites, 

which were scheduled for launch in 1994-95. 

There were three new Domestic, Fixed Communications Satellites launched for the United States during 

FY 1992. All of them were commercial replacement 

satellites launched into locations of satellites nearing the 

ends of their fuel lives. These satellites will provide 

domestic service into the next decade and will offer users 

a wide range of services including video, high-speed 

data, private network, and audio services. An Atlas I 

launched Galaxy 5W on March 13, 1992, from Cape 

Canaveral. A Delta I1 launched Satcom C4 from Cape 

Canaveral on August 31, 1992, and on September 10, 

1992, an Ariane 4 launched Satcom C3 from Kourou, 

French Guiana. This launch raised to 33 the total number 

of domestic fixed satellites in orbit between 69 and 139 

degrees West Longitude on the geostationary orbital arc. 

For the military, the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) continued to serve as the longhaul, high capacity communications system supporting 

the worldwide command and control of the U.S. Armed 

Forces and other Government agencies. The DSCS program successfully launched two new DSCS I11 satellites 

on February 10 and July 2,1992. These launches marked 

the start of a replenishment program for the DSCS constellation, which had experienced launch setbacks from 

the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. Eight 

more DSCS 111s were scheduled for launch between FY 

1993and FY 1999. The two 1992launchesalsomarked the 

first use of a new launch booster, the Atlas 11, and an 

inertial upper stage as well as significant modifications to 

the satellites. One of these new satellites had already 

begun handling operational traffic by the end of theyear, 

and the second was scheduled for cutover in early 

FY 1993. The cutover of the first new DSCS 111 satellite 

27 
permitted a substantial reconfiguration of the constellation. A DSCS I1 in the West Pacific was replaced with a 

DSCS 111, and a newer DSCS I1 was moved into the Indian 

Ocean, thereby improving service to the DSCS customers. The result at the end of FY 1992 was four missionsupporting, fully-capable DSCS 111s located in the East 

Atlantic, West Atlantic, East Pacific, and West Pacific 

areas, respectively, plus the DSCS I1 in the Indian Ocean 

area. In addition, the residual on-orbit satellites having 

partial capability consisted of three DSCS 11s launched 

before 1983 and a DSCS 111 launched late in 1982. 

The Mean Mission Duration (MMD) of the DSCS I1 

increased to 5 years in the final acquisition phase, with 

some of these satellites continuing to provide service 

beyond their MMD. The DSCS I11 had an MMD of 7years, 

and even though these satellites were far more complex 

than the DSCS IIs, they were expected to achieve their 

MMD. The DSCS control segment provided semi-automated management of DSCS resources to maintain the 

satellite communications network in alignment with the 

needs of the operational commanders. As of April 29, 

1992, the Army Space Command completed consolidation of all DSCS operations centers under its auspices. 

Based upon lessons learned from Desert Shield/Desert 

Storm, the DSCS program was implementing a more 

responsive and robust super high frequency tactical control capability. During FY 1992, DSCS space and ground 

resources provided support of a wide variety of contingenciesand otherrequirements, including the President's 

Pacific Rim trip, Hurricane Andrew, Provide Comfort, 

and Somalian Relief efforts. 

Still in development was Milstar, programmed to 

be the cornerstone of the DoDs Military Satellite Communications architecture. When operational, it will be a 

multichannel, Extremely High Frequency (EHF) /Ultra 

High Frequency (UHF) satellite communications system 

to provide survivable, enduring, jam-resistant, and secure voice and data communications for the armed forces 

and other users. The Air Force was the lead service for 

procuring Milstar satellites, a dispersed mission control 

network, airborne terminals, and ground command post 

terminals. The Army and Navy also had programs for 

terminal development and procurement. After ancarlier 

restructuring in FY 1991, the DoD again restructured the 

Milstar program in FY 1992 to increase life-cycle savings 

and be responsive to a Joint Requirement Oversight 

Council Memorandum directing an exploration of less 

costlyalternatives for polar connectivity. The first Milstar 

satellite was on track at the end of FY 1992 for delivery in 

December 1992, with satellites 2 and 3 at 90 and 60 

percent completion, respectively. 

Meanwhile, the Fleet Satellite Communications 

(FLTSATCOM) System provided worldwide Navy and 

DoD UHF satellite communications through a constellation of four Navy-owned FLTSATand three leased satellites posi tioned in geosynchronous orbit at four locations 

around the Earth. The two newest FLTSAT spacecraft 

carried an EHF package for testing Milstar terminals. To 

replace this aging constellation, DoD has authorized the 

production of nine UHF Follow-on (UFO) satellites, with 

satellites four through nine incorporating an EHF communications capability. TheNavyexpected the launchof 

the first UFO satellite in early FY 1993. 

During FY 1992, DARPA successfully transitioned 

the Multiple Access Communications Satellite (MACSAT) 

store-and-forward satellite system to the Naval Space 

Command. DARPA had launched two MACSATsaboard 

a Scout booster in May 1990, and the armed services had 

used them in exercises as well as Operations Desert 

Shield and Desert Storm. The MACSATs provided global relay of messages, data, facsimile, and graphics services to small, human-portable UHF terminals. 

A Pegasus had launched seven Microsats in July 

1991, but it had placed them into an improper but usable 

orbit. These small satellites (about 19 by 48 centimeters 

in height and diameter, 22 kilograms in weight) supported military exercises, including Operation Balikatan 

that provided disaster relief to the Philippines in the 

aftermath of the Mount Pinatubo eruption in June of 

1991. However, in January 1992 the support ceased when 

the orbiting constellation re-entered the Earth's atmosphere. Until then, they had provided radio relay service 

in the UHF band, as well as limited-capacity store-andforward capability. 

Space Network 

NASA'sSpace Network continued to provide trackingand communicationscapabilities toa varietyof Earthorbital missions that are dependent upon these capabilities for mission success. The Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite (TDRS) System (TDRSS) is the Network's 

space-based system providing communications plus command and control services to low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft. In FY 1992 the network provided communications 

services to three new customers: the Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite, launched September 12,1991; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), launched June 7, 

1992; and the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX), 

launched on August 10,1992. These join other notable 

missions such as the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), all Space 

Shuttleflights, and others thatareTDRS-dependent. The 

growth in number of Earth-orbiting satellites requiring 

TDRSservicessince FY 1989 has resulted in an increaseof 

over 100 percent to more than 15,000 hours of service 

provided in FY 1992. 

28 
During FY 1992, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center developed phase I of the TDRSS Onboard Navigation System (TONS) to operate as a flight experiment 

on NASA’s Explorer Platform/EUVE, launched June 7, 

1992. The results to date have been excellent. NASA’s 

OfficeofSpaceCommunications(0SC) sponsored TONS 

to provide cost-effective, highly accurate, transfer for 

customer spacecraft using NASA’s Space Network. 

On June 8, 1990, NASA signed a long-term lease 

with Columbia Communications for C-band Transponder use on the TDRS. This lease covered 24 transponders 

aboard the TDRS for 6 years after the 1st of January, 1992, 

at an annual recovery to the Government of over $10 

million per year. 

Communications and Data Systems 

NASA’s OSC redesignated the Packet Data Processor facility, initially designed to meet the unique 

requiremei.ts of the GRO, as a multi-satellite facility to 

enable the processing of scientific data received from 

NASA’s next generation of Earth-orbiting spacecraft. 

The redesigned facility will use packet data standards 

developed by the international Consultative Committee 

for Space Data Systems (CCSDS), which is chaired by an 

OSC staff member. The design as of the end of FY 1992 

was based on the use of power workstations (instead of 

large central computers) and Very Large Scale Intcgration microelectronics that provide high speed processing 

not achievable with software solutions. This technology 

involved use of single chips that could contain tens of 

thousands of individual circuits, permitting extremely 

fast operations because of the short electrical transmission paths on the single chip. 

The OSC continued to lead initiatives seeking efficiencies resulting fromadopting international space data 

systemsstandards. During FY 1992,OSCachieved agreement within NASA that most new missions scheduled 

for launch after 1993 will employ CCSDS-compatible 

telemetry systems. Use of common data systems standards will reduce or eliminate the need for missionunique hardware, software, and operating procedures, 

thus greatly improving the efficiency of mission operations. International partnerships in space activities also 

benefit from adoption of CCSDS standards by simplifying the sharing of operations functions and data among 

partners. 

Another segment of communications and data systems consists of spacecraft control centers, which are 

required to generate and transmit commands to spacecraft to direct the operations of Spacecraft and their 

payloads. 0% evolved to a new Transportable Payload 

Operations Control Center architecture, which used 

high power workstations instead of large central computers to provide service faster, better, and less expensively. The Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer, launched in July 1992, was the first spacecraft to use the new, multi-satellite facility. 

Ground Network 

NASA‘s Ground Network facilities provided spacecraft communications to the Space Shuttle; to planetary 

spacecraft such as Magellan, which continued its successful mapping of the surface of Venus; and to Earthorbiting spacecraft performing a variety of Earth observing missions. These communications permit controllers 

to navigate the spacecraft from the ground and configure 

them for scientific observations; they also’enable scientific data to be received on the ground. During M 1992, 

the Ground Network facilities also provided communication services during the launch, flight, and recovery of 

high-altitude balloons and rocketsemployed for research 

in such scientific disciplines as geophysics, astrophysics, 

and astronomy. 

A further use of the ground networks, which employ some of the largest antennas in the world, was to 

map the surface of planetary objects. During 1992, scientists were successful in using the Deep Space Network 

Radar to observe Jupiter’s moon Io, Saturn’s rings and its 

moon Titan. Observations of Titan will provide critical 

information for planning the Cassini mission. The Deep 

Space Network antennas also served as elements of Very 

Long Baseline Interferometry experiments to make detailed maps of astrophysical sources such as suspected 

black holes within our galaxy. 

29 
Aeronautical Activities 

Technological Developments 

Within the Federal Government, both the DoD and 

NASA engaged in the development of new and improved technologies within the aeronautical field. An 

important example of these activities was the Pilot's 

Associate Program. This applied many of the technologies being developed under the Strategic Computing 

Program of the Defense Advanced Research Project 

Agency (DARPA) and the U.S. Air Force to assist pilots in 

making decisions in potential combat situations. The 

program consisted of a knowledge-based system to be 

embedded in futureavionics systems both for use onnew 

aircraft and retrofit to existing aircraft. The specific 

technologies employed in the program included artificial 

intelligence, automated planning, advanced pilot-machine interface, and the supportingcomputer technology 

necessary for their implementation. Technological advancesemployed in the program would provide the pilot 

of a single-seat fighter aircraft assistance in the highly 

dynamic and demanding environment of aerial warfare. 

The program culminated in FY 1992 with a successful 

demonstration in an advanced flight simulator representative of the fighter aircraft projected for the mid-1990s. 

The applications of this technology were numerous, with 

efforts planned or underway at the end of FY 1992 to 

exploit this capability on Army rotorcraft, the Special 

Operations Forces Combat Talon 1, the Navy AX program, and several commercial applications. 

Another important research and development effort involved the National Aero-Space Plane (NASI'), a 

Presidentially-directed, joint DoD-NASA program. Its 

objective was to develop and validate technologies for an 

entirely new generation of aerospace vehicles, some of 

which will be single-stage-to-orbit space planes that fly at 

hypersonic speeds (greater than Mach 5) to provide 

flexible, efficient space-launch capability with horizontal 

takeoffs and landings on runways. Another capability 

will be long-range hypersonic cruise within the atmosphere. The two agencies plan to integrate the requisite 

technologies into the design and fabrication of an experimental, crewed research aircraft, the X-30, for flight test 

and demonstration. Key features expected to be included 

were supersonic-combustion ramjets (scramjets) fueled 

with hydrogen carried on board as slush, a liquid-solid 

mixture; rocket power to provide thrust for the final 

climb to orbital insertion; light-weight, titaniumaluminide alloy, capable of retaining high strength at 

temperaturesup to 1,500degreesFahrenheit for the main 

structure; and protection for the hottest segments of the 

engine and airframe through "active cooling" using the 

super-cold fuel as a heat sink. The next generation 

vehicle was expected to provide global, unrefueled operation to any point on Earth in less than two hours and 

routine as well as flexible, "on demand" access to space. 

The NASP program, through its contractor and 

Government research centers and test facilities, has fabricated component hardware, manufactured materials, 

and performed aerodynamic, mechanical, and thermal 

ground tests. The list of major technological achievements in FY 1992 includes: successful test of a oneseventh-scale set of three NASI' inlets at Mach 18; test of 

a large-scale, titanium-matrix composi te fuselage section 

with an integrated carbon-epoxy cryogenic fuel tank 

(filled with liquid hydrogen at cryogenic temperature) 

heated on the outside to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit and 

stressed with external loads simulating Mach 16 flight 

conditions; completion of various structural-article tests 

(including that of a titanium-matrix composite panel 

through 150 thermal life cycles, an acoustics-loads test of 

a carbon-carbon panel for an engine nozzle surface, and 

a mechanical / thermal-loads test of a carbon-carbon wing 

box structure heated to 1,915 degrees Fahrenheit); test of 

the low-speed engine design concept and the high-speed, 

subscale integrated engine (inlet, combustor, and nozzle); 

both production of a high ratio of solid-to-liquid fuel and 

evaluation of fuel transfer characteristics for slush hydrogen; successful endurance by hydrogen-cooled structures simulating an engine-inlet lip of the extreme heating levels of shock impingement at Mach 15-simulated 

with high-powered lasers; and breakthroughs in materials processing that facilitate the production of materials 

such as Beta 21S, a titanium alloy that can be strengthened with siliconcarbide fibers to form a high-temperature metallic "composite." Spinoffs of NASP technology 

that were moving into U.S. industry included materials 

for automobile engines, computer systems, heart-valve 

replacements, and piping for deeper oil wells. NASP 

computer-science advances were applicable to a wide 

variety of vehicle and engine designs. 

The joint X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability (EFM) program to develop an aircraft with increased 

agility and maneuverability was a cooperative effort 

between Germany and a DARPA-U.S. Navy partnership. 

In February NASA and the U.S. Air Force became active 

program participants in an International Test Organization (IT01 activated at NASA's Dryden Flight Research 

Facility. It included Rockwell and Messerschmitt-BolkowBlohm in addition to the parties already mentioned. 

Before that, initial flight tests of the aircraft had occurred 

at Rockwell's I'almdale facility, but then the aircraft 

moved to Dryden to expand the flight envelope. The X31A has demonstrated increased maximum turn rates 

and a decreased turning radius, resulting in an ability to 

point its nose rapidly. One program objective is to 

improve combat effectiveness significantly through an 

ability to maneuver up to 70 degrees angle of attack 

31 
(AOA), whereas current aircraft lose maneuverability 

and can stall at about 30 degrees AOA. 

As the year ended, the IT0 was rapidly approaching the most challenging post-stall flight testing. It had 

already conducted 102 flights in the conventional flight 

envelope, achieving a speed of Mach 0.9 at 40,000 feet 

(12,192 meters) while subjecting the pilot to a force of 7.0 

g. Other FY 1992 achievements included a post-stall 

flight to 50 degrees AOA on November 19,1991; a poststall flight to 70 degrees AOA and a full-stick velocity 

vector roll to the same AOA, both on September 18,1992. 

Throughout the envelope, the aircraft exhibited pilotfriendly handling. The final flight test phase will occur in 

FY 1993 to test the tactical utilityof theEFM technologies. 

The F/A-lSE/F will constitute the second major 

upgradeof theF/A-lBaircraft. TheF/A-l8E (singleseat) 

and the F/A-18F (two seats) will be high-performance, 

twin-engine, mid-wing, multi-mission tactical aircraft. 

Their purpose will be primarily to meet current Navy and 

Marine Corps fighter escort and interdiction mission 

requirements and to maintain additional F/A-18 flcet air 

defense and close air support roles. Enhancements will 

include the increased range and improved carrier suitability required for the F/A-18 to continue its key strike 

fighter role against the advanced threat of the late 1990s 

and beyond. 

Studies by the U.S. Navy have identified increased 

mission range, payload flexibility, and aircraft carrier 

suitability as key requirements. The F/A-lBE/F 

incorporates several changes in structure and airframe 

systems to improve performance and provide capability 

for future growth. The center fuselage is lengthened for 

more fuel volume. The wing and Leading Edge extension 

(LEX) areas were increased to meet wind-over-deck 

requirements for catapult operations and carrier 

approaches. Two additional stores stations in the wing 

provide increased payload and payload flexibility. 

Uprated General Electric F404 engines (now designated 

F414) provide increased thrust to support the overall 

increased size and weight. New avionics bay volume, 

and the necessary cooling/power capacity will permit 

incorporationof futureupgrades to avionicsand weapons. 

In May 1992 a Defense Acquisi tion Board approved 

the program's entry into the engineering and manufacturing development phase. That will end in FY 2000, 

providingan expected 42 aircraft through low rate initial 

production. These aircraft will provide operational testing and the initial planes for squadron "stand-up" plus a 

gradual phase-in to a full-rate production. Authorization to proceed with full-rate production should occur in 

FY 2000, the expectation being that subsequent procurement will total 958 aircraft. 

Another new aircraft in development by the DoD 

was the B-2, whose primary mission was to enable any 

theater commander to hold at risk and-if necessaryattack an enemy's warmaking potential. As of the end of 

the fiscal year, four of the aircraft were undergoing test 

flights. They had accumulated some 830 hours of testing 

in a total of 180 sorties. In June, the static test article 

completed its second lifetime of testing, qualifying the 

structure for its 10,000-hour lifetime, with only one static 

test condition left to be completed. Also, in the low 

observable testing in which the aircraft's performance 

had been less than predicted in July 1991, results by 

August 1992 had demonstrated that the B-2 can meet or 

exceed its specifications, showing that its basic design 

was sound. Program managers anticipated a decision on 

the low observable configuration of the aircraft in December 1992. Meanwhile, in January 1992 the President 

had decided to reduce the size of the B-2 program to 20 

operational aircraft with the first one delivered in late 

1993. 

The AX is expected to be a multi-mission aircraft to 

replace current medium/long-range strike/in.erdiction 

aircraft in the Navy and Air Force inventories. It must 

perform its missionduring theday ornight, in all weather 

conditions, at high or low altitude, and on firm land or a 

carrier. Designed to penetrate advanced, multi-layered, 

integrated air defense systems, AX will be expected to 

locate, identify, target, and destroy highly defended surface and airborne targets in the early 21st century. The 

AX design must optimize carrier suitability, affordability, 

survivability, strike/anti-submarine warfare capability, 

and anti-air warfare capability. 

Ongoing efforts at the end of the fiscal year included the cost and operational effectiveness analysis of 

a range of alternatives, supported by a contract exploration among five contractors and definition studies. The 

program was scheduled for its first milestone review in 

the spring or summer of 1993. At that point, the DoD will 

determine whether to begin the demonstration and validation phase of the procurement process. 

The DoD completed a highly successful flight test 

program in FY 1992 using the X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator as a testbed for the Vortex Flow 

Control (VFC) program. The Department chose the X-29 

with its forward-swept, aeroelastically-tailored composite wings and close coupled canards as the testbed due to 

its excellent stability and control up to 50 degrees AOA. 

The60flightsin the programused aunique high pressure 

system to exhaust nitrogen rearward over the aircraft 

nose area from two small nozzles to induce vortex movement and initiate yawing moments. The payoffs of this 

research included better control at high AOA and reduced-tail or possibly no tail surfaces for future fighter 

aircraft. Results from this program were being used to 

implement a VFC system on the F-16 to enhance its 

combat maneuverability at intermediate to high AOAs. 

32 
In a related area, the Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTI/F-16) program continued flight 

testing of advanced technologies in support of aircraft 

with the air-to-surface attack mission. This Air Force 

Initiativecontinued flight testsinFY 1992ofhead-steered, 

forward-looking infrared, helmet-mounted displays; 

night-vision-goggle-compatible lighting; and mu1 tiple, 

digital-terrain-data-based systems (automatic terrain following, ground collision avoidance, route replanning, 

and terrain-aided navigation) required for safe day/ 

night, all-weather, low-altitude, combat mission accomplishment. Flight testing of these technologies through 

FY 1992 gathered data on key system components, including digital terrain-elevation data, a pilot-activated 

recovery system, the all-terrain collision avoidance system, and a silent attack radar altimeter. 

The Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology (IHPTET) initiative was a coordinated 

DoD/NASA/industry effort to provide revolutionary 

performance and operational improvements for all military engine systems. Its goal was to double 

turbopropulsion capability and reduce cost with no compromises in propulsion system life, reliability, and maintainability. Some of the IHPTET program’s accomplishments in FY 1992 include the in-house testing of an 

enhanced-flow compressor that demonstrated full-flight 

capability for subsonic to supersonic applications; structural testing of a metal-matrix composite engine component that reduced its weight by 40 percent; and the 

fabrication and test of an innovative nozzle actuator 

featuring advanced ceramics, composites, and optics 

that provide a high-temperature, low-weight capability. 

Future efforts will further investigate new materials applications to various engine components, increased operating temperature capabilities for combustors, turbine 

blade cooling technology, and designs for increasing 

reliability, durability, and manufacturability. 

NASA Subsonic Aircraft Research during FY 1992 

focused on developing selected new technologies to ensure the competitiveness of U.S. subsonic aircraft in the 

world market and enhance the safety and productivity of 

the nation’s airspace. Much of NASA‘s research focused 

on reducing drag and improving lift-advances that could 

lead to significantly better fuel economy in tomorrow’s 

airliners. Coupled with that work were efforts to design 

quieter and more efficient engines (see below) and to 

reduce aircraft weight through increased use of composite materials. NASA and the FAA were also working 

together to enhance safety in the nation’s airspace by 

improving cockpit technology and air traffic contrc’ systems (see below). 

The high lift research program conducted at 

NASA’s Langley Research Center consisted during FY 

1992 of flight tests, using the B-737 Transportation Systems Research Vehicle, wind tunnel testing of a model of 

the same aircraft in the 14-by-22-foot tunnel, and a computational effort that joined the flight testing and wind 

tunnel efforts. Flight data collection had ended by September 1992, and engineers had performed computational calculations for correlation. Further wind tunnel 

testsremained to be completed at the end of theyear. The 

overall thrust of the program was to resolve differences 

in the flight test and wind tunnel results to determine the 

Reynold’s number effects on the boundary layer development and growth. Researchers will incorporate that 

information into efficient computer design programs 

that can be used in producing simpler, more efficient 

high lift systems. This will result in a more efficient 

system that is less costly and easier to maintain. Such 

systems were expected to result in smaller propulsion 

systems on aircraft and significant reductions in noise in 

the take-off and landing portions of the flight envelope. 

NASA was also engaged in High-speed Research, 

focused on resolving critical environmental issues and 

laying the technological foundation for an economical, 

next-generation supersonic transport expected to becritical to the competitive posture of the American aerospace 

industry in the next century. During 1992, NASA in 

cooperation with an international group of world-renowned scientists improved available atmospheric models through the addition of multi-phased chemical effects. Use of the improved models indicated that a fleet 

of 600 high speed commercial transport aircraft with 

advanced low-emission engines, flying at speeds up to 

Mach 2.4, would cause virtually no impact on stratospheric ozone. Laboratory testing of low-emission combustor concepts by NASA at the Lewis Research Center 

and by private industry increased in 1992, with emission 

levels better than the program goal of 5 grams of nitrogen 

oxide per kilogram of fuel. 

A second major environmental requirement for 

any future high speed commercial transport was achieving acceptable airport noise levels. This presented a 

formidable challenge in view of a requirement to achieve 

a reduction in noise level of 20decibels (dB) from the level 

of the Concorde aircraft. Testing of promising engine 

noise-reduction concepts, such as the mixer-ejector exhaust nozzle, continued in 1992 to address this requirement while maximizing thrust performance. Wind tunnel tests at the Langley Research Center of advanced 

aircraft high-lift devices took place in close cooperation 

with industry. They indicate the potential for an additional 2-6 dB reduction in noise level through advanced 

operational procedures during takeoff and landing. 

While studies have concluded that an economically viable, high speed civil transport is not dependent 

upon unrestricted supersonic overland flight capability, 

they also have shown operational flexibility and market 

33 
size would be considerably enhanced by limited overland corridor operations. As a result, technology that 

reduces sonic booms is an integral and important element of the program. During 1992, flight testing of 

several military aircraft generated an extensivedata base 

on atmospheric propagation of sonic booms. Researchers wereusing this information in conjunction with metrics 

of human responses to loudness to guide development of 

alternate aircraft configurations to soften sonic boom 

without a significant penalty in aerodynamic efficiency. 

The newest element of the program, Enabling Propulsion Materials (EPM), began in 1992 to address the 

development of critical materials needed to meet the 

requirements of the low- emission, low-noise engines for 

future high speed civil transport aircraft. These materials 

included both ceramic matrix composites able to operate 

continuously at up to 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit in the 

corrosive and oxidizing environments of low-emission, 

high-temperature combustors, and metallic and intermetallic matrix composites that retain their properties at up 

to 2,400 degrees to achieve lightweight exhaust-nozzle 

components. The focus for the first year of the program 

was selection of initial material systems and critical test 

regions for engine components, preliminary screening of 

candidate fibers and fiber coatings, and evaluation of 

composite fabrication processes. 

NASA’s High-Performance Aircraft Research 

during FY 1992 focused on providing technological 

options for revolutionary new capabilities in future highperformance fixed and rotary-wing aircraft. NASA’s 

principal concerns here were challenges, such as 

controlled flight at high angles of attack, that will ensure 

U.S. pilots continue to fly the best planes in the world. 

The agency also developed technology to help improve 

the performance of the current generation of military 

aircraft. 

For example, at NASA‘s Dryden Flight Research 

Facility an F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV) 

included a multi-axis thrust vectoring system (external 

inconel steel paddles) for each of its two engines to obtain 

research results. Test pilots first flew with this configuration in July 1991, the first known flight of a closed-loop 

multi-axis thrust vectoring system. They completed 

envelope expansion in February 1992. The system has 

demonstrated good maneuvering including full rudder 

pedal sideslips to 65 degrees angle of attack without 

engine compressor stall and has been effective in increasing the roll rate of the aircraft significantly under certain 

flight conditions. The F-18 HARV has provided on- and 

off-surface aerodynamics measurements to correla te 

against wind tunnel tests and first-ever full aircraft, high 

angle of attack Navier-Stokes computed flow data. The 

flight research has provided a wealth of fundamental 

aerodynamics understanding as well as predictive and 

design capability applicable to future military and civil 

aircraft designs. 

NASA’s Hypersonic Research program supported 

fundamental research into the physical processesof flight 

at hypersonic speeds; it is also developing new, innovative technologies that will allow future air-breathing, 

hypersonic vehicles to operate safely in the hypersonic 

environment. The basic research in six aerospace disciplines concentrated on technical advancement for the 

next generation of aerospace vehicles rather than a commitment to develop specific technologies for particular 

missions. As one example of achievements in FY 1992, a 

high-energy, long-duration, hydrogen-fueled test facility (developed at Ames Research Center) tested an advanced scramjet combustor rig to provide data on combustor efficiency and fuel injection concepts at flight 

conditions between Mach 9 and 13. 

NASA also completed research in FY 1992 on F16XL Supersonic Laminar Flow Control. It modified its 

F-16XL aircraft by installing an active suction, porousskin glove on the left wing. Rockwell International 

engineers designed the glove’s shape and active suction 

system to provide laminar flow over the surface at supersonic speeds. NASA conducted the flight experiment at 

its Dryden facility in cooperation with the Langley Research Center. During the test program lasting until 

September 1992, laminar flow exceeded 25 percent chord 

at supersonic Mach numbers. The test matrix mapped 

the effects of Mach number, altitude, angle of attack, and 

suction. This technology has application to a potential 

high speed civil transport, reducing its take-off gross 

weight by 4 percent and reducing fuel consumption. 

NASA‘s Critical Disciplines Research during FY 

1992 focused on pioneering the development of innovative concepts and providing physical understanding and 

theoretical, experimental, and computational tools required for efficient design and operation of advanced 

aerospace vehicles. For instance, in a cooperative research effort to demonstrate aeroelastic stability through 

active control of wing flexibility, Rockwell International 

designed and buil t an Active Flexible Wing (AFW) model 

that NASA’s Langley Research Center tested in its transonic dynamics tunnel. The AFW concept consists of a 

wing designed with significantly less than normal stiffness in order to reduce weight. Other features include 

computer-driven flight control surfaces (active controls). 

These suppress the instabilities that the less stiff wing 

would otherwise be subject to and permit tailoring of 

maneuver schedules to minimize structural loads and 

enhance aircraft performance. This concept is a useful 

capability for advanced high performance vehicles. The 

accomplishments of this program include successful flutter suppression tests of the AFW model and the design, 

fabrication, coding, and successful operation of the digi34 
tal controller. The results from this program have indicated that multiple active control surfaces can be used to 

provide variation in the wing shape for better roll and 

maneuver load control. Measurements from the tests 

have been used to validate analytical models of the 

concept for use in design. 

In the area of Computational Fluid Dynamics 

(CFD), NASA has developed advanced computational 

methods for use inmoreaccurateand efficient prediction 

of aircraft aerodynamic performance as well as for exploration of phenomena in the field of fluid physics. Computational methods research has also emphasized the 

development and validation of advanced analytical tools, 

including improved methods for configuration surface 

modeling and grid generation. 

For example, NASA‘s Ames Research Center successfully computed the flow field of a full F-18 configuration with an advanced forebody flow control system. 

Wind tunnel tests have shown that this control method 

provides substantial lateral-directional control at high 

angles of attack. Conventional control devices normally 

are inadequate for control at high angles of attack, causing a dangerous condition for fighter aircraft flown into 

this condition. Pneumatic flow control blows air out of 

slots on the forebody to energize the boundary layer and 

control the strong forebody vortices that form at high 

angles of attack. The calculations show good correlation 

to sub- and full-scale wind tunnel tests on similar configurations. Consequently, researchers have used the 

calculations to refine designs for wind tunnel testing. 

During FY 1992, NASA was also developing a 

capability to analyze complete aircraft engines 

computationally. The advantages of this strategy included mating components within the simulation before 

cutting hardware or running engine tests as well as ”up 

front” interaction amongenginecomponent design teams. 

However, the complexity of these engines has required 

simplifyinggeometric and physical assumptions to make 

calculations manageable on today‘s supercomputers. In 

FY 1992, researchers at NASA’s Lewis Research Center 

successfully analyzed the interior of the engine with the 

fan and part of the compressor stage, assuming that the 

air flow was parallel to surfaces with non-zero velocity 

(inviscid assumption). The direction for future development was the more accurate but complex viscous analysis (zero velocity at surfaces) for all engine components 

combined. 

In related developments, NASA’s High Performance Computing and Communications (HPCC) program is part of a new Presidential initiative aimed at 

producinga 1,000-fold increasein supercomputing speed 

and a 100-fold improvement in available communications capability by 1996. NASA will subsequently use 

these unprecedented capabilities to help maintain U.S. 

leadership in aeronautics as well as applica tions to Earth 

and space science. As background to the initiative, the 

limited powers of today’s supercomputers are forcing 

researchers to use simple, single-discipline models to 

simulate the many aspects of advanced aerospace vehicles as well as phenomena on Earth and in space. This 

is more costly and time-consuming than simulating entire systems at once, but it has become standard practice 

due to the complexity of more complete simulations and 

the limited computing power available to perform them. 

NASA has focused its efforts under the HPCC program 

on a variety of technologies that will improve the design 

and simulation of advanced aerospace vehicles, allow 

people at remote locations to communicate more effectively,and increasescicntists’abilities tomodel theEarth‘s 

climate and forecast global environmental trends. Recent accomplishments include work in computational 

fluid dynamics, structures simulation, multidisciplinary 

computation, software exchange, networking technology and systems software, as well as participation in the 

Concurrent Supercomputing Consortium (CSCC). 

NASA has played an active role in the CSCC during its first year of operation. Use of the consortium’s 

Intel Touchstone Delta supercomputer hasenabled major 

advances in several scientific and engineering applications including the processing of 3-dimensional images 

of Venus takenby the Magellan satelliteat therateof four 

frames per second, bringing real-time image processing 

within reach. Other accomplishments on the Delta include the largest direct numerical simulation of the timedependent compressible Navier-Stokes equations and 

the largest 3-dimensional compressible turbulence simulations for high Reynolds numbers. Additionally, the 

consortium has provided fundamental insightsintocomputer science issues that are being used to accelerate the 

development of the next generation of supercomputers. 

NASA‘s Ames Research Center has ported single 

discipline CFD codes to a number of massively Parallel 

Computers including the Thinking Machines CM2 and 

lntel iPSC/860. It has obtained the best performance to 

date on the iPSC/860-performance approximately equal 

to twice the speed of a single processor on a Cray YMP 

supercomputer. Ames engineers have simulated two 

applications involving moderately complex geometrics 

in the parallel computer environment. These include a 

High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT) vehicle complete 

with wing, fuselage, and four engine nacelles and a 

simple powered lift vehicle, which includes a wing and 

two lifting jets that are operating in a ground-effect 

environment. The success of these preliminary simulations will lead to significant enhancements in computer 

simulation of aerodynamic performance and therefore to 

more efficient and cost-effective aircraft and spacecraft 

design. 

35 
NASA’s Langley Research Center is working to 

improve the processes for designing advanced aircraft 

and spacecraft through the use of advanced computational fluid dynamics and structural analyses. Langley‘s 

efforts are focusing on the design and analysis of a High 

Speed Civil Transport. One of the greatest challenges in 

modeling the fluid dynamics of these vehicles is developing mathematical equations that accurately simulate turbulent airflow, because at high speeds, turbulent flow 

simulations become less reliable. Langley researchers 

decided the best results could be obtained by performing 

the simulations on the most powerful supercomputer 

available. They rewrote computer code designed to 

simulate turbulence on a Cray YMP so it would run on 

themore powerful Intel Touchstone Delta supercomputer, 

usinghalf of its512processor-s. Asa result, thesimulation 

occurred approximately 12 times faster than using the 

Cray YMP’s single processor, enabling researchers to 

simulate high-speed turbulent airflow more accurately. 

Thedevelopment of an optimal airframedesign for 

a high-speed aircraft involves thousands of design iterations,eachrequiringa largeamount of computing time to 

recalculate how changes in one part of the design ripple 

through the rest of the structure. Langley Research 

Center scientists have developed a way to streamline the 

processand reduce the amount of computing time needed 

for each iteration. Using equations to determine the 

inter-relationships of elements in the simulated structure, researchers solve them to determine the vehicle’s 

structure. They have discovered that parallel processing 

is ideal for generating the elements but inefficient at 

assembling the structural equations. The researchers 

overcame this problem and speeded up the process by 

developing a parallel node-by-node assembly algorithm 

and running it on the512-processor Intel Delta. With this 

and a ring communication technique, they increased 

processing speed by a factor of 22 over the Cray YMP. 

Researchers will now use these results as part of an 

interdisciplinary aerodynamics/structural dynamics 

design system. 

Under the heading of Benchmarking 

Multidisciplinary Codes on Parallel Supercomputers, 

NASA is also developing the ability to simulate two or 

more disciplines in a single computer simulation (e.g., 

thedeflections associated with an aircraft’s structure and 

the loads associated with its aerodynamics). Ames Research Center has developed and demonstrated the 

ENSAERO computer code, which couples aerodynamics 

and structures analysis modules on the Intel iPSC/860 

massively parallel computer. Results involve the coupling of a low-fidelity structures code to a high-fidelity 

aerodynamics analysis routine. Specific simulations obtained on parallel as well as conventional supercomputers 

include the analysis of aeroelastic performance about 

flexible wing and wing/fuselagegeometrics for a variety 

of unsteady maneuver conditions. This multidisciplinary 

research, coupled with the improved performance offered by massively parallel computers will greatly enhance the ability of aircraft manufacturers to analyze 

different design options rapidly and then produce vehicles efficiently with optimal performance and reduced 

design cycle costs. 

The inherent size and complexity of HPCC problems will make it more expensive to develop and maintain applications software and more difficult to make it 

robust. Software reuse can mitigate these effects. The 

High Performance Computing Software Exchangeaims 

at providing an infrastructure that encourages software 

reuse and the sharing of software modules through an 

interconnected set of software repositories. Researchers 

have set up an experimental system that connects software repositories over a number of Federal agencies. 

They have also developed a series of metrics to compare 

a variety of alternate computer architectures. Among 

other benefits, this system will unify existing databases 

and bibliographic archives as well as reduce costs. 

As the year ended, NASA was continuing its 

pursuit of developing advanced networking technologies to allow researchers and educators to carry 

out collaborative research and educational activities, regardless of their location or computational 

resources. Existing networks typically exchanged 

information at the rate of 1.5 megabits per second 

(mbps), but this is too slow for projected needs, 

which entail instantaneousexchange of data. NASA 

entered into a cooperative effort with DOE to procure network services that operated at 45 mbps 

using synchronous optical fiber network standards. 

Under the interim National Research and Education Network, the two agencies selected Sprint to 

provide access to a nationwide fiber optic network 

that will help meet communications needs and serve 

as the foundation for even faster networks ranging 

from 155 mbps to eventual gigabit speeds. 

Since the HPCC program is multi-agency and interdisciplinary, it is important to have a coordinated plan 

fordeveloping Systems Software and Tools. As the lead 

agency for coordinating this effort, NASA organized and 

directed a workshop of experts from industry, academia, 

and Government to review existing software and tools 

for high performance computing environments and identify needed developments. A technical report summarized their findings, which will help formulate a national 

perspective on requirements in systems software. 

36 
Air Traffic Control and Navigation collision occurs, involves aircraft equipped with altitude-reporting transponders. TCAS I1 will bemandatory 

Among the many programs of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), its Terminal Air Traffic 

Control Automation effort sought to provide optimized 

terminal traffic flow for the air traffic system by expeditiously incorporating proven automation technology. 

The agency had completed development of a Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) to allow continued use 

of a pair of converging runways during instrument meteorological conditions. A follow-on effort, the Controller Automation Spacing Aid, aimed to extend CRDA 

technology to other applications to improve throughput 

of aircraft to the runway. On another project, the CenterTRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) Automation System (CTAS), NASA and the FAA were jointly 

evaluating new technology so as to reduce delays, improve airport flow rates, and permit more fuel-efficient 

aircraft descents. Following installation at Stapleton 

International Airport near Denver in March 1992, the 

CTAS elements began test operations. The principal 

element of the three-part system was the traffic management advisor. It looked at aircraft from all directions and 

developed a plan to handle traffic effectively. The descent advisor then generated graphic representations of 

spatial and time relationships among aircraft converging 

on the aerial "gate." The final approach spacing tool let 

controllers make precise corrections to aircraft positions 

after the planes had flown through the gate. Controllers 

could use CTAS to determine the best flight routes, 

including descents, for all types of aircraft. The system 

constantly updates its advisories based on radar and 

weather information, knowledge of each aircraft's performance characteristics, and results of commands given 

by controllers to the aircraft. A second prototype of the 

equipment was scheduled for test at the Dallas-Fort 

Worth Airport. In suchoperational environments, prototypescould berefined inamonitor controlmode without 

disrupting the air traffic control process. The system had 

the potential to reduce controller workload, improve 

traffic efficiency, and enhance safety in the terminal air 

traffic system. 

Another FAA program was the Traffic Alert and 

Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). It used air-to-air 

interrogations of transponder-equipped aircraft to provide pilots with traffic advisories indicating the range, 

bearing, and altitude of aircraft posing a potential threat. 

TCAS I, a low-power system that will provide alerting 

without recommended escape maneuvers, will be required in turbine-powered airplanes with 10 to 30 passenger seats in the mid-1990s. The TCAS I1 version, 

which not only alerts the pilot to traffic but also advises 

whether to climb or descend when a potential threat of 

in all aikraft of more-than 30 seats by December 31,1993. 

The FAA implemented a transitional program to monitor 

the performance of TCAS I1 systems, approximately4,OOO 

of which were in operation by the end of FY 1992. The 

agency continued to develop minimum operating standards for TCAS 111, which will provide traffic alerts and 

resolution advisories that include right or left turns as 

well as altitude changes. 

In another area, Aircraft Digital Systems, the FAA 

in cooperation with NASA continued to perform flight 

safety research relative to validation of software-based 

digital flight control and avionics systems. The research 

was in support of FAA specialists in certification and 

national resources. The FAA published new handbook 

materials on pilot-vehicle interface issues, and at the end 

of the year, it was researching requirements and technology in the areas of artificial intelligence, expert systems, 

neural networks, software development, formal methods, flight-by-light, and power-by-wire. 

In a separate FAA and Coast Guard project, all 

Loran-C Transmitters that served the National Airspace 

System (NASI were scheduled to be modified to include 

a new, automatic signal BLINK feature. Signal BLINK is 

a change in the transmitted Loran-C signal employed 

when the signal should not be used for navigation. The 

automatic feature would act as a back-up to the conventional, manually initiated signal BLINK previously used 

by transmitter station operators. Installation was scheduled to begin late in 1992 and be completed in 1993. With 

the automatic BLINK in operation, nonprecision approach procedures will be possible at most airports in the 

NAS. 

The FAA was also evaluating initial algorithms for 

automated generation of alternative flow management 

strategies on a testbed system of the Advanced Traffic 

Management System. The purpose of this system was to 

develop enhanced automated capabilities for air traffic 

flow management. 

The agency was involved with the Voice Switching and Control System, which will provide air traffic 

control centers with efficient and economical computercontrolled voice switching for intercom, interphone, and 

air-ground communications. As FY 1992 ended, theFAA 

had started factory acceptance testing in anticipation of 

delivery to the FAA Technical Center in January 1993. 

A further concern of the agency was Airport Visual Guidance. An essential part of aircraft movement 

on airport surfaces is proper guidance during taxiing. A 

necessary requirement of safe and efficient operations is 

that the visual guidance systems (lighting, markings, and 

signs) be designed and maintained so as to avoid any 

ambiguity in their intended operational use. Runaway 

37 
incursions involving two or more aircraft or an aircraft 

and a vehicle were still major threats in 1992. Consequently, the FAA completed an in-service evaluation of 

a stop bar lighting systemat New York's John F. Kennedy 

International Airport during the year. Results showed 

that stop bars were useful in preventing runway incursions, and the agency has developed a draft specification 

of a standard stop bar lighting system that was undergoing in-service evaluation at Seattle-Tacoma International 

Airport as the year ended. Lighting configuration and 

controls as well as controller workload issues remained 

to be resolved, however. 

The FAA expanded the predeparture clearance 

Data Link Service during FY 1992 to include 30 airports, 

with participation growing to include seven major air 

carriers and a large number of general aviation aircraft. 

This data link application has greatly benefitted both 

pilots and controllers during the first year of operation by 

reducing workload, frequency congestion, and communication error in clearance delivery. During FY 1992, the 

FAA also began the development and operational evaluation of the next Tower Data Link Service, the Automatic 

Terminal Information Service, scheduled for national 

implementation in FY 1993. Theagency installed six data 

link processors at en route control centers and planned to 

install the remaining systems next year. These systems 

provide weather information to pilots on a request/reply 

basis. The FAA also completed the technical definitions 

of international requirements for air/ground and ground / 

ground digital communications. These requirements 

defined the protocols for exchanging information among 

air traffic controllers, pilots, and other air traffic control 

systems. In addition, the agency successfully completed 

the initial step in validating these requirements and 

expected to complete a working research and developmental system in 1994. 

The agency continued to work on various facets of Interfacility Communications. These included the Data Multiplexing Network, which compresses information and allowed for a connection 

between FAA and military facilities over existing 

telecommunications links; the National Airspace 

Data Interchange Network 11, a packet switched 

network to provide switching support for the 

interfacility exchange of weather and air movement 

data; and the Radio Communications Link, the backbone of high-capacity microwave communication 

links providing independent voice and data communication among air route traffic control centers. 

These communications networks and links were in 

various stages of development as FY 1992 ended. 

In another area of its activities, the FAA used the 

Airport and Airspace Simulation Model (SIMMOD) to 

analyze alternatives for improving system capacity. The 

agency linked SIMMOD with the Integrated Noise Model 

for combined traffic flow and noise analysis. Threedimensional graphics increased the realism of themodel, 

which more than 200 airlines, airports, private firms, and 

foreign Governments used. The FAA also upgraded the 

National Airspace System Performance Capability to 

generate realistic future schedules and to calculate airport capacities. The agency made the Sector Design 

Analysis Tool interactive, allowing users to change airspacedesignsand traffic loading and to test thesechanges 

more rapidly. During the year, the FAA Integration and 

Interaction Laboratory (I-Lab) became fully operational, 

providing new capabilities for evaluating air traffic control communications, human factors, and the impacts of 

introducing new control technology. The agency incorporated experience from I-Lab research into planning for 

the future National Simulation Capability. 

The FAA was also involved with development of a 

Precision Runway Monitor to increase airport capacity 

through safe reduction of constraints on the use of parallel or converging runways during instrument meteorological conditions. The agency sponsored prototype 

development and testing of an electronically scanned (Escan) secondary radar with improved display, automated 

predictor, and visual/aural alerting at Raleigh-Durham 

airport. The FAA has decided to upgrade the prototype 

system and commission it for use in 1993. In March it 

awarded a contract to the Bendix Communications Division for a limited production of five additional E-scan 

radar systems, one of which will replace the RaleighDurham installation. The agency continued to study 

communications issues and was performing additional 

simulations using different runway spacings and different numbers of runways (triplets and quads). 

In anotherprogram,Airport Surface Traffic Automation, the FAA sought to develop techniques to prevent runway incursionsand more fully automateground 

movement, thereby speeding traffic flow and increasing 

all-weather airport surface capacity. The program will 

fully automate the tracking and identification of aircraft 

and ground vehicles, provide a situational display, support interfaces for control of airfield lighting to guide 

aircraft in low visibility, and support air traffic controllers by providing an automated conflict alert system. 

This conflict alert system builds on experience gained in 

developing the Airport Movement Area Safety System 

(AMASS), a basic set of safety logic to accompany the 

airport surface surveillance radar, ASDE-3. The FAA 

will field AMASS in FY 1994 as an interim system if it is 

successful during engineering trials in FY 1993. Airport 

SurfaceTraffic Automation is scheduled asacompetitive 

development program for design in FY 1993,prototyping 

in FYs 1995-96, and full-scale development beginning in 

FY 1997. 

38 
The FAA also pursued an initiative called the 

Terminal Area Surveillance System to provide safety 

and efficient air traffic control within the terminal area 

early in the 21st century. The program will research the 

capabilities of new sensor technologies to detect and 

track aircraft, from en route handoff to theairport gate, as 

well asaviation weather hazards (windshear, wake vortex, 

hail, etc.). It will also investigate data integration and 

processing functions necessary to provide weather and 

surveillance products that support safe and efficient air 

traffic management operations in the terminal area of the 

future. During the last year the program office has, 

among other things, awarded seven contracts through a 

broad agency announcement and signed a cooperative 

researchand developmentagreement withonecompany. 

The FAA continued development of the Microwave Landing System (MLS). The agency awarded two 

contracts for the design and development of Category I1 

and I11 MLSs during the year. One contract went to 

Wilcox Corporation and the other to Raytheon. Each 

vendor will produce 6 to 12 first article test systems. 

The FAA’s Advanced Automation System (AAS) 

will whollyreplace the automated equipment previously 

used in controlling en route and terminal air traffic. AAS 

will include new computer software, processors, tower 

position consoles, and controller workstations. The system will increase controller productivity, upgrade the 

capacity and reliability of the airspace system, and provide the flexibility needed for future enhancements. The 

system’s first element was installed at 16 sites and commissioned at 12 sites during FY 1992. Development of 

computer codes and software was underway at the end 

of the year. 

The FAA was working with several satellite applications for civil aviation. As the US. Navstar Global 

Positioning System (GPS) neared full operational status, 

civil aviation users were expected to experience a significant change in the way they navigated through the airways. The transition from a ground-based to a spacebased navigation system was a major program underway at the FAA. The agency was also cooperating with 

the International Civil Aviation Organization to exploit 

rapidly the benefits of a Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS). The FAA has reached numerousagreements with foreign countries, such as with the former 

Soviet Union to examine the use of the Soviet GLONASS, 

and with Fiji to establish a prototype airspace system 

using satellite technology for navigation and air traffic 

control. The FAA and NASA have begun work on 

establishing the feasibility of using the GPS to satisfy 

Category I1 and 111 precision approach requirements. 

In the area of Vertical Flight Planning, the FAA 

continued research and development into issuesof rotorcraft infrastructure to improve flight operations in the 

National Airspace System. Development of a Vertical 

Flight Program Plan continued in an effort to coordinate 

project planning data with the goals of the Rotorcraft 

Master Plan. The agency also drafted plans outlining 

projects addressing terminal area procedures and noise. 

With respect to Heliports and Vertiports, the FAA 

developed several publications on topics such as 

helicopter accident and risk assessment near heliports, 

airports, and unimproved sites and on helicopter 

operations in the Northeast. These reports addressed 

route standards and air traffic management 

recommendations to further enhance the utility of 

helicopter operations between Boston and Washington. 

The agency also completed an operations analysis of the 

New York Downtown Manhattan Heliport. Research 

conducted by the FAA Technical Center resulted in a 

published report on avoiding potential hazards from 

magnetic resonance imagery equipment. 

Under the FAA‘s Airport Improvement Program 

grants, several state and local governments completed 

Civil Tiltrotor (CTR) feasibility studies. A delay reduction study continued to quantify potential benefits of 

using passenger-carrying tiltrotors for certain short-haul 

operations from major airports. The agency completed a 

draft civil tiltrotor research plan addressing CTR steep 

angle approaches and procedures. 

Weather-Related Aeronautical 

Activities 

During FY 1992, progress continued on three efforts the FAA began in FY 1991 to improve Aviation 

Weather Services. Under FAA sponsorship, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

continued development of the Aviation Gridded Forecast System (AGFS). This will provide a higher resolution picture of current and predicted states of the atmosphere over the continental United States. The National 

Science Foundation continued assisting the FAA in the 

development of the Aviation Weather Product Generator. This system will create products for the AGFS grid 

tailored for an en route application, aiding in strategic 

and tactical decision-making with respect to avoiding 

weather hazards. The Air Force continued working with 

the FAA in the development of the Integrated Terminal 

Weather System (ITWS), which will provide very shortrange forecasts and warning notices for pilots and air 

traffic controllers. ITWS will use AGE grids and inputs 

from other available airport terminal Sensor systems. 

Another FAA system, the Terminal Doppler 

Weather Radar (TDWR), provides timely detection of 

hazardous wind shear in and near airport terminal approach and departure corridors and reports that infor39 
mation to pilots and controllers. During FY 1992, the 

agency installed the first two production TDWRs at the Flight Safety and Security 

FAA Academy in Oklahoma City and at Memphis airport. The third production system was delivered to 

Houston in September 1992. Also during FY 1992, the 

FAAstartedoperational testing of the production TDWRs 

and completed initial TDWR training for air traffic controllers and maintenance technicians. 

TheFAAand theNationa1 Center for Atmospheric 

Research continued their 6-year program, begun in 1989, 

to address basic research relating to the Icing hazard and 

to improve forecasting. Included was ademonstration at 

Denver‘s Stapleton Airport of non-automatic techniques 

for improved snowfall prediction to use in conjunction 

with planned deicing of aircraft on the ground. The 

National WeatherAdvisory Unit in KansasCityincluded 

in its operations techniques for improving the forecasting of icing aloft. Additionally, the FAA undertook 

efforts to enhance aircraft ground deicing safety, including investigations of deicing fluids, aircraft surface ice 

detection technologies, and investigation of the effects of 

ice roughness on airplane aerodynamic performance. 

The FAA was also actively involved in acquiring Weather Observing Systems. In cooperation 

with the National Weather Service, the agency continued a program to acquire Automated Surface 

Observing Systems by ordering 107 additional systems during FY 1992. Sixty systems were installed 

by the end of the fiscal year. Twenty-five Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) Data 

Acquisition Systems (ADASS) were under contract 

in FY 1992 as well, with delivery scheduled to FAA 

air route traffic control centers between 1993 and 

1995. The purpose of ADAS was to receive AWOS 

weather data and to process and distribute it to the 

National Airspace System. The agency also commissioned 160 AWOS I11 units. 

In its Electromagnetic Environment Program, the 

FAA began collecting the information needed to issue 

guidelines for fuel tank lightning standards during certification. It continued conversion of the F-106 lightning 

data to the FAA Research Electromagnetic Database, and 

it provided draft users’ manuals for on-line subscribers. 

Using its Technical Center’s 5-76 research helicopter, the 

agency performed additional testsat Air Force radar sites 

to determine attenuation factors for High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF-emissions that could interfere with 

electronic systems). It began organizing the 3rd International Conference on HIRF and initiated efforts with 

NIST to determine the length of time HIRF shielding for 

airframes on aircraft remained effective. The FAA also 

published revised and draft documents in support of 

advisory circulars, as well as user manuals dealing with 

threats from lightning and HIRF. 

Among many projects to improve flight safety, 

NASA together with the FAA and industry embarked on 

a three-phased program to understand, detect, and avoid 

or recover from Hazardous Windshear. Among other 

things, the project involved testing and development of 

microwave radar, lidar (laser radar), and infrared sensing technologies for use indetecting hazardous windshear. 

The FAA has directed that all commercial aircraft must 

have onboard windshear detection systems by the end of 

1993. During the summers of 1991 and 1992 there were 

flight tests of experimental versions of lidar, radar, and 

infrared sensors at Denver and Orlando. With prototype 

windshear sensors installed, the Langley Research 

Center’s Boeing 737 transport systems research vehicle 

conducted a series of flight tests highlighted by numerous low altitude penetrations of microburst windshear 

conditions. It safely recorded more than 50 low altitude 

approaches and penetrations of microburst windshears 

and strong gust fronts. These flight tests ascertained the 

windshear measurement potential of theinstalled sensor 

systems in the full range of weather conditions. Data of 

excellent quality from the testsindicated strong potential 

for airborne sensors to provide accurate predictions of 

hazardous windshear conditions with ample time for 

precautionary crew actions. 

The FAA‘s Low Level Wind Shear Alert System 

(LLWAS) measures wind speed and direction from sensors locatcd around the periphery of airports and analyzes these measurements to detect the presence of hazardous windshear. Phase-2 systems upgrade the basic 

LLWAS with a microburst-detection algorithm developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research. 

Two prototype phase-3 systems, in operation since 1988, 

have a record of effectiveness that includes a documented save. During FY 1992, the FAA continued expansion of LLWAS to a phase-3 configuration. 

The FAA also completed an analysis to determine 

which of several candidate Ground-Based Windshear 

Systems would be the most cost effective for detecting 

the windshear hazards at major US. airports. The study 

concluded that 83 LLWASs should be upgraded to be 

equivalent to the operational prototypedesignat Stapleton 

Airport. The study also recommended that all 45 TDWR 

systems should be integrated with LLWAS, Field tests 

showed that when integrated, the two systems were 

complementary and provided a very high performance 

windshear detection capability. The study indicated that 

at airports without a planned TDWR it would be cost 

effective to add a windshear processor to 58 recent generation AirportSurveillance Radars(ASRs1rather than to 

procure more TDWRs. The FAA therefore created a new 

40 
project, the ASR Windshear Processor (WSP), to develop 

the enhancement. Some ASR WSPs will be integrated 

with LLWAS and others will stand alone depending on 

performance requirements at a given airport. 

In the area of Structural Airworthiness, the FAA 

conducted an investigation of the effects of plastic media 

blasting on the crack propagation rates in aluminum 

panels on aircraft so as to determine safe operating 

procedures for this type of fuselage paint removal. The 

tests generated data on the performance of equipment as 

well as on the metal's ability to absorb impact pressure. 

In conjunction with the Air Force, the FAA developed a 

composite failure analysis handbook to assist accident 

investigators in conducting analyses on failed composite 

aircraft structures. Also, a joint FAA-Navy endeavor 

resultedin theidentificationof all existingdataon delamination and analytical analysis relating to composite aircraft structures, delamination being the most common 

type of defect found in such structures. In addition, the 

FAA generated and distributed a video on the certification of aircraft tires, identifying all certification requirements and standards including inspection, repair, and 

tread specification for bias ply and radial ply aircraft 

tires. 

With respect to Aircraft Crashworthiness, the FAA 

conducted a full-scale, vertical impact test of a Fairchild 

Metro 111 airframe. This test provided data on a variety of 

standard and energy absorbing seating systems within a 

metal commuter airplane fuselage. In addition, the FAA 

conducted an analysis of rotorcraft ditchings and waterrelated impacts on accidents that occurred from 1982 to 

1989, placing special emphasis on the performance of 

flotation devices and post-impact occupant survivability. The agency also completed a research program that 

examined crash resistance technology for civil rotorcraft. 

The effort identified impact design and test criteria for 

civil rotorcraft, as well as an assessment of the weight 

penalties incurred and the technical difficulties in meeting those criteria. The FAA was negotiating agreements 

with NASA, elements of the DoD, and the United 

Kingdom's Civil Aviation Administration relating to 

joint research on the crashworthiness of fixed and rotary 

wing aircraft. 

In related efforts, the FAA prepared and made 

public a program plan for Aging Aircraft Research to be 

conducted over the next five years. In efforts to make the 

FAA's and NASA's rescarch on aging aircraft complementary, the twoagenciesorganized eight working group 

meetings involving their personnel and contractors to 

discuss ongoing studies on select issues. The FAA concluded international cooperative agreements covering 

agingaircraft research with itscounterpartsin the United 

Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan, and Australia. At the 

end of the year, several projects covered by these agrcvments were underway. The FAA also sponsored two 

international workshops on structural integrity of aging 

airplanes and on nondestructive inspection and robotics. 

The FAA's Jet Engine Bird Hazard Program featured a continued analysis of worldwide data on bird 

ingestion, providing threat definition and damage characterizations for use in updating engine certification 

standards and airport bird hazard studies. The agency 

published an interim report on the initial data from a 2- 

year study of 7 large, modern, turbofan engine models 

installed on 8 types of contemporary transports. 

FAA researchefforts to improve Airport Runways 

included preparing a preliminary design for a national 

airport pavement dynamic test facility. To improve 

runway surface technology, the agency continued its 

runway friction testing, as well as its soft-ground arresting tests. 

With respect to Fire Safety, the FAA conducted 

tests to optimize an onboard cabin water spray system 

that had previously proved to be effective against 

postcrash fires. Preliminary results indicated that the 

system's weight could be reduced by two-thirds if the 

system were zoned, with each zone activated by thermal 

detectors. Boeing completed an FAA-sponsored study 

examining the effects of an accidental discharge. The 

FAA also completed full-scale tests to define design 

modifications and firefighting procedures to safeguard 

against cargo fires in combined passenger/cargo aircraft. 

The results demonstrated the problems associated with 

fighting the fire by hand and the relative effectiveness of 

improved design features. The agency also initiated tests 

in a turbine engine to screen new extinguishing agents 

being proposed to replace Halon 1301, which will soonbe 

banned from production because of its role in depleting 

the ozone layer. 

In the area of Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

(ARFF), the FAA completed a research effort to evaluate 

and determine the scale of fire protection and equipment 

requirements for general aviation and heliport operations. The agency initiated efforts to improve ARFF 

response capability under conditions of poor or limited 

visibility. This effort will include use of such technologies as satellite mapping and devices for enhancinginfrared vision. The FAA started a research effort to evaluate 

possiblereplacement agentsfor Halon 121 1, which helped 

deplete the ozone layer. 

With regard to Aviation Fuels, the FAA began 

testing to develop an unleaded aviation gasoline. The 

agency provided data it generated on material compatibili ty to industry, tested experimental fuels developed 

by others, and worked with the American Society for 

Testing and Materials in developing a specification for 

both a high octane and low octane unleaded aviation 

gasoline. 

41 
In thearea of Civil Aviation Security, the FAA was 

engaged in a number of efforts to comply with the Aviation Security Improvement Act passed by Congress in 

November 1990. For instance, the agency has embarked 

on an extensive research and development effort to enhance aviation security through the use of explosives 

detectors, x-ray technologies, and vapor/particle detection devices. InNovember 1991, the FAA conducted the 

First International Symposium on explosive detection 

techniques, at which representatives of Government, 

academia, and private industry exchanged relevant information on technological advances. In August 1992, 

the agency sponsored a symposium on aircraft hardeningand survivability to disseminate information on technologies to reduce the vulnerability of commercial aircraft to explosive threats. An FAA explosives detection 

research laboratory at the agency’s Technical Center was 

nearing occupancy and will permit research, testing, and 

evaluation of a full range of detection technologies applicable to security. The agency also continued defining 

requirements for an explosives detection system. This 

may employ any of several different explosives detectors 

as part of an automated system to screen carry-on and 

checked baggage, mail, and cargo. 

The FAA continued its program in Turbine Engine 

Rotor Failure Safety to identify technology that will provide a means of protecting aircraft against the hazards of 

turbine rotor failures. It continued research and develop 

ment of a variety of advanced, lightweight materials designed as bamers to absorb the high-energy fragments 

liberatedbysmall turbineenginefailures. Testinginarotorspin facility established thegeometrics of penetra tion threshold thickness. The agency initiated programs that will 

provide prototype demonstrations of a unique x-ray system to detect cracks in an operating engine, plus a computer-based methodology for an integrated system to predict failure of rotating parts in turbine engines. 

In another project concerned with improving flight 

safety, NASA was developing Thermographic, Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques to detect disbonds in lap 

jointson aircraft fuselages. The process involved increasing 

the temperature of the outer surface of the lap joint by 

application of heat from quartz lamp heaters. Then an 

infrared imager sensed the surface’s thermal response. The 

system was noncontacting, could inspect one square meter 

in less than two minutes, and had no difficulty inspecting 

curved surfaces. Results of measurements on samples with 

artificially fabricated disbonds showed the technique was 

able to indicate them clearly. United and Northwest Airlines’ rework facilities successfully demonstrated the technique on their Boeing 747 aircraft. 

In still another development having to do with flight 

safety, in August 1992 the FCC amended Part 87 of its rules 

to establish technical standards and licensing proccdures 

for Aircraft Earth Stations. These were mobile stations in 

the Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service or Aeronautical 

Mobile-Satellite (Route) Service that were located aboard 

aircraft. The stations provided communicationsin support 

of domestic and international air traffic, including air traffic 

control and safety-rela ted communications. The adoption 

of appropriate technical standards will foster the rapid 

introduction of new aircraft radio communications equip 

ment, permitting aircraft to participate extensively in the 

benefits of satellite communications and helping US. industry to remaininternationally competitive. Since satellite 

communications were much more reliable than high frequency communications, the new stations will improve 

safety communications and should relieve some of the 

congestion in high frequency and very high frequency 

communications bands. 

Aviation Medicine and Human 

Factors 

In the Human Factors area, NASA and the FAA 

continued the fatigue countermeasures program to provide both understanding of the phenomena of flight crew 

fatigue, inattention, and jet lag and a program of countermeasures to aid in reducing human error and improving 

performance. On trans-Pacific commercial flights, crews 

performed flight tests of new countermeasures to fatigue. Extensive comparisons of data on crews with no 

rest and pre-planned cockpit rest showed superior sustained performance and reduction in errors among the 

latter. As a result, the FAA has prepared a draft advisory 

circular entitled ”Controlled Rest on the Flight Deck 

Program,” which will allow pre-planned cockpit rest. At 

the end of the fiscal year, the draft was being reviewed by 

an Air Carriers Operations subcommittee as part of the 

year-long public comment period required for changes in 

Federal Air Regulations. 

The FAA conducted many other projects in the 

human factors area as well. For instance, it completed a 

cooperative pilot/controller study of altitude deviation 

incidents with the participation of an airline, the Airline 

Pilots’ Association, and the National Air Traffic Controllers Association. Working witha majorairline, theagency 

also developed a tool for the combined evaluation of 

flight technical skills and crew resource management 

proficiency. It also signed an interagency agreement 

with NASA for the joint acquisition of a B-747-400 flight 

simulator to be used for human factors research. 

In the field of Aviation Medicine, the FAA worked 

on such projects as determining incapacitation levels for 

carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide that may transit 

breathing gear. It conducted proof-of-concept studies of 

various means of attenuating head injury in aircraft 

crashes. To give but one other example, the agency 

completed an analysis of information on age and experiencewith respect toaircraftaccidentssoas toevaluate the 

relationship between the two variables. 

42 
Studies of the Planet Earth 

Uses of Remote Sensing 

During FY 1992 a variety of Governmental departments and agencies employed remote sensing from either satellites or aircraft for a great diversity of landbased purposes. Among these departments and agencies, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) itself 

had a plethora of such uses for remote sensing, especially 

of Landsat data, of which the Department was the largest 

user outside the DoD. For example, the Forest Service 

acquired high alti tude, color, infrared aerial photographs 

of the Pacific Northwest from NASA to assess forest 

decline resulting from severe insect outbreaks, five consecutive years of drought, and catastrophic fires. It will 

incorporate the resulting information into a geographic 

information system that will assist the agency to address 

the problem. 

The Forest Service has also used satellite remote 

sensing since the launch of the first Landsat satellite in 

1972. In 1992 it was engaged, among other projects, in 

processing satellite images of the Flathead National Forest in Montana toupdateand monitor vegetationchanges, 

grizzly bear habitat, old growth, and numerous wildlife 

applications throughout the 2.5 million acre area. 

The Agricultural Research Service of USDA also 

had many uses for remote sensing. For instance, beginning at the end of FY 1991 it began working with the 

Space Remote Sensing Center of NASA's Stennis Space 

Center to investigate the potential for employing a multispectral video imaging system in agricultural management. The Service assembled a high resolution video 

system and used it to assess a variety of crops in Wisconsin. In addition, NASA tentatively agreed to include this 

video system on a space shuttle mission in 1994. 

The USDA's Foreign Agricultural Service used 

remotely sensed data to assess foreign market supply, 

among other purposes. One such project involved assessmentof thelowgrain productionin themiddlcVolga 

Valley in Russia as a result of a prolonged dry period and 

high temperatures in June 1932. The Scrvice used satellite imagery, remotely sensed weathcr data, and a barley 

yield model together with geographic information system analysis to assess the loss in yield and thereby help 

in the larger process of determining the foreign markets 

for U.S. farm commodities. 

Use of digital satellite imagery was widespread 

within the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) during FY 

1992. Several SCS offices used data from the Landsat 

thematic mapper as well as from the Landsat multispectral scanner and French SPOT (satellite for the obscrvation of the Earth) multispectral images to extract Earth 

cover information from areas as small as a single watershed to those as large as a river basin. SCS used digital 

satellite image data to determine Earth cover changes in 

six states. Remote sensing data collected by state departments of natural resources were routinely converted to a 

common format and distributed to state and field office 

locations, as well. 

One final example of the USDA's many applications of remote sensing was its employment of the Computer Aided Stratification and Sampling (CASS) system, 

which used digital satellite imagery together with mapping data to stratify areas of land based on the percent 

cultivated and/or the land use. The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) and NASA's Ames Research Center had jointly installed CASS in 1991. In FY 

1992 NASS used the system and Landsat digital imagery 

to stratify Oklahoma completely and begin the stratification of California for the June 1993 Agricultural Survey. 

The Department of the Interior likewise had multipleapplicationsof remote sensing. Forexample,in 1992 

the U.S. Geological Survey acquired over 237,000 square 

kilometers of additional Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

(SLAR) coverage for geologic, hydrologic, cartographic, 

and enginceringapplications in AL, MS, GA, FL, KS, CO, 

and UT. The Survey also provided emergency response 

information from its Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center in the form of aerial and satellite 

images in support of relief efforts following Hurricane 

Andrew and forest fires in the Western United States, 

among other emergencies. And it used digital Landsat 

data from two periods during the growing season to 

identify the areas of agricultural crops irrigated with 

wa tcr from the Ed wards aquifer in south-central TX. The 

results of the last effort were found to be quite accurate 

when compared with independent estimates of irrigated 

crop acreage of the same area. 

The U.S. Geological Survey was also supporting 

the U.S. Agency for International Development's Famine 

Early Warning System project by providing technical 

support and satellite derived products to help assess the 

nature and extent of the drought and famine in Zambia, 

Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique. The effort entailed mapping agricultural lands in the region from 

Landsat data, creating additional digital data layers (administrative units, population data, roads, cities, etc.), 

and using NOAA AVHRR (see below) data to identify 

areas and populations that have been most severely 

impacted by the drought. 

In the area of cartography, the Geological Survey 

continued its development of the digital orthoptoquad, 

an image product derived from rectified aerial photographs in which displacements due to terrain relief and 

camera tilt have been removed, as a product of the 

National Mapping Program. The digital orthoptoquads 

will serve as the primary source for revision of the 

Survey's 1 :24,000-scale topographic map series, and the 

43 
Survey was also cooperating with other Federal agencies 

to establish orthoptoquad production standards and to 

provide demonstration products for such applications as 

land use monitoring, soil surveys, and as a base for 

geographic information systems. 

The Bureau of Reclamation continued numerous 

applications of remote sensing to a variety of resource 

management objectives. These included mapping irrigated lands in the Upper Colorado River basin from high 

altitude, color-infrared aerial photographs. Researchers 

interpreted information about irrigated agricultural fields 

from the aerial photographs, transferred it onto a 

planimetrically correct map or orthophoto base, then 

digitized it into a geographic information system. The 

latter will be used to model consumptive water use 

within the entire Upper Colorado basin. The Bureau also 

used aerial video and aerial photographs for other purposes, such as to map endangered fish habitat along the 

Pecos, San Juan, Green, and Colorado Rivers. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to conduct resource inventory and assessment projects to support its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. Landsat Thematic Mapper data served, for example, to classify land cover, with emphasis on modeling 

fire fuels potential on the Jicarilla Indian Reservation, 

NM, and for woodlands mapping on reservations 

throughout southern SD. 

The Bureau of Land Management obtained both 

satellite data and aerial photographs to aid in public land 

management. In addition to participating in the multiagency, multi-state National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP), which awarded contracts totaling nearly 

$3.8 million in M 1992 for aerial photography, the Bureau acquired aerial photographs for approximately 

22,300 square kilometers of portions of AZ, CO, ID, and 

OR for recreation site development, mineral development operations, wilderness study analysis, and forest 

and rangeland monitoring, among other applications. 

The National Park Service continued its extensive 

work developing vegetation community types from 

Landsat Thematic Mapper data in the Alaskan national 

parks. During 1992, it completed mapping at YukonCharley National Rivers, among other projects either 

ongoing or newly started. 

The Minerals Management Service was using the 

GPS asa surveying and mapping tool in a pilot project to 

locate and position low water features accurately in the 

Gulf of Alaska to support offshore natural resource management activities. The accuracy of the resulting information has significantly reduced litigation between the 

Federal Government and coastal states. Similarly, the 

Office of Surface Mining Regulation and Enforcement 

has used GPS as a mapping and construction design tool, 

while the U.S. Geological Survey has applied its data to 

determining point and land-surface elevations and to 

monitoring land subsidence, among other uses. 

The U.S. Bureau of Mines has assembled a 

multidisciplinary team to study the utility of remote 

sensing for characterizing and inventorying mine waste 

as part of its Hazardous Waste Program. During 1992 it 

conducted research to identify the most suitable type(s) 

of remote sensing (satellite, airborne scanner, or aerial 

photograph) and theappropriate field verification procedures. It chose mill tailings sites with known production 

history and background data in Leadville, CO, and 

Midvale, UT, then collected and evaluated the available 

satellite images and aerial photography. Preliminary 

results indicate that near-surface base-metal concentrations can be detected indirectly by short-wave infrared 

response to minerals formed by oxidation of metal sulfides in the mill wastes. Relatedly, the Office of Surface 

Mining Regulation and Enforcement and the state regulatory agencies that enforce the Federal Surface Mining 

and Control and Reclamation Act continued to useaerial 

photographs to design, monitor, and reclaim surface 

mines. 

Somewhat analogously, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-primarily through its 

Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in 

Las Vegas, NV (EMSL-LV), with assistance from its 

Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment 

Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, NC-routinely 

conducted research and provided technical support 

using remote sensing as part of its overall environmental monitoring program. The agency used largescale aerial photography to develop site characterization data during the remedial investigation and 

feasibility study conducted as part of remedial actions undcr the Comprehensive Environmental Response, compensation, and Liability Act, as well as 

to support site selection and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities operated under the Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act. In this connection, 

airborne multispectral scanner data and satellite 

imagery also played a part in helping engineers 

develop detailed site characterizations. The agency 

developed and used remote sensing systems to support the provisions of the Clean Air Act. In FY 1992 

the EMSL-LV completed more than 300 aerial photographic site characterizations. Aerial photography and satellite data also supported a broad variety of pollution, global change, pollution prevention, compliance, and other ecosystem monitoring 

studies in FY 1992, such as those of critical-habitat 

areas for wildlife. In addition, the EPA was using 

and developing (with NASA support) light detection and ranging systems to monitor urban plumes 

and emissions sources as well as to measure ozone, 

sulfur dioxide, and particulates. Finally, it was 

using a geographic information system for data 

integration and analysis in support of many of its 

programs. 

44 
Environmental Concerns 

Besides the applications of remote sensing to environmental matters, already discussed, there were numerous other aeronautical- and space-related environmental activities in M 1992. For example, in its continuing effort to enhance technical capabilities to deal with 

environmental issues, the FAA developed a computer 

tool known as Integrated Noise Model (INM) Version 

3.10. This included an expanded aircraft database for 

better simulation of aircraft performance. The agency 

also completed an analysis of noise abatement procedures for the departure of large turbojet aircraft. This 

analysis supported the development of a new advisory 

circular to be issued on the subject. The FAA implemented a computer bulletin board system to provide 

analytical and software support to the world-widegroup 

of users of the agency's environmental tools. In a joint 

effort with the Air Force, the FAA issued an updated 

version of the Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System (EDMS), an EPA-approved computer model for the 

assessment of air quality around airports. In addition, 

the agency created and released the FAA Aircraft Engine 

Emissions Database (FAEED), which contained emissions factors for various aircraft engines and data correlating engines to specific aircraft. Finally, in the area of 

vertical flight operations, the FAA continued its research 

into steep angle approaches to heliports and vertiports as 

well as noise abatement control procedures. In coordination with NASA and with significant participation by 

industry and academia, the FAA continued to identify 

goals and requirements for vertical flight noise certification and noise abatement procedures. (For other environmentally related efforts, see Aeronautical Activities, 

Technological Developments.) 

Another key environmental effort in FY 1992 was 

Monitoring Ozone Depletion. One of the major Earth 

science highlights of FY 1992 was the discovery that, like 

the ozone layer over the Antarctic with its well-documented annual depletion, the ozone layer in the Northern Hemisphere is increasingly vulnerable to depletion 

by synthetic chemicals. Results from the Second Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition (AASE-111, a sixmonth study of the atmosphere using NASA research 

aircraft, correlated with observations from the Upper 

AtmosphereResearch Satellite (UARS), launched in September 1991, contributed to increased understanding of 

the degree and natureof ozone depletion in theNorthern 

and mid-latitudes. AASE 11 revealed that during the 

winter of 1991-92, the Northern Hemisphere had a high 

concentrationof ozone-depleting chemicals in the stratosphere, but early warming in late January precluded 

major ozone depletion. In conjunction with UARS data, 

information from AASE-I1 also revealed important evidence that ozone decreases in the mid-latitudes were 

associated with increased levels of synthetic chlorine and 

bromine compounds in the stratosphere. 

In conjunction with AASE-11, reported results of 

lower-than-expected ozone losses over the Northern 

Hemisphere included data provided by an SAO-built 

far-infrared spectrometer flown aboard a NASA DC-8 in 

January-March. The experiment also set new upper 

limits for hydrogen bromide in the atmosphere, a result 

representing a first step toward understanding the potential impact of ozone-threatening bromine compounds. 

On subsequent balloon flights, the instruments produced 

measurements of stratosphericchemical abundances that 

complemented observations by UARS. 

Measurements from NASA's Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instrument on the Nimbus 7 

spacecraft, in orbit since 1978, revealed that ozone levels 

over the Antarctic once again reached record lows in 

October 1991. Thisdata, combined with that fromUARS, 

AASE-11, and other research led the Administration and 

the Congress to speed up the U.S. phase out of chemicals 

that deplete the ozone layer. 

Atmospheric Sciences and 

Oceanography 

Beyond research on ozone, efforts to understand 

the atmosphere-and any potential greenhouse effecttook a number of forms in FY 1992. All such Federal 

efforts were part of the U.S. Global Change Research 

Program, established by the President to organize all 

research aimed at studying our changing Earth. As 

discussed in part above, the ATLAS-1 Spacelab flew 

aboard STS-45 in March 1992 on a successful mission to 

study the atmosphere. This was the first in a series of 

such spacelabs that will study solar output plus the 

chemistry and dynamics of the middle atmosphere over 

a solar cycle of 11 years. These measurements are important because even small changes in the Sun's total irradiance or its spectral distribution can have a significant 

impact on the Earth's climate. Similarly, changes in the 

quantity and distribution of trace species in the atmosphere can have both climatic and other effects. In 

addition to a core set of instruments focusing on these 

areas, ATLAS-1 also included instruments to study space 

physics and ultraviolet astronomy. Scientists are also 

using ATLAS-1's measurements to correlate data from 

the UARS. The ATLAS series will repeatedly fly a core set 

of instruments that are recalibrated after each mission. 

This will enablescientists todifferentiatebetweenchanges 

in the way UARS instruments measure over time and 

actual atmospheric phenomena. 

45 
Also in relation to the ozone layer as well as the 

greenhouse effect, NIST had several projects ongoing in 

FY 1992. One used molecular spectroscopy to provide 

the data for monitoring molecular species present in trace 

amounts in the Earth’s atmosphere. NIST and NOAA 

were collaborating on measurements of concentrations 

of hydroxyl, water, ozone, chlorine, oxygen, and some 

nitrogen-oxygen compounds. Scientists were compiling 

data from these and other measurements into database 

tables that will enable atmospheric modelers to predict 

equilibrium conditions for the atmosphere and its chlorine pollutants. 

In a separate, NASA-sponsored project on isotopic 

characterization and modeling of trace gases and particles in the atmosphere, NIST scientists were employing 

the institute’s unique capabilities for tracing atmospheric 

carbon by state-of-the-art isotopic measurements. They 

sought to identify regional and global sources of important ”greenhouse” gases-carbon monoxide, ozone, carbon and sulfur aerosols, and others that affected the 

quality of the atmosphere and the climate. The project 

included a world-wide database of isotopes in the atmosphere; it aimed at a comprehensive review article of 

isotopic data, measurements, and applications. 

NIST also coinpleted experimental determinations 

of rate constants and tropospheric lifetimes for the reactions of the hydroxyl radical with a series of fluorinated 

ethers under consideration as a1 tema tives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Results indicated that several of the 

proposed fluorinated ethers had tropospheric lifetimes 

permitting them to be viable CFC replacements. NIST 

researchers completed similar measurements for reactions involving compounds proposed as a1 ternatives to 

the halon fire suppressants. 

Further aiding environmental efforts, NASA and 

the US. Geological Survey cooperated with the United 

Nations to establish the United Nations Environment 

Program (UNEP) Global Resource Information Database at the U.S. Geological Survey’s EROS Data Center. 

It served to expedite the collection, compilation, and 

international distribution of global data sets to support 

global environmental investigations. 

Also relevant to environmental as well as atmospheric concerns were the NOAA-9, NOAA-10, NOAA11, and NOAA-12 satellites, which continued to provide 

polar-orbiting services. NOAA-9, launched in December 

1984, operated in a standby mode, providing ozone data 

from its Solar Background Ultra-Violet instrument. 

Launched in September 1986, NOAA-10 was also operating in a standby mode and providing limited Earth 

RadiationBudget Experiment data. NOAA-11, launched 

in September 1988, provided the primary afternoon meteorological satellitecoverage, while NO A A-1 2, launched 

in May 1991, provided comparable morning coverage. 

Using observations from these satellites, NOAA scientists assembled a data set of total ozone amounts for the 

period 1979-92. Infrared sounders on the various satellites operating in this period were the sources of these 

data. NOAA scientists were in the process of analyzing 

the data set for the time histories of globally-distributed 

total ozone amountsand of theannual depletionof ozone 

over Antarctica. Scientists will eventually combine these 

data with information derived from thesolar Backscatter 

Ultraviolet instruments that have been flying on NOAA 

satellites since 1985. The result will be a consistent and 

credible ozone time series usable in climate and global 

change studies. 

A major step in understanding the oceans came on 

August 10,1992, when the U.S. and France successfully 

launched the joint Ocean Topography Experiment, 

TOPEX/POSEIDON, aboard an Ariane 42P expendable 

launch vehicle from the European Space Center in Kourou, 

French Guiana. This was the third mission to fly as part 

of NASA‘s Mission to Planet Earth-UARS and ATLAS-1 

being the first two. The most advanced scientific oceanobservation satellite to date, TOPEX/POSEIDON uses 

radar altimetry to measure sea surface height over 90 

percent of the world’s ice-free oceans. In combination 

with very precise determination of the spacecraft’s orbit, 

the altimetry data will yield global maps of the oceans’ 

topography with accuracies to within 3 centimeters (1.2 

inches). From this data, scientists will be able to determine the speeds and directions of ocean currents worldwide, thereby gleaning greater understanding of the 

Earth’s climate. The data from this mission, in concert 

with ship and aircraft research, will produce complex 

computer models of global climate. TOPEXI 

POSEIDON’S measurements will be supplemented by 

data fromother spacecraft, such as the European Remote 

Sensing Satellite (launched in 1991), the Japanese Advanced EarthObservingSatellite(tobe1aunched in 1996), 

and the Earth Observing System (EOSI platforms (to be 

launched beginning in 1998,constituting thesecond phase 

of Mission to Planet Earth). 

Efforts to understand the Earth as a system moved 

forward as NASA restructured the EOS program in early 

FY 1992 to adapt to potential funding constraints and to 

take advantage of new launch opportunities. EOS spacecraft are designed to provide insight into how the Earth’s 

atmosphere, land, ocean, and life interact by having a 

variety of different instruments make simultaneous measurements of the planet. As a result of the restructuring, 

EOS instruments will now fly on a number of small and 

intermediate spacecraft, rather than on larger platforms. 

NASA reduced overall EOS development costs through 

FY 2000 from $17 billion to $11 billion, primarily by 

focusing the mission on global climate change, altering 

the development schedule, and dropping a few of the 

46 
planned instruments. In mid-1992 NASA further rescoped 

EOS in order to reduce its budget through FY 2000 from 

$1 1 to $8billion. Thisoccurred without significant changes 

to the scientific complement by moving to a common 

spacecraft approach, adopting a cost-driven approach to 

instrument development, reducing the number of data 

products required before launch, deleting one instrument, and relying more on other agency and international partners to meet some scientific requirements. 

Relatcdly, development continued on NASA's EOS 

DataandInformation System (EOSDIS),a stateof theart 

data and analysis system that will offer unprecedented 

research access to data from EOS and other NASA Earth 

science missions and will tie into the larger effort to make 

all Federal global change data more readily available to 

scientists and the general public. 

Inaddition toall of theabove,NOAA kept notonly 

the NOAA series of weather satellites in constant Sunsynchronous polar orbits but also (normally) two Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) 

in geostationary orbit. However, a launch failure in May 

1986 destroyed a GOES spacecraft, preventing rcplacement of a worn GOES satellite that failed in 1989 after 

many years of service. From 1989 through 1991, GOES7 covered both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans from 108 

degrees west longitude in winter and moved in summer 

and early fall to 98 degrees west longitude to observe the 

formation of Atlantic hurricanes. Beginning in January 

1992, pursuant to a contract signed with ESA and the 

European Meteorological Satellite Program (EUMESAT), 

the Meteosat-3 has been positioned at 50 degrees west 

longitude tc. assist in providing Atlantic coverage and 

permit GOES-7 to remain positioned further west at 112 

degrees. 

NOAA's new series of five satellites, designated 

GOES-I through -M, was under development through a 

contract withSpaccSystcms/Loral, which had purchased 

Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation, the 

original contractor. Work on the first two spacecraft of 

the series included instrument fabrication and testing by 

the Aerospace/Communica tions Division of Interna tional 

Telephone and Telegraph. This program has experienced significant technical problems, schedule delays, 

and cost increases. A concerted effort by Space Systems/ 

Loral, including augmented support by NASA, NOAA, 

and the Lincoln Laboratories of the Massachusetts Instituteof Technology, has resulted in significant progress in 

finding and solving these problems. Still, launch of the 

first spacecraft (GOES-I) was not expected before early 

1994. GOES-7wasexpected tocontinuein service through 

1993. To preclude possible loss of coverage for severe 

storms, NOAA was working on an agreement with ESA 

and EUMESAT for additional backup support beyond 

Meteosat-3 if the need arose. 

A related NOAA program was GOES-Tap, which 

enabled users to acquire high-quality satellite imagery 

over telephone data circuits. At the end of the fiscal year, 

there were approximately 180 primary and over 150 

secondary users of the data-notably the field forecast 

offices of the National Weather Service (NWS), but also 

the FAA and other civilian agencies (both state and 

federal), the DoD, private companies, universities, and 

the media. GOES-Tap consisted of visible, infrared, and 

enhanced infrared facsimile images from the GOES and 

NOAA satellites, plus the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP-see below), the Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite, and the European 

Meteosat satellites. To improve the operational utility of 

Meteosat-3 data, beginning in February 1992, NOAA 

added U.S. state grids and international boundaries to it. 

During 1992, scientists within NOAA were in the 

process of combining satellite-derived information with 

climatic data observed from the surface of the Earth to 

better understand the influence of urbanization on longterm temperature records. Visible and near-infrared 

reflectance observed by NOAA's Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), an instrument 

onboard the NOAA polar-orbiting series of satellites, 

wasprovidingthedataforcomputationof anindexofthe 

presence of grccn Vegetation within and around selected 

cities within the United States. Scientists computed the 

linear relationships between the differences among the 

values of the AVHRR-derived vegetation index forurban 

and rural regions and the differences in observed urban 

and rural minimum temperatures. The results may 

provide a globally consistent method for climatic analysis of urban areas. 

Meanwhile, the operational Global Vegetation 

Index (GVI) produced by NOAA has provided a once-aweek view of the Earth's vegetation since May 1982. 

Derived from daily data acquired by the AVHRR, GVI 

had some limitations. Research efforts continued in the 

effort to improve the quality and use of the normalized 

difference Vegetation index (NDVI) data in general circulation modelsand asdirect indicatorsof year-to-year and 

regional variations in climatic conditions. Research was 

underway to increase the stability of long-term time 

series from the GVI to improve its usefulness asa climatic 

indicator. 

In a different area of atmospheric studies, since 

1974 NOAA has been providing nearly continuous coverage of the outgoing, longwave radiation (OLR) flux 

and the planetary albedo from sensors on the polarorbiting satellites. While current OLR data derived from 

a single channel on the AVHRR in the thermal infrared 

portion of the spectrum, NOAA has developed an OLR 

product derived from four channels on the High-Resolution Infrared Sounder instrument. Beginning in May 

47 
1988, NOAA has computed the planetary albedo from a 

scene-independent, linear combination of two channels 

on the AVHRRand corrected for theangular dependence 

of the reflected radiation. NOAA will begin using new, 

scene-dependent algori thms in the very near future, since 

research has shown that they yield more accurate results. 

The OLR and the albedo have been extremely uscful in 

monitoring theclimaticeffectsof the burning Kuwaiti oil 

in the Persian Gulf region. Large decreases in the cloudless albedo showed up over normally bright desert sand 

as earlyas the day after the fires began. Gradually, as fire 

fighters extinguished the blazes, the albedo returned to 

more normal values. A comparison of the albedos for 

1989,1990, and 1991 showed that the values of the albedos for 1989 and 1990 were slightly higher than that for 

1991. 

National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service (NESDIS) scientists were intimately involved in the STORM-Fronts Experiment Systems Test 

(STORM-FEST) that took place over the central United 

States during the winter of 1991-92. Prior to the experiment, NESDIS developed an improved multi-spectral 

imaging schedule for GOES-7 to support the field experiment. Next, the Service provided training that focused 

on uses of the improved multi-spectral satellite data for 

winter storm forecasting to the STORM-FEST major forecast centers. A special system for satellite data analysis 

was located in the mobile operational control center of 

the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) 

during the experiment, with scientists from NESDIS and 

twoof itscooperativeinstitutes,CooperativeInstitutefor 

Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA) and Cooperative 

Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, providing on-site expertise in satellite analysis. 

With specific reference to Tropical Cyclone Research, Researchers at CIRA were using large obscrvational data sets to study tropical cyclones in all regions of 

the world. Extensive analyses of satellite, aircraft, and 

conventional weather data for a large number of individual cases was underway at the end of the year. Primary research topics were the genesis, intensity, and 

motion of tropical cyclones. A new, two-stage conceptual model of tropical cyclone formation was one of the 

main findings of research focusing on tropical cyclogenesisin the western North Pacific. Those results appeared 

in a NOAA NESDIS technical report. CIRA provided 

software designed to aid in the prediction of tropical 

cyclone genesis to the National Hurricane Center and 

other users for their testing during the 1992 hurricane 

season. Refinements and improvements to objective 

techniques for diagnosis and predicting of hurricane 

intensity using infrared satellite analysis techniques have 

also been made available to operational tropical cyclone 

forecast centers. NESDIS scientists also used real-time 

GOES images to study a number of anomalous tropical 

events and devastating hurricanes during 1992. They 

monitored Hurricanes Andrew and Iniki and were using 

an extensive data set for retrospective analysis. 

Also in the area of Severe Storm Research,NESDIS 

researchers were working with satellite data and interactive computer systems to improve forecasts of tornadoes 

and other types of severe weather produced by thunderstorms. CIRA developed software that allowed a user to 

analyze animated satellite imagery of a cloud or storm. 

Called a ”cloud relative mode,” this kind of software was 

very useful for severe storm diagnostics, for mesoscale 

wind-field determination, and for observing interactions 

between storms and their environments. CIRA sent the 

software to the National Severe Storm Forecast Center 

and other users for testing. 

In April 1992, NOAA implemented a major improvement in the temperature and humidity product for 

theTelevision and Infrared Operational Satellite (TIROS) 

Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) on the polar-orbiting spacecraft. This marked the single greatest improvement in the accuracy of data from these satellites in their 

13 years of operation. 

A further development in the area of atmospheric 

science and oceanography was the signing of a memorandum of understanding on March 24, 1992, between 

NOAA and ESA allowing for U.S. operational access to 

low-bit-rate, fast-delivery data from ESA’s Remote Sensing satellite, ERS-I, in connection with NOAA’s calibration and validation support for the ERS-1 mission. ERS 

1, launched as Europe’s first Earth observation satellite 

on July 17, 1991, carries sensors that provide data on 

surface conditions of the global oceans and the land, sea 

ice, and the atmosphere-data that will be useful in the 

research and monitoring of global change. ERS-1 was 

providing the only observations that are expected to play 

acrucial rolein international scientificcooperationon the 

NSF-led World Ocean Circulation Experiment and the 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study, both of which wereongoing during FY 1992. In connection with a charge from the 

interagency Committeeon Earthand Environmental Sciences (CEES) to obtain data from ERS-1 for U.S. Government operational purposes, NOAA succeeded in obtaining ESA agreement to share use of this data among other 

U.S. Government agencies and their contractors for research into global change. 

Somewhat relatedly, the U.S. Geological Survey 

continued to organize, produce, and distribute landrelated data sets to support the global change research 

community. Scientists used this data to quantify land 

surface parameters for modeling land/atmosphere interactions and ecosystem function. The Survey also 

continued developing prototype Earth science data sets 

required for land process studies. 

48 
Remote sensing of the oceans by satellite continued to play an important role in National Marine Fisheries research. Satellite observations provide the synoptic information needed for studying the effects of the 

ocean environment on the abundance and distribution of 

fish populations. As but one example among many that 

could be mentioned, by the end of the fiscal year the 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center’s scientists had developed and deployed 14 fully operational satellite tracking 

systems that monitored movements of several hundred 

radio-tagged adult salmon returning in 1992 to a remote 

transboundary river system flowing through Canada 

and Alaska. The information, relayed by satellite, on 

migration timing and the distribution of stocks permitted 

U.S. and Canadian scientists to design joint management 

strategies required by the Pacific Salmon Treaty. 

In a very different kind of application for satellite 

technology, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program provided timely, high quality, worldwide, visible 

and infrared cloud imagery and other specialized environmental data to support the DoD’s strategic missions. 

The system also provided real-time, direct-readout data 

on the local environmental conditions in particular areas 

to ground- and ship-based users world wide. To meet the 

ongoing needs of these users, the first of the improved 

Block 5D-2 satellites launched on an Atlas E on November 28, 1991, from Vandenberg AFB, CA. This satellite 

achieved a near-perfect orbit and began operations 11 

days ahead of schedule in December 1991. The sensor 

complement on this satellite includes the first water 

vapor profiler placed in orbit. This sensor provides 

information on the vertical humidity profile and water 

vapor content on a global basis. Calibration and validation of the sensor and the associated processing software 

has proceeded throughout 1992. The initial results show 

favorable comparison of the satellite moisture profiles 

with the atmospheric profile from worldwide balloonborne instruments. 

To meet the pressing needs of a deployable versus 

deployed force, progress continued on the upgrade to 

tactical terminal capabilities. The upgrade from 1970s to 

early 1990s technology, the MarkIVB, successfully completed operational testing in May 1992. This led, in June 

1992, to a production decision for the first six terminals. 

This system will significantly increase the capability of 

the theater-level user to capture data from DMSP as well 

as civilian satellite systems. Fixed and transportable 

configurations, with first delivery in 1994, will give the 

weather forecaster first-ever access to all the mission 

sensor data from DMSP that is critical to determining the 

state of the atmosphere, the ocean, and the land surface. 

This information is vital to determining environmental 

effects on sophisticated weapon systems and in assessing 

the direction and intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes. An additional effort-to reduce the ground receiver terminals to a size that a single person can carrywas underway at the end of the year, with an initial 

contractor effort scheduled to begin in January 1993. This 

system, the Small Tactical Terminal, will gather lowresolution data from DMSP and civilian satellites in a 

package needed by highly mobile combat forces. 

The DMSP program was also instrumental, in cooperation with several civilian agencies, in establishing 

the first complete, digital archive of weather data. These 

data will be available to DoD, Government, civilianagencies, and universities to enhance environmental research 

activities related to such issues as global changes in the 

climate. 

In a related area, the GeodetidGeophysical Follow-on (GFO) satellite program, the Navy awarded a 

contract that will lead to the launch of an operational 

radar altimeter satellite in support of tactical oceanography. The contract provides for the first satellite to be 

launched in late 1995, with up to two additional satellites 

as needed to provide the Navy an operational capability 

until a radar altimeter can be placed aboard the DMSP 

satellites. GFO will provide timely, worldwide, and 

extremely accurate measurements of ocean topography 

via direct read out to ships at sea and selected shore sites. 

GFO will also store data on-board and provide full orbital 

coverage to the Naval Oceanography Command’s primary numerical forecasting centers. The direct-read-out 

data will enhance on-scene tactical support, with forecasting centers using the stored data to improve the 

performance of ocean circulation models. 

49 
Other Aeronautical and 

Discussions Concerning Arms 

Control of Space Related 

Weaponry 

As of the beginning of FY 1992, the United States 

had been engaged for many years in bilateral negotiations with the Soviet Union in the Nuclear and Space 

Talks. As part of those talks, the U.S. side proposed 

building a more stable strategic regime by introducing 

defenses against strategic ballistic missiles, although the 

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union in 

1972, as modified in 1974, had limited antiballistic missiles toone siteineachcountry. During 1989-91,Communist rule in Eastern Europe ended, the Soviet Union 

dissolved, and the Cold War ended. As a result, we are 

now discussing with Russia the concept of a Global 

Protection Systemagainst limi ted ballistic missile strikes. 

Key steps in this evolutionary process began when 

U.S. President George Bush refocused the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program in January 1991 toward 

protection against limited ballistic missile strikes, whatever their source. This change reflected not only an 

improving relationship with theSoviet Union but also an 

acknowledgement that thenatureof the threat waschanging due to the proliferation of ballistic missiles around 

the world. In January 1992, President Boris Yeltsin of 

Russia called for a global system for protection of the 

world community that could be based on a reorientation 

of the U.S. SDI to make use of, in his words, "high 

technology developed in Russia's defense complex." In 

February 1992, U.S. Secretary of State James A. Baker told 

President Yeltsin in Moscow that the United States welcomed his proposal for a global ballistic missile defense 

system. 

This new U.S.-Russian cooperative approach has 

unfolded further in a seriesof meetingsin 1992. In a Joint 

Statement issued by Presidents Bush and Yeltsin on June 

17, 1992, at their Washington Summit meeting, they 

stated that they had continued their discussion of the 

potential benefits of a Global Protection System against 

ballistic missiles, agreeing that it was important to explore the role for defenses in protecting against limited 

ballistic missile attacks. The two Presidents agreed that 

their nations should work together with allies and other 

interested states in developing a concept for such a 

system as part of an overall strategy regarding the proliferationof ballisticmissilcsand weaponsof massdestruction. To this end, they agreed to establish a high-level 

group to explore on a priority basis: (1) the potential for 

sharing of early warning information through the establishment of an early warning center; (2) the potential for 

cooperation with participating states in developing balSpace Activities 

listic missile defense capabilities and technologies; and 

(3) the development of a legal basis for cooperation, 

including new treaties and agreements and possible 

changes to existing treaties and agreements necessary to 

implement a Global Protection System. 

US. and Russian delegations met in Moscow on 

July 13-14, 1992, during which they established three 

working groups. The Russians were aware of the U.S. 

view that changes in the security environment, including 

the break-up of the Soviet Union and the proliferation of 

ballistic missiles, require us to update the Anti-Ballistic 

Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972. Further meetings of the 

delegations took place on September 21-22 in Washington. The two nations agreed to work together to meet the 

security challenges of the future as partners and friends. 

In the face of dangers from weapons of mass destruction, 

they discussed potential benefits of a Global Protection 

System. These discussions were continued, with separate working groups meeting in October 1992. In addition to these discussions with Russia, the United States 

has been meeting with allies and other nations who 

might benefit from the security provided by such a 

protective system. 

In FY 1992, the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) participated in multilateral discussions on outer space arms control at the Conference 

on Disarmament and at the United Nations First Committee. Though these discussions were informative in 

providing a venue for the participation of non-space 

powers, neither the United States nor any other party has 

been able to identify any outer-space arms control issues 

appropriate for multilateral negotiations. The United 

States again supported at the Conference on Disarmament the formation of an appropriate, non-negotiating, 

ad hoc committee to consider issues relevant to space 

arms control. While discussions enhanced understanding, issuesappropriate for multilateral negotiations were 

not, in the U.S. view, identified. 

The First Committee of the United Nations General Assembly met from October through November 

1991 and considered one draft resolution on outer space. 

The United States abstained on this measure primarily 

because it called for negotiations at the Conference on 

Disarmament on measures to "prevent an arms race in 

outer space." As a result of a United Nations resolution 

adopted in 1990, the Secretary General directed a study 

on confidence-building measures in outer space. He 

expected to report its results at the 47th session in 1992. 

While the United States abstained on that resolution 

because of the financial implications, it was participating 

in the study. 

Relatedly, the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), an informal group of like-minded countries,organized itself in April 1987 tocontrol missilesand 

51 
technology that could contribute to unmanned systems 

capable of delivering nuclear weapons. Since space 

launchvehicle(SLV) technology isessentially identical to 

that used in missiles, SLV technology was subject to the 

same controls as was missile technology. The war with 

Iraq in 1991 made clear to the entire world that the time 

had come to increase the effectiveness of controls on 

missiles capable of delivering chemical and biological 

weapons. Accordingly, the MTCR partners, at their June 

1992 Plenary in Oslo, broadened the scope of MTCR to 

cover "all weapons of mass destruction"-i.e., chemical 

and biological as well as nuclear weapons. Since chemical and biological weapons can be packaged in lighter 

warheads than nuclear weapons, MTCR controls will be 

applied to smaller, lighter missiles and SLVs. In effect, all 

exports of missiles and SLVs, regardless of payload, will 

need to be controlled under the revised guidelines. 

Following the March 1992 White House 

announcement of a new, more open and cooperative 

space relationship between the United States and the 

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS-the 

organization formed by 9 of the former 11 Sovict 

Republics), contacts between the U.S. Government and 

its private sector, on theone hand, and their counterparts 

in the CIS, particularly Russia, on the other, increased 

rapidly. One of the priority U.S. objectives in this regard 

hasbeen to find commercial employment for CIS weapons 

scientists and engineers. The United States has taken the 

lead in establishing science and technology centers in 

Moscowand Kiev that will perform this function. Because 

of the concentration of missile and SLV activities in the 

Ukraine, the Kiev center will focus on finding alternative 

employment for missile scientists. The U.S.-Russian 

space relationship will also be affected by considerations 

of missile nonproliferation. TheRussian firmGlavkosmos 

has contracted to supply the Indian Space Research 

Organization with cryogenic rocket technology for use in 

the Indian SLV program, which is closely tied to the 

Indian missile program. The United States and other 

MTCR partners consider this transaction a violation of 

MTCRstandards. Consequently, the United States,acting 

in accordance with US. law, imposed trade and contract 

sanctions on both Glavkosmos and the Indian Space 

Research Organization. 

Cooperation with the Former 

Soviet U n ion 

On a much more positive note, the Presidents 

of the United States and Russia signed a new agreement 

on space cooperation at the June 1992 Washington Summit (see Appendix F-4). The Department of State (DOS) 

coordinated the preparationand negotiation of theagreement, which put space cooperation on a new footing, 

providing the foundation for expanded opportunities in 

scientific exploration and the commercial application of 

space technology. Theagreement providesa broad framework for the US. and Russia to pursue new projects in a 

full range of fields, such as space science, space exploration, space applications, and the use of space technology. 

An important part of the agreement involves annual 

subcabinet consultations led on the U.S. side by the 

Under Secretary of State for International Security Affairs and on the Russian side by the Deputy Foreign 

Minister. This will provide a new mechanism for high 

level Government review of the bilateral civil space relationship between the two countries. 

At the Summit, the two sides also agreed to flights 

of a Russian cosmonaut or cosmonauts aboard a space 

shuttle mission in 1993 and a U.S. astronaut or astronauts 

aboard the Russian Mir space station in 1994, plus a 

rendezvous and docking mission between Mir and the 

space shuttle in 1995. The two Governments would 

pursue detailed technical studies of the possible use of 

space technology. NASA awarded a contract to the 

Russian firm NPO Energiya to examine the use of the 

Russian Soyuz-Tm spacecraft as an interim crew rescue 

vehicle for Space Station Freedom. Other important 

areas to be studied are the suitability of the Russiandeveloped Automated Rendezvous and Docking System 

in support of NASA spaceflight activities, the use of Mir 

for long-lead-time medical experiments, and other applications by NASA of Russian hardware. For NASA, the 

Office of Space Flight (Russian Affairs) assumed the 

responsibility for managing the NASA portion of the 

Cooperative Human Space Flight Programs with the 

Russian Space Agency for the missions mentioned above. 

Following the Summit, the NASA Administrator and the 

National Space Council Executive Secretary led a team of 

U.S. space experts to Russia in July. They made significant progress in developing a plan to carry out the 

projects outlined above. 

Later that month, the Department of Commerce 

conducted a space technology assessment to Russia. The 

purpose of the trip was to allow technical representatives 

of U.S. industry to gain first-hand knowledge of the 

capabilities of the Russian space industry. The Office of 

Space Commerce led the mission, which included representatives of the DoD, DOT, DOE, NASA, and 17 U.S. 

companies. In cooperation with theRussianspace Agency 

and the Russian Ministry of Industry, the mission visited 

25 aeronautical and space-related facilities around Moscow and St. Petersburg. 

52 
Other Foreign Policy Issues 

In other negotiations during 1992, the U.N.‘s Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 

and its subcommittees-with the DOS, supported by 

NASA, DoD, DOC, and DOE, responsible for U.S. participation-pursued an ambitious program of activities commemorating the U.S.-proposed International Space Year 

(ISY). Also, after many years of negotiation, COPUOS 

and its Legal Subcommittee concluded work on a set of 

non-binding principles on the use of nuclear power 

sources in space and recommended that they be adopted 

by consensus at the 1992 session of the General Assembly. The principles deal with the public availability of 

safety assessments for each launch of a nuclear power 

source into space, each member state’s responsibility in 

the event of an unplanned re-entry, notification and the 

provision of assistance in the event of an accident, and 

compensation for damage caused by such a nuclear 

power source. Although non-binding, these principles 

represent an important international statement on how 

sources of nuclear power can be used safely for the 

exploration of outer space. 

During FY 1992, the Space Shuttle task force 

activated to support the seven missions described 

above. It provided direct links to U.S. embassies in 

countries where emergency landing facilities were 

located. DOS in coordination with NASA provided 

all posts with general procedures to be followed in 

the unlikely event the Shuttle had to abort a mission 

and make an emergency landing outside the continental United States. The Department ensured local country plans were developed, exercises conducted, and all other necessary planning was up to 

date in the event of such an emergency. It also 

participated in a first-ever coordinated NASA, U.S. 

Space Command, and State Department exercise to 

evaluate Space Shuttle Emergency Support Operations (Apollo Griffin). 

Meanwhile, in November the Secretaries of State 

and Commerce jointly sent a letter to the FCC informing 

it of an Executive Branch policy to expand competition in 

International Satellite Services. Private, nonINTELSAT international satellite networks (often 

called ”separate systems”) would be allowed significant new opportunities to route their customers’ communications over the public-switched (telephone and telex) 

networks. The Executive Branch also stated its desire to 

have unfettered international satellite cornpetition before 1997. This policy change focused on Competition 

with INTELSATin the provisionof fixed satelliteservices 

(to stationary Earth stations) as opposed to competition 

in mobile satellite services (to mobile terminals). 

In 1992, the second private U.S. fixed-satellite system, Columbia Communications, began operation using 

spare capacity on two NASA Tracking and Data Relay 

satellites. Columbia began providing both transatlantic 

and transpacific service. The American operator of the 

first private intercontinental system, Pan American Satellite, continued to expand itsoperationsand make plans 

to augment its system. Its first satellite had been in 

continuousorbit since1988as theyearended. Often with 

help from various executive branch agencies, both of 

these companies have succeeded in gaining authority 

from several additional countries to provide service within 

their borders. International users of satellite services 

have already realized benefits of new services and lower 

prices. 

In recognition of the inevitability of competition 

(particularly from undersea fiber-optic cables) and the 

waste involved in treaty-mandated, pro forma reviews of 

traffic projections supplied by satellite competitors, this 

year INTELSAT completed its second major review of 

Article XIV(d) of the INTELSAT agreement. This required that INTELSAT member countries intending to 

use “space segment facilities separate from INTELSAT” 

had first to ”consult” with the Assembly of Parties, a 

meeting of all 124 member countries. The convening of 

such a meeting to review what were, at best, rough 

projections of a single market player, was both a waste of 

time and resources for INTELSAT and an unfair burden 

on potential competitors. Led by the State Department, 

the Commerce Department, the FCC, and the U.S. signatory to INTELSAT (the CommunicationsSatellite Corporation) together were instrumental in convincing 

INTELSAT’s Board of Governors to recommend to the 

Assembly of Parties that thisanachronism of anage when 

satellite technology wasunprovenbe significantlystreamlined with a view towards its total elimination. The 

Assembly was scheduled to meet in November 1992 to 

consider these recommendations. 

Meanwhile, the dramatic retrieval and reboost of 

the INTELSAT VI (F-3) already described was a vivid 

capstone of successful cooperation between several U.S. 

agencies, private companies, and INTELSAT. NASA, 

INTELSAT, and Hughes Aircraft (the satellite’s manufacturer and supplier of the reboost motor) shared the 

bulk of the credit for this history-making mission that 

captivated the world. Other agencies played roles as 

well. The State Department frequently served as an 

interface between INTELSAT and other mission participants as preparations proceeded. 

Pursuant to recommendations from the 8th 

INMARSAT Assembly of Parties in September 1991, 

INMARSAT Parties and Signatories created an 

Intcrsessional Working Group to consider the future 

shape of the international organization. The Group 

53 
began work in November 1991, meeting in conjunction 

with each Council meeting. It will offer a report to the 9th 

Assembly of Parties in October 1993. In its two meetings 

during FY 1992, the Working Group focused on the 

INMARSATConvention's Article 8 "notification" procedure, which required competing satellite systems to 

present their proposed maritime services to INMARSAT 

for review before beginning service. In July 1992, the 

Group decided to recommend to the 9th Assembly that it 

makean "apriori" determination thatcompeting systems 

would not cause significant economic harm to the 

INMARSATsystem. Such a determination would shorten 

and simplify considerably the INMARSAT notification 

process. 

As an adjunct to the Intersessional Working Group 

(IWG), the INMARSATCouncil created a Council Working Group (CWG) to report to the IWG on the commercial, operational, and organizational arrangements of 

INMARSAT. The CWG examined a variety of issuesincluding questions of financing, governance, and access 

to theINMARSATspace segment-and compiled itsviews 

into a final report. The IWG received this report in July 

1992 and planned to use it as a primary input document 

for IWG deliberations in late 1992 and 1993. 

Operating under the rules established by the 8th 

Assembly, the INMARSAT Council decided to delega te 

to the Director General its authority to determine if 

"notified" separate systems will cause technical interference with the INMARSAT system. In separate decisions, 

the Council made non-binding recommendations to the 

Assembly offering no objection to maritime services to be 

provided by American, Japanese, Norwegian, and common European satellites. 

The INMARSAT Directorate and Signatories bcgan consideration of the economic viability of and technical options for a proposed global handheld telecommunications system called Project 21, a family of personal mobile satellite communications services, including INMARSAT?. Participants held an annual meeting 

in January 1992, with a project review meeting scheduled 

for October 1992. The Directorate anticipated that the 

Council 44 meeting in November 1992 would be able to 

begin a formal review of all technical and economic 

factors bearing on a future decision about Project 21. 

Meanwhile, the INMARSAT Council was unable 

to reach a consensus on a policy regarding lease of 

unused space segment. Council members split between 

a view that this space segment wasan untapped resource 

capable of generating profit and a fear that leasing it 

would encourage the growth of competitors to 

INMARSAT. The U.S. signatory favored a policy permittingleases both asa meansof maximizingrevenue and as 

a way to retain customers who might otherwise switch to 

a competing system. Council 44 will reconsider the issue 

in November. 

With the breakup of the former Soviet Union, the 

Russian Federation assumed the INMARSAT Council 

seat formerly held by the USSR. Belarusand the Ukraine 

stated their intention to remain Parties. As the year 

ended, the three nations were examining how to apportion the USSR's investment share in INMARSAT. Meanwhile, Cyprus joined INMARSAT in June 1992, becoming the 65th member state. Also, in March 1992, Australia, India, and Korea administratively joined their investment shares to create a share percentage meriting group 

representation on the INMARSAT Council. 

Finally, in July 1992, the INMARSAT Council approved provision of INMARSAT C data/message service to aeronautical users. Aero-C will not provide 

distress call service as does standard INMARSAT C to 

maritime users, because Aero-C was not designed for 

safety and regularity of flight service. 

A further area where foreign relations and space 

intertwined was in the continuing effort to understand 

and protect against orbital debris. Based on their Orbital 

Debris Coordinating Meetings held biannually since 

1989, NASA and ESA continued to pursue a strong 

cooperative effort on the subject. On August 17, 1992, 

NASA and ESA finalized a letter agreement documenting the common interest shared by the two agencies in 

continuing their joint efforts in the area of space debris. 

NASA has also signed letter agreements with the French 

and German space agencies and has held regular coordination meetings on the subject with Japanese, Russian, 

and Chinese officials. As a result, subsequent to a NASA 

presentation on the explosion of a Long March upper 

stage, the Chinese have modified their vehicles to prevent such future explosions. On the multilateral front, 

NASA participated in a working group of the International Consultative Committee for Radio, which recommended in May 1992 that a "graveyard" orbit be established at least 300 kilometers above geosynchronous 

Earth orbit for the purposeof disposingof satellitesat the 

ends of their operational lives. The full committee will be 

considering the adoption of this recommendation. 

In still Another Area of International Relations, 

the U.S. Trade Representative led negotiations with ESA 

and the European Community to establish "rules of the 

road" for international commercial space launch services. Efforts focused on defining types of Government 

supports and subsidies to prevent unfair competition. 

There were also consultations with the People's Republic 

of China in Washington and Beijing on the U.S.-PRC 

Launch Services Agreement. ThisallowsChina tolaunch 

54 
up to nine western satellites over six years subject to 

certain conditions. The U.S. and Chinese Governments 

discussed pricing and other business practices. The 

Agreement isdue to expire in 1994. Finally, as part of the 

June Summit, the President announced a one-time exception to the U.S. policy of barring Western-made satellites 

from being launched on Soviet-derived boosters. The 

exception was designed to allow Russia to compete for 

the launch of one satellite from the INMARSAT organization. In conjunction with this exception, the United 

States and Russia entered into discussions on commercial launch services and held meetings in Washington 

and Moscow. These discussions were aimed at allowing 

some Russian participation in international launch competitions while avoiding harmful disruptions by nonmarket practices. 

In tern ation al Conferences 

FY 1992 featured several important international 

meetings and conferences, including notably the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC 921, which inet from 

February 3 to March 3,1992, at Torremolinos, Spain. The 

conference was attended by more than 1,400 delegates 

from 127 of the ITU’s 166 member nations plus obscrvers 

from 32 international and regional organizations. Its 

purpose was to establish and revise rules and regulations 

governing spectrum-rela ted telecommunica tions services 

worldwide. NASA spoke on behalf of the United States 

on issues related to frequencies above 3 gigahertz; it held 

several preparatory meetings and participated in the 

conference itself, as did the FCC and the National Telecommunicationsand Information Administration (NTIA) 

as well as other Government agencies. The changes 

decided at WARC 92 were numerous and complex. The 

conferees reached agreements on most issues as a result 

of compromises following extensive negotiations. The 

United States was able to secure worldwide frequency 

allocations that will enablelow Earthorbiting satellites to 

be employed in providing global telecommunication 

services including paging, data transfer, and voice services. WARC allocated new frequencies that may be 

used by Space Station Freedom, the space shuttle, astronauts engaged in extravehicular activities, TDRS 11, and 

the Space Exploration Initiative. It also approved NASA 

proposals to improve the status of the most used frequency bands, near 2 gigahertz; upgraded the status of 

several allocations used to communica te with deep space 

probes; extended frequency bands used for shortwave 

broadcasting; made several primary and secondary allocations for the Mobile Satellite Service, some worldwide 

and some regional, in frequencies between 1 and 3 gigahertz; and provided frequency allocation for broadcasting satellite services for direct audio broadcasting from 

space and transmission of high-definition television signals by satellite. The U.S. space service proposals to 

WARC met with considerable success, due primarily to 

years of detailed preparations and coordination within 

the Space Frequency Coordination Group. 

In late August 1992, Washington D.C. was the site 

of international meetings marking the International Space 

Year. The Space Agency Forum of the International 

Space Year, which brought together representatives of 

spaceagenciesand associated organizations from around 

the world to develop ISY projects in Earth science, space 

science and education, held its fifth and final annual 

meeting. The SAFISY members decided to establish the 

Space Agency Forum to promote continued international 

space cooperation. Immediately after the SAFISY meeting, the World Space Congress brought over 5,000 participants to the city for extensive exchanges of technical, 

scientific, and policy information on space. The Congress, a joint meeting of the International Astronautical 

Federation and the Committee on Space Research, was 

organized by the American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, with financial sponsorship from NASA. 

Regulation of Commercial Space 

Industries 

In December 1991 the FCC approved the first commercial use of the C-band satellites leased by Columbia 

from NASA on the TDRSS satellites located at 41 degrees 

West Longitude and 174 degrees West Longitude. The 

Commission has also authorized three companies to 

experiment with small, low Earth orbiting satellites for 

communications purposes. Volunteers in Technical Assistance has been so authorized since November 1990. 

Orbital SciencesCorporation modified itsexistingauthorization in March 1992 to comply with the newly allocated WARC 1992 frequency bands for small, low Earth 

orbiting satellites. The FCCalsogranted anexperimental 

licenseon April 3,1992, toStarsysGlobalPositioning,Inc. 

to conduct simulation experiments using a balloon with 

a transponder. 

On July 20, 1992, the FCC authorized Afrispace, 

Inc. an experimental license for the construction, launch, 

and operation of a geostationary satellite that will provide Broadcasting Satellite Sound services to Africa and 

the Middle East. The satellite will operate in the newly 

allocated Broadcasting Satellite band 1467-1492 megahertz. It will belocatedat 12degreesWest Longitudeand 

will provide informational, health, educational, scientific, and cultural programming to this region. 

55 
Then on August 5,1992, the FCC authorized four 

companies to conduct experiments involving low Earth 

orbiting satellites operating above the frequency of 1 

gigahertz. Motorola Satellite Communications Inc. received authorization for five satellites and associated 

ground stations; Constellation Communications, Inc., for 

two satellites and associated ground stations; Ellipsat 

Corporation, for four satellites and associated ground 

stations. TRW Corporation also got an experimental 

license, but only for simulation of satellites by use of 

aircraft and balloons. 

Commercial Development of 

Space Technology 

As part of its program to encourage private sector 

involvement and investment in new, high-technology, 

space-related products and services, in November 1991, 

NASA's Office of Commercial Programs (OCP) established two new Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDS) to specialize in advanced satellite 

communications and o ther space-based telecommunications technologies. The Space CommunicationsTechnology Center at Florida Atlantic University, one of the two 

new centers, is devoted to developing the technologies 

required for digital transmission by satellite of video, 

audio, and other data. With Motorola, Inc., as its industrial partner, the Center is developing the Low Earth 

Orbit Experiment (LEOEX) to enable experimental testing and demonstration of some of the key technologies 

needed to achieve point-to-point voice and data communications via satellites in low Earth orbit. The payload 

was scheduled to be launched in mid-1993 on the Commercial Experiment Transporter, which will consist of an 

experimental capsule that will remain in orbit for weeks 

or months before returning to Earth and another capsule 

that will stay in orbit longer. 

The other CCDS, the Center for Satellite and Hybrid CommunicationNetworksat the University of Maryland Systems Research Center, focuses on hybrid networks and the integration of terrestrial and space communications technologies. Together withCOMSAT Labs, 

the Center was building a frame relay interface to the 

Very Small Aperture Terminal on the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), scheduled for 

launch in 1993. These two new centers brought the total 

number in the CCDS program to 17 at the end of the fiscal 

year. 

The purpose of ACTS is to demonstrate new technologies for communications satellites. In the summer of 

1992, NASA selected 31 experiments (from 50 proposals) 

in response to an announcement in 1991 of experimental 

opportunities. These experiments-and the ACTS program-should assist in defining communications requirements for the next generation of communications satellites. In April 1992, NASA selected 10 ACTSpropagation 

experiments out of 30 proposals received in response to 

a 1991 NASA Research Announcement. These experiments will serve as a means of understanding the propagation environment for an uplink frequency of 30 gigahertz and a downlink frequency of 20 gigahertz, which 

telecommunications companies are interested in using 

for future satellite communications systems. 

In another area, GCI' has co-funded 12 projects 

with industry in the second round of the Earth Observation Commercial Application Program, which began in 

the fall of 1991. The program promotes the development 

of new or improved products and services in the area of 

remote sensing. It has already yielded applications in oil 

spill mapping, fisheries and forest resource management, agricultural monitoring, urban land use, hazardous waste detection, and real-timedamageassessment of 

natural disasters. 

In a rather different application of space technology, researchers at George J. Igel and Company and the 

Ohio State University's Center for Mapping, another 

NASA CCDS, have co-developed a precise positioning 

system for earth-moving equipment. Using GPS receiver antennae and software that integrates GPS positional data with surface data, the system permits immediate adjustments to land irregularities, thus saving manpower and reducing operational costs. The CCDS also 

launched a private company in 1991 named Real-Time 

Mapping Systems, Inc. The firm constructs commercial 

GPSmapping vehiclesforuseinroad planning,and it has 

recently sold its second generation GPS vehicle to a 

Canadian engineering and survey firm. 

While most CCDS technologies were still in the 

experimental phase at the end of FY 1992, there had 

already been significant results in materials processing 

and biotechnology. For example, space experiments 

have shown that Protein Crystals grown in space to 

study the molecular structure of pharmaceuticals are 

more suitable for such analysis than crystals grown on 

Earth. The reasons for this phenomenon are complex, but 

generally, materials mix more evenly in space, fluids 

form perfectly round spheres, and pure crystals grow 

larger because there is so little gravity. Researchers have 

already reported that 40 percent of the proteins flown on 

the STS-50 Shuttle mission in June produced larger and 

higher-quali ty crystals than their ground-based counterparts. This compared to 20 percent on previous flights. 

The increase resulted from the extended growth time on 

this 14-day mission and the involvement of Payload 

Specialist Dr. Larry DeLucas from the CCDS at Birmingham, AL, who assisted in the set-up and optimization of 

the experiments. 

56 
USML-1 on STS-50 also included the Astroculture 

payload-a test of a plant growing system for the zerogravity space environment, sponsored by the Wisconsin 

Center for Space Automation and Robotics. The payload 

team reported the experiment to be a success, performing 

activities beyond original plans. The findings are expected to provide significant new data needed to verify 

the performance of a water and nutrient delivery system 

for plants in space, an enabling technology for longduration human flightsand for new efficiencies in Earthbased hydroponics. 

TheInvestigations into Polymer Membranes payload (IPMP) completed threemorespace shuttle flights in 

FY 1992, continuing to find significant improvements in 

the size and distribution of the pores in the membrane 

filters processed. These characteristics are important 

factors in the ability of membranes to filter and separate 

substances in commercial applications. The sponsor, 

Battelle of Columbus, OH, has filed for a patent on the 

process. The circulation of information on the subject 

was resulting in more interest by U.S. industry in polymer investigations and processing in space. 

In November 1991 EER Systems, Inc., successfully 

launched and recovered a Starfire sounding rocket, 

Consort 4, which provided 7 minutes of microgravity to 

a variety of materials processing and biological 

experiments (including IPMP) coordinated by the 

Huntsville CCDS. This was the final launch in a series of 

Consort flightsbeginningin 1989, funded by OCP. NASA 

awarded a follow-on contract for three launches to EER 

Systems in the fall of 1991. The company launched the 

first of them, Consort 5, in September 1992 (see above). 

This contract marked only part of NASA’s continued strong support to the domestic ELV industry under 

theauthority of thecommercial Space Launch Act. During 

FY 1992, NASA also signed new support agreements 

with General Dynamics, McDonnell Douglas, Orbital 

Sciences, and a new entrant into the launch market, 

International Microspace. 

In another area of commercial development, 

SPACEHAB, Inc., unveiled its first Commercial Middeck 

Augmentation Module in April 1992. It will add about 

50 middeck lockers to the space shuttle’s capacity for 

flight research. In support of private sector research, 

NASA decided to lease two-thirds of the available module volume over a six-flight profile for the CCDSs and for 

joint endeavor agreements. At the end of the year, 

payload integration was underway, keeping the module 

on schedule for its maiden flight on the Shuttle in April 

1993. 

In March 1992, DOT published Federal Register 

Notice 924, ”Commercial Space Transportation; Evaluation Criteria for Issuance of Vehicle Safety Approval for 

the Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET) 

Reentry Vehicle System.” COMET is a new commercial 

space vehicle that will return to Earth after its space 

mission is completed. EER Systems, one of three prime 

contractors on the COMET project, has proceeded with 

launch pad construction at Wallops Flight Facility. Preparation of the launch site, where COMET is scheduled to 

begin its maiden flight in mid-1993, represents a critical 

milestone for the program. COMET will provide commercial access to a microgravity and payload return 

capability for NASA’s CCDSs. In a related development, 

NASA‘s CCDS at Ann Arbor, MI, and Booz-Allen & 

Hamilton have announced their partnership in an autonomous rendezvous and docking program that will 

demonstrate docking technology on-orbit about 1994, 

using two COMET service modules. This demonstration, to which the contractor has already made a significant financial commitment, will provide a significant 

step in the validation of technologies for automated 

satellite resupply and servicing. 

Over the last two years, the CCDS at Auburn 

University and Maxwell Laboratories, Inc., have conducted extensive field testing fora new, compact, conversion-efficient Power Supply. The product can be used in 

industrial, medical, and space applications. Several versions have been introduced to the marketplace, and sales 

were expected to exceed $1 million in FY 1992. 

In other efforts at commercial development, in FY 

1992 NASA selected 301 Small Business Innovation 

Research (SBIR) Phase I contracts valued at $15 million 

and 135 Phase I1 awards totaling $67 million. Nearly one 

of every three completed SBIR projects has resulted in 

new technologies that were being used in commercial 

industry. For example, Irvine Sensors Corporation has 

developed techniques for stacking integrated circuits in 

a compact, cubic structure to miniaturize them, increase 

their speed, and require less power than conventional 

assemblies. The company has announced a joint venture 

with IBM that will carry its SBIR project results into 

commercial markets. One outcome of this venture could 

be an assembly the size of a sugar cube performing the 

functions of a motherboard in a personal computer. Two 

commercial applications of tunable-frequency laser SBIR 

projects by Schwartz Electro-optics, Inc., include the 

Cobra 2000 for rem0 te measurement of atmospheric composition, with sales so far exceeding $400,000, and the 

Titan-P for scientific spectroscopic measurements, which 

has had sales of several million dollars over the last two 

years. Bomed Medical Manufacturing Company has 

developed two related devices for non-invasive measurement of critical cardiac parameters, with sales of 

several million dollars a year. 

In the area of technology transfer, Regional Technology Transfer Centers (RTTCs), established in six 

regions spanning the U.S., began operating in January 

57 
1992. The new centers, which replaced NASA's 

longstanding network of Industrial Applications Centers, reflect NASA's initiative to upgrade and restructure 

its technology transfer program in order to serve U.S. 

industry better. They offer better geographical coverage, 

establish linkages with the various state and local technology transfer programs, and act as technology transfer 

agents for all the Federal Laboratories in their respective 

regions. Working with the National Technology Transfer Center in Wheeling, WV, they form the core structure 

for the overall national technology transfer network. 

Relatedly, the National Technology Initiative 

(NTI) inaugurated a series of 14 town meetings in February 1992, lasting until late 1992 and leading up to the 

Technology 2002 Conference scheduled for December 1- 

3 inBaltimore,MD. Supported by NASAand theDepartments of Energy, Commerce, and Transportation, NTI 

seeks to promote a better understanding of private 

industry's opportunities to commercialize advances in 

Government technology. 

In thisconnection, the Technology 2001 conference 

and exposition held in San Jose, CA, December 3-5,1991, 

nearly doubled the attendance of the previous year's 

Tech 2000 conference. The 3-day event showcased work 

underway at more than 50 federal laboratories belonging 

to NASA and 10 other federal agencies. Some 183 companies and numerous universities exhibited technologies available for license or sale. 

Also with respect to space technology, NASA's 

Stennis Space Center and the Wilmer Eye Institute at the 

Johns Hopkins Medical Institution have developed a 

Low Vision Enhancement System to aid the vision impaired. This was but one example of many successful 

transfers of technology in FY 1992. It involved NASA's 

imageenhancement technology being applied to a highly 

portable unit that enhances real world images and remaps them instantly to compensate for impaired eyesight. The prototype, introduced in May 1992, constituted a basis for the addition of increasingly sophisticated vision-enhancing technology over the next several 

years. The first commercial version of the computerdriven goggles should be available in about three years 

through Triad, Inc., the industrial partner in the program. 

The units could provide assistance to approximately 

three million visually-handicapped patients. 

In June, the Doc's Office of Space Commerce and 

NASA briefed industry on the potential role of commercial ventures in the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI), 

President Bush's challenge to establish a permanent outpost on the Moon and explore Mars. This followed a 

Presidential statement creating an exploration office (see 

Appendix F-2). In the presidential statement, the DOC 

was noted as the lead agency for encouraging private 

sector activities in support of SEI objectives. Industry 

identified a number of impediments to greater SEI-related commercial activity, such as inefficient Govemment procurement practices, conflicting technical standards between Government agencies, and lack of a clear 

legal regime protecting property rights in space. 

In a related area, the DOT'S Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation administered and provided support for meetings and activities of the Commercial Space 

Transportation Advisory Committee, a 25-member 

group of space industry leaders. The Committee has 

completed anumberofimportant studiesof theindustry's 

needs in the area of space technology, including recommendations of policies to pursue in dealing with the 

former Soviet Union. 

Also relatedly, the DOC published the yearly edition of "Space Business Indicators" in June. It estimated 

U.S. revenues from commercial space activities at $5 

billion. This represented a 14 percent increase over the 

previous year. Most revenues were from communications satellite sales, services, and satellite ground equipment. The fastest growing sectors were mobile telecommunicationsand satellitenavigation receivers(e.g., those 

using Global Positioning System satellite signals). 

Space Education and Publicity 

Throughout FY 1992, several Government agencies were engaged in educating the American people 

about space-related activities, in publicizing thembothin 

the United States and abroad, and in using their resources to improve Americaneducation. Thebest known 

of such activities were the enormously popular displays 

at the National Air and Space Museum. The U.S. Information Agency (USIA), on the other hand, explained 

U.S. space achievements to audiences abroad. It used a 

newly amalgamated system, Network System for TV and 

Radio (NETSTAR), which provided new services in the 

area of broadcasting, such as Direct to Affiliate Digital 

Service. This service carried a new program called 

Worldsource, which delivered programs to broadcasters 

in Europe for retransmission on radio stations. It included Intersputnik Direct to Affiliate Digital Service, a 

spin-off that reached the heartland of the former Soviet 

Union usinga powerful satellite signal to relatively small 

antennas that could be deployed easily in the vast tracks 

of Central Asia. 

The Voice of America (VOA) covered many facets 

of the U.S. space program in news stories, correspondent 

reports, and science documentaries. These features were 

carried in English and 46 other languages to audiences 

around the globe. They included on-the-scene coverage 

of space shuttle launches by VOA correspondents; the 

"New Horizons" science documentary series, which de58 
59 
voted a quarter of its programs to space issues; and the 

“Communications World” documentary, which covered 

the NASA rescue of the INTELSAT satellite, international negotiations over satellite frequencies, and the 

emerging prospect of direct satellite radio broadcasting. 

During FY 1992, the USIA also conducted a number of teleconference programs with foreign journalists 

and scientists. They dealt with such subjects as deep 

space and planetary exploration, the challenges of being 

a female astronaut, the Earth Observing System, and 

NASA research on greenhouse gases. 

Relatedly, USIA published DialoPue, a quarterly 

magazine of significant thought and opinion culled from 

the finest U.S. magazines and journals. Published in 10 

languages and distributed worldwide, it featured such 

items as a striking picture of the face of Venus from the 

Magellan space probe. USIA has also provided photographs of Shuttle flights, including the recent rescue of 

the INTELSAT VI satellite, at the request of overseas 

posts. The agency’s Wireless File has highlighted several 

major advances in space science, notably the announcement on April 23, 1992, that the Cosmic Background 

Explorer had detected the seeds of the cosmic structure 

that may explain the formation of all stars and galaxies 

observed in the universe today. Altogether, the file 

produced over 70 news storicsand featureson U.S. space 

achievements during the fiscal year. The USIA’s 

WORLDNET television broadcasting system, similarly, 

covered U.S. space efforts for foreign audiences. Its 

programmingincluded 15 interactive dialogueson a host 

of space-related topics involving journalists and science 

writers around the globe. 

The OCST was similarly active in communicating 

its views and policy, as well as those of the DOT, to the 

news media, the public, and Congress. It coordinated 

congressional hearings and press events and prepared 

informational materials about space transportation. 

With a somewhat different focus, NASA‘s EducationProgramcontinued in FY 1992 toadvance theNation’s 

educational goals through improving the scientific and 

technological competence of all students and educators. 

For example, NASA’s precollege programs have used the 

NASA mission to demonstrate theintegrated application 

of science, mathematics, technology, and related subjects. The agency’s Aerospace Education Services Program, for example, has conducted workshops for educators and classroom assembly programs for elementary 

and secondary students, featuring aeronauticsand space 

science equipment, principles of rocketry, space shuttle 

operations, and life in space. In the area of higher 

education, the National Space Grant and Fellowship 

Program, authorized by Congress in 1987, continued to 

serve as a means of developing a national academic 

network with greater abilities to respond to present and 

fu ture aerospace needs through grants and fellowships. 

Among NASA’s technology programs, to give but one 

further example of the agency’s educational efforts, was 

NASA Spacelink, a computer information service for 

educatorsand students. Itsdatabaseincluded inFY 1992 

current news about NASA missions and programs as 

well as informational resources dealing with NASA programs in aeronautics and space technology, space science, space exploration, and spaceflight. Also included 

was information about NASA educational services, available classroom materials, and software. 

Somewhat similarly, NOAA has sought to improve scientific and mathematical education in America 

by encouraging the use of data from environmental 

satellites in the classroom. It has broadcast data directly 

fromenvironmental satellites for use in teaching subjects 

as varied as geography, geology, physics, mathematics, 

English, chemistry, and even history. These ”satellite 

direct readout data” have proved to be effective in teaching more technical subjects and enhancing technological 

literacy in an age when the marketplace and society in 

general are assimilating new technologies at a faster rate 

than ever before. 

60 
Glossary 

AAS 

AASE 

ABM 

ACARS 

ACDA 

ACRIM 

ACRV 

ACTS 

Ada 

ADAS 

ADEOS 

ADP 

AEM 

AESOP 

AERA 

AFB 

AFSC 

AFSCN 

AFT1 

AFW 

AGE 

AGRHYMET 

AIDA 

AKM 

albedo 

AASE-I1 

ALOHA 

AMASS 

AMLS 

AMOS 

AMSC 

anechoic 

angle of attack 

AOA 

APCG 

APM 

APT 

APE-B 

ARFF 

Arinc 

ARS 

ARTCC 

ASAT 

ASD 

ASF 

AS1 

ASR 

ASRM 

ASTP 

Advanced Automation System 

Second Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

Anti-Ballistic Missile 

Arinc Communications Addressing and Reporting System 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor 

Advanced Crew Return Vehicle 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

A programming language used by the DoD 

AWOS Data Acquisition System 

(Japanese) Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 

Advanced Ducted Propeller 

Animal Enclosure Modules 

ARGOS Environmental Shipboard Observer Platform 

Automated En Route Air Traffic Control System 

Air Force Base 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center 

Air Force Satellite Control Network 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

Active Flexible Wing 

Aviation Gridded Forecast System 

AGRiculture, Hydrology, and METeorology 

Arecibo Initiative on Dynamics of the Atmosphere 

Apogee Kick Motor 

The ratio of the amount of electromagnctic radiation reflected by a body to the 

Airborne Lidar and Observations of Hawaiian Airglow 

Airport Movement Area Safety System 

Advanced Manned Launch System 

Air Force Maui Optical System 

American Mobile Satellite Corporation 

Neither having nor producing an echo 

The acute angle between the chord of an airfoil and its direction of motion relative 

to the air, often referred to as alpha; when an airfoil’s angle of attack exceeds that 

of the one that provides maximum lift, it goes into a stall, losing airspeed and 

potentially, the capability of the pilot to control the airplane 

amount incident upon it 

Angle of Attack 

Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

Auroral Photography Experiment-B 

Ascent (or Atmospheric) Particle Monitor 

Automatic picture transmission-a low-cost ground terminal for receiving data 

Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

Aeronautical Radio, Inc 

Agricultural Research Service 

Air Route Traffic Control Center 

Anti-Sa telli te 

Aircraft Situation Display 

Area Sampling Frames 

Acronym for the Italian Space Agency 

Airport Surveillance Radar 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor 

Advanced Space Technology Program; Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

from polar orbiting satellites, developed by NASA 

61 
Astro 

ATLAS 

ATMS 

AVHRR 

AWOS 

AXAF 

baseband processor 

BASE 

BBXRT 

BIMDA 

black hole 

canard 

carbon-carbon 

CASS 

CAT 

Cassini 

CCAFS 

C-CAP 

CCDS 

CCSDS 

CEES 

CERCLA 

CFD 

CGMS 

CEDAR 

CELLS 

CEOS 

CEPS 

CFC 

CGF 

CGMS 

CD-ROM 

CINC 

CIP 

CIRA 

CIRRIS 

CIS 

CITE 

CLAES 

CNES 

COBE 

COMET 

COMPTEL 

COPUOS 

COSMIC 

cosmic rays 

COSPAS 

COSTR 

Astronomy Observatory 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science 

Advanced Traffic Management System 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

Automated Weather Observing System 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

A computer processor similar in function to a telephone switching office 

Burst and Transient Source Experiment 

Broad Band X-Ray Telescope 

Bioserve ITA Materials Dispersion Apparatus 

A completely collapsed, massive dead star whose gravitational field is so powerful 

that no radiation can escape from it; because of this property, its existence must be 

inferred rather than recorded from radiation emissions. 

An aircraft or aircraft configuration having its horizontal stabilizing and control 

surfaces in front of the wing or wings 

In one application, an improved form of disk brakes featuring carbon rotors and 

carbon stators in place of the beryllium formerly used 

Computer Aided Stratification and Sampling 

Clear Air Turbulence 

A Saturn Orbiter/Titan Probe 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

Coastwatch-Change Analysis Program 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space 

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory 

Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

Computational Fluid Dynamics 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites 

Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

Committee on Earth Observations Satellites 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies 

Chlorofluoro-carbon 

Crystal Growth Facility 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (formerly, the Coordination of 

Commander-in-Chief 

Capital Investment Plan 

Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere 

Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle 

Commonwealth of lndependent States, a grouping of now independent states 

Cargo Interface Test Equipment 

Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer 

Acronym for the French Space Agency 

Cosmic Background Explorer 

Commercial Experiment Transporter 

Compton Telescope 

(U.N.) Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

Computer Software Management Information Center 

Not forms of energy, like X-rays or gamma rays, but particles of matter 

A Soviet satellite uscd for search and rescue 

Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial Scicncc 

Geostationary Meteorological Satellites group) 

formerly part of the Soviet Union 

62 
CRAF 

CRDA 

CREAM 

CRO 

CRRES 

CSA 

cscc 

CTAS 

CTR 

CTV 

CWG 

DARPA 

dB 

DBS 

DCS 

DE 

Dem/Val 

DLC 

DMSP 

DNA 

DOC 

DoD 

DOE 

Do1 

DOLILU 

DOT 

DSCS 

DSN 

DSP 

DST 

ECS 

EDFE 

EDMS 

ED0 

EDOMP 

EFM 

EGRET 

EHF 

electromagnetic spectrum 

ELV 

EMAP 

enthalpy 

envelope 

EOS 

EMSL-LV 

EO-IC WG 

EOSDIS 

EOSAT 

Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby 

Converging Runway Display Aid 

Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor 

Chemical Release Observation 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

Canadian Space Agency 

Concurrent Supercom pu ting Consor ti um 

Center-TRACON Automation System 

Civil Tiltrotor 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle 

Council Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

Defense Advanced Research Project Agency 

Decibel 

Direct Broadcast Satellite 

Data Collection System 

Directed Energy 

Demonstration /Valida tion 

Diamond-Li ke-Carbon 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program-DoD’s polar orbiting weather satellite 

Defense Nuclear Agency 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Defense 

Department of Energy 

Department of Interior 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update 

Department of Transportation 

Defense Satellite Communication System 

Deep Space Network 

Defense Support Program 

Defense and Space Talks 

EOSDIS Core System 

EVA Development Flight Experiments 

Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System-an EPA-approved computer model 

Extended Duration Orbiter 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability 

Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 

Extremely High Frequency, between 30,000 and 300,000 megacycles per second 

A collective term for all known radiation from the shortest-waved gamma rays 

through x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared waves, to radio waves at the 

long-waved end of the spectrum 

system 

for the assessment of air quality around airports 

Expendable Launch Vehicle 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 

Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV-part of the EPA 

The heat content of a system undergoing change 

The operational parameters within which an aircraft can fly 

Earth Observations-International Coordination Working Group 

Earth Observing System-a series of satellites, part of the Mission to Planet Earth, 

being designed for launch beginning near the end of the decade to gather data on 

global change 

EOS Data and Information System 

Earth Observation Satellite Company 

63 
EPA 

EPIRB 

EPM 

EPRI 

ERBE 

EROS 

ERS 

ERTS 

ESA 

E-scan 

EUMESAT 

EURECA 

EUVE 

EVA 

FAA 

FAEED 

FAS 

FASA 

FAST 

FCCSET 

FDF 

Floquet theory 

FLTSATCOM 

FRED 

FSAR 

FSU 

FI3 

fuel cladding 

G or g 

galactic cosmic rays 

gamma rays 

GAS 

GBI 

GCDIS 

GD 

GDR 

GEM 

geoid 

Geostar 

geostationary 

geosynchronous 

GETSCO 

GFO 

GFS 

GGS 

GGSF 

GHRS 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons 

Enabling Propulsion Materials 

Electric Power Research Institute 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

Earth Resources Observation System 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing Satellite 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

European Space Agency 

Electronically scanned 

European Meteorological Satellite Program 

European Retrievable Carrier 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Extravehicular Activity 

Federal Aviation Administration 

FAA Aircraft Engine Emissions Database, which contains emissions factors for 

Foreign Agricultural Service 

Final Approach Spacing Aid 

Fast Auroral Snapshot 

Federal Coordinating Council on Scicncc, Engineering, and Technology 

Flight Dynamics Facility 

A method of solving a second-order differential equation 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

FAA Research Electromagnetic Database 

Final Safety Analysis Report 

Former Soviet Union 

Flight Telerobotic Servicer 

A coating designed to contain fission products released in nuclear fuel 

A symbol used to denote gravity or its effects, in particular the acceleration due to 

gravity; used as a unit of stress measurement for bodies undergoing acceleration 

Cosmic rays with energy levels as high as tens of billions of electron volts and 

velocities approaching the speed of light 

The shortest of electromagnetic radiations, emitted by some radioactive substances 

Get Away Special 

Ground Bascd Interceptor 

Global Change Data and Information System 

General Dynamics 

Geophysical Data Records 

Ceospace Environmen t Modeling 

The figure of the Earth as defined by the geo-potential surface that most nearly 

coincides with mean sea levcl over the entire surface of the planet’s contiguous 

bodies of water 

various aircraft engines and data correlating engines to specific aircraft 

A private firm providing a satellite tracking service 

Travelling about Earth’s equator at an altitude of at least 35,000 km and at a speed 

matching that of Earth’srotation, thereby maintaininga constant relation to points 

on Earth 

gcostationary 

General Electric Technical Services Co Inc 

Geodetic/Geophysicdl Follow-on (program) 

Generic Flight System 

Global Geospace Science 

Gas-Grain Simulation Facility 

Coddard High Resolution Spectrograph 

64 
GIS 

GLONASS 

glove 

GMDSS 

GMT 

GOES 

GPALS 

GPHS 

GPS 

GRO 

ground effect 

GSA 

GSFC 

GTS 

GVI 

Hall effect 

HALOE 

HAPS 

HARV 

HAX 

HEAO 

HESP 

HIDEC 

high-alpha 

high-bypass engine 

HIRE 

HLFC 

HPCC 

HRDI 

HSCT 

HST 

HUT 

hypersonic 

IBSS 

ICAO 

ICBM 

ICE 

IELV 

IFM 

IFR 

IHPTET 

I-Lab 

IMI 

IML 

IMO 

IMP 

INF 

INM 

Geographic Information System 

(Soviet) Global Navigation Satellite System 

In relation to laminar flow control, a suction device employing tiny, laser-drilled 

holes to draw off turbulent air and producea smooth (laminar) flow of air over an 

aircraft’s wing 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 

Greenwich Mean Time 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

Global Protection Against Limited Strikes 

General Purpose Heat Source 

Global Positioning System 

Gamma Ray Observatory 

The temporary gain in lift during flight at very low altitudesdue to the compression 

General Services Administration 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

Global Telecommunications System 

Global Vegetation Index 

The development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it carries an 

electric current and is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current 

Halogen Occultation Experiment 

Hydrazine Auxiliary Propulsion System 

High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle 

Haystack Auxiliary Radar 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory 

High-Energy Solar Physics 

Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control 

High angle of attack 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of more than four to one, the by-pass ratio 

being the proportion of air that flows through the engine outside the inner case to 

that which flows inside that case 

of the air between the wings of an airplane and the ground 

High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control 

High Performance Computing and Communications 

High Resolution Doppler Imager 

High Speed Civil Transport 

Hubble Space Telescope 

Hopkins U1 traviolet Telescope 

Faster than 4,000 miles per hour 

Infrared Background Signature Survey 

International Civil Aviation Organization 

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

International Cometary Explorer 

Intermediate ELV 

Internal Fluid Mechanics 

Instrument Flight Rules 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology 

(FAA) Integration and Interaction Laboratory 

Inner Magnetosphere Imager 

International Microgravi ty Laboratory 

International Maritime Organization 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (Treaty) 

Integrated Noise Model-a computer tool for simulation of aircraft noise 

65 
INMARSAT 

INTELSAT 

interferometry 

ionosphere 

IPMP 

IPOMS 

IR 

IRAS 

IRT 

ISAC 

ISAMS 

ISAS 

ISB, TW / AA 

IS0 

ISTP 

ISY 

ITA 

IT0 

ITP 

ITU 

ITWS 

IUE 

IUS 

IV&V 

IWG 

JEM 

JGOFS 

Josephson effect 

Josephson junction 

JPL 

JSC 

Ka-band components 

KAO 

KE 

KSC 

Ku-band 

laminar 

Landsa t 

laser 

LDEF 

LEAP 

LEO 

International Maritime Satellite (Organization) 

International Telecommunications Satellite (Organization) 

The production and measurement of interference from two or more coherent wave 

trains emitted from the same source 

That region of the Earth’s atmosphere so named because of the presence there of 

ionized atoms in layers that reflect radio waves and short-wave transmissions 

Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group 

Infrared 

Infrared Astronomy Satellite 

Icing Research Tunnel 

Intelsat Solar Array Coupon 

Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder 

(Japanese) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/ Attack Assessment (formerly, Follow-on 

Early Warning System-FEWS-a successor to DSP) 

International Organization for Standardization 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics 

International Space Year (1992) 

Instrumentation Technology Associates 

International Test Organization 

Integrated Technology Plan 

International Telecommunication Union, an intergovernmental organization 

founded in 1865 that became a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1947 

and had a membership of 166 countries in February 1992 

Integrated Terminal Weather System 

International Ultraviolet Explorer 

Inertial Upper Stage 

Independent Validation and Verification 

Intersessional Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

Japanese Experiment Module 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study 

The radiative effect associated with the passage of electron pairs across an 

The weak connections between superconductors through which the Josephson 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Johnson Space Center 

Components to receive and transmit a new, high radio frequency 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory-a C-141 Starlifter at AmesResearch Center, equipped 

Kinetic Energy 

Kennedy Space Center 

Radio frequencies in the 11-12 gigaherz range 

Of fluid flow, smooth, as contrasted with turbulent; not characterized by crossflow 

of fluid particles 

Also known as ERTS, a series of satellites designed to collect information about the 

Earth’s natural resources 

Light amplified by simulated emission of radiation-a device that produces an 

intense beam of light that may be strong enough to vaporize the hardest and most 

heat-resistant materials, first constructed in 1960 

insulating barrier separating two superconductors 

effects occur 

with a 0.97-meter telescope 

Long-Duration Exposure Facility 

Lightweight Exo-A tmospheric Projectile 

Low-Earth Orbit 

66 
LEOEX 

LEX 

LFC 

LfA 

Lidar 

lift/drag ratio 

lightsats 

LiH 

LLWAS 

LOX 

low by-pass engine 

low-Earth orbit 

LWIR 

M 

Mach 

MACSAT 

magnetosphere 

man-ra ted 

maser 

mbps 

MBR 

MCC 

MCS 

MELV 

MESUR 

Meteosat 

MIDEX 

MILSATCOM 

MLS 

MMD 

MO 

MODE 

Mode C transponder 

MOD-RTG 

MOU 

MPE 

MSS 

MTCR 

MTD 

NAPP 

NAS 

NASA 

Low-Earth Orbit Experiment 

Leading Edge extension 

Laminar Flow Control 

Laboratory for Astrophysics 

Light radar 

The ratio of the lift to the drag of any body, especially an airfoil; it is the measure of 

Light-weight satellites 

Lithium hydride 

Low Level Windshear Alert System 

Liquid oxygen 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of of less than four to one-see high by-pass 

An orbit of the Earth some 100 to 350 nautical miles above its surface 

Long-Wavelength Infrared 

Mach number-a relativenumber named after Austrianphysicist Ernst Mach(1838- 

1916) and indicatingspeed with respect to that of sound in a given medium; in dry 

air at 32 degres F and at sea level, for example, Mach l=approximately 741 mph 

or 1,192 kilometers per hour 

the aerodynamic effectiveness of the wing or airfoil 

engine 

See M 

Multiple Access Communications Satellite 

The region of the Earth’s atmosphere where ionized gas plays an important role in 

the dynamics of the atmosphere and where consequently, the geomagnetic field 

also exerts an important influence 

Certified to transport people into space 

Microwave Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation-a device introduced in 1953 with multiple applications in physics, chemistry, radio and television communication 

megabits per second 

Mars Balloon Relay 

Mission Control Center 

Maritime Communications Subsystem 

Medium ELV 

Mars Environmental Survey Mission 

Meteorological satelli te 

Middle-class Explorer 

Military Satellite Communications 

Microwave Limb Sounder 

Mean Mission Duration 

Mars Observer 

Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment 

A radarbeacon receiver/transpondercapableof reporting theattitudeof theaircraft 

Modular Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Memorandum of Understanding 

Mission to Planet Earth-a program developed by NASA and the world scientific 

community to provide scientists with data that will allow them to understand the 

planet as a total system and to measure the effects of the human population upon it 

aboard which it is installed 

Multispectral Scanner Sensors; Mobile Satellite Service 

Missile Technology Control Regime 

Maneuver Technology Demonstrator 

National Aerial Photography Program 

National Airspace System 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

67 
NCAR 

NCC 

NCDC 

NDVI 

NERVA 

NESDIS 

NETSTAR 

neutron star 

NGDC 

NHC 

NIH 

NIST 

NLS 

NMC 

NMFS 

NOAA 

NODC 

NOS 

NOx 

NSCAT 

NSCORT 

NSF 

NSpC 

NSSFC 

NST 

NTB 

NTF 

NTI 

NTIA 

NASCAP NASA Charging Analysis Program 

NASCOM NASA Communications System 

NASDA (Japanese) National Space Development Agency 

NASM National Air and Space Museum 

NASI' National Aero-Space Plane 

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service 

Navier-Stokes (equations) Three equations that describe conservation of momentum for the motion of a 

viscous, incompressible fluid; developed in the nineteenth century by French 

engineer Claude-Louis-Marie Navier and English physicist Sir George Gabriel 

Stokes, who made the final derivation of the equations 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

Network Control Center 

National Climatic Data Center 

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications -a program from 1961-72 to 

(NOAA) National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

Network System for TV and Radio 

Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be composed primarily 

of neutrons; see pulsar. 

National Geophysical Data Center 

National Hurricane Center 

National Institutes of Health 

(DOC) National Institute of Standards and Technology 

New Launch System; also frequently rendered National Launch System 

National Meteorological Center 

National Marine Fishcries Service 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, also the designation of that 

National Oceanographic Data Center 

National Ocean Service 

Any of several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, including nitrogen oxide 

NASA Scattcrometcr 

NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training 

National Science Foundation 

National Space Council 

National Severe Storms Forecast Center 

Nuclear and Space Talks 

National Test Bed 

National Test Facility 

National Technology Initiative 

(DOC) National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the Federal 

Government's radio spectrum manager, which coordinated the use of LEO 

satellite networks like those for LANDSAT, NAVSTAR GPS, the Space Shuttle, 

and TIROS with other countries of the world 

develop a nuclear rocket for post-Apollo missions 

administration's Sun-synchronous satellites in polar orbit 

National Technology Transfer Center 

Nuclear Detonation 

National Weather Service 

(NASA) Office of Commercial Programs 

Optical Communications Through the Shuttle Window 

Outgoing Longwave Radiation 

An amount equal to 10 times a given value; thus if some quantity was 10 times as 

great as another quantity, it was an order of magnitude greater; if 100 times as 

great, it was larger by 2 orders of magnitude 

N'ITC 

NUDET 

NWS 

OCP 

OCTW 

OLR 

order of magnitude 

68 
osc 

OSL 

OSSE 

osm 

out-of-ground effect 

ov 

PAMRI 

PAM 

PARE 

PCG 

PEACESAT 

PEM 

petrology 

piezoelectricity 

pitch-pointing 

pixels 

plasma 

plasma sheet 

plastic media blasting 

PLS 

PMS 

PRA 

PRC 

PROSPER 

PSC 

PSCN 

PSE 

pulsar 

Pu-238 

PVO 

quasar 

RAH 

ramjet 

R&D 

R&T 

(NASA) Office of Space Commerce; Office of Space Communications 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory 

Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment 

Office of Science and Technology Policy 

See ”ground effect” 

Orbiter Vehicle 

Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item 

Payload Assist Module 

Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment 

Protein Crystal Growth 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite 

Particle Environment Monitor 

The science that deals with the origin, history, occurrence, structure, and chemical 

classification of rocks 

The property exhibited by some asymmetrical crystalline materials that, when 

subjected to strain in suitable directions, develop polarization proportional to the 

strain 

The pointing of an aircraft with respect to its pitch (its angular displacement about 

an axis parallel to the aircraft’s lateral axis, that is, movement of the nose up or 

down) 

Short for ”picture elements,” which provide image resolution in vidicon-type 

detectors 

A gas formed when one or more negatively charged electrons escape from an atom’s 

positively charged nucleus, creating an electrically neutral gas composed of 

positive and negative particles; because it is ionized, plasma interacts with electric 

and magnetic fields; approximately 99 percent of matter in the Universe is thought 

to be in the plasma state. 

An extensive area of low energy, ionized gases in the tail region of the magnetosphere that undergoes considerable change during magnetospheric storms 

A method of removing paint from aircraft skins by propelling them with plastic 

beads 

Personnel Launch System 

Physiological Monitoring System 

Probabilistic Risk Assessment 

People’s Republic of China 

PROgramme Spot Et Radar (the SPOT and radar program) 

Performance Seeking Control 

Program Support Communications Network 

Physiological Systems Experiment 

A Plutonium isotope 

A pulsating radio star, which is thought to be a rapidly spinning neutron star; the 

latter is formed when the core of a violently exploding star called a supernova 

collapses inward and becomes compressed togather; pulsars emit extremely 

regular pulses of radio waves. 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

A classof rarecosmicobjectsof extremeluminosityand strongradioemission;many 

investigators attribute their high energy generation to gas spiraling at high 

velocity into a massive black hole 

Reconnaissance Attack Helicopter 

A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consisting of specially-shaped tubesor 

ducts open at both ends, the air necessary for combustion being shoved into the 

duct and compressed by the forward motion of the engine 

Rescarch and Development 

Research and Technology 

69 
RAWS 

RCRA 

Resin Transfer Molding 

resolution 

REX 

Reynolds number 

RFI 

RFP 

RME 

RMP 

RMS 

ROSAT 

Rover 

RTG 

RTTC 

SAIN 

SAM 

SAMPEX 

SAMs 

SA0 

SAREX 

SARSAT 

SBIR 

SBUV 

scs 

SDI 

SDIO 

SEALAR 

Seasat 

SeaWIFS 

SEDS 

SEI 

SEM 

SET1 

SHARE 

SIMMOD 

SMEX 

SIRTF 

SLAR 

SLC 

SLS 

SLV 

S-GCOS 

Remote Automatic Weather Station 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

A process for the fabrication of composite parts for aerospace vehicles in whichadry 

preform of reinforcements is placed in a mold, resin is infused by vacuum or 

pressure, and the part is cured in the mold 

With reference to satellites, a term meaning the ability to sense an object; thus, an 80 

meter resolution indicates the ability to detect an object of at least 80 meters in 

diameter 

Radiation Experiment 

A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the momentum forces in fluid 

flow, named for English scientist Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912); among other 

applications, the ratio is vital to the use of wind tunnelsfor scale-model testing, as 

it provides a basis for extrapolating the test data to full-sized test vehicles 

Request for Information 

Request for Proposal 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment 

Rotorcraft Master Plan 

Remote Manipulator System-a remotely controlled arm, developed by Canada 

and controlled from the orbiter crew cabin, used for deployment and/or retrieval 

of payloads from the orbiter payload bay 

Roentgen Satellite 

After 1955, a program to develop a nuclear rocket, renamed NERVA in 1961 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Genera tor 

Regional Technology Transfer Center 

Satellite Applications Information Notes 

Shuttle Activation Monitor 

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer 

Space Acceleration Mapping System 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment 

Satellite Aided Search and Rescue Program 

Small Business Innovation Research 

Solar Background Ultra-Violet 

Soil Conservation Service 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

Strategic Defense Initiative Organization 

Sea Launch and Recovery 

Experimental oceanic surveillance satellite launched June 27,1978; it demonstrated 

that much useful information about the ocean could be obtained through satellite 

surveillance 

Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor 

Small Expendable Deployer System 

Space Exploration Initiative 

Space Environment Monitor 

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

Space-based Global Change Observation System 

Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element 

Simulation Model 

Small Explorer 

Space Infrarcd Telescope Facility 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

Space Launch Complex 

Space Life Sciences Laboratory 

Space Launch Vehicle 

70 
SNOTEL 

SOFIA 

SOH0 

solar flare 

solar maximum 

solar wind 

SOLSTICE 

SPAS 

SPEAR 

SPOT 

SPPD 

SRAM 

SRMsEQA 

SSAAC 

SSBUV 

SSCE 

SSF 

SSME 

SSMI 

SSMT 

SST 

START 

STDN 

STGT 

STME 

STOL 

STOVL 

STS 

STV 

sunspot 

SUPER 

super high frequency 

supernova 

STORM-FEST 

SUSIM 

SWAS 

TASS 

TCAS 

TDRS 

TDRSS 

TDWR 

TFE 

thermionics 

TIMED 

TIROS 

SNOWpack TELemetry 

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

A sudden, intense brightening of a portion of the Sun’s surface, often near a sunspot 

group; these flares, enormous eruptions of energy that leap millions of miles from 

the Sun’s surface, pose a potential radiation hazard to humans in space 

The period in the roughly 11-year cycle of solar activity when the maximum number 

of sunspots is present 

A stream of particles accelerated by the heat of the solar corona (outer region of the 

Sun) to velocities great enough to permit them to escape from the Sun‘s gravitational field 

Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment 

Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

Space Power Experiment Aboard Rocket 

Satellite Pour l’observation de la Terre (satellite for the observation of the Earth) 

Signal Processing Packaging Design 

Static Random Access Memory 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance 

Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee 

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

Solid Surface Combustion Experiment 

Space Station Freedom 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

Special Sensor Microwave/Imager 

Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature 

Sea Surface Temperature 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

Second TDRSS Ground Terminal 

Space Transportation Main Engine 

Short Takeoff and Landing 

Storm-Fronts Experiment Systems Test 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing (Aircraft) 

Space Transportation System 

Space Transfer Vehicle 

A vortexof gas on the surfaceof the Sun associated with stray local magnetic activity 

Name for a survivable solar-power subsystem demonstrator 

Any frequency between 3,000 and 30,000 megacycles per second 

An exceptionally bright nova, a variable star whose brightness changes 

suddenly, which exhibits a luninosity ranging from 10 million to 100 

million times that of our Sun 

Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor 

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 

Terminal Area Surveillance System 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

TDRS System 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

Thermionic Fuel Element 

A field of electronics that uses electrical current passing through a gaseous medium 

(vacuum tube) instead of a solid state (semi-conductor), permitting use in hightemperature and radiation environments in which other electronic devices fail 

Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics 

Television and Infrared Operational satellite 

71 
TM 

TNA 

TOMS 

TONS 

TOPEX 

TOPS 

TOS 

TOVS 

TPCE 

TR 

TRACON 

tribology 

TRMM 

TSS 

TV 

TVCS 

UARS 

UFO 

UHF 

UIT 

UMS 

UNEP 

USAF 

USCINCSPACE 

USDA 

USGCRP 

USM L 

USMP 

uv 

uvcs 

VAS 

vcs 

very high frequency 

VFC 

VLBI 

VLSI 

VoA 

WARC 

WEFAX 

WGD 

white dwarf 

WIND11 

WMO 

WSGT 

WSMC 

WSP 

WUPPE 

x-rays 

XTE 

Thematic Mapper 

Thermal Neutron Analysis 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer 

TDRSS Onboard Navigation System 

Ocean Topography Experiment 

Toward Other Planetary Systems 

Transfer Orbit Stage 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder 

Tank Pressure Control Experiment 

Thrust-reversing 

Terminal Radar Approach Control 

The study of the interaction of sliding surfaces with respect to friction, wear, and 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

Tethered Satellite System 

Thrust-vectoring 

Thrust Vector Control System 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 

UHF Follow-on 

Ultra High Frequency, any frequency between 300 and 3,000 megacyclesper second 

U1 traviolet Imaging Telescope 

Urine Monitoring System 

United Nations Environment Program 

U.S. Air Force 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Space Command 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

US. Global Change Research Program 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory 

U.S. Microgravity Payload 

U1 traviolet 

UI traviolet Coronal Spectrometer 

Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder 

Voice Command System 

Any radio frequency between 30 and 300 megacycles per second 

Vortex Flow Control 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

Very Large Scale Integration 

Voice of America 

World Administrative Radio Conference 

Weather Facsimile 

(CEOS) Working Group on Data 

Any of a class of faint stars, characterized not only by low luminosity but by masses 

Wind Imaging Interfcromcter 

World Meteorological Organization 

White Sands Ground Terminal 

Western Space and Missile Center 

Windshear Processor 

Wisconsin UI traviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment 

Radiations of very short wavelengths, beyond the ultra-violet in the spectrum 

X-ray Timing Explorer 

lubrication 

and radii comparable to that of our Sun 

72 
APPENDIXES 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by US. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar 

Year 

Earth Orbit' 

Success Failure 

Earth Escape' - 

Success Failure 

1957 ...................................................................... 0 

1958 ... 5 

1959 ...................................................................... 9 

1960 .................................................................... 16 

1961 ................... 1962 .. ...... . . . . . . . .. . . 

.................................. 93 

1967 ..... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . .. ... ... . . . ... ... .. . . .. ... 78 

................................... 36 

............................................. 45 

............................................ 11 

1989 .................................................................... 24 

1990 .................................................................... 40 

1991 ................................................................... 32c 

1992 ................................................................... 17c 

(through September 30) 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

8 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

0 

1 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

lb 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

TOTAL ......................................................... 1,250 144 a3 15 

"The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Escape" flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

bThis Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

This excludes commercial satellites. 

73 
APPENDIX A-2 

World Record Of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spaczcraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's European 

Calendar United USSR/ Francel Italy/ Japan Republic Australia United Space India Israel 

Year States CIS Canada' Indonesia' of China Kingdom Agency 

1957 .............................. 1958 ............................ 5 

1959 .......................... 10 

1960 .......................... 16 

1961 .......................... 29 

1962 .......................... 52 

1963 .......................... 38 

1964 .......................... 57 

1965 .......................... 63 

1966 .......................... 73 

1967 .......................... 57 

1968 .......................... 45 

1969 .......................... 40 

1970 .......................... 28 

1971 .......................... 30 

1972 .......................... 30 

1974 .......................... 22 

1975 .......................... 27 

1976 .......................... 26 

1977 24 

1978 .......................... 32 

1979 .......................... 16 

1980 .......................... 13 

1981 .......................... 18 

1982 .......................... 18 

1983 .......................... 22 

1984 .......................... 22 

1985 .......................... 17 

1986 ............................ 6 

1987 ............................ 8 

1988 .......................... 12 

1989 .......................... 17 

1990 .......................... 27 

1991 .......................... 13' 

2 ............................................................................................. 

1 ........................................................................ 

3 ................................................................................ 

3 ............................................................................................ 

6 .............................................................................. 

20 .................................................... 

17 ............................................... .......................... 

30 ............................................... ........................... 48 ............. 1 ............................................... ........................................................... 

44 ............. 1 ................................. ............................................................................ 

66 ............. 2 ..................... 1 ............................... ................................................................ 

b 

b 

81 ............. 2 ..................... 1 ............... 1 ................. 1 ..... 

83 ............. 1 ..................... 2 ............... 2 ................. 1 ............. 

74 ..................................... 1 ............... 1 ...................................................................................................................... 

b 81 ..................................... 2 ............... 1 ...................................................................................................................... 

89 ............. 3 ..................... 1 ............... 2 ................. 3 ......................................................... 

99 ....................................................... 1 ................. 2 ................... 

98 ....................................................... 2 ........................................................... 

88 .............................................. ........ ........................ 87 ....................................................... ............................ 1 ................................. 89 ............................................... .............................................................. 1 ............... 98 ............. 2 ............... 1 ............... 101 ....................................................... ............................................................................. 98 .......................... 2 ............... 1 ............... 97 ...................................................... .3 .... ........................................ 4 ................................. 98 ....................................................... 2 ........... ....................................... 3 ................................. 91 ....................................................... 2 ...... ........................................ 2 ................................. 95 3 ........................................ 2 ................................. 

90 ....................................................... 7 ................................. 

74 ................................................................. 7 ............................... 1 

75 ................................................. .... 5 .............................................................. 5 ............................... 1 

62 ............. 1 ................................. ...... 1 .............................................................. 9 ............... 1 ............... 

.............................................. 

....................................................... 

....................................................... 

.............................................. 

.............................................. 

TOTAL ...................... 936 2,318 ............. 1 ..................................... 43 ............... 29 ................... 1 ................... 1 ............... 44 ............... 4 ............. 2 

1992 .......................... 18' 

(through Sept. 30) 

34 ..................................... I ............... 2 ................. 1 ................... 1 ....................................... 3 ............... 2 ............... 

TOTAL .................... 954 2,352 ............. 1 ..................... 1 ............ 45 ............... 30 ................... 2 ................... 1 ............... 47 ............... 6 ............. 2 

aSince 1979 all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA. These headings reflect launches for France 

bIncludes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

'This excludes commeraal expendable launches. 

and Italy between 1957 and 1978 and for Canada and Indonesia beginning in 1991. Totals at the bottom reflect only Canada and Indonesia. 

74 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1991-September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mid, Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator ('1 

Nov. 8 

76A 

Titan IV 

USA-72 

Nov. 8 

USA-74 

7K 

Titan IV 

Nov. 8 

76D 

Titan IV 

USA-76 

Nov. 8 

76E 

Titan IV 

USA-77 

Nov. 24 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(SS-44) 

80A 

Nov. 25 

Defense Support Program 

(DSP-I) 

USA-75 

SOB 

Objective: To place satellite into Not 

successful orbit from which DoD announced 

objectives can be met. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To place satellite into 

successful orbit from which DoD 

objectives can be met. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To place satellite into 

successful orbit from which DoD 

objectives can be met. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To place satellite into 

successful orbit from which DoD 

objectives can be met. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objectiae: To deploy a Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite and 

to work with a variety of secondary 

payloads: Interim Operational Contamination Monitor in the Cargo Bay; 

Terra Scout, Military Man in Space 

(MSS-l), Air Force Maui Optical 

System, Cosmic Radiation Effects 

and Activation Monitor, Shuttle 

Activation Monitor, and 3 others 

as Middeck Payloads. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

the experiments listed above. 

Objective: To launch an enhanced 

Defense Support Program (DSP) 

satellite, the third in the "DSP-I" 

block of satellites. 

Spacecraft: A survivable and reliable 

system that detects and reports on 

real-time missile launches, space 

launches and nuclear detonations. 

Not 

announced 

Not 

announced 

Not 

announced 

368.0 

361 .O 

91.6 

28.4 

Not 

announced 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

Forty-fourth flight of the 

Space Transportation System. 

Piloted by Fred Gregory and 

Tom Henricks. Mission 

specialists Jim Voss, Story 

Musgrave and Mario Runco, Jr. 

Payload specialist Tom Hennen. 

Launched from KSC, 644 p.m. 

EST. Landed at Edwards AFB, 

CA, 5:34 p.m. EST, Dec. 2. 

Mission duration: 

6 days, 22 hours, 51 minutes. 

Satellite successfully 

launched from Atlantis by an 

Inertial Upper Stage with two 

solid rocket motors 

at 716 a.m. EST. The DSP 

weighs approximately 2,360 kg. 

and is about 10 meters long. 

It measures about 6.7 meters 

aaoss its deployed solar 

array surface area and employs 

infrared detectors to sense 

heat from missile plumes. 

75 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1, 1991-September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mid, 

Inclination to 

Equator ('1 

Remarks 

Nov. 28 

Defense Meteorological Satellite (F-11) 

82A 

Atlas E 

USA-73 

Jan. 22 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(SE-42) 

2A 

Feb. 10 

DSCS 111 

6A 

Atlas I1 

USA-78 

Feb. 23 

GPS 

9A 

Delta 11 

USA-79 

Mar. 14 

Galaxy 5 

13A 

Atlas I 

Objectiw: To launch the first of 

the improved Block 5D-2 satellites 

in the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program. The sensor 

complement on this satellite 

includes the first water vapor 

profiler placed in orbit. This sensor 

provides information on the vertical 

humidity profile and water vapor 

content on a global basis. 

Objectiw: To conduct a world-wide 

research effort in the behavior 

of materials and life in 

weigh tlessness. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

the International Microgravity 

Laboratory-1 (IML-I) in the cargo bay. 

IML-1 included 42 experiments in life 

and materials saences. In addition, 

STS42 included Get Away Special 

payloads from 6 countries, including 

China for the first time, and the 5th 

Shuttle flight of the Investigations 

into Polymer Membrane Processing 

(IPMP), among others. 

Objective: To launch a new Defense 

Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS) III satellite. 

deep. Six SHF channels. 

Objective: To add to the existing 

constellation of Global Positioning 

System satellites in orbit. 

operating in inclined, semisynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: 110 long, 76 wide, 77" 

Spacecraft: A Block IIA satellite 

Objective: To launch a commercial 

communications satellite. 

Spacecraft: A communications 

satellite carrying 24 C-band 

transponders. 

855.0 

835.0 Meteorological Satellites. 

101.8 Launched from SLC-3W of 

98.9 Vandenberg AFB, CA. 

One in a series of Defense 

305.0 

293.0 

90.5 

56.9 

Not 

announced 

20,323.0 

20,039.0 

717.9 

54.6 

35,789.0 

35,787.0 

1,436.1 

Forty-fifth flight of the Space 

Transportation System. Piloted 

by Col. Ronald J. Grabe (USAF) 

and Stephen S. Oswald. Mission 

specialists Dr. Norman E. 

Thagard, MD; Lt. Col. David C. 

Hilmers (USMC); and William F. 

Readdy. Payload specialists 

Dr. Roberta L. Bondar, PhD and 

MD of the CSA and Ulf Merbold 

of the ESA. Launched 9:55 a.m. 

EST from Kennedy Space Center. 

Landed 11 :07 a.m. EST, 

Jan. 30 at Edwards AFB. 

This launch marked the start 

of a replenishment program for 

the DSCS constellation of 

satellites. 

Twelfth in a series of operational GPS satellites. System 

expected to be composed of 

24 satellites in 6 orbital 

planes. In orbit. 

Launched from Cape Canaveral, 

AFS FL. In orbit. 

76 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1, 1991 -September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mid, Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (*) 

Mar. 24 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-45) 

1 SA 

Apr. 10 

GPS 

19A 

Delta I1 

USA-80 

Apr. 25 

23A 

Titan IV 

USA-81 

May 7 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(STS-49) 

26A 

May 14 

Palapa B-4 

27A 

Delta 

Jun. 7 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

(EUVE) 

31A 

Delta I1 

Objective: To study the Sun, the upper 

reaches of the Earth's atmosphere, 

and astronomical objectives. 

the Atmospheric Laboratory for 

Applications and Science-1 (ATLASI) 

containing 12 instruments from 7 

countries that will conduct 13 

experiments to study the chemistry of the atmosphere, solar 

radiation, space plasma physics, 

and ultraviolet astronomy. STS45 

also carried other experiments 

including IPMP. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

Objective: To add to the existing 

constellation of Global Positioning 

System satellites in orbit. 

operating in inclined, semisynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: A Block IIA satellite 

Objective: To place satellite into 

successful orbit from which DoD 

objectives can be met. 

spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To rendezvous with, repair, 

and reboost a crippled INTELSAT VI 

communications satellite. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter with 

INTELSAT perigee kick motor and 

support equipment, including a 

capture bar assembly, plus equipment 

to demonstrate and verify Space 

Station Freedom maintenance and 

assembly tasks as well as a protein 

crystal growth experiment. First 

flight of newest orbiter, Endeavour. 

Objective: To launch an Indonesian 

communications satellite. 

Objective: To launch a satellite that 

will make both spectroscopic and 

wide-band observations over the 

entire extreme ultraviolet spectrum. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular shaped body with 

dual solar arrays. Four telescopes, 

each 40 centimeters across: three 

scanners and one deep survey/ 

spectrometer telescope. 

304.0 

292.0 

90.4 

57.0 

20,381 .O 

19,981 .O 

718.0 

55.2 

Not 

announced 

375.0 

363.0 

91.9 

28.3 

35,799.0 

35,777.0 

1,436.2 

0.0 

532.0 

517.0 

95.1 

28.4 

Forty-sixth flight of the Space 

Transportation System. Piloted 

by Col. Charles F. Bolden 

(USMC) and Lt. Col. Brian Duffy 

(USAF). Mission specialists 

Kathryn D. Sullivan, Capt. 

David C. Leestma 

(USN), and Michael Foale. Payload specialists Dirk D. 

Frimout (ESA) and Byron K. 

Lichtenberg. Launched at 613 a.m. 

EST from KSC. Landed 6:23 a.m. 

EST at Rwy 33 of the KSC 

Shuttle Landing Facility on Apr. 2. 

Thirteenth in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. 

System expected to be composed 

of 24 satellites in 6 orbital 

planes. In orbit. 

Launched from Vandenberg AFB, 

CA. In orbit. 

Forty-seventh flight of the 

Space Transportation System. 

Piloted by Capt. Daniel C. 

Brandenstein (USN) and Lt. Col. 

Kevin P. Chilton (USAF). 

Mission specialists Richard J. 

Hieb, Cmdr. Bruce E. Melnick 

(USCG), Cmdr. Pierre J. Thuot 

(USN), Kathryn C. Thornton, 

and Thomas D. Akers. Launched 

7:40 p.m. EDT from KSC. Landed 

4:57 p.m. EDT May 16 at Edwards 

AFB. 

Launched by a Delta rocket. 

Specifics unavailable. 

Launched aboard a Delta-I1 

rocket from Cape Canaveral. 

Returning data. In orbit. 

77 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1, 1991 -September 30,1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launce Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (7 

Jun. 10 

Intelsat-K 

32A 

Atlas IIA 

Jun. 25 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-50) 

34A 

Jul. 2 

DSCS I11 

37A 

Atlas I1 

USA-82 

Jul. 3 

Solar, Anomalous 

and Magnetospheric 

Partide Explorer 

(SAMPEX) 

38A 

Smut 

Jul. 7 

GPS 

39A 

Delta I1 

USA-83 

Objectiae: To launch the highest 

powered lntelsat satellite to date. 

Spacecraft: A communications satellite 

equipped with sixteen 54 megahertz 

transponders. 

Objectiae: To perform around-the-clock 

investigations of the effects of 

weightlessness on plants, humans, 

and materials. 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1, 

including 31 experiments ranging 

from manufacturing crystals for possible 

semiconductor use to the behavior of 

weightless fluids. Also includes the 

Investigations into Polymer Membrane 

Processing experiment and the Space 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment-11. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

Objectiae: To launch a new Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS) 111 satellite. 

Spacecraft: 110 long, 76 wide, 77" 

deep. Six SHF channels. 

Objective: To launch the first 

spacecraft in a new series of Small 

Explorers designed to investigate 

anomalous cosmic rays, galactic cosmic 

rays in the vicinity of Earth, solar 

energetic particles, and other 

phenomena of space physics. 

new Small Explorer series, the 

rectangular spacecraft weighing 348 

pounds was 4.5 feet tall and 2.8 feet 

wide without its two solar arrays 

deployed; they extended its width to 

6.9 feet. Carries four cosmic 

monitoring instruments. 

Objective: To add to the existing 

constellation of Global Positioning 

System satellites in orbit. 

operating in inclined, semisynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: The first in NASA's 

Spacecraft: A Block IIA satellite 

35,791.0 

35,782.0 

1,436.1 

0.0 

309.0 

297.0 

90.6 

28.5 

Not 

announced 

684.0 

511.0 

96.7 

81.7 

20,403.0 

19,960.0 

718.0 

55.0 

Launched on an Atlas IIA from 

Cape Canaveral AFS. In orbit. 

Entered into service Sep. 1, 

1992. 

Forty-eighth flight of the 

Space transportation system. 

Piloted by Richard N. Richards 

and Kenneth D. Bowersox. 

Mission specialists Bonnie 

Dunbar, Ellen Baker, and Col. 

(USAF) Carl Meade. Payload 

specialists Lawrence 1. DeLucas 

and Eugene H. Trinh. Launched 

from Kennedy Space Ctr. at 

12:12 pm., EDT. Landed at 

Kennedy Space Center 

July 9 at 743 a.m. EDT 

after a record-breaking 13 days, 

19 hours, and 31 minutes flight. 

In orbit. 

Launched into near-polar orbit 

by a Scout rocket at 10:19 a.m. 

EDT from Vandenberg AFB. In 

orbit. Built by the Goddard 

Space Flight Center, SAMPEX 

carries scientific instruments 

from the University of 

Maryland, California Institute 

of Technology, the Aerospace 

Corporation, and the Max Planck 

Institute for extraterrestrial 

Physics in Germany. 

Fourteenth in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. 

System expected to be composed 

of 24 satellites in 6 orbital 

planes. In orbit. 

78 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful US. Launches 

October 1, 1991-September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (7 

Jd. 24 

Geotail 

44A 

Delta I1 

Jd. 31 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-46) 

49A 

Aug. 2 

Eureka-1 

498 

Objectiw: To investigate the 

geomagnetic tail region of the 

magnetosphere. 

cylindrical satellite approximately 

2.2 meters in diameter with a height 

of 1.6 meters and a weight of about 

1,009 kg. 2 mechanically despun antennas. 

Designed by the Institute of Space and 

Astronautical Science (ISAS) of Japan, 

with 2 ISAS, 2 NASA, and 3 joint 

ISAS/NASA instruments. An element in 

the International Solar Terrestrial 

Physics (ISTP) Program. 

Spacecraft: A spin-stabilized, 

Objectiw: To evaluate the capability 

for safely deploying, controlling, 

and retrieving a tethered satellite 

and to demonstrate the capability 

of the system to serve as a facility 

for research in geophysical and 

space physics. 

Tethered Satellite System-1, a joint 

project of the United States and Italy 

weighing 1,139 Ibs. The crew was able to 

deploy the TSS satellite 

to only 256 meters instead of the goal 

of 20 kilometers. Other payloads 

included ESA's Eureca-1, an IMAX 

camera for filming parts of the mission, 

and 4 experiments. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

Objectiw: To perform research in the 

fields of material and life sciences 

plus radiebiology in a controlled 

microgravity environment at an 

operational orbit of 515 km. and 

return to a lower orbit for retrieval 

by another orbiter. 

(Eureka) designed and developed by EA. 

A rectangular satellite with twin solar 

arrays, equipped with an altitude and 

orbit control system to keep disturbance 

or microgravity experiments at a minimum. 

Launch mass: 4,491 kg. 

Spacecraft: European Retrievable Carrier 

341,116.0 

184.0 

Launched by a Delta 11-the 

first such launch under NASA's 

2,354.5 Medium ELV launch service 

28.7 contract with McDonnell Douglas 

Corporation-at 1026 a.m. EDT 

from Cape Gnaveral. The 

initial orbit is far distant 

from the Earth and will last 

about 2 1 /4 years, after which 

the satellite will be 

maneuvered closer in to measure 

the midmagnetosphere instead 

of the geomagnetic tail region 

of the magnetosphere examined 

earlier. In orbit. 

306.0 

299.0 

90.6 

28.5 

509.0 

504.0 

94.8 

28.5 

Forty-ninth flight of the 

Space transportation system. 

Piloted by Col. Loren J. 

Shriver (USAF) 

and Maj. Andrew M. Allen 

(USMC). Mission specialists 

Claude Nicollier (EA), Marsha 

S. Ivins, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, 

and Franklin R. Chang-Diaz. 

Payload specialist Franco 

Malerba (Italian Space 

Agency). Atlantis launched 

at 9:56 a.m. EDT from 

Kennedy Space Center. Landed 

at KSCs Shuttle Landing Facility at 9:12 a.m. EDT Aug. 8. 

Successfully deployed by Space 

Shuttle Atlantis and 

subsequently boosted to its 

desired orbit using its own 

propulsion on Aug. 6. To remain 

in orbit for 6 to 9 months 

before retrieval. 

79 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1991 -September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (*) 

Aug. 10 

TOPEXI POSEIDON 

52A 

Ariane 42P 

Aug. 31 

Satcom C4 

57A 

Delta I1 

Sep. 9 

GPS 

58A 

Delta I1 

USA-84 

Sep. 10 

Satcom C3 

608 

Ariane 44LP 

Sep. 12 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(SE-47) 

61A 

Objectiae: To increase our understanding 

of global ocean dynamics by making precise and accurate observations of sea 

level, thus yielding global ocean topography. 

with a single solar array and five instruments, 3 provided by NASA (a Dual-Frequency 

Radar Altimeter, the TOPEX Microwave Radiometer, and a Global Positioning Demonstration Receiver) and 2 by the French Centre 

d'Etudes Spatiales (a Dual-Doppler Tracking 

System Receiver and a Single-Frequency SolidState Radar Altimeter). Joint U.S.-French 

spacecraft, part of NASA's Mission to Planet 

Earth; weight, 2,520 kg.; length, 5.5 m.; 

span, 11.5 m; height, 6.6 m. 

Objective: To launch a commercial 

communications satellite. 

Satellite: A communications satellite 

to support cable TV programming. 

Spacecraft: Basically rectangular satellite 

Objective: To add to the existing 

constellation of Global I'osi tioni ng 

System satellites in orbit. 

operating in inclined, semi-synchronous 

orbit. 

Spacecraft: A Block IIA satellite 

Objective: To launch a commercial 

communications satellite. 

Satellite: A communications satellite 

to provide domestic service. 

Objective: To perform successfully the 

materials and life science investigations of Spacelab J, a joint 

laboratory sponsored by NASA and the 

National Space Development Agency 

(NASDA) of Japan. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

24 materials science and 19 life 

science investigations involving 

government, industry, and university 

sponsors in Japan and the US. SE-47 

secondary objectives included 9 Getaway Spccial (GAS) experiments, the 

Israel Space Agency Investigation 

about Hornets (ISAIAIH), Shuttle 

Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX), 

and the Solid Surface Combustion 

Experiment (SSCE). Payload weight: 

about 28,158 pounds. 

1,341 .O Successfully launched from 

1,330.0 

112.4 

66.0 

Kourou, French Guiana on an 

Ariane 42P booster at 8:08 p.m. 

local time. On Sep. 21 the 

satellite completed the 

last of 6 maneuvers that 

placed it in the required orbit. 

35,814.0 

35,761 .O 

1,436.2 

0.2 

20,630.0 

19,979.0 

723.0 

54.8 

35,799.0 

35,780.0 

1,436.3 

0.1 

301 .O 

297.0 

90.5 

56.9 

Successfully launched from Cape 

Canaveral. In orbit. 

Fifteenth in a series of operational GPS satellites. System 

expected to be composed of 24 

satellites in 6 orbital planes. 

In orbit. 

Successfully launched from 

Kourou, French Guiana by an 

Ariane 44LP. In orbit. 

Fiftieth flight of Space Transportation System. Piloted by 

Robert L. Gibson and Curtis L. 

Brown, Jr. Mission specialists 

Mark C. Lee, Jerome Apt, N. Jan 

Davis, and Dr. Mae C. Jemison, 

the first African-American 

woman to fly in space. Payload 

specialist Mamoru Mohri, 

the first Japanese to fly 

aboard a NASA spacecraft. Lee 

and Davis were the first 

married couple in space 

together. Endeavour 

launched at 1023 a.m. EDT at 

Kennedy Space Ctr. Landed there 

at 8:53 a.m. EDT on Sep. 20. 

80 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1, 1991-September 30, 1992 

Launch Date (GMT). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launce Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (7 

Sep. 25 

Mars 

63A 

Objective: To study the geology, 

Spacecraft: Rectangular satellite orbit 

On way 

Observer geophysics, and climate of Mars. to Mars 

Titan 111 with solar power, 7 complementary 

instruments (Gamma Ray Spectrometer, 

Mars Observer Science Camera, Thermal 

Emission Spectrometer, Pressure Modulator 

Infrared Radiometer, Mars Observer Laser 

Altimeter, Radio Science, and Magnetometer 

and Electron Reflectometer) and a Mars 

Balloon Relay to relay scientific telemetry 

from equipment deployed by the Russian 

Mars 94 mission. 

Successfully launched from Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral AFS 

at 1:05 p.m. EDT with its 

Transfer Orbit Stage to a 

parking orbit from which 

the TOS ignited setting the 

satellite on its 11-month 

journey to Mars orbit, expected 

to begin in August 1993. 

81 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1986-1 992 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 12,1986 

Dec. 5,1986 

Mar. 20,1987 

Sept. 25,1989 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 9,1990 

Mar. 14,1990 

Apr. 13,1990 

Jun. 23,1990 

Aug. 18,1990 

Feb. 10,1992 

Mar. 14,1992 

May 14,1992 

Jun. 10,1992 

Jd. 2,1992 

Aug. 31,1992 

Sep. 17,1986 

Feb. 26,1987 

Jun .20,1987 

Feb. 2,1988 

Sep. 24,1988 

Dec. 1,1990 

May 14,1991 

Nov. 28,1992 

RCA Satcom K-1 

Rtsatcom 7 

Palapa B-2P 

Rtsatcom F-8 

Skynet 4A 

JCSAT 2 

Syncom IV-5 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

Palapa-B2R 

In telsa t 6 F-4 

DSCS 111 

Galaxy 5 

Palapa-B4 

INTELSAT K 

DSCS Ill 

Satcom C4 

BSB-2R 

NOAA-I 0 

GOES 7 

DMSP F-9 

DMSP F-8 

NOAA-11 

DMSP F-10 

NOAA-I2 

DMSP F-11 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Space Shuttle 

A tlas-Centaur 

Delta 182 

Atlas/Centaur 

Titan Ill 

Titan Ill 

Space Shuttle 

Titan 111 

Delta 

Titan Ill 

Delta 

Atlas I1 

Atlas I 

Delta 

Atlas IIA 

Atlas 11 

Delta 11 

Launched for RCA American Communications, lnc. 

Launched for DoD. 

Indonesia domestic communications. 

Sixth, and last in series of geosynchronous satellites, for US. Navy. 

Launched for British Ministry of Defense. 

Second of dual Titan Ill launch, for Japanese Communications Satellite Co. 

Leasat 5, fourth in series of satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for British Satellite Broadcasting. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Commercial communications satellite. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Commercial communications satellite. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION^ 

Atlas E 

Delta 179 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Launched for NOAA. 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOESEast. 

Third in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

DoD Meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to repair NOAA-9. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

None launched since 1984. 

GEODESY 

None launched since 1985. 

Apr. 25,1988 

Jun. 16,1988 

Aug. 25,1988 

Feb. 14,1989 

June 10,1989 

Aug. 18,1989 

Oct. 21,1989 

Dec. 11,1989 

Jan. 24,1990 

Mar. 26,1990 

Aug. 2,1990 

Oct. 1,1990 

Nov. 16,1990 

Jd. 4,1991 

Feb. 23,1992 

Apr. 10,1992 

Jul. 7,1992 

Sep. 9,1992 

soos3 

NOVA-2 

soos4 

GPSl (Block IIR) 

GPS2 (Block 1IR) 

GPS3 (Block 1lR) 

GPS4 (Block IIR) 

GPS5 (Block IIR) 

GPS6 (Block IIR) 

GI37 (Block IIR) 

GPS8 (Block IIR) 

GPS9 (Block llR) 

GPSlO (Block IIR) 

GPSll (Block IIR) 

GPSl2 (Block IIR) 

GPS13 (Block IIR) 

GPS14 (Block IIR) 

GPS15 (Block IIR) 

scout 

Scout 

scout 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Delta II 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Dclta II 

Delta II 

Delta I1 

Delta 11 

Delta 11 

NAVIG AT ION^ 

Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Third of improved Transit System satellities, for DoD. 

Dual Satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satcllite. 

Global Positioning System Satcllite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satcllite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

aDoes not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

82 
APPENDIX B-2 

US.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1986-1 992 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Nov. 14,1986 

Mar. 25,1988 

Nov. 18,1989 

Feb. 14,1990 

Feb. 14,1990 

Apr. 5,1990 

Apr. 25,1990 

June 1,1990 

Jul. 25,1990 

Apr. 7,1991 

Sep. 15,1991 

Jun. 7,1992 

Jul. 3,1992 

Jul. 24,1992 

Aug. 2,1992 

Polar Bear 

San Marco D/L 

COBE 

LACE 

ME 

PEGSAT 

Hubble Space Telescope 

ROSAT 

CRRES 

Compton Gamma Ray 

Observatory 

Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Solar, Anomalous 

and Magnetospheric 

Particle Explorer 

Geotail 

Eureka-1 

Scout 

Scout 

Delta 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Pegasus 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

A tlas/Cen taur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Scout 

Delta 11 

Space Shuttle 

Experiments to study radiointerference caused by Aurora Borealis, for DoD. 

International satellite to study Earth’s lower atmosphere. 

Measurement of cosmic background. 

Low-powered atmospheric zompensation experiment, for DoD. 

Second payload, relay mirrmx experiment satellite, for DoD. 

Chemical release experiment satellite for NASA and DoD. 

Long-term astronomical observations. 

Measurement of x-ray and extreme ultraviolet sources. 

Chemical release experiment. 

Measurement of celestial gamma-rays. 

Measurement of Earth’s atmosphere and ozone layer. 

Spectroscopic and wide-band observations over the entire extreme 

Investigation of cosmic rays and other phenomena of space physics. 

ultraviolet spectrum. 

lnvestigation of geomagnetic tail region of the magnetosphere. 

Research in the fields of material and life sciences. 

83 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1 992 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20,1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6,1976, while orbiter circled 

planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, 

tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20,1976, while orbiter circled 

planet photographing it and relayingall data to Earth. Lander photographeditssurroundings, 

tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km. of Sun, measuring solar wind, corona, 

electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had some West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 

plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, arrived Saturn in 1981, 

going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung around Jupiter in 

Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. 

Sept 9,1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Jan. 15,1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Aug. 20,1977 Voyager 2 Titan HIECentaur 

Sept. 5,1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

May 20,1978 Pioneer 

Venus 1 

AtlasCentaur 

Aug. 8,1978 Pioneer 

Venus 2 

AtlasCentaur Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through Venus atmosphere 

Dec. 9, returned data. 

May 4,1989 Magellan Space 

Shuttle 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Aug. IO, 1990, returning radar image of surface. 

Oct. 18,1989 Galileo Space 

Shuttle 

Planetary exploration spacecraft, composed of probe to enter Jupiter’s atmosphere and orbiter 

to return scientific data. 

Oct. 6,1990 Ulysses Space 

Shuttle 

Solar exploration spaceaaft, to explore interstellar space and the Sun. 

Sep. 25,1992 Mars 

Observer 

Titan 111 Planetary exploration spacecraft to study the geology, geophysics, and climate of Mars. 

84 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time High lights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini I1 

Gemini 12 

Syuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

syuz4 

soy5 

Apollo 9 

Apr. 12,1961 

May 5,1961 

July 21,1961 

Aug. 6,1961 

Feb. 20,1962 

May 24,1962 

Aug. 11,1962 

Aug. 12,1962 

Oct. 3,1962 

May 15,1963 

June 14,1963 

June 16,1963 

Oct. 12,1964 

Mar. 18,1965 

Mar. 23,1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21,1965 

Dec. 4,1965 

Dec. 15,1965 

Mar. 16,1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18,1966 

Sept. 12,1966 

Nov. 11,1966 

Apr. 23,1967 

Oct. 11,1968 

Oct. 26,1968 

Dec. 21,1968 

Jan. 14,1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3,1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel 1. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

0:1:48 

0:0:15 

0016 

1:1:18 

0:4:55 

0:4:56 

3:22:25 

2:22:59 

0:9:13 

1:1020 

4:23:6 

2:22:50 

1:0:17 

1 :2:2 

0:4:53 

4:1:56 

722:55 

13: 18:35 

1:1:51 

0:1041 

3:0:21 

2:22:47 

2:23:17 

3:22:35 

1:2:37 

1020:9 

3:22:51 

6:3:1 

2:23:23 

3:0:56 

10l:l 

First human flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing: astronaut safe. 

First flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km. beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km. of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km. from target. 

First US. flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

Second dual mission (withvostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km. of Vostok 5. 

First 3-person crew. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min.). 

First US. 2-person flight; first manual maneuvers in orbit. 

21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration human flight to date. 

Longest human flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm. of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, then 

Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km.). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 hrs.) 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry acadent. 

First US. 3-person mission. 

Agena target rocket). 

Maneuvered near uncrewed Soyuz 2. 

First human orbit($ of Moon; first human departure from 

Earth’s sphere of influence; highest speed 

attained in human flight to date. 

from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts 

Successfully simulated in Earth-orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar 

surface and rejoining with command module. 

85 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Apollo 10 

Apollo I1 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz I1 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

sop2 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

May 18,1969 

July 16,1969 

Oct. 11,1969 

Oct. 12,1969 

Oct. 13,1969 

Nov. 14,1969 

Apr. 11,1970 

June 1,1970 

Jan. 31,1971 

Apr. 22,1971 

June 6,1971 

July 26,1971 

Apr. 16,1972 

Dec. 7,1972 

May 25,1973 

July 28,1973 

Sept. 27,1973 

Nov. 16,1973 

Dec. 18,1973 

July 3,1974 

Aug. 26,1974 

Dec. 2,1974 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Ed~ E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasovf 

A. V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor 1. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly II 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack I<. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

ravel R. I’opovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

8:0:3 

a3:9 

4:22:42 

4:22:41 

4:22:50 

10436 

5:22:55 

1716:59 

9:0:2 

1 :23:46 

23:18:22 

12:712 

11:1:51 

1 2: 13:52 

28:0:50 

59:11:9 

1:23:16 

84: 1 : 16 

7:2055 

15:17:30 

2:0:12 

5:22:24 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including 

lunar module to 14,300 m. from the lunar surface. 

First human landing on lunar surface and safe return to 

Earth. First return of rock and soil samples to Earth, 

and human deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

actually docking. Each conducted certain experiments, 

including welding and Earth and celestial observation. 

Soyuz 6,7, and 8 operated as a group flight without 

Second human lunar landing Explored surface of Moon and 

retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed 

in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19,1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in ervice module. Ship arcled, 

Moon, with crew using LM as ’lifeboat” until just before 

reentry. 

Longest human spaceflight to date. 

Third human lunar landing. Mission demonstrated 

pinpoint landing capability and continued human 

exploration. 

launched Apr. 19. Crew recovered Apr. 24,1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board space station 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz I1 crew occupied space 

station for 22 days. Crew perished in final phase 

of Soyuz I1 capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

mission, which carried Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Worden’s inflight EVA of 38 min. 12 sec was performed 

during return trip. 

Fourth human lunar landing and first Apollo ”J” series 

Fifth human lunar landing, with Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo human lunar landing, again with 

roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched uncrewed May 14) for 

28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; last of 

Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTI’ configuration. 

experimen ts. 

station. 

86 
APPENDIX C

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo 

Soyuz 21 

Soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Sop 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

Soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

SOFZ T-2 

soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

SO~UZ T-3 

Soyuz T-4 

soyuz 39 

Jan. 10,1975 

Apr. 5,1975 

May 24,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 6,1976 

Sept. 15,1976 

Oct. 14,1976 

Feb. 7,1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10,1977 

Jan. 10,1978 

Mar. 2,1978 

June 15,1978 

June 27,1978 

Aug. 26,1978 

Feb. 25,1979 

Apr. 10,1979 

June 6,1979 

Apr. 9,1980 

May 26,1980 

June 5,1980 

July 23,1980 

Sept. 18,1980 

Nov. 27,1980 

Mar. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1981 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr 1. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy 1. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi 1. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid 1. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bcrtalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Akscnov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mcndcz 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strckalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdcmidiyn Gurragcha 

2913:20 

0:020 

62:23:20 

5:2231 

9:1:28 

48:1:32 

7:21:54 

2:06 

17 17:23 

2:0:46 

3710:6 

64:22:53 

7:22:17 

9:15:23 

722:4 

6720:14 

108:4:24 

1:231 

7:18: 17 

55: 1 :29 

65:20:54 

3:22:21 

79: 15: 1 7 

72043 

12:19:8 

74:18:38 

7:2043 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered after 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for .4pollo in docking and joint experiments of ASTP 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint (ASTP) experiments of ASTP 

abort. 

mission. 

mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resourccs study with multispectral camera system. 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cosmonaut 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first Polish 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; crew 

duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

duration 5 days, 22 hrs., 59 min. 

to orbit. 

duration 139 days, 14 hrs, 48 min. 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 49 min. Jaehn was first German 

Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

duration 175 days, 36 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; crew 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. Ivanov 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for Soyuz 32 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. Crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. Crew 

was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

crew while Soyuz 32 returned without a crew. 

duration 184 days, 20 hrs, 12 min. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 46 min. Farkas was first 

I-lungarian to orbit. 

generation ferry. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 42 min. Pham was first 

Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First crewed flight of newDocked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. Crew 

Dockcd with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to orbit. 

Dockcd with Salyut 6. First 3-person flight in Soviet 

program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

87 
APPENDIX C 

(con timed) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Space Shuttle Apr .12,1981 

Columbia (STS 1 ) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(SK 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(SE 3) 

Soyuz T-5 

SO~UZ T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

SO~UZ T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(SK 6) 

Soyuz T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger. 

(SE 7) 

SOPZ T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(SlS41B) 

SO~UZ T-1 0 

May 14,1981 

Nov. 12, I981 

Mar. 22, IS82 

May 13,1982 

June 24,1982 

June 27,1982 

Aug. 19,1982 

Nov. 11,1982 

Apr. 4,1983 

Apr. 20,1983 

June 18,1983 

June 28,1983 

Aug. 30,1983 

Nov. 28,1983 

Feb. 3,1984 

Feb. 8,1984 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid 1. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup ChrCtien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

ladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard 1% Truly 

Danicl C. Drandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Dluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewstcr W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Roben L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

2:6:21 

7:2041 

2:6:13 

8:4:49 

211:9:5 

7:21:51 

7:1:9 

721:52 

5:2:14 

5:0:24 

2:018 

6:2:24 

149:9:46 

6:1:9 

10747 

72316 

62:22:43 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in orbit. 

First landing of airplane-like craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian cosmonaut 

to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific payload 

(OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

(OSS 1). Second test of remote manipulator arm. Flight 

extended 1 day because of flooding at primary landing 

site; alternate landing site used. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. Crew 

returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. ChrCtien first French cosmonaut to 

orbit. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific payload 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD payload, 

additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. 

Completed testing program. Returned for reuse. 

to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet woman 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational flight; 

launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C- 3); 

first flight with 4 crew members. EVA test canceled 

when space suits malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched TDRS 1. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station. 

Sevcnth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 commeraal 

Satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa B-I), also 

launched and retrieved SPAS 01; first flight 

with 5 crewmembers, including first woman 

US. astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched one commercial 

satellite (Insat I-B), first flight of US. black 

astronaut. 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of Spacelab 1, 

first flight of 6 mew members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-US. astronaut to fly in US. space 

program (Merbold). 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication 

satellites failed to achieve orbit. First 

use of Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Gew set space duration 

record of 237 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-11. 

88 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

SO~UZ T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS41C) 

SO~UZ T-12 

Space Shuttle 

(STS41D) 

Discovery 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS41G) 

Space Shuttle 

(STS51A) 

Discovery 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS51C) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS51 B) 

SO~UZ T-13 

Space Shuttle 

(STS51 G) 

Discovery 

Apr. 3,1984 

Apr. 6,1984 

July 17,1984 

Aug. 30,1984 

Oct. 5,1984 

Nov. 8,1984 

Jan. 24,1985 

Apr. 12,1985 

Apr. 29,1985 

June 5,1985 

June 17,1985 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scdy-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Garn 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk van den Berg 

Taylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Aziz AI-Saud 

181:21:48 

6:23:41 

11:19:14 

6:0:56 

8:5:24 

723:45 

3:1:33 

6:23:55 

70:9 

112:3:12 

71:39 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first lndian in 

space. Crew returned in Soyuz T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment of LDEF-1, 

for later retrieval, Solar Maximum Satellite retrieved, 

repaired, and redeployed. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First female 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of US. 

non-astronaut. 

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first of 7 crew 

members, including first flight of two US. women and 

one Canadian (Garneau). 

Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first retrieval and 

return of two disabled communications satellites 

(Westar 6, Palapa B2) to Earth. 

Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications satellites 

First US. Senator in space (Garn). 

Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay of 

shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to Earth with 

Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, Sept. 26,1985. 

Eighteenth STS flight. Three communications satellites. 

One reusable payload, Spartan-1. First U.S. flight 

with French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

89 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-51 F) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51 I) 

%~UZ T-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-5lJ) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-61A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS61 B) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS61C) 

%~UZ T-15 

SO~UZ TM-2 

Soy~z TM-3 

SOFZ TM-4 

SO~UZ TM-5 

July 29,1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Sept. 17,1985 

Oct. 3,1985 

Oct. 30,1985 

Nov. 27,1985 

Jan. 12,1986 

Mar. 13,1986 

Feb. 5,1987 

July 22,1987 

Dec. 21,1987 

Jun. 7,1988 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Ruchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Ernst Mcsserschmid 

Reinhard Furrer (FRG) 

Wubbo J. Ockels (ESA) 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. OConnor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Sherwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steve A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

Alcksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

Vladimir Titov 

Musa Manarov 

Anatoliy Levchenko 

Viktor Savinykh 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Alcksandur Alcksandrov 

722:45 

72:18 

64:21:52 

4:1:45 

Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo bay. 

Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. Repaired Syncom IV-3. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Viktor Savinykh, 

Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin returned 

to Earth Nov. 21,1985, when Vasyutin became ill. 

Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DOD mission. 

7:0:45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German Spacelab 

D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

6:22:54 

6:2:4 

125:l:l 

174:3:26 

160:7:16 

180:5 

9:2013 

Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. First flight of Mexican astronaut (Neri Vela). 

Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one communications 

satellite. First member of US. House of Representatives 

in space (Bill Nelson). 

Docked with MIR space station on May 5/6 transferred 

to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26 transferred from 

Salyut 7 back to MIR. 

Docked with MIR space station. Romanenko established 

long distance stay in space record of 326 days. 

Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

remained in MIR 160 days, returned with 

Yuriy Romanenko. Viktorenko and Faris returned in 

Soyuz TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin who 

experienced medical problems. Mohammed 

Faris first Syrian in space. 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of Yuriy 

Romanenko, Aleksandr Aleksandrov, and 

Anatoliy Levchenko returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Bulgarian in space. Crew returned Jun. 17 

in Soyuz TM-4. 

Docked with MIR space station, Aleksandrov first 

90 
APPENDIX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date 

soyuz TM-6 

STS26 

soyuz TM-7 

STS27 

STS29 

STs30 

STS28 

Soyu~ TM-8 

sTs34 

sTs33 

STS32 

SOPZ TM-9 

STS-36 

Aug. 29,1988 

Sept. 29,1988 

Nov. 26,1988 

Dec. 2,1988 

Mar. 13,1989 

May 4,1989 

Aug. 8,1989 

Sept. 5,1989 

Oct. 18,1989 

Nov. 23,1989 

Jan. 9,1990 

Feb. 11, 1990 

Feb. 28,1990 

~~~ 

Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Vladimir Lyakhov 8:19:27 Docked with MIR space station, Mohmand first 

Valeriy Polyakov Afghanistani in space. Crew returned Sept. 7, 

Abdul Mohmand in Soyuz TM-5. 

Frederick H. Hauck 4:1 Twenty-sixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilmers 

George D. Nelson 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Sagey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

151:11 Docked with MIR space station. Soyuz TM-6 returned with 

Chrktien, Vladimir Titov, and Musa Manarov. Titov 

and Manarov completed 366-day mission Dec. 21. 

Crew of Krikalev, Volkov, and Valeriy 

Polyakov returned Apr. 27,1989 in Soyuz TM-7. 

Robert "Hoot" Gibson 4:9:6 Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Guy S. Gardner 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jerry L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

Michael L. Coats 4:2339 Twenty-eighth STS flight. Launched TDRS-4. 

John E. Blaha 

James P. Bagian 

James F. Buchli 

Robert C. Springer 

David M. Walker 4:057 Twenty-ninth STS flight. Venus orbiter 

Ronald J. Grabe Magellan launched. 

Nomman E. Thagard 

Mary L. Cleave 

Mark C. Lee 

Brewster H. Shaw 5:1 Thirtieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Richard N. Richards 

James C. Adamson 

David C. Lecstma 

Mark N. Brown 

Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Donald E. Williams 

Michael J. McCulley orbiter Galileo. 

Shannon W. Lucid 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Ellen S. Baker 

Frederick D. Gregory 5:0:7 Thirty-second STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

John E. Blaha 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manley L. "Sonny" Carter 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 1021 Thirty-third STS flight. Launched Syncom IV-5 and 

James D. Wetherbee 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

G. David Low 

Anatoliy Solovyov 178:22:19 Docked with MIR spnccstation. Crew returned Aug. 9, 

Aleksandr Balandin 

John 0. Creighton 4:1019 Thirty-fourth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

John H. Casper 

David C. Hilmers 

Richard H. Mullane 

Pierre J. Thout 

166:6 

4:23:39 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of Viktorenko and 

Serebrov returned in Soyuz TM-8, Feb. 9,1990. 

Thirty-first STS flight. Launched Jupiter probe and 

retrieved Long-Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF). 

1990, in Soyuz TM-9. 

91 
APPENDIX c 

(con tin ued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

STS31 

sop2 TM-10 

STS41 

STS38 

STS35 

S~UZ TM-I1 

STS37 

STS39 

SOPZ TM-12 

STS40 

STS43 

STS48 

Apr. 24,1990 

Aug. 1,1990 

Oct. 6,1990 

Nov. 15,1990 

Dec. 2,1990 

Dec. 2,1990 

Apr. 5, 1991 

Apr. 28,1991 

May 18,1991 

Jun. 5,1991 

Aug. 2,1991 

Sept. 12,1991 

Loren I. Shriver 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Steven A. Hawley 

Bruce McCandless I1 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Gennadiy Manakov 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Richard N. Richards 

Robert D. Cabana 

Bruce E. Melnick 

William M. Shepherd 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard 0. Covey 

Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 

Charles ”Sam” Gemar 

Robert C. Springer 

Carl J. Meade 

Vance D. Brand 

Guy S. Gardner 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

John M. ’Mike” Loungc 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Viktor Afanasycv 

Musa Manarov 

Stcven R. Nagel 

Kenncth D. Cameron 

Linda Godwin 

Jerry L. Ross 

Michael L. Coats 

Blaine Hammond, Jr. 

Gregory L. Harbaugh 

Donald R. McMonagle 

Guion S. Ihford 

Lacy Vcach 

Richard ). I-licb 

Anatoly Artscbarskiy 

Sergei Krikalev 

Helen Sharman (UK) 

Jay Apt 

Bryan D. OConncr 

Sidney M. Gu tierrcz 

James P. Bagian 

Tamara E. Jernigan 

M. Rhca Seddon 

5:1:16 

130:20:36 

4:2:10 

4:2 1 :55 

8:23:5 

175:01:52 

6:0:32 

8:722 

144:15:22 

9:2:15 

Thirty-fifth STS flight. Launched Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST). 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew returned 

Dec. 10,1990, with Toyohiro Akiyama, 

Japanese astronaut. 

investigate interstellar space and the Sun. 

Thirty-sixth STS flight. Ulysses spacecraft to 

Thirty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Thirty-eighth STS flight. ASTRO-1 in cargo bay. 

Docked with MIR space station. Toyohiro Akiyama 

returned Dec. 10,1990, with previous MIR uew of 

Gennadiy Manakov and Gennadiy Strekalov. 

Thirty-ninth STS flight. Launched Gamma Ray Observatory to measure celestial gamma-rays. 

Forticth STS flight. Dedicatcd DoD mission. 

Dockcd with MIR space station. Helen Sharman first 

from United Kingdom to fly in space. Crew of Viktor 

Afanasyev, Musa Manarov, and Helen Sharman 

returned May 20,1991. Artsebarskiy and Krikalev 

remained on board MIR, with Artsebarskiy returning 

Oct. 10,1991, and Krikalev doing so Mar. 25,1992. 

(SEI) in cargo bay. 

Forty-first STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life Sciences 

Francis A. “Drew” Gaffncy 

Millic Hughes-Fulford 

John E. Blaha 8:21:21 

Michael A. Baker 

Shannon W. Lucid 

G. David Low 

James C. Adamson 

John Crcighton 5:8:28 

Kenncth Reightlcr, Jr. 

Charles D. Gcmar 

James F. Buchli 

Mark N. Brown 

Forty-sccond STS flight. Launched fourth Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite (TDRS5). 

Forty-third STS flight. Launched Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite WARS). 

92 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Soviet/CIS Human Spaceflights, 1961-1 992 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

Soyu~ 'I'M-13 

STS44 

STS42 

SO~UZ 'I'M44 

sTs45 

STS49 

STS50 

Soyu~ TM-I 5 

STS46 

sTs47 

Oct. 2,1991 

Nov. 24,1991 

Jan. 22,1992 

Mar. 17,1992 

Mar .24,1992 

May 7,1992 

Jun. 25,1992 

Jul. 27,1992 

Jul. 31,1992 

Sep. 12,1992 

Aleksandr Volkov 9016:OO 

Toktar Aubakirov 

(Kazakh Republic) 

Franz Viehboeck (Austria) 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew returned Oct. IO, 

1991, with Anatoly Artsebarsky. 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Tom Hcnricks 

Jim Voss 

Story Musgrave 

Mario Runco, Jr. 

Tom Hennen 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Stephen S. Oswald 

Norman E. Thagard 

David C. Hilrners 

William F. Readdy 

Roberta L. Bondar 

Ulf Merbold (ESA) 

Alexandr Viktorenko 

Alexandr Kaleri 

Klaus-Dietrich nade 

(Germany) 

Charles F. Bolden 

Brian Duffy 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

David C. Leestrna 

Michael Foale 

Dirk D. Frimout 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Kevin P. Chilton 

Richard J. IHieb 

Bruce E. Mclnick 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard N. Richards 

Kenneth D. Bowersox 

Bonnie Dunbar 

Ellen Baker 

Carl Meade 

Anatoly Solovyov 

Sergei Avdeyev 

Michel Tognini (France) 

Loren J. Shriver 

Andrew M. Allen 

Claude Nicollier (ESA) 

Marsha S. Ivins 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Franco Malerba (Italy) 

Robert L. Gibson 

Curtis L. Brown, Jr. 

Mark C. Lee 

Jerome Apt 

N. Jan Davis 

Mae C. Jemison 

Mamoru Mohri (Japan) 

6:22:51 Forty-fourth STS flight. Launched Defense Support 

Program (DSP) satellite. 

8:1:12 Forty-fifth STS flight. Carried International 

Microgravity Laboratory-1 in cargo bay. 

145:15:11 

9:O:lO 

First manned CIS space mission. Docked with Mir space 

station Mar. 19. The TM-13 capsule with Flade, 

Aleksandr Volkov, and Sergei Krikalev returned 

to Earth Mar. 25. Krikalev had been in space313 days. 

Viktorenko and Kaleri remained in the TM-14 spacecraft. 

for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1). 

Forty-sixth STS flight. Carried Atmospheric Laboratory 

8:16:17 Forty-seventh STS flight. Reboosted a crippled 

INTELSAT VI communications satellite. 

13: 19:3O 

7:23:16 

7:22:3O 

Forty-eighth STS flight. Carried US. Microgravity 

L.aboratory-1. 

Docked with Mir Space Station Jul. 29. Tognini returned 

to Earth in TM-14 capsule with Alexandr Viktorenko 

and Alexandr Kaleri. Solovyov and Avdeyev remained 

on Mir. Mission still in progress. 

System-I and Eureka-1. 

For:y-nineth STS flight. Deployed Tethered Satellite 

Fiftieth STS flight. Carried Spacelab J. Jemison first 

African American woman to fly in space. Mohri first 

Japanese to fly on NASA spacecraft. Lee and Davis 

first married couple in space together. 

93 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Stages: 

Vehicle Engin elMotor 

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunThrust xHeight 185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Propellanta (kilonewtons)b (m) Orbit Orbit Orbitd Launch' 

Scout GI 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Pegasus 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Delta I1 

(6920,6925) 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Delta I1 

(7920,7925) 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Atlas E 

1. 

Atlas I 

1. 

2. 

Atlas I1 

1. 

2. 

Atlas IIA 

1. 

2. 

Titan I1 

1. 

2. 

Algol IIIA .............................. Solid ....................................... Castor IIA .............................. Solid ....................................... Antares IIIA .......................... Solid .................... Altair 111 ................................. Solid .................... . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . 

Orion 505 .............................. Solid ....................................... Orion 50 ................................. Solid ....................................... Orion 38 ................................. Solid ....................................... 

RS270/B ............................... LOX/RI'-I ............................. Castor IVA (9) ...................... 

Star 48B (6925) ...................... 

Solid ....................................... 

Solid ....................................... AJ10-118K ............................. N,O,/A-50 ............................. 

RS270/Cs .. ... ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... LOX/ RP- 1 .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . Hercules GEM (9) ................ 

Star 48B (7925) ...................... 

Solid ....................................... 

Solid ....................................... 

AJ10-118K ............................. N,O,/A-50 ............................. 

Atlas: MA-3 ........................... LOX/RP-1 ............................. 

Atlas: MA-5 ........................... LOX/RP-1 ............................. 

Centaur 1: .............................. LOX/LH, ........................................... 

RL10A-3-3A (2) 

Atlas: MA-5A ....................... LOX/RP-1 .............................. 

Centaur 11: ............................. LOX/LH, ........................................... 

RLlOA-3-3A (2) 

Atlas: MA-5A ....................... LOX/RP-1 ............................. 

Centaur 11: ............................. LOX/LH, ........................................... 

RLIOA-4 (2) 

LR-87-AJ-5 (2) ....................... N,O,/A-50 ............................ LR-91-AJ-5 ............................ N,O,/A-50 .............................. 

414.8 (SL) 

267.2 

80.8 

25.8 

580.5 

138.6 

35.8 

921 .O (SL) 

432.0 (ea) 

42.9 

67.2 

894.4 (SL) 

440.0 (ea) 

42.9 

67.2 

1739.5 (SL) 

1954.0 (SL) 

73.4 (ea) 

2110.0 (SL) 

73.4 (ea) 

2110.0 (SL) 

92.5 (ea) 

1045.0 (ea) 

440.0 

1.14x22.90 255' 54 155 19791601 

1.14x9.40 

0.79x6.31 

0.76x3.51 

0.51x1.48 

210d 

6.71x15.04 380 - 210 1990 

1.28x8.88 

1.28x2.66 

0.97x1.34 

(wing span) 2md 

2.44x38.20 3983 1447 2413 1989[601 

2943d (6925 vers) (6920 vers) 

(6920 vers) 

2.44x38.20 

1.01~11 .I6 

2.44x5.97 

1.25x2.04 

2.44x29.70 5039 1819 3175 1990[601 

2.90x26.09 

1.01 xl2.95 

2.44~ 5.97 

1.25x2.04 

3.05x28.1 820d - 9l@ 1968[58] 

1 860dg (Atlas B) 

3.05x21.3 

3819d (7925 vers) (7920 vers) 

3.05x45.6 5900 2375 - 1990 [66] 

3.05x22.16 

3.05x9.14 

(Atlas Centaur) 

3.05x49.3 6580 2610 4300 1991 [661 

3.05x24.9 

3.05x10.05 

(Atlas Centaur) 

3.05x49.3 7280 2745 4750 19921663 

3.05x24.9 

3.05x10.05 

3.05x42.9 1905d - - 1988 [64] 

3.05x21.5 

3.05x12.2 

(Atlas Centaur) 

94 
APPENDIX D 

(continued) 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Stages: 

Vehicle Enginmotor 

wc 

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunThrust xHeight 185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Propellanta (kilonewtons)b (m) Orbit Orbit Orbitd Launch' 

Titan I11 

0. Titan 111 SRM (2) ................... (5-1 /2 segments) 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) ...................... 2. LR91-AJ-11 ............................ 

Titan IV 

0. Titan IV SRM (2) .................. (7 segments) 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) ...................... 2. LR91-AJ-11 ............................ 

Space Shuttld 

1. SRB: Shuttle SRB (2) ............ 2. Orbiter/ETSSME (3) ........... 

3. Orbiter/OMS: OMS ............. engines (2) 

3.05x47.3 14515 4990h - 1989 [66] 

Solid ....................................... 6210.0 (ea) 3.05x27.6 (Titan IIIB) 

N,O,/A-50 ............................. 1214.5 (ea) 3.05x24.0 

N,04/A-50 ............................. 462.8 3.05x10.0 

3.05x47.3 17700 6350' - 1989 [661 

Solid ....................................... 8OOO.O (ea) 3.05x34.1 14110d (Titan IIIB) 

N204/A-50 ............................. 1214.5 (ea) 3.05x26.4 

NzO,/A-50 ............................. 462.8 3.05x10.0 

23.79x56.14 24900k 5900' - 1981 

(wing span) 

Solid ....................................... 13616.0(ea) 3.70x45.46 

LOX/LH, ........................................... 1668.7(ea) 8.41x47.00 

(external tank) 

23.79x37.24 

(orbiter) 

N204 /MMH ........................... 1 18.8(ea) 23.79x37.24 

(orbiter) 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: 

A-50 = Aerozine 50 (50% Monomethyl Hydrazine, 

50% Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine) 

LH, = Liquid Hydrogen; LOX=Liquid Oxygen 

MMH = Monomethyl Hydrazine 

N,O, = Nitrogen Tetroxide 

RP-1 = Rocket Propellant 1 (kerosene) 

Solid = Solid Propellant (any type) 

bThrust at vacuum except where indicated at sea level (SL). 

Launch inclination of 28.5' except where indicated. 

Polar launch from Vandenberg AFB, CA. 

Notes 

With Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS). 

With appropriate upper stage. i 

1 Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) fire 

in parallel with the Space Shuttle Main Engines 

(SSMEs), which are mounted on the aft end of the 

Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle (OV) and burn fuel and 

oxidizer from the External Tank (ET). SRBs 

stage first, with SSMEs continuing to fire. The 

ET stages next, just before the orbiter attains 

orbit. The Orbiter Maneuvering 

Subsystem (OMS) is then used to maneuver or 

change the orbit of the OV. 

e Latest version [initial version]. 280 x 420 km. orbit. 

37.7'1aunc.h from Wallops Flight Facility, VA. 

8 With TE-M-364-4 upper stage. 

I With Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) or Transfer 

Orbit Stage (TOS). 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

Director of Space Transportation System Support Programs. 

SOURCE 0FDATA:David H. Burks, Senior Engineer, Science Applications International Corporation, Washington, DC. 

95 
Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions ofdollars) 

NASA 

Spacea 

Commerce 

Inter- Agri- Total 

ior culture NSF DOT EPA Space 

Fiscal NASA 

Year Total 

1959 ........................ 331 

1960 ........................ 524 

1961 ........................ 964 

1963 ........................ 3,673 

1964 ........................ 5,100 

1965 ........................ 5,250 

1966 ........................ 5,175 

1962 ........................ 1,825 

1969 ........................ 3,991 

Transit Qtr ............. 932 

1977 ........................ 3,818 

1978 ........................ 4,060 

1986 ........................ 7,766 

1987 ........................ 10,507 

1988 ........................ 9,026 

1989 ........................ 10,969 

1990 ........................ 13,073 

Defense Other Energy 

... 34 

... 43 

... 68 

... 148 

... 214 

... 210 

... 229 

... 187 

... 184 

... 145 

... 118 

... la 

127 95 

97 55 

109 54 

116 42 

1 07 30 

111 23 

31 5 

131 22 

157 34 

178 59 

160 40 

158 41 

234 61 

242 39 

2 93 34 

474 34 

368 35 

352 48 

626 241 

440 97 

383 79 

426 108 

485 97 

490 

561 

814 

1,298 

1,550 

1,599 

1,574 

1,689 

1,664 

1,922 

2,013 

1,678 

1,512 

1,407 

7,623 

1,766 

1,892 

1,983 

460 

2,412 

2,738 

3,036 

3,848 

4,828 

6,679 

9,019 

10,195 

12,768 

14,126 

16,287 

17,679 

17,906 

15,616 

14,181 I 

785 

1,066 

1,808 

3,295 

5,435 

6,831 

6,956 

6,970 

6,710 

6,529 

5,976 

5,341 

4,741 

4,575 

4,825 

4,640 

4,914 

5,320 

1,341 

5,983 

6,518 

7,244 

8,689 

9,978 

12,441 

15,589 

17,136 

20,167 

21,659 

26,448 

26,607 

28,443 

28,140 

27,643 * 

261 

462 

926 

1,797 

3,626 

5,016 

5,138 

5,065 

4,830 

4,430 

3,822 

3,547 

3,101 

3,071 

3,093 

2,759 

2,915 

3,225 

849 

3,440 

3,623 

4,030 

4,680 

4,992 

5,528 

6,328 

6,648 

6,925 

7,165 

9,809e 

8,302 

10,098 

12,142 

73,036 

13,199 

... ... ... ... ... 0.1 ... ... 0.6 ... ... 1.3 ... 1.. 

1.5 ... ... 3.0 ... ... 3.2 ... ... 

3.2 ... ... 

2.8 ... ... 3.2 ... ... 1.9 ... ... 2.4 ... ... 2 ... ... 

3 1.. ... 

3 ... ... 

2 ... ... 

2 ... ... 2 ... ... 1 ... ... 

2 ... ... 2 ... ... 2 ... ... 2 ... ... 2 ... ... 2 ... ... ... ... ... d 

... ... 

... 

51 

43 

3 

12 

27 

29 

28 

20 

8 

27 

31 

40 

60 

64 

72 

22 

91 

1 03 

98 

93 

87 

145 

1 78 

236 

423 

309 

2 78 

352 

301 

243 

251 

327 

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

10 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

3 

2 

2 

8 

14 

17 

31 

36 

27 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

1 

2 

2 

3 

2 

4 

1 

6 

8 

8 

14 

16 

15 

20 

19 

15 

23 

19 

18 

21 

25 

26 

29 

... ... ... 

... 1 ... 

... 1 ... 

... 3 1 

... 4 1 

... 4 1 

... 42 

aExdudes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). 

blndudes $33.5 million for unobligated funds that lapsed. 

‘Indudes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA. 

eIndudes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger. 

‘1991 Defense funding for space was not available before publication. Contact NASA History Division at (202) 358-0385 for updated 

information. 

SOURCE: Office of Managcrncnt and I3tidget 

96 
Federal Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1990 1991 1992 1990 1991 1992 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASA .............................. Defense ............................ Energy ............................. Commerce ....................... Interior ............................. Agriculture ..................... Transportation ............... EPA .................................. 12,142 

15,616 

79 

243 

31 

25 

4 

1 

13,036 

14,181 

108 

25 1 

36 

26 

4 

1 

13,199 

97 

327 

27 

29 

4 

2 

* 12,292 13,351 

12,962 14,432 

79 108 

279 266 

31 36 

25 26 

3 4 

1 1 

12,838 

97 

298 

25 

29 

4 

2 

* 

* TOTAL ............................ 28,140 27,643 25,671 28,224 * 

*1991 Defense funding for space was not available before publication. Contact NASA History Division at 

(202) 358-0385 for updated information. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget 

A~~wnrx E-3 

Federal Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1990 1991 1992 1990 1991 1992 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASAa ............................ 932 968 1,117 889 1,017 1,122 

Defenseb .......................... 7,867 6,148 7,649 6,792 * 

TransportationC .............. 1,891 2,300 2,627 1,471 1,691 2,099 

* 

TOTAL * ............................ 10,690 9,416 10,009 9,500 * 

aResearch, Development, Construction of Facilities, Research and Program Management. 

bResearch, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

CFederal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and 

Development. 

*1991 Defense funding for space was not available before publication. Contact NASA History Division at 

(202) 358-0385 for updated information. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

97 
APPENDIX F-1 

The White House 

Was hi ngto n 

FEBRUARY 5,1992 

NATIONAL SPACE POLICY DIRECTIVE 5 

MEMORANDUM FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT 

THE SECRETARY OF STATE 

THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE 

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR 

THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE 

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 

THE SECRETARY OF TRANSPORTATION 

THE SECRETARY OF ENERGY 

CHIEF OF STAFF TO THE PRESIDENT 

DIRECTOR OF TI-IE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND RUD(:ET 

THE ASSISTANT TO THE PRESIDENT FOR NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS 

THE ASSISTANT TO TI-IE PRESIDENT FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY 

THE DIRECTOR OF CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE 

CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF 

ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

SUBJECT Landsat Remote Sensing Strategy 

1. Policy Goals 

A remote sensing capability such as is currently being provided by Landsat satellites 4 and 5 benefits the civil and national security 

interests of the United States and makes contributions to the private sector which are in the public interest. For these reasons, the United 

States government will seek to maintain continuity of Landsat-type data. The U.S. government will: 

(a) Provide data which are sufficiently consistent in terms of acquisition geometry, coverage characteristics, and spectral characteristics 

with previous Landsat data to allow comparisons for change detection and characterization; 

(b) 

(c) 

Make Landsat data available to meet the needs of national security, global change research, and other federal users; and, 

Promote and not preclude private sector commercial opportunities in landsat-type remote sensing. 

11. Landsat Strategy 

a. The Landsat strategy is composed of the following elements: 

(1) Ensuring that Landsat satellites 4 and 5 continue to provide data as long as they are technically capable of doing so, or until 

Landsat 6 becomes operational. 

(2) Acquiring a Landsat 7 satellite with the goal of maintaining continuity of Landsat-type data beyond the projected Landsat 6 

end-of-life. 

(3) Fostering the development of advanced remote sensing technologies, with the goal of reducing the cost and increasing the 

performance of future Landsat-type satellites to meet US. government needs, and potentially, enabling substantially greater opportunities for 

commercializa tion. 

(4) Seeking to minimize the cost of Landsat-type data for US. government agencies and to provide data for use in global change 

research in a manner consistent with the Administration’s Data Management for Global Change Research Policy Statements. 

(5) Limiting US. government regulations affecting private sector remote sensing activities to only those required in the interest of 

national security, foreign policy, and public safety. 

(6) 

(7) 

These strategy elements will be implcmented within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President 

Maintaining an archive, within the United States, of existing and future Landsat-type data. 

Considering alternatives for maintaining continuity of data beyond Landsat 7. 

b. 

98 
111. Implementing Guidelines 

a. The Department of Commerce will: 

(1) 

(2) 

operational. 

b. 

Complete and launch Landsat 6. 

In coordination with OMB, arrange for the continued operation of Landsat satellites 4 and 5 until Landsat 6 becomes 

The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will: 

(1) Develop and launch a Landsat 7 satellite of at least equivalent performance to replace Landsat 6 and define alternatives for 

maintaining data continuity beyond Landsat 7. 

(2) Prepare a plan by March 1,1992, which addresses management and funding responsibilities, operations, data archiving and 

dissemination, and commercial considerations associated with the Landsat program. This plan will be coordinated with other US. Government agencies, as appropriate, and reviewed by the National Space Council. 

(3) With the support of the Department of Energy and other appropriate agencies, prepare a coordinated technology plan that has 

as its goals improving the performance and reducing the cost for future Landsat-type remote scnsing systems. 

c. 

d. 

The Department of the Interior will continue to maintain a national archive of Landsat-type remote sensing data. 

Affected agencies will identify funds, within their approved fiscal year 1993 budget, necessary to implement this strategy. 

IV. Reporting Requirements 

US. government agencies affected by these strategy guidelines are directed to report by March 15, 1992, to the National Space Council on 

the implementation of this strategy. 

George Bush 

99 
AI’PCNIIIX F-2 

The White House 

Washington 

MARCH 9,1992 

NATIONAL SPACE POLICY DIRECTIVE 6 

MEMORANDUM FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT 

TIHE SECRETARY OF STATE 

THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE 

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR 

THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE 

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE 

THE SECRETARY OF TIWNSPORTATION 

THE SECRETARY OF ENERGY 

CHIEF OF STAFF TO THE PRESIDENT 

DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

THE ASSISTANT TO THE PRESIDENT FOR NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS 

THE ASSISTANT TO TkIE PRESIDENT FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY 

THE DIRECTOR OF CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE 

ADMINISTRATOR OF TI-IE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

CHAIIWAN OF TI-IE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF 

SUBJECT Space Exploration Initiative 

I. Introduction 

I have approved the next in a series of steps to be taken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Department 

of Defense (DOD), the Department of Energy (DOE), and other federal agencies regarding the planning for, and conduct of, the nation’s Space 

Exploration Initiative (SEI) which includes both Lunar and Mars elements, manned and robotic missions and supporting technology. This 

series of steps augments previous Presidential directives and recognizes the recommendations of both the Advisory Committee on the Future 

of the US. Space Program and the SEI Synthesis Group. The exploration of space is one of the fundamental goals of the US. civil space 

program. The SEI objectives, which build upon previous accomplishments, as well as upon existing programs, include a return to the moon - 

this time to stay - and human expeditions to Mars. In addition, the objectives will provide a strategic framework for the conduct of the U.S. 

civil space program and will help focus investments in many areas of goal-oricntcd research and dcvclopment by government, industry and 

academia. Consistent with the Commercial Space Policy, this frarncwork is also intended to encourage private sector activities which 

augment or support the SEI objectives. 

NASA is the principal implementing agency for the SEI. DOD and DOE, as participating agencies, will have major roles in support of the 

SEI in the conduct of technology development and concept definition. Other US. government agencies are encouraged to participate by 

developing activities supportive of the SEI. 

11. Exploration Responsibilities & Actions 

To establish a firm foundation and clear direction for the SEI, the following actions shall be undertaken immediately: 

(a) NASA shall establish an exploration office headed by the Associate Administrator for Exploration and staffed by NASA and 

representatives from other participating agencies. The Associate Administrator shall be responsible for architecture and mission studies, 

planning, and program execution, as well as the definition of resulting requirements for research, technology, infrastructure, mission elements 

and program implementation. As director of the exploration office, the Associate Administrator shall prepare an annual status report. The 

NASA Administrator shall present this report to the National Space Council. 

(b) Working with participating agencies, NASA’s Associate Administrator for Exploration shall develop a strategic plan for the SEI to 

establish the basis for integrating existing and future SEI-related activities. This plan shall address research, technology development and 

operations and identify the relationships betwcen the SEI mission elements and the US. space infrastructure. 

(c) A Steering Committee for Space Exploration shall be established, chaired by NASA’s Associate Administrator for Exploration, and 

shall include representation from participating agencies. The Committee shall be the senior interagency forum for coordinating organizational interfaces, reports, plans and activities, and SEI-related programs and budgcts; and for identifying those issues requiring consideration 

by the National Space Council. The Department of State shall participate in any meetings of the Committee related to international cooperations or other international activity. 

100 
111. Exploration Guidelines 

To insure that necessary preparatory activities are accomplished, the following steps shall be taken: 

(a) The partiapating agencies shall address critical, long-lead research and technology development activities which are supportive of 

the exploration strategic plan. 

(b) The Department of Commerce and other appropriate agencies shall encourage the development of SEI-related proposals which 

foster private sector investments, ownership and operation of space-related projects and ventures, as well as promote U.S. economic competitiveness. These agencies shall seek increased cooperation with the private sector through mechanisms such as technology transfer agreements, cooperative research and development agreemen ts, and consortia, as appropriate. 

(c) 

(d) 

Exploration requirements shall be incorporated into the evolutionary plans for the new national launch system 

NASA, DOD, and DOE shall continue technology development for space nuclear power and propulsion while ensuring that these 

activities are performed in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner consistent with existing laws and regulations, treaty obligations and 

agency mission requiremen ts. 

(e) NASA and appropriate participating agencies shall implement a definitive life saence program in support of the human exploration 

of the Moon and Mars. 

(0 All participating agencies should include space exploration in their respective educational programs. In addition, partiapating 

agenaes shall take advantage of university research capabilities and cooperative education programs in SEI-related activities. 

(g) International cooperation in this endeavor is feasible and could offer significant benefits to the United States, subject to the 

satisfaction of national security, foreign policy, scientific and economic interests. 

(h) Expanding on individual agency efforts to improve and streamline acquisition procedures, the Associate Administrator for 

Exploration, and participating agencies, shall work with the Office of Management and Budget and the Office of Federal Procurement Policy 

to develop improved U.S. government procurement practices available for SEI acquisition. 

(i) The exploration office shall seek innovative ideas by encouraging input from all sectors of American society. 

IV. Reporting Requirements 

(a) By November 1992, the first annual status report shall be presented to the National Space Council. It shall address options for 

exploration architectures and initial capabilities. 

(b) The initial version of the Strategic Plan for the Space Exploration Initiative shall be presented to the National Space Council by April 

1992, and updated regularly, thereafter. The initial version shall focus on technology development and alternate mission architectures. 

George Bush 

101 
APPENDIX F-3 

The White House 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release JUNE 5,1992 

STATEMENT BY THE PRESS SECRETARY 

President Bush last week approved a National’ Space Policy Directive establishing a focussed national effort to improve the world’s ability to 

detect and document changes in the Earth, especially the global climate. 

This policy directive, which was developed by the National Space Council chaired by Vice President Quayle: 

- Establishes a comprehensive, multi-agency effort to collect, analyze, and archive space-based observations on global change. This Spacebased Global Change Observation System (S-GCOS) will be led by NASA with participation from other government agencies. 

- Directs that NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) be developed using small and intermediate sized satellites. Through the use of 

advanced technology and reduced design complexity, these satellites can be acquired more quickly and at less cost than previously 

planned. This will allow the timetable for obtaining critical data on global change to be accelerated. 

- Assigns global change observation functions, including the development of technology, the collection of data, and the archiving of 

information, to NASA and the Departments of Energy, Commerce (NOM), Interior and Defense. 

- Encourages international cooperation in global change observation from space and directs the Department of State to provide support to 

the implementing Agencies. 

This directive augments previous Presidential directives and recognizes the recommendations of the Earth Observing System Engineering 

Review Panel. 

### 

Attachment 

SPACE-BASED GLOBAL CHANGE OBSERVATION 

I. Introduction 

The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), is a key component of the nation’s overall approach to global stewardship and is 

one of the nation’s highest priority science programs. This program’s goal is to provide a sound scientific basis for developing national and 

international policy relating to natural and human-induced changes in the Earth system. The ultimate success of the USGCRP depends upon 

an integrated set of ground- and space-based observation and research programs. The United States is planning and implementing a series of 

satellite missions that include NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth, related environmental satellites, and activities of other agencies to provide 

these global observations for the next several decades. For the purposes of this document, thme systems are collectively referred to as the 

Space-based Global Change observation System (5-GCOS). 

11. Objectives 

a. General 

The Space-based Global Change observation System will provide spacc-based global observations which together with other observations and studies, coordinated through the US. Global C3angc Research Program, will provide the scientific information to help understand 

the Earth system. 

b. Specific 

In support of the USGCRP the SGCOS shall: 

102 
1. Improve our ability to detect and document changes in the global dimate system to determine, as soon as possible, whether 

there is global warming or other potentially adverse global environmental changes; and, if changes are detected, determine the magnitude of 

these changes and identify their causes. 

2. Provide data to help identify and understand the complex interactions that characterize the Earth system in order to anticipate 

changes and differentiate between human-induced and natural processes. 

3. Provide for a data system to manage the information collected by 5-GCOS as an integral part of the Global Change Data and 

Information System, consistent with the USGCRP data policy. 

4. Provide for the development and demonstration of new space-based remote sensing technologies for global change observation and identify candidate technologies for future operational use. 

111. Implementing Actions 

This directive provides guidance to agencies developing, deploying, operating or supporting SGCOS elements to acquire and manage 

relevant observations and data sets for the USGCRP. 

a. Internatwnal Cooperation 

It is recognized that the goals and objectives of the US. Global Change Research Program can best be achieved through the mutuallyreinforang research of all nations and many organizations and programs which require a large measure of bilateral and multilateral cooperation. Accordingly, participating agencies may explore, in accordance with this directive and established procedures, international cooperation 

in space-based global change observation. 

b. Interagency Coordination 

Space-based Global Change Observation System activities are conducted in the context of the USGCRP. The Federal Coordinating 

Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology (FCCSET), through its Committee on Earth and Environmental Saences (CEES), is respon‘- 

sible for developing and coordinating the USGCRP, and for the activities and requirements of the USGCRP and, therefore, for the Space-based 

Global Change Observation System. All S-GCOS agencies shall participate with other USGCRP agencies and the CEES in the development 

and coordination of the Space-based Global Change Observation Svstem Promam Plan. The provision, management, and exchange of data 

will be a key elemen t of the USGCRP. 

The CEES will coordinate the interagency development of the Global Change Data and Information System (GCDIS) which integrates 

appropriate observations, regardless of platform basing mode or orientation of data (land, oceanographic, atmospheric, or space). All 

agenaes involved with SGCOS will participate with other USGCRP agenaes in planning for the GCDIS, with a goal of maximizing the 

system’s interoperability. Data sets intended for the GCDIS shall be responsive to the requirements of, and be accessible to, global change 

scientists and US. Government authorized research and operational users. 

c. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the lead agency for planning Space-based Global Change Observation System 

activities, and is responsible for developing and operating the NASA component of the S-GCOS. This component shall be developed to 

provide maximum program flexibility within budget constraints. As part of the USGCRP, NASA shall: 

1. Lead the development and preparation of a coordinated interagency Space-based Global Change Observation Svstem 

Program Plan, to be delivered to the National Space Council (NSpC), National Security Council (NSC), the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy (OSTP), and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) by the CEES through FCCSET. This plan will guide agenaes’ SGCOS 

activities. 

2. Continue with the Mission to Planet Earth by conducting the ongoing development, operation, and scientific use of instruments and satellites designed to observe and monitor processes that govern key aspects of global environmental change. 

3. As part of the Mission to Planet Earth, develop the Earth Observing System (EOS), comprised of intermediate and small sized 

satellites as recommended by the EOS Engineering Review Panel. 

4. Plan and develop, in an incremental and evolutionary manner, the EOS Data and Information System (EOSDIS), which is the 

NASA part of the data and information system for SGCOS. This data and information system shall be compatible with other parts of the 

USGCRP Global Change Data and Information System, and able to incorporate, as appropriate, currently available Earth observations, such as 

those from Landsat, and provide an active archive for SGCOS system data sets. Prototype versions of this system, using existing Earth 

observations, shall be constructed to demonstrate system utility and functions. 

5. Develop new instruments and space systems for global change monitoring, utilizing technologies from NASA and other S 

GCOS agencies. A plan for related NASA research and dcvclopmcnt activity shall be integral to the interagency coordinated Space-based 

Global Change Observation Svstem Program Plan. 

103 
d. Department of Energy (DOE) 

The Department of Energy shall participate with NASA and the other appropriate SGCOS agencies in developing satellite systems to 

maintain data continuity for the understanding of the Earth’s radiation budget, starting in 1995, consistent with the Spacebased Global 

Change Observation System Program Plan. 

The DOE shall participate with other SGCOS agencies in conducting research and development for advanced technologies that can offer 

promise of increased performance and/or lower cost for advanced long-term global change monitoring systems. A plan for related DOE 

research and development activity shall be integral to the interagency coordinated Space-based Global Change Observation System Program 

m. 

e. Department of Defense (Don) 

The partiapation of the Department of Defense in the Space-based Global Change Observation System shall consist of related activities 

derived from current and planned Don programs. Don, in cooperation with the Director of Central Intelligence, as appropriate, will identify 

those technologies and programs that support the S-GCOS and shall seek to make appropriate technology and data from those programs 

available. DoD may also seek to identify and take advantage of SGCOS programs and capab 

f. Department of Commerce (DOC) 

The Department of Commerce, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), shall participate in the 

collection, processing, archiving, retrieval, and use of oceanic- and atmospheric-oriented data and shall, consistent with the Space-based 

Global Change Observation System Program Plan, provide for the permanent archiving, management, access, and distribution of oceanic and 

atmospheric Earth saence data sets for global change research, including data sets obtained by the S-GCOS. DOC/NOAA shall work with 

other appropriate agencies to transition, as appropriate systems, technology, and/or sensors developed for use in the S-GCOS to operational 

use. The Space-based Global Change Observation System Program Plan shall include a discussion of the criteria related to the desirability 

and economic feasibility of transitioning specific SGCOS assets to operational use. 

g. Department of the Interior 

The Department of the Interior shall assist in the collection, processing, archiving, retrieval, and use of land-oriented data and shall, 

consistent with the Space-based Global Chanac Observation System I’roaram Plan, provide for the permanent archiving, management, 

access, and distribution of land-oriented Earth saence data sets for global change research, including data sets obtained by SGCOS. 

h. Department of State 

The Department of State has a role in Space-based Global Change Observation with respect to international agreements, significant 

activities or arrangements with foreign countries, international organizations, or commissions where the United States and one or more 

foreign countries are members. Prior to discussions between participating agencies and foreign entities that could reasonably be expected to 

lead to such agreements, activities, or arrangements, the Department of State shall be consulted and, as appropriate, shall coordinate interagency review of the proposed US. position to ensiire consistency with U.S. foreign policy, national security, and economic interests, and 

satisfaction of applicable legal requirements. This shall not affect the ability of participating agencies to explore, in accordance with established procedures, scientific, technical, and programmatic aspects of proposed international cooperation that do not involve commitments or 

foreign policy concerns. 

IV. Reporting Rrquirrmcn ts 

a. NASA shall lead the preparation of a coordinated and integrated interagency Space-based Global Chanve Observation System 

Promam Plan that shall be forwarded by the CEES through FCCSET to the NSpC, NSC, OSTI’, and OMB not later than July 1,1992. This plan 

shall address the SGCOS architecturc, existing and planned S<YXE satellite systems, technology development activities, sensor suites, 

launch systems, supporting agency contributions and the data and information systems. 

b. Each March, FCCSET/CEES shall prepare and forward a Space-based Global Change Observation System Program Report on the 

progress and accomplishments of the SGCOS to the NSpC, NSC, OSTI’, and OMB. The Space-based Global Change Observation System 

Proaram Plan will meet this requirement for 1992. 

104 
AITCNIIIX F-4 

AGREEMENT 

BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

AND THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 

CONCERNING COOPERATION IN THE EXPLORATION 

AND USE OF OUTER SPACE FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES 

The United States of America and the Russian Federation, hereinafter referred to as the Parties; 

Considering the role of the two States in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes; 

Desiring to make the results of the exploration and use of outer space available for the benefit of the peoples of the two states and of all 

peoples of the world; 

Considering the respective interests of the Parties in the potential for commercial applications of space technologies for the general 

benefit; 

Taking into consideration the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of 

Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, and other multilateral agreements regarding the exploration and use of outer 

space to which both States are Parties; 

Expressing their satisfaction with cooperative accomplishments in the fields of astronomy and astrophysics, earth sciences, space biology 

and medicine, solar system exploration and solar terrestrial physics, as well as their desire to continue and enhance cooperation in these and 

other fields; 

Have agreed as follows: 

Article I 

The Parties, through their implementing agencies, shall carry out civil space cooperation in the fields of space science, space exploration, 

space applications and space technology on the basis of equality, reciprocity and mutual benefit. 

Cooperation may include human and robotic space flight projects, ground-based operations and experiments and other activities in such 

areas as: 

- Monitoring the global environment from space; 

Space Shuttle and Mir Space Station missions involving the participation of US. astronauts and Russian cosmonauts; 

Safety of space flight activities; 

Space biology and medicine; and, 

Examining the possibilities of working together in other areas, such as the exploration of Mars. 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Article I1 

For purposes of developing and carrying out the cooperation envisaged in Article 1 of this Agreement, the Parties hereby designate, 

respectively, as their principal implementing agencies the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for the United States and the 

Russian Space Agency for the Russian Federation. 

The Parties may designate additional implementing agencies as they deem necessary to facilitate the conduct of specific cooperative 

activities in the fields enumerated in Article I of this Agreement. 

Each of the cooperative projects may be the subject of a specific written agreement between the designated implementing agencies that 

defines the nature and scope of the project, the individual and joint responsibilities of the designated implementing agencies related to the 

project, financial arrangements, if any, and the protection of intellectual property consistent with the provisions of this Agreement. 

105 
Article 111 

Cooperative activities under this Agreement shaU be conducted in accordance with national laws and regulations of each party, and shall 

be within the limits of available funds. 

Article IV 

The Parties shall hold annual consultations on civil space cooperation in order to provide a mechanism for government-level review of 

ongoing bilateral cooperation under this Agreement and to exchange views on such various space matters. These consultations could also 

provide the principal means for presenting proposals for new activities falling within the scope of this Agreement. 

Article V 

This Agreement shall be without prejudicc to the cooperation of either Party with other states and international organizations. 

Article VI 

The Parties shall ensure adequate and effective protection of intellectual property created or furnished under this Agreement and 

relevant agreements concluded pursuant to Article I1 of this Agreement. Where allocation of rights to intellectual property is provided for in 

such agreements, the allocation shall be made in accordance with the Annex attached hereto which is an integral part of this Agreement. To 

the extent that it is necessary and appropriate, such agreements may contain different provisions for protection and allocation of intellectual 

property. 

Article VI/ 

This Agreement shall enter into force upon signature by the Parties and shall remain in force for five years. It may be extended for 

further five-year periods by an exchange of diplomatic notes. This Agreement may be terminated by either Party on six months written 

notice, through the diplomatic channel, to the other Party. 

DONE at Washington, in duplicate, this seventeenth day of June, 1992, in the English and Russian languages, both texts being equally 

authentic. 

FOR THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: FOR THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: 

George Bush Boris Yeltsin 

ANNEX: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY 

Pursuant to Article VI of this Agreement: 

The Parties shall ensure adequate and effective protection of intellectual property created or furnished under this Agreement and 

relevant agreements concluded pursuant to Article 11 of this Agrccmcnt. The Parties agree to notify one another in a timely fashion of any 

inventions or copyrighted works arising under this Agreement and to seck protection for such intellectual property in a timely fashion. Rights 

to such intellectual property shall be allocatcd as provided in this Annex. 

1. SCOPE 

a. This annex is applicable to all cooperative activities undertaken pursuant to this Agreement, except as otherwise specifically agreed 

by the Parties or their designees. 

b. For purposes of this Agreement, ”intellectual property” shall have the meaning found in Article 2 of the convention establishing the 

World Intellectual Property Organization, donc at Stockholm, July 14,1967. 

c. This Annex addresses the allocation of rights, interests, and royalties between thc Partics. Each Party shall ensure that the other 

Party can obtain the rights to intcllcctual property allocated in accordance with the Annex, by obtaining those rights from its own participants 

through contracts or other legal means, if necessary. This Annex does not othcrwisc altcr or prejudice the allocation between a Party and its 

nationals, which shall be determined by that Party’s laws and practices. 

106 
d. Disputes concerning intellectual property arising under this Agreement should be resolved through discussions between the 

concerned participating institutions or, if necessary, the Parties or their designees. Upon mutual agreement of the Parties, a dispute shall be 

submitted to an arbitral tribunal for binding arbitration in accordance with the applicable rules of international law. Unless the Parties or their 

designees agree otherwise in writing, the arbitration rules of UNCITIUL shall govern. 

e. Termination or expiration of this Agreement shall not affect rights or obligations under this Annex. 

II. ALLOCATION OF RIGHTS 

a. Each Party shall be entitled to a non-exclusive irrevocable, royalty-free license in all countries to translate, reproduce, and publicly 

distribute scientific and technical journal articles, reports, and books directly arising from cooperation under this Agreement. All publicly 

distributed copies of a copyrighted work prepared under this provision shall indicate the names of the authors of the work unless an author 

expliatly declines to be named. 

b. 

1. 

Rights to all forms of intellectual property, other than those rights described in Section II(a) above, shall be allocated as follows: 

Visiting researchers and scientists visiting primarily in furtherance of their education shall receive intellectual property rights under 

the policies of the host institution. In addition, each visitingrcsearcher or scientist named as an inventor shall be entitled to share in a portion 

of any royalties earned by the host institution from the licensing of such intellectual property. 

2. (a) For intellectual property created during joint research with participation from the two Parties, for example, when the Parties, 

participating institutions, or participating personnel have agreed in advance on the scope of work, each Party shall be entitled to obtain all 

rights and interests in its own country. Rights and interests in third countries will be determined in agreements concluded pursuant to Article 

I1 of this Agreement. The rights to intellectual property shall be allocated with due respect for the economic, saentific and technological 

contributionsfrom each Party to the creation of intellectual property. If research is not designated as "joint research" in the relevant agreement concluded pursuant to Article I1 of this Agreement, rights to intellectual property arising from the research shall be allocated in 

accordance with Paragraph IIbl. In addition, each person named as an inventor shall be entitled to share in a portion of any royalties earned 

by their institution from the licensing of the property. 

(b) Notwithstanding Paragraph IIb2(a), if a type of intellectual property is available under the laws of one Party but not the other Party, 

the Party whose laws provide for this type of protection shall be entitled to all rights and intercsts in all countries which provide rights to such 

intellectual property. Persons named as inventors of the property shall nonetheless be entitled to royalties as provided in Paragraph IIb2(a). 

111. BUSINESS-CONFI DENTIAL INFORMATION 

In the event that information identified in a timely fashion as businas-confidential is furnished or created under the Agreement, each 

Party and its participants shall protect such information in accordance with applicable laws, regulations, and administrative practice. 

Information may be identified as "business-confidential" if a person having the information may derive an economic benefit from it or may 

obtain a competitive advantage over those who do not have it, the information is not generally known or publicly available from other 

sources, and the owner has not previously made the information available without imposing in a timely manner an obligation to keep it 

confidential. 

107 
Index 

Advanced Automation System, 6, 39 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite, 

Advanced Earth Observing Satellite, 46 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration, 33 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor, 1, 17 

Advanced Space Technology Program, 19 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, 47 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, 12 

aeronautics, 2, 3, 31-42 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition, 2,45 

Airport Surface Traffic Automation Program, 6, 38 

air traffic control, 5, 6, 37-39 

Ames Research Center, 34, 35,43 

Antarctica, 7, 16, 45 

Arecibo radio telescope, 7, 14 

Ariane launch vehicle, 5, 27, 46 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 8, 51-52 

Array of Low-Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors, 20 

astronomy, 1, 4, 7, 11-14, 29 

astrophysics, 7, 11-14, 29 

Atlas E, 3, 10, 27, 49 

Atlas I, 27 

Atlas 11, 1, 3, 5, 10, 27 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and 

atmospheric studies, 2-4, 7, 9, 24, 45-49; see also 

Australia, 41 

aviation medicine, 42 

AX, 3,32 

56 

Science-1, 1, 9, 45, 46 

ozone layer 

8-2, 3, 31 

B-737,33,40 

B-747, 42 

Baker, Secretary of State James A., 51 

balloon research, 7, 13, 16,45 

big bang, 1,4, 10 

black holes, 4, 11, 12, 13, 29 

Bush, President George, 4, 8, 51-52, 55, 58 

Canada, 21 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, 1, 9, 15, 27 

Cassini, 15, 20, 22 

Centaur, 10 

Center-Terminal Radar Approach Control 

China, 54-55 

Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, 15 

commercial development of space, 2,4,5,6,8,53-58 

Commercial Experiment Transporter, 6, 56, 57 

Commercial Middeck Augmentation Module, 57 

Commonwealth of Independent States, 52 

communications satellites, 3, 5-6, 10, 27-28, 55-56 

Automation System, 6,37 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 1,ll-12,14,24 

computational fluid dynamics, 35, 36 

computer development, 35 

Conference on Disarmament, 51 

Consort 4,10,57 

Consort 5, 10,57 

Cosmic Background Explorer, I, 11 

cosmic ray research, 7 

cosmology, 11 

critical disciplines research, 2, 34 

DC-8, 45 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 3,10,49 

Defense Satellite Communications Systems 

satellites, 3, 10, 27-28 

Defense Support Program, 3, 9, 19-20 

Delta 11, 2, 9, 10, 12, 21, 27 

Department of Agriculture, 5, 43 

Department of Commerce, 3-4, 8, 11, 12, 13-14, 17, 

Department of Defense, 2-3,8,9-10,12,18-33,39-41, 

Department of Energy, 4, 8, 20, 22-23, 36, 52, 53, 58 

Department of the Interior, 4-5, 14, 15, 43-44,48 

Department of State, 7-8, 52-55 

Department of Transportation, 6-7,10,33,37-42,45, 

Diffuse Ultraviolet Experiment, 9, 10 

Dryden Flight Research Facility, 31, 34 

18, 21, 24, 39, 40, 46-47, 49, 52, 53, 58, 60 

43,49,53 

52, 57, 58, 60 

Earth observation commercial application program, 

Earth Observing Satellite, 46-47 

Edwards Air Force Base, 9 

Endeavour, first flight, 9, 17, 27 

environmental issues, 2,4,5,6,7,33-34,38,44-46,56 

Environmental Protection Agency, 7,44 

Europe, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 31, 41, 46, 47, 54 

European Retrievable Carrier, 9 

European Space Agency, 13,14, 15, 16,21,48,54 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing satellite, 

Eutelsat, 10 

expendable launch vehicles, 1, 9-10, 57 

Explorer Platform, 21, 29 

Extended Duration Orbiter, 17 

Medical Program, 16 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, I, 2, 9,12, 29 

2, 56 

Data and Information System, 47 

46,48 

F-16, 32-33, 34 

F-18, 34, 35 

FA-18E/FI 3,32 

far-infrared spectrometer, 7, 45 

109 
Federal Aviation Administration, 6,33, 37-42,45 

Federal Communications Commission, 5-6,53-56 

Fleet Satellite Communications System, 3, 28 

flight safety and security, 40-42 

Follow-On Early Warning System, see Improved 

Space-Based, Tactical Warning / At tack Assessment 

Galaxy 5, 10, 27 

Galaxy IR, 10 

Galileo, 15, 24 

Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on satellite, 3, 49 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, 

Geotail, 1, 9, 13 

Global Protection System, 8, 51 

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, 11 

Goddard Space Flight Center, 14 

greenhouse effect, 45-46 

Ground Network, 2,29 

47-48 

high angle-of-attack research, 31-32, 34, 35 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory-2, 7, 12 

high lift research, 33 

high performance aircraft research, 34, 35 

high speed civil transport, 36 

Hubble Space Telescope, 4, 7, 11,14, 24 

human factors research, 42 

hypersonic research, 2, 33-34 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/Attack 

Indian Space Research Organization, 52 

inertial upper stage, 3, 19 

inflationary cosmology model, 11 

Infrared Space Observatory, 14 

Institute for Space and Astronomical Science (Japan), 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine 

International Maritime Satellite Organization, 5-6, 

International Microgravity Laboratory-1, 2, 9, 16 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics initiative, 1, 

International Space Year, 55 

International Telecommunications Satellite 

International Telecommunications Union, 5,55 

International Ultraviolet Explorer, 7, 11 

Italian Space Agency, 13, 21 

Assessment, 20 

1,9,12 

Technology, 2, 33 

27, 53-54 

13 

Organization, 1, 5, 8, 9, 10, 24, 27, 53-54 

Japan, 1, 2, 9, 12, 13, 16, 21, 41, 46,47, 54 

Jupiter, 11,13, 15, 29 

Kennedy Space Center, 9 

Kitt Peak telescope, 7, 14 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 13 

laminar flow control, 34, 35 

Landsat data, 5,43-44 

Langley Research Center, 33, 34, 35,36,40 

Laser Interferometric Gravitational Observatory, 4, 

Lewis Research Center, 21,33 

life sciences, 9, 16 

light detection and ranging, 7,44 

Long Duration Exposure Facility, 22 

low level wind shear alert system, 40 

13-14 

Magellan, 1, 5, 14-15, 20 

magnetospheric studies, 9, 13, 15 

Mars, 5, 15 

Mars Observer, 1, 9, 15 

meteorological satellites, services, and studies, 3,4, 

Microgravity Laboratory, see U.S. Microgravity 

Laboratory 

microgravity research, 9,56; see also entries under 

International and U.S. Microgravity Laboratories 

microwave landing system, 39 

Milstar, 3, 28 

Missile Technology Control Regime, 51 -52 

Mission to Planet Earth, 46 

6, 39-40, 46-49 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1- 

National Aerospace Plane, 3, 31 

National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, 14 

National Institutes of Health, 16 

National Launch System, see New Launch System 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 14 

National Science Foundation, 7, 13-14, 16,48 

National Space Development Agency (Japan), 9,21 

National Space Council, 18 

Navstar Global Positioning System, 2,3,5,6,10,19, 

39, 44, 56 

New Launch System, 18 

Nimbus 7,45 

nuclear power, 22-23 

nuclear propulsion, 4, 23 

2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9-37, 39-60 

oceanography, 2, 3, 46, 48-49 

Ocean Topography Experiment, 2,46 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation, 1, 6-7, 

10, 57, 58, 60 

orbital debris, 54 

ozone layer, 2, 4, 7, 24, 33, 41, 44, 45,46 

110 
Packet Data Processor Facility, 2, 29 

Palapa B-4, 10 

Pegasus, 3, 18-19,28 

Pilot’s Associate Program, 3, 31 

Pioneers 10 and 11, 13 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 15 

precision runway monitor, 38 

Quayle, Vice President J. Danforth, 18 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators, 4, 22 

remote sensing, 5, 7,43-44 

Remote Sensing Satellite (European), 46,48 

Roentgen Satellite, 7, 12 

Rover/NERVA, 23 

Russia, 4, 8,15,23, 39, 43, 51-55 

Russian Space Agency, 52 

Satcom C3,27 

Satcom C4, 10,27 

Satellite for the Observation of the Earth (SPOT), 43 

Saturn, 15,29 

Scout launch vehicle, 9, 28 

scramjet, 31, 34 

Sea Launch and Recovery system, 19 

side-looking airborne radar, 4, 43 

Smithsonian Institution, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 58 

Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle 

Explorer, 1, 9, 12, 29 

solar physics, 9, 13 

Solid Rocket Booster, 17 

sounding rockets, 13,57 

SP-100 space reactor program, 4,22-23 

Space Exploration Initiative, 4, 23, 58 

Space Flight Experiments program, 20-21 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility, 12 

Spacelab, 1, 15-16 

Spacelab J, 1, 16 

Space Network, 2, 28-29 

space physics, 7, 11-14 

Space Shuttle, 1, 3, 9, 17-18, 27, 53 

Space Shuttle Main Engine, 1, 17, 18 

Space Station Freedom, 1, 16, 21-22, 52 

Space Transportation Main Engine, 18 

spinoffs, 31 

Stennis Space Center, 2, 43, 58 

Strategic Defense Initiative, 3, 24-25, 51 

subsonic aircraft research, 2, 33 

supersonic transport, 2, 33 

survivability in space, 25 

Terminal Area Surveillance System, 6, 39 

Tethered Satellite System, 9, 13 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder, 48 

Titan 11, 3, 10 

Titan 111, 9, 15 

Titan IV, 3,10, 15, 19 

TOPEX/POSEIDON, 2,46 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, 2,45 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, 2, 5, 28- 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, 37 

transfer orbital stage, 9, 15 

Transportable Payload Operations Control Center, 

29,53 

2, 29 

Ulysses, 11, 13 

United Nations, 8, 46, 51-55 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 53 

United States Information Agency, 8,58-60 

United States Microgravity Laboratory, 1, 9, 16, 57 

United States Trade Representative, 54-55 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, 2, 45, 46 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, 3, 9, 10, 49 

Venus, 1, 5, 14-15 

Viking, 5, 15 

Voyagers 1 and 2, 13 

Wallops Flight Facility, 57 

weather forecasting, see meteorological 

Whipple Observatory, 7, 14 

World Administrative Radio Conference, 5,55 

World Space Congress, 55 

X-29 advanced technology demonstrator, 3, 32 

X-31A enhanced fighter, 3,31-32 

X-30, 31 

Yeltsin, President Boris, 4, 8, 51-52 

Yohkoh, 1, 12-13 

Taurus, 3,19 

technology transfer, 2, 57-58 

Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation, 6, 37 

111