Exploring Unknown the

Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program

Volume VII 

Human Spaceflight: 

Projects Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo

Edited by John M. Logsdon

with Roger D. Launius

Artist Pierre Mion’s painting of “A Speck 

of Dust.” Explorer astronauts are dwarfed 

by the immense size of craters and mountains on the lunar surface. Size 120 in. x 

40 in. (Image number: 79-HC-14)

Other Books in the 

NASA History Series

Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents 

in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program. 

John M. Logsdon, general editor. Volume 

I: Organizing for Exploration, Volume II: 

External Relationships, Volume III: Using 

Space, Volume IV: Accessing Space, Volume V: 

Exploring the Cosmos, and Volume VI: Space 

and Earth Science, Volume VII: Human 

Spaceflight. NASA SP-4407, 1995–2008.

The first six volumes of this projected 

eight-volume documentary history have 

already become an essential reference 

for anyone interested in the history of the 

U.S. civil space program and its development over time. Each volume deals with 

specific issues in the development of the 

space program and includes more than 

110 key documents, many of which are 

published for the first time. Each is introduced by a headnote providing context, 

bibliographical details, and background 

information necessary to understand 

the document. These are organized into 

major sections, each beginning with an 

introductory essay that keys the documents to major events in the history of 

space exploration.

All books in the NASA History Series 

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Please see back flap for artwork information.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA History Division

Office of External Relations

Washington, DC

2008

ISBN 978-0-16-081381-8

9 780160 813818

90000

Exploring
 the Unknown

ISB N 978-0-16-081381-8

90000

9 780160 813818

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ISBN 978-0-16-081381-8 
Exploring Unknown the

Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program

Volume VII 

Human Spacefl ight: Projects Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo

Edited by John M. Logsdon with Roger D. Launius

Th e NASA History Series

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA History Division

Offi ce of External Relations

Washington, DC 2008

NASA SP-2008-4407
 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space 

Program/ John M. Logsdon, editor ...[et al.] 

p. cm.—(The NASA history series) (NASA SP: 4407) 

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
 

Contents: v. 7. Human Spaceflight: Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo Programs
 

1. Astronautics—United States—History. I. Logsdon, John M., 1937– 

II. Series III. Series V. Series: NASA SP: 4407. 

TL789.8.U5E87 1999 96-9066 

387.8’0973-dc20 CIP 
Dedicated to the Pioneers of Human Spacefl ight:
 

George Low, Robert Gilruth, and the members of the Space Task Group
 

vii 

Contents 


Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi 

Biographies of Volume VII Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv 

Chapter One 

Essay: “First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini,” 

by Roger D. Launius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Documents 

I-1 H. J. E Reid, Director, Langley Memorial Aeronautical 

Laboratory to National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 

“Research on Space Flight and Associated Problems,” August 

5, 1952. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

I-2 H. Julian Allen and A. J. Eggers, Jr., NACA, “Research 

Memorandum: A Study of the Motion and Aerodynamic 

Heating of Missiles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere at High 

Supersonic Speeds,” August 25, 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 

I-3 and 4 Adelbert O. Tischler, Head, Rocket Combustion Section, 

NACA, Memorandum for Associate Director, NACA, 

“Minimum Man-In-Space Proposals Presented at WADC, 

January 29, 1958 to February 1, 1958,” April 10, 1958; 

Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NACA, 

Memorandum for Mr. Gilruth, “Langley Manned-Satellite 

Program,” April 11, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 

I-5, 6, 7, and 8 Maurice H. Stans, Director, Bureau of the Budget, 

Memorandum for the President, “Responsibility for 

‘Space’ Programs,” May 10, 1958; Maxime A. Faget, NACA, 

Memorandum for Dr. Dryden, June 5, 1958; Clotaire Wood, 

Headquarters, NACA, Memorandum for Files, “Tableing 

[sic] of Proposed Memorandum of Understanding Between 

Air Force and NACA For a Joint Project For a Recoverable 

Manned Satellite Test Vehicle,” May 20, 1958, with attached 

Memorandum, “Principles for the Conduct by the NACA and 

the Air Force of a Joint Project for a Recoverable Manned 

Satellite Vehicle,” April 29, 1958; Hugh L. Dryden, Director, 

NACA, Memorandum for James R. Killian, Jr., Special 

Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, 

“Manned Satellite Program,” July 18, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 
viii 

I-9 Maxime A. Faget, Benjamine J. Garland, and James J. Buglia, 

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA, “Preliminary 

Studies of Manned Satellites,” August 11, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 

I-10 and 11 Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DoD, Memorandum 

for the Administrator, NASA, “Man-in-Space Program,” 

September 3, 1958; Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DoD, 

Memorandum for the Administrator, NASA, “Man-in-Space 

Program,” September 19, 1958, with attached Memorandum 

of Understanding, “Principles for the Conduct by NASA and 

ARPA of a Joint Program for a Manned Orbital Vehicle,” 

September 19, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 

I-12 Minutes of Meetings, Panel for Manned Space Flight, 

September 24, 30, October 1, 1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 

I-13 NASA, “Preliminary Specifications for Manned Satellite 

Capsule,” October 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

I-14 Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NASA, to Mr. 

R. R. Gilruth, NASA, “Procurement of Ballistic Missiles for 

Use as Boosters in NASA Research Leading to Manned Space 

Flight,” October 8, 1958, with attached “Letter of Intent to 

AOMC (ABMA), Draft of Technical Content,” October 8, 1958 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

I-15 S. B. Batdorf, ARPA, Memorandum for File, “Presentation of 

MIS Program to Dr. Glennan,” October 14, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 

I-16 Robert R. Gilruth, Project Manager, NASA, Memorandum for 

Associate Director, NASA, “Space Task Group,” November 3, 

1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 

I-17 and 18 Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Development, 

NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Code Name 

‘Project Mercury’ for Manned Satellite Project,” November 

26, 1958; George M. Low, NASA, Memorandum for Dr. 

Silverstein, NASA, “Change of Manned Satellite Project name 

from ‘Project Mercury’ to ‘Project Astronaut,’” December 

12, 1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 

I-19 George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Status Report No. 

1, Manned Satellite Project,” December 9, 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 

I-20 Invitation to Apply for Position of Research AstronautCandidate, NASA Project A, Announcement No. 1, 22 

December 1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

I-21 Dr. William S. Augerson, Human Factors Branch, NASA, 

Memorandum for Chief, Operations Division, NASA, 
ix 

“Scientific Training for Pilots of Project Mercury,” March 27, 

1959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 

I-22 George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Pilot Selection for 

Project Mercury,” April 23, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 

I-23 George M. Low, NASA, Memorandum for House Committee 

on Science and Astronautics, “Urgency of Project Mercury,” 

April 27, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 

I-24 George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, 

NASA Memorandum for Mr. R. R. Gilruth, Director, Project 

Mercury, NASA, “Animal Payloads for Little Joe,” June 19, 

1959, with attached Memorandum from T. K. G [T. Keith 

Glennan] to George M. Low, June 15, 1959. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 

I-25 NASA, “Information Guide for Animal Launches in Project 

Mercury,” July 23, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 

I-26 A. J. Goodpaster, Brigadier General, USA, Memorandum of 

Conference with the President, September 29, 1959 . . . . . . . . . 145 

I-27 Wernher von Braun, Director, Development Operations 

Division, Army Ballistic Missile Agency, to Robert R. Gilruth, 

Space Task Group, NASA, October 9, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 

I-28 Mercury Astronauts, Memorandum For [Mercury] Project 

Director, NASA, “Exchange of Visits with Russian Astronauts,” 

October 21, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

I-29 Charles L. Wilson, Captain, USAF, ed., WADC Technical 

Report 59-505, “Project Mercury Candidate Evaluation 

Program,” December 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 

I-30 John Glenn, Mercury Astronaut, NASA, to Lieutenant 

Commander Jim Stockdale, USN, December 17, 1959 . . . . . . . . 158 

I-31 Robert B. Voas, NASA Space Task Group, “Project Mercury 

Astronaut Training Program,” May 26, 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 

I-32 Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Programs, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Astronaut Selection 

Procedure for Initial Mercury-Redstone Flights,” December 

14, 1960. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 

I-33 Jerome B. Wiesner, The White House, Memorandum for 

Dr. [McGeorge] Bundy, “Some Aspects of Project Mercury,” 

March 9, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 

I-34 “Report of the Ad Hoc Mercury Panel,” April 12, 1961 . . . . . . . 177 
x 

I-35 MR-3 Technical Debriefing Team, NASA, “Debriefi ng,” May 

5, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 

I-36 Joachim P. Kuettner, Chief, Mercury-Redstone Project, NASA, 

to Dr. von Braun, May 18, 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 

I-37 James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, to James C. Hagerty, 

Vice President, American Broadcasting Company, June 1, 1961 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 

I-38 MR-4 Technical Debriefing Team, Memorandum for 

Associate Director, NASA, “MR-4 Postfl ight Debriefi ng of 

Virgil I. Grissom,” July 21, 1961, with attached “Debriefi ng ” 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 

I-39 Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Space Task Group, NASA, 

to Marshall, NASA (attention: Dr. Wernher von Braun), 

“Termination of Mercury Redstone Program,” August 23, 1961 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 

I-40 Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Programs, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, “Use of a Television System 

in Manned Mercury-Atlas Orbital Flights,” September 6, 1961 . 211 

I-41 Dr. Robert B. Voas, Training Officer, NASA, Memorandum 

for Astronauts, “Statements for Foreign Countries During 

Orbital Flights,” November 7, 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 

I-42 Telegram, NASA – Manned Spacecraft Center, Port Canaveral, 

Fla., to James A. Webb and others, NASA, Washington, DC, 

“MA-6 Postlaunch Memorandum,” February 21, 1962 . . . . . . . . 214 

I-43 R. B. Voas, NASA, Memorandum for Those Concerned, 

“MA-6 Pilot’s Debriefing,” February 22, 1962, with attached, 

John Glenn, NASA, “Brief Summary of MA-6 Orbital Flight,” 

February 20, 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 

I-44 Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 

Memorandum for Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned 

Space Flight, NASA, “Astronaut Activities,” May 31, 1962. . . . . . 228 

I-45 W. J. North, Senior Editor, E. M. Fields, Dr. S. C. White, and V. 

I. Grissom, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

Manned Spacecraft Center, “MA-7/18 Voice Communications 

and Pilot’s Debriefing,” June 8, 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 

I-46 Richard L. Callaghan, NASA, Memorandum for Mr. James 

E. Webb, “Meeting with President Kennedy on Astronaut 

Affairs,” August 30, 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 

I-47 Dr. Walter C. Williams, Deputy Director, NASA Manned 

Spacecraft Center, NASA, “Project Review,” October 3, 1963 . . . 239 
xi 

I-48 Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., “A Review of Knowledge Acquired 

from the First Manned Satellite Program,” 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 

I-49 Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, “Project Development 

Plan for Rendezvous Development Utilizing the Mark II Two 

Man Spacecraft,” December 8, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 

I-50 and 51 Al Nagy, NASA, to George Low, NASA, December 11, 1961; 

D. Brainerd Holmes, Director of Manned Space Flight 

Programs, NASA, Memorandum for Associate Administrator, 

NASA, “Naming Mercury-Mark II Project,” December 16, 1961 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 

I-52 Flight Crew Operations Division, NASA, “Gemini Familiarization Package,” August 3, 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 

I-53 Charles W. Mathews, Manager, Gemini Program, “Program 

Plan for Gemini Extravehicular Operation,” January 31, 1964. . 268 

I-54, 55, and 56 Edward Z. Gray, Director, Advanced Manned Missions 

Program, Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA, to Director, 

Gemini Program, NASA, “Gemini Lunar Mission Studies,” 

April 30, 1964; Eldon W. Hall, Director, Gemini Systems 

Engineering, NASA, to Deputy Director, Gemini Program, 

NASA, “Circumlunar Missions,” June 29, 1965; James E. 

Webb, Administrator, NASA, to Olin E. Teague, Chairman, 

Subcommittee on NASA Oversight, Committee on Science 

and Astronautics, House of Representatives, September 10, 

1965. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 

I-57 and 58 William C. Schneider, Deputy Director, Gemini Program, 

NASA, for Deputy Director, Apollo Program, “Gemini 

Support of Apollo,” June 25, 1964 (signed for Schneider 

by LeRoy Day); Eldon Hall, Director, Gemini Systems 

Engineering, NASA, Memorandum for Deputy Director, 

Gemini Program, NASA, “List of Missions,” July 17, 1964 

(signed for Hall by John Hammersmith). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 

I-59, 60, and 61 E. C. Welsh, National Aeronautics and Space Council, 

Executive Office of the President, Memorandum for the 

President, “Space Rescue,” May 21, 1965; Bill Moyers, 

Special Assistant to the President, The White House, 

Memorandum for James Webb, Administrator, NASA, and 

Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense, May 29, 1965, with 

attached: Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Special Assistant to the 

Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense, Memorandum 

for Mr. Valenti/Mr. Busby, Special Assistants to the 

President, May 29, 1965, with attached: Cyrus Vance, Offi ce 

of the Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for Mr. Bill 

Moyers, The White House, “Comments on Need for Space 

Rescue,” May 29, 1965; James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, 
xii 

Memorandum to the President, “Space Rescue,” June 2, 1965 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 

I-62 and 63 Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, 

NASA, Memorandum to Mr. Marvin Watson, The White 

House, May 24, 1965; Marvin Watson, The White House, 

Memorandum for the President, May 25, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 

I-64 and 65 Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, to 

The Administrator, “Extra Vehicular Activity for Gemini IV,” 

May 24, 1965; L. W. Vogel, Executive Offi cer, Memorandum 

for the Record, “Top Management Meeting on Gemini 4 

Extra-Vehicular Activity,” June 8, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 

I-66 James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Cabinet Report for the 

President, “Significance of GT-3, GT-4 Accomplishments.” 

June 17, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 

I-67 NASA Program Gemini Working Paper No. 5038, “GT-4 

Flight Crew Debriefing Transcript,” No date, but soon after 

the June 1965 Gemini IV mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 

I-68, 69, and 70 “Summary of Telephone Conversations RE Gemini 7/6,” 

October 25-27, 1965; “Gemini Program Mission Report, 

Gemini VI-A,” January 1966; “Gemini VIII Technical 

Debriefing,” March 21, 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 

I-71 NASA, “Gemini Contingency Information Plan,” May 11, 

1966. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 

I-72 and 73 Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Memorandum for Associate Administrators, Assistant Associate 

Administrators, and Field Center Directors, NASA, “Gemini 

Program; Record of Accomplishments, Attached,” January 

17, 1967, with attached: “Project Gemini Summary”; “Gemini 

Summary Conference,” NASA SP-138, February 1-2, 1967 . . . . . 370 
xiii 

Chapter Two 

Essay: “Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon,” by John M. Logsdon . . . . . . . . . . 387 

Documents 

II-1 	NASA, “ Minutes of Meeting of Research Steering Committee 

on Manned Space Flight,” May 25-26, 1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 

II-2 	George M. Low, Chief, Manned Space Flight, “Manned 

Space Flight,” NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, 

July 28-29, 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 

II-3 	George M. Low, Memorandum for Director of Space Flight 

Programs, “Manned Lunar Landing Program,” October 17, 

1960. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 

II-4 	George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, Memorandum for Associate Administrator, “Transmittal of Report 

Prepared by Manned Lunar Working Group,” February 7, 

1961, with Attached Report, “A Plan for a Manned Lunar 

Landing” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 

II-5 	Letter from L. V. Berkner, Chairman, Space Science Board, 

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, 

to James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, March 31, 1961, 

with attached: Space Science Board, National Academy of 

Sciences, “Man’s Role in the National Space Program” . . . . . . . 471 

II-6 and 7 	 Memorandum to Pierre Salinger from Hugh Sidey, April 14, 

1962; “Memorandum to the President from Jerome Wiesner 

Re: Sidney Memorandum,” April 14, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 

II-8, 9, 10, and 11 	 John F. Kennedy, Memorandum for Vice President, April 20, 

1961; NASA, “Do We Have a Chance of Beating the Soviets?” 

April 22, 1961; Letter to the Vice President of the United States 

from Wernher von Braun, April 29, 1961; Memorandum to the 

Vice President from James E. Webb, NASA Administrator, and 

Robert S. McNamara, Secretary of Defense, May 8, 1961, with 

attached: “Recommendations for Our National Space Program: 

Changes, Policies, Goals” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 

II-12 	Bruce Lundin et al., “A Survey of Various Vehicle Systems for 

the Manned Lunar Landing Mission,” June 10, 1961 . . . . . . . . . 494 

II-13 	 Ernest W. Brackett, Director, Procurement & Supply, to Robert 

R. Gilruth, Space Task Group, “Transmittal of Approved 

Project Apollo Spacecraft Procurement Plan and Class 

Determination and Findings,” July 28, 1961, with attached: 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, “Project 

Apollo Spacecraft Procurement Plan,” July 28, 1961; Robert 

C. Seamans, Associate Administrator, to Robert R. Gilruth, 
xiv 

Space Task Group, “Appointment of Source Evaluation Board,” 

July 25, 1961; James E. Webb, Administrator, “Establishment 

of Sub-Committees to the NASA Source Evaluation Board 

Project Apollo,” July 25, 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501 

II-14 “Memorandum for the President by James Webb, September 

14, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 

II-15, 16, 17, John C. Houbolt, NASA, Langley Research Center, Letter to 

and 18 Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 

November 15, 1961; Langley Research Center, NASA, 

“MANNED LUNAR-LANDING through use of LUNARORBIT RENDEZVOUS,” Volume 1, October 31, 1961; 

Joseph Shea, Memorandum for the Record, January 26, 1962; 

“Concluding Remarks by Dr. Wernher von Braun About 

Mode Selection for the Lunar Landing Program Given to Dr. 

Joseph F. Shea, Deputy Director (Systems) Office of Manned 

Space Flight,” June 7, 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 

II-19 Jerome Wiesner, “Memorandum for Theodore Sorensen,” 

November 20, 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 

II-20 NASA, “Project Apollo Source Evaluation Board Report: 

Apollo Spacecraft,” NASA RFP 9-150, November 24, 1961 . . . . . 547 

II-21 Joseph F. Shea, Deputy Director for Systems, Offi ce of 

Manned Space Flight, to Director of Aerospace Medicine 

and Director of Spacecraft & Flight Missions, “Selection and 

Training of Apollo Crew Members,” March 29, 1962 . . . . . . . . . 558 

II-22 Owen E. Maynard, Spacecraft Integration Branch, NASA 

Manned Spacecraft Center, Memorandum for Associate 

Director, “Comments on Mr. Frank Casey’s visit to J.P.L. to 

discuss Ranger and follow-on programs which could provide 

information pertinent to Apollo missions,” February 1, 1962. . .

 . .

559 

II-23 Letter to the President from James E. Webb, March 13, 1962 562 

II-24 Ted H. Skopinski, Assistant Head, Trajectory Analysis 

Section, NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center, to Chief, Systems 

Integration Division, “Selection of lunar landing site for the 

early Apollo lunar missions,” March 21, 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 

II-25 Memorandum to Administrator from Robert C. Seamans, 

Jr., Associate Administrator, “Location of Mission Control 

Center,” July 10, 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 

II-26, 27, 28, Memorandum from Donald Hornig, Chairman, Space Vehicle 

29, 30, and 31 Panel, President’s Scientific Advisory Committee, to Dr. 

Jerome Wiesner, “Summary of Views of Space Vehicle Panel,” 

July 11, 1962; Letter from Jerome Wiesner to James Webb, July 17, 

1962; Letter from James Webb to Jerome Wiesner, August 20, 1962; 
xv 

Letter to Jerome Wiesner from James E. Webb with attached Offi ce 

of Manned Space Flight, NASA, “Manned Lunar Landing Mode 

Comparison,” October 24, 1962; “Memorandum to Dr. [Jerome] 

Wiesner from McG. B. [McGeorge Bundy],” November 7, 1962; 

Letter from James E. Webb to the President, November 1962 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 

II-32, 33, and 34 	 Letter from James E. Webb, NASA Administrator, to President 

John F. Kennedy, October 29, 1962; Transcript of Presidential 

Meeting in the Cabinet Room of the White House, November 

21, 1962; “Memorandum to President from Jerome Wiesner 

Re: Acceleration of the Manned Lunar Landing Program,” 

January 10, 1963. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 

II-35 	 “Letter to James Webb from Vannevar Bush,” April 11, 1963 . . . 603 

II-36, 37, and 38 	 John Disher and Del Tischler, “Apollo Cost and Schedule 

Evaluation,” September 28, 1963; Clyde B. Bothmer, “Minutes 

of Management Council Meeting, October 29, 1963, in 

Washington, DC” October 31, 1963; George E. Mueller, 

Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, 

NASA, to the Directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center, 

Launch Operations Center, and Marshall Space Flight 

Center, “Revised Manned Space Flight Schedule,” October 

31, 1963. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 

II-39 and 40 	 Letter to Representative Albert Thomas from President John 

F. Kennedy, September 23, 1963; Memorandum from Jerome 

B. Wiesner to the President, “The US Proposal for a Joint USUSSR Lunar Program,” October 29, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 

II-41 	Memorandum to Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned 

Spacecraft Center from Verne C. Fryklund, Jr., Acting 

Director, Manned Space Sciences Division, Office of Space 

Sciences, NASA Headquarters, “Scientific Guidelines for the 

Project Apollo,” October 8, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 

II-42 	Bureau of the Budget, “Special Space Review,” Draft Report, 

November 29, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 

II-43 	“Oral History Interview w/Theodore Sorensen,” March 26, 

1964. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 

II-44 	Letter to J. Leland Atwood, President, North American 

Aviation, Inc. from Major General Samuel C. Phillips, USAF, 

Apollo Program Director, December 19, 1965, with attached 

“NASA Review Team Report” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 

II-45 	Memorandum to Assistant Administrator, Office of Planning, 

from William E. Lilly, Director, MSF Program Control, 

“Saturn Apollo Applications Summary Description,” 3 June 

1966. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 
xvi 

II-46 Letter from Thomas Gold to Harold Urey, June 9, 1966. . . . . . . 

II-47 Memorandum to Dr. Wernher von Braun, Director of NASA 

Marshall Space Flight Center, from James E. Webb, NASA 

Administrator, December 17, 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 

II-48, 49, and 50 Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, “Memorandum 

for the Apollo 204 Review Board,” January 28, 1967; NASA, 

Office of the Administrator, “Statement by James E. Webb,” 

February 25, 1967; Apollo 204 Review Board, “Report of 

Apollo 204 Review Board to the Administrator, National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration,” April 5, 1967 . . . . . . . . 651 

II-51 Letter to Senator Clinton P. Anderson from James E. Webb, 

NASA Administrator, May 8, 1967. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 

II-52, 53, 54, Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, “Quarantine 

55, and 56 Schemes for Manned Lunar Missions,” no date, but probably 

August 1967; NASA, “Policy Directive RE Outbound Lunar 

Biological Contamination Control: Policy and Responsibility,” 

September 6, 1967; Letter to Thomas Paine, Administrator, 

NASA, from Frederick Seitz, President, National Academy 

of Sciences, March 24, 1969; Letter from Senator Clinton 

Anderson, Chairman, Committee on Aeronautical and Space 

Sciences, U.S. Senate, to Thomas Paine, Administrator, NASA, 

May 15, 1969; Letter to Senator Clinton Anderson, Chairman, 

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, from Homer 

Newell, Acting Administrator, NASA, June 4, 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . 665 

II-57 Director of Central Intelligence, “The Soviet Space Program,” 

April 4, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 

II-58 Memorandum to Associate Administrator for Manned Space 

Flight from James E. Webb, Administrator, “Termination of 

the Contract for Procurement of Long Lead Time Items for 

Vehicles 516 and 517,” August 1, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 

II-59 Memorandum to Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program 

from Chief, Apollo Data Priority Coordination, “Re: LM 

rendezvous radar is essential,” August 1, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 

II-60, 61, 62, 63, George M. Low, “Special Notes for August 9, 1968, and 

64, and 65 Subsequent,” August 19, 1968; Sam C. Phillips, Apollo 

Program Director, “Apollo Mission Preparation Directive,” 

19 August 1968; Letter to Robert Gilruth, Director, NASA 

Manned Spacecraft Center, from George E. Mueller, NASA 

Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, November 

4, 1968; George M. Low, “Special Notes for November 10 and 

11, 1968,” November 14, 1968; Memorandum to Associate 

Administrator for Manned Space Flight [George Mueller] 

from Apollo Program Director [Sam C. Phillips], “Apollo 8 

Mission Selection,” November 11, 1968; Memorandum to 

646 
xvii 

Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight [George 

Mueller] from Acting Administrator [Thomas Paine], 

November 18, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 

II-66 Memorandum from George M. Low, Manager of Apollo 

Spacecraft Program, “Program Plan revision,” August 20, 1968 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 

II-67 Memorandum to George Mueller, NASA Associate 

Administrator for Manned Space Flight from Lt. General Sam 

C. Phillips, Apollo Program Director, “Extravehicular Activities 

for the First Lunar Landing Mission,” October 19, 1968 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 

II-68 and 69 Letter to George M. Low, Manager, Apollo Spacecraft 

Program, from Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for 

Public Affairs, March 12, 1969; Letter to Julian Scheer, 

Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, from George M. 

Low, Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program, March 18, 1969 . . . 726 

II-70 and 71 Memorandum to Dr. [George] Mueller from Willis H. Shapley, 

Associate Deputy Administrator, “Symbolic Items for the 

First Lunar Landing,” April 19, 1969; Memorandum to Dr. 

[George] Mueller from Willis Shapley, NASA Associate Deputy 

Administrator, “Symbolic Activities for Apollo 11,” July 2, 1969. . . 730 

II-72 Letter from Frank Borman, NASA Astronaut, to Paul Feigert, 

April 25, 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 

II-73 “General Declaration: Agriculture, Customs, Immigration, 

and Public Health,” July 24, 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 

II-74 Memorandum to Captain Lee Scherer from Julian Scheer, 

NASA Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, July 24, 1969. . . 738 

II-75 Letter to Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned Spacecraft 

Center, from George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for 

Manned Space Flight, September 3, 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 

II-76 Space Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, “Report 

of Meeting on Review of Lunar Quarantine Program,” 

February 17, 1970. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 

II-77, 78, and 79 George Low, Personal Notes No. 30, Interim Operating Budget 

and Apollo Decisions; George M. Low, Acting Administrator, 

Letter to Edward E. David, Jr., Science Advisor to the President, 

“Apollo versus Skylab and Research Airplane Programs,” 

October 30, 1970; James C. Fletcher, Administrator, Letter to 

Caspar W. Weinberger, Deputy Director, Office of Management 

and Budget, November 3, 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 
xviii 

II-80 Letter to Congressman G. P. Miller, Chairman of the House 

Committee on Science and Astronautics, from Thirty-Nine 

Scientists, September 10, 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 

II-81 Mission Evaluation Team, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, 

“Apollo 11: Mission Report,” 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 

Biographical Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 

The NASA History Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 
xix

Acknowledgments

This volume is the seventh in a series that had its origins almost two decades 

ago. The individuals involved in initiating the series and producing the 

initial six volumes have been acknowledged in those volumes [Volume 

I—Organizing for Exploration (1995); Volume II—External Relationships (1996); 

Volume III—Using Space (1998); Volume IV—Accessing Space (1999); Volume 

V—Exploring the Cosmos (2001); Volume VI—Space and Earth Science (2004)]. 

Those acknowledgments will not be repeated here. 

We owe thanks to the individuals and organizations that have searched their 

files for potentially useful materials, and for the staffs at various archives and 

collections who have helped us locate documents, especially Shelley Kelly at 

the University of Houston Clear Lake Library. Graduate students Chirag Vyas, 

Eric Dickinson, Daphne Dador, Angela Peura, and Audrey Schaffer provided 

essential assistance in the preparation of the volume. 

My thanks go to all those mentioned above, and again to those who helped get 

this effort started and who have been involved along the way. 

John M. Logsdon 

George Washington University 

******** 

Numerous people at NASA associated with historical study, technical information, and the mechanics of publishing helped in myriad ways in the preparation 

of this documentary history. In the NASA History Division, Stephen J. Garber 

oversaw much of the editorial and production work. Nadine J. Andreassen provided key administrative support for this project. Intern Matthew Barrow capably researched and wrote the entries for the biographical appendix and Amelia 

Lancaster assisted with the final production. Archivists Jane Odom, Colin Fries, 

and John Hargenrader also helped in a number of ways. In addition, the staffs 

of the NASA Headquarters Library, the Scientific and Technical Information 

Program, and the NASA Document Services Center provided assistance in locating and preparing for publication the documentary materials in this work. 

On the production end in the NASA Headquarters Communications Support 

Services Center, Stacie Dapoz oversaw the careful copyediting of this volume. 

Shelley Kilmer-Gaul laid out the book and designed the dust jacket. Gail CarterKane and Cindy Miller assisted in the overall process. Printing specialists Hanta 

Ralay and Tun Hla expertly oversaw this critical fi nal stage. 

Thanks are due to all these fi ne professionals. 

Steven J. Dick 

NASA Chief Historian 

xxi 

Introduction
 

One of the most important developments of the twentieth century has been the 

movement of humanity into space with machines and people. The underpinnings of that movement—why it took the shape it did; which individuals and 

organizations were involved; what factors drove a particular choice of scientifi c 

objectives and technologies to be used; and the political, economic, managerial, 

and international contexts in which the events of the Space Age unfolded—are 

all important ingredients of this epoch transition from an Earthbound to a 

spacefaring people. This desire to understand the development of spacefl ight 

in the United States sparked this documentary history series. 

The extension of human activity into outer space has been accompanied 

by a high degree of self-awareness of its historical significance. Few largescale activities have been as extensively chronicled so closely to the time 

they actually occurred. Many of those who were directly involved were quite 

conscious that they were making history, and they kept full records of their 

activities. Because most of the activity in outer space was carried out under 

government sponsorship, it was accompanied by the documentary record 

required of public institutions, and there has been a spate of offi cial and 

privately written histories of most major aspects of space achievement to date. 

When top leaders considered what course of action to pursue in space, their 

deliberations and decisions often were carefully put on the record. There is, 

accordingly, no lack of material for those who aspire to understand the origins 

and evolution of U.S. space policies and programs. 

This reality forms the rationale for this series. Precisely because there is so 

much historical material available on space matters, the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA) decided in 1988 that it would be extremely 

useful to have easily available to scholars and the interested public a selective 

collection of many of the seminal documents related to the evolution of the 

U.S. civilian space program. While recognizing that much space activity has 

taken place under the sponsorship of the Department of Defense and other 

national security organizations, the U.S. private sector, and in other countries 

around the world, NASA felt that there would be lasting value in a collection 

of documentary material primarily focused on the evolution of the U.S. government’s civilian space program, most of which has been carried out since 

1958 under the Agency’s auspices. As a result, the NASA History Division 

contracted with the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University’s 

Elliott School of International Affairs to prepare such a collection. This is 

the seventh volume in the documentary history series; one additional volume 

containing documents and introductory essays related to post-Apollo human 

spaceflight will follow. 

The documents collected during this research project were assembled from a 

diverse number of both public and private sources. A major repository of 
xxii 

primary source materials relative to the history of the civil space program is the 

NASA Historical Reference Collection of the NASA History Division located at 

the Agency’s Washington headquarters. Project assistants combed this collection for the “cream” of the wealth of material housed there. Indeed, one purpose 

of this series from the start was to capture some of the highlights of the holdings at Headquarters. Historical materials housed at the other NASA installations, 

at institutions of higher learning, and Presidential libraries were other sources 

of documents considered for inclusion, as were papers in the archives of individuals and firms involved in opening up space for exploration. 

Copies of the documents included in this volume in their original form will 

be deposited in the NASA Historical Reference Collection. Another complete set of project materials is located at the Space Policy Institute at George 

Washington University. These materials in their original forms are available 

for use by researchers seeking additional information about the evolution of 

the U.S. civil space program, or wishing to consult the documents reprinted 

herein in their original form. 

The documents selected for inclusion in this volume are presented in two 

chapters: one covering the Mercury and Gemini projects and another covering Project Apollo. 

Volume I in this series covered the antecedents to the U.S. space program, 

and the origins and evolution of U.S. space policy and of NASA as an institution. Volume II dealt with the relations between the civilian space program 

of the United States and the space activities of other countries; the relations 

between the U.S. civilian and national security space and military efforts; and 

NASA’s relations with industry and academic institutions. Volume III provided 

documents on satellite communications, remote sensing, and the economics 

of space applications. Volume IV covered various forms of space transportation. Volume V covered the origins of NASA’s space science program and its 

efforts in solar system exploration and astrophysics and astronomy. Volume 

VI covered space and Earth science. As noted above, one more future volume 

will cover post-Apollo human spacefl ight. 

Each section in the present volume is introduced by an overview essay. In the 

main, these essays are intended to introduce and complement the documents 

in the section and to place them in a chronological and substantive context. 

Each essay contains references to the documents in the section it introduces, 

and also contains references to documents in other volumes in this series. 

These introductory essays are the responsibility of their individual authors, 

and the views and conclusions contained therein do not necessarily represent 

the opinions of either George Washington University or NASA. 

The documents included in each section were chosen by the project team in 

concert with the essay writer from those assembled by the research staff for 
xxiii 

the overall project. The contents of this volume emphasize primary documents or long-out-of-print essays or articles and material from the private 

recollections of important actors in shaping space affairs. The contents of this 

volume thus do not comprise in themselves a comprehensive historical 

account; they must be supplemented by other sources, those both already 

available and to become available in the future. The documents included in 

each section are arranged chronologically, with the exception that closely 

related documents are grouped together. Each document is assigned its own 

number in terms of the section in which it is placed. Thus, the fi rst document 

in the second section of this volume is designated “Document II-l.” Each document or group of related documents is accompanied by a headnote setting out 

its context and providing a background narrative. These headnotes also provide specific information about people and events discussed. We have avoided 

the inclusion of explanatory notes in the documents themselves and have confined such material to the headnotes. 

The editorial method we adopted for dealing with these documents seeks to 

preserve spelling, grammar, paragraphing, and use of language as in the original. We have sometimes changed punctuation where it enhances readability. 

We have used the designation [not included, or omitted] to note where sections of a document have not been included in this publication, and we have 

avoided including words and phrases that had been deleted in the original 

document unless they contribute to an understanding of what was going on in 

the mind of the writer in making the record. Marginal notations on the original documents are inserted into the text of the documents in brackets, each 

clearly marked as a marginal comment. Except insofar as illustrations and 

figures are necessary to understanding the text, those items have been omitted from this printed version. Page numbers in the original document are 

noted in brackets internal to the document text. Copies of all documents in 

their original form, however, are available for research by any interested person at the NASA History Division or the Space Policy Institute of George 

Washington University. 

We recognize that there are certain to be quite significant documents left 

out of this compilation. No two individuals would totally agree on all documents to be included from the many we collected, and surely we have not 

been totally successful in locating all relevant records. As a result, this documentary history can raise an immediate question from its users: why were 

some documents included while others of seemingly equal importance were 

omitted? There can never be a fully satisfactory answer to this question. Our 

own criteria for choosing particular documents and omitting others rested on 

three interrelated factors: 

• 	Is the document the best available, most expressive, most representative 

reflection of a particular event or development important to the evolution 

of the space program? 
xxiv 

• 	Is the document not easily accessible except in one or a few locations, 

or is it included (for example, in published compilations of presidential 

statements) in reference sources that are widely available and thus not a 

candidate for inclusion in this collection? 

• 	Is the document protected by copyright, security classification, or some 

other form of proprietary right and thus unavailable for publication? 

As general editor of this volume, I was ultimately responsible for the decisions 

about which documents to include and for the accuracy of the headnotes 

accompanying them. It has been an occasionally frustrating but consistently 

exciting experience to be involved with this undertaking; I and my associates 

hope that those who consult it in the future find our efforts worthwhile. 

John M. Logsdon 

Director 

Space Policy Institute 

Elliott School of International Affairs 

George Washington University 
xxv 

Biographies of Volume VII Editors 

Roger D. Launius is a member of the space history department of the 

Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum and is the former 

NASA Chief Historian. He has produced many books and articles on aerospace 

history, including Innovation and the Development of Flight (Texas A&M University 

Press, 1999); NASA & the Exploration of Space (Stewart, Tabori, & Chang, 1998); 

Frontiers of Space Exploration (Greenwood Press, 1998); Organizing for the Use of 

Space: Historical Perspectives on a Persistent Issue (Univelt, Inc., AAS History Series, 

Volume 18, 1995), editor; NASA: A History of the U.S. Civil Space Program (Krieger 

Publishing Co., 1994); History of Rocketry and Astronautics: Proceedings of the Fifteenth 

and Sixteenth History Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics (Univelt, 

Inc., AAS History Series, Volume 11, 1994), editor; Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis 

(Monographs in Aerospace History, Vol. 3, 1994); and Apollo 11 at Twenty-Five 

(electronic picture book issued on computer disk by the Space Telescope 

Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, 1994). 

John M. Logsdon is Director of the Space Policy Institute of George Washington 

University’s Elliott School of International Affairs, where he is also Professor 

Emeritus of Political Science and International Affairs. He holds a B.S. in 

physics from Xavier University and a Ph.D. in political science from New York 

University. He has been at George Washington University since 1970, and 

previously taught at The Catholic University of America. He is also a faculty 

member of the International Space University. He is the author and editor 

of numerous books and articles on space policy and space history. He is an 

elected member of the International Academy of Astronautics and a former member of the board of The Planetary Society. He is a member of the 

NASA Advisory Council and served during 2003 on the Columbia Accident 

Investigation Board. Dr. Logsdon has lectured and spoken to a wide variety 

of audiences at professional meetings, colleges and universities, international 

conferences, and other settings, and has testified before Congress on numerous occasions. He is frequently consulted by the electronic and print media for 

his views on various space issues. He has twice been a Fellow at the Woodrow 

Wilson International Center for Scholars and was the first holder of the Chair 

in Space History of the National Air and Space Museum. He is a Fellow of 

the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American 

Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 

Chapter 1 

First Steps into Space: 


Projects Mercury and Gemini
 

by Roger D. Launius 

Introduction 

Humanity has dreamed of traveling into space for centuries, but in the twentieth century, scientific and technical capabilities converged with this dream for 

the first time. From the work of Robert H. Goddard through the heroic era of 

spaceflight into the 1960s, the modern age of rocketry signaled a beginning that 

would eventually lead to human flights beyond Earth to the Moon.1 All of these 

enthusiasts believed humanity would soon explore and eventually colonize the 

solar system. And many of them worked relentlessly to make that belief a reality. 

They successfully convinced a large majority of Americans of spacefl ight’s possibility. Through their constant public relations efforts during the decade following 

World War II, they engineered a sea change in perceptions, as most Americans 

went from skepticism about the probabilities of spaceflight to an acceptance of it 

as a near-term reality.2 

This is apparent in the public opinion polls of the era. In December 1949, 

Gallup pollsters found that only 15 percent of Americans believed humans would 

reach the Moon within 50 years, while 15 percent had no opinion, and a whopping 70 percent believed that it would not happen within that time. In October 

1957, at the same time as the launching of Sputnik I, only 25 percent believed 

that it would take longer than 25 years for humanity to reach the Moon, while 41 

percent believed firmly that it would happen within 25 years, and 34 percent were 

not sure. An important shift in perceptions had taken place, and it was largely the 

result of well-known advances in rocket technology coupled with a public relations campaign that emphasized the real possibilities of spacefl ight.3 

Indeed, by the end of World War II, all the technical assessments suggested 

that it was only a matter of a few years before the United States would be able 

1. Robert H. Goddard. “R. H. Goddard’s Diary,” 16–17 March 1926 in Esther C. Goddard, 

ed., and G. Edward Pendray, assoc. ed., The Papers of Robert H. Goddard (New York: McGraw-Hill 

Book Co., 1970), 2: pp. 580–581; Milton Lehman, This High Man (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1963), 

pp. 140–144; David A. Clary, Rocket Man: Robert H. Goddard and the Birth of the Space Age (New York: 

Hyperian, 2003), pp. 120–122. 

2. This is the core argument of Howard E. McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination 

(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997). 

3. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (New York: Random House, 

1972), 1: pp. 875, 1152. 
2 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

to place a satellite in orbit around Earth and, ultimately, to place a human in a 

capsule for orbital activities. In 1946, for instance, the forerunner of the Rand 

Corporation completed an engineering analysis of an Earth satellite vehicle 

for the Army Air Forces, finding important military support functions possible 

ranging from weather forecasting to secure global communications to strategic 

reconnaissance.4 Later, military analysts thought there might be a role for piloted 

military missions in space, and that, along with the exploration imperative, drove 

efforts to make human spaceflight a reality. By the middle part of the 1950s, the 

spaceflight advocacy community was actively advocating, as later ensconced in 

the NASA long-range plan of 1959, “the manned exploration of the Moon and 

nearby planets.” They called for the “first launching in a program leading to 

manned circumlunar flight and to a permanent near-Earth space station” that 

would make a human mission to the Moon possible.5 

The von Braun Paradigm 

All of the prospective futures for the near term contemplated by spacefl ight 

pioneers ended with a human expedition to Mars. Without question, the most 

powerful vision of spaceflight since the early 1950s has been that articulated by 

Wernher von Braun, one of the most important rocket developers and champions of space exploration during the period between the 1930s and the 1970s. 

Working for the German Army between 1934 and 1945, von Braun led the technical effort to develop the V-2, the first ballistic missile, and deliberately surrendered to the Americans at the close of World War II because he said he desired 

to work for a rich and benevolent uncle, in this case Uncle Sam. For 15 years 

after World War II, von Braun worked with the U.S. Army in the develop ment of 

ballistic missiles. Von Braun became one of the most prominent spokesmen of 

space exploration in the U.S. in the 1950s. In 1952 he gained note as a participant 

in an important symposium dedicated to the subject and he gained notoriety 

among the public in the fall of 1952 with a series of articles in Collier’s, a pop ular weekly periodical of the era. He also became a house hold name following his 

appearance on three Disney tele vi sion shows dedicated to space exploration in 

the mid-1950s.6

 Indeed, no one became more significant as an advocate for space 

4. Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc., “Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling 

Spaceship,” Report No. SM-11827, 2 May 1946. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

5. Office of Program Planning and Evaluation, “The Long Range Plan of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration,” 16 December 1959, document III-2 in James M. Logsdon, 

gen. ed., with Linda J. Lear, Jannelle Warren Findley, Ray A. Williamson, Dwayne A. Day, Exploring 

the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume I, Organizing for 

Exploration (Washington, DC: NASA Special Publication 4407, 1995), pp. 403–407. 

6. See Erik Bergaust, Wernher von Braun (Washington, DC: National Space Institute, 1976); Ernst 

Stuhlinger, Frederick I. Ordway, III, Wernher von Braun: Crusader for Space, 2 vols. (Malabar, FL: Krieger 

Publishing Co., 1994). See Michael J. Neufeld, Wernher von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War 

(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007). Also see the Collier’s series of articles conveniently reprinted in 

Cornelius Ryan, ed., Across the Space Frontier (New York: Viking Press, 1952); and Cornelius Ryan, ed., 

Conquest of the Moon (New York: Viking Press, 1953). The three Disney programs have recently been 
Exploring the Unknown 3

exploration in the first part of the Space Age than von Braun, whose ideas infl uenced millions and charted the course of space exploration in the U.S. Central 

to von Braun’s ideas was the human exploration of space; there was virtually no 

room in his vision for robotic spacefl ight. 

From the 1950s on, this German émigré called for an integrated space exploration plan centered on human movement beyond this planet and involving these 

basic steps accomplished in this order: 

1.	 Earth orbital satellites to learn about the requirements for space technology that must operate in a hostile environment (initially soft-pedaled by 

von Braun but later embraced in such missions as Explorer 1). 

2.	 Earth orbital flights by humans to determine whether or not it was possible to explore and settle other places. 

3. 	A reusable spacecraft for travel to and from Earth orbit, thereby extending the principles of atmospheric flight into space and making routine 

space operations. 

4.	 A permanently inhabited space station as a place both to observe Earth 

and from which to launch future expeditions. This would serve as the 

base camp at the bottom of the mountain or the fort in the wilderness 

from which exploring parties would depart. 

5.	 Human exploration of the Moon with the intention of creating Moon 

bases and eventually permanent colonies. 

6.	 Human expeditions to Mars, eventually colonizing the planet. 

This has become known over time as the von Braun paradigm for the human 

colonization of the solar system. This approach would lead, von Braun believed, 

in the establishment of a new and ultimately perfect human society elsewhere in 

the solar system. 

This integrated plan has cast a long shadow over American efforts in space for 

over 50 years. It conjured powerful images of people venturing into the unknown 

to make a perfect society free from the boundaries found on Earth. As such, it 

represented a coherent and compelling definition of American ideals in space. 

In many respects, von Braun’s vision of space exploration has served as the model 

for U.S. efforts in space through the end of the 20th century.7

 His vision was 

constrained by the time in which he lived, for without a coherent vision of the 

rise of electronics, he failed to perceive the role of robotic explorers. As John 

H. Gibbons, Assistant to the President for Science and Technology during the 

Clinton administration, said in 1995: 

released in DVD as Tomorrow Land: Disney in Space and Beyond (Burbank, CA: Buena Vista Home 

Entertainment, 2004). 

7. Dwayne A. Day, “The Von Braun Paradigm,” Space Times: Magazine of the American Astronautical 

Society 33 (November to December 1994): pp. 12–15; “Man Will Conquer Space Soon,” Collier’s (22 

March 1952): pp. 23–76ff; Wernher von Braun, with Cornelius Ryan, “Can We Get to Mars?” Collier’s 

(30 April 1954): pp. 22–28. 
4 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

The von Braun paradigm—that humans were destined to physically explore the solar system—which he so eloquently described 

in Collier’s magazine in the early 1950’s was bold, but his vision was 

highly constrained by the technology of his day. For von Braun, 

humans were the most powerful and flexible exploration tool that 

he could imagine. Today we have within our grasp technologies that 

will fundamentally redefine the exploration paradigm. We have the 

ability to put our minds where our feet can never go. We will soon 

be able to take ourselves—in a virtual way—anywhere from the interior of a molecule to the planets circling a nearby star—and there 

exclaim, “Look honey, I shrunk the Universe!”8 

Most important, von Braun’s integrated approach to space exploration was 

ensconced in the NASA long-range plan of 1959, and, with the exception of a 

jump from human orbital flights to a lunar (Apollo) mission driven by political concerns, the history of spacefl ight has followed this paradigm consistently. 

Following the Apollo missions, NASA returned to the building of winged reusable spacecraft (the Space Shuttle), and a space station (Freedom/International 

Space Station) and, in 2004, embarked on human lunar and Mars expeditions. 

This adherence to the paradigm is either a testament to the amazing vision of 

Wernher von Braun or to a lack of imagination by NASA leaders, but the best 

guess suggests that it lies somewhere between the two. 

The NACA and Spacefl ight Research 

During the latter part of World War II, leaders of the National Advisory 

Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor to NASA, had become 

interested in the possibilities of high-speed guided missiles and the future of 

spaceflight. It created the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD), under the 

leadership of a young and promising engineer at the Langley Research Center in 

Hampton, Virginia, Robert R. Gilruth. In early 1945, NACA asked Congress for 

a supplemental appropriation to fund the activation of a unit to carry out this 

research, and a short time later the NACA opened the Auxiliary Flight Research 

Station (AFRS), which was later redesignated the name by which it gained fame, 

PARD, with Gilruth as Director.9 

Established at Wallops Island as a test-launching facility of Langley on 4 July 

1945, PARD launched its fi rst test vehicle, a small two-stage, solid-fuel rocket to 

8. John H. Gibbons, “The New Frontier: Space Science and Technology in the Next Millennium,” 

Wernher von Braun Lecture, 22 March 1995, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC, available online at http://clinton4.nara.gov/textonly/WH/EOP/OSTP/ 

other/space.html, accessed 2 October 2008.

9. James M. Grimwood, Project Mercury: A Chronology (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4001, 1963), 

Part 1A, p. 1; Joseph Adams Shortall, A New Dimension: Wallops Island Flight Test Range, the First Fifteen 

Years (Washington, DC: NASA Reference Publication [RP]-1028, 1978). At first, only part of the land 

on Wallops Island was purchased; the rest was leased. In 1949 NACA purchased the entire island. 
Exploring the Unknown 5

check out the installation’s instrumentation. Beyond a series of exploratory fl ight 

tests of rocket models, Gilruth’s PARD advanced the knowledge of aerodynamics 

at transonic and, later, hypersonic speeds. They did so through exhaustive testing, which some at Langley considered excessive and overly expensive, launching 

at least 386 models between 1947 and 1949, leading to the publication of NACA’s 

first technical report on rocketry, “Aerodynamic Problems of Guided Missiles,” in 

1947. From this, Gilruth and PARD filled in tremendous gaps in the knowledge 

of spaceflight. As historian James R. Hansen writes: “the early years of the rocketmodel program at Wallops (1945–1951) showed that Langley was able to tackle an 

enormously difficult new field of research with innovation and imagination.”10 

The NACA leadership believed that human spaceflight could be achieved 

within a decade after 1952, and Gilruth served as an active promoter of the idea 

within the organization. He helped to engineer the creation of an interagency 

board to review “research on spacefl ight and associated problems” with an end 

to advancing the cause of human spacefl ight (I-1).11 For example, while Gilruth 

was interested in orbiting an artificial satellite, it did not capture his imagination. 

As he recalled, “When you think about putting a man up there, that’s a different 

thing. That’s a lot more exciting. There are a lot of things you can do with men 

up in orbit.”12 This led to concerted efforts to develop the technology necessary 

to make it a reality. In 1952, for example, PARD started the development of multistage, hypersonic, solid-fuel rocket vehicles. These vehicles were used primarily 

in aerodynamic heating tests at first and were then directed toward a reentry 

physics research program. On 14 October 1954, the first American four-stage 

rocket was launched by PARD, and in August 1956 it launched a fi ve-stage, solidfuel rocket test vehicle, the world’s first, that reached a speed of Mach 15.13 

At the same time, H. Julian Allen at NACA’s Ames Research Center began research on 

recovery of objects from orbit. In the early 1950s, he found that a blunt-nose body experienced less heating and dissipated it more quickly than a pointed body during the reentry; 

the pointed body was likely to burn up before reaching Earth’s surface. Allen’s work fundamentally shaped the course of spaceflight research and provided the basis for all successful 

reentry vehicles. It became the standard technology used in reconnaissance, warhead, and 

human reentry missions from the;1950s to the present. Based upon this research, in 1955 

General Electric (GE) engineers began work on the Mark 2 reentry vehicle. While an overall success, GE adopted a heat-sink concept for the Mark 2 vehicle, whereby the heat 

10. Robert R. Gilruth, “Aerodynamic Problems of Guided Missiles,” NACA Report, draft, 19 

May 1947, Gilruth Papers, Special Collections, Carol M. Newman Library, Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA; James R. Hansen, Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley 

Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4308, 1995), p. 270. 

11. H. J. E. Reid, Director, NACA, to NACA, “Research on Spaceflight and Associated Problems,” 

5 August 1952. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

12. Third oral history interview of Robert R. Gilruth, by Linda Ezell, Howard Wolko, Martin 

Collins, National Air and Space Museum, Washington, DC, 30 June 1986, pp. 19, 44. 

13. NASA Space Task Group to NASA Headquarters, 5 July 1960. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA Hisotry Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; Eugene M. 

Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration 

of Space, 1915–1960 (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1961), p. 76; 

House Rpt. 67, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 27. 
6 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

of reentry was conducted from the surface of the vehicle to a mass of material that 

could soak it up quickly. The key was to dissipate the heat away from the surface fast 

enough so that it did not melt. By 1956, Allen and other researchers had noticed 

that reinforced plastics had proven more resistant to heating than most other materials. They proposed coating the reentry vehicle with a material that absorbed heat, 

charred, and either flaked off or vaporized. As it did so, these “ablative” heatshields 

took away the absorbed heat (I-2).14 

While Gilruth experimented with launch technology, and Allen worked on 

spacecraft recovery, both became very interested in the prospects for human 

spaceflight. They became aware of the Collier’s series of articles on space, the fi rst 

of which appeared on 22 March 1952. In it readers were asked by Wernher von 

Braun, “What Are We Waiting For?” and urged to support an aggressive space 

program.15 Clearly the Collier’s series helped to shape the perceptions of many at 

NACA that spaceflight was something that was no longer fantasy. Gilruth recalled 

of von Braun and his ideas: “I thought that was fascinating. He was way ahead 

of all of us guys . . . everybody was a space cadet in those days. I thought a space 

station was very interesting.”16 

In more than 12 years NACA made some significant strides in the development of the technology necessary to reach orbital fl ight above the atmosphere. 

Clearly, PARD held the lion’s share of knowledge in NACA about the nascent 

field of astronautics. And it enjoyed renewed attention and funding once the 

Soviet Union launched the world’s first satellite, Sputnik I, on 4 October 1957. “I 

can recall watching the sunlight reflect off of Sputnik as it passed over my home 

on the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia,” Gilruth commented in 1972. “It put a new 

sense of value and urgency on things we had been doing. When one month later 

the dog Laika was placed in orbit in Sputnik II, I was sure that the Russians were 

planning for man-in-space.”17 

In the aftermath of the Sputnik crisis, NACA proceeded with efforts to 

advance human spaceflight even as plans were underway in 1958 to transform it 

into a new space agency. NACA engineers developed plans for a human space14. H. Julian Allen, NACA, to A. J. Eggers Jr., NACA, “Research Memorandum: A Study of the 

Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Missiles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere at High Supersonic 

Speeds,” 25 August 1953. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; H. Julian Allen and Alfred J. Eggers Jr. “A Study 

of the Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Ballistic Missiles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere 

at High Supersonic Speeds,” NACA Technical Report 1381, Forty-Fourth Annual Report of the 

NACA—1958 (Washington, DC: 1959), pp. 1125–1140; H. Julian Allen, “Hypersonic Flight and the 

Reentry Problem,” Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences 25 (April 1958): pp. 217–230; Alfred J. Eggers 

Jr., “Performance of Long Range Hypervelocity Vehicles,” Jet Propulsion 27 (November 1957): pp. 

1147–1151; Loyd S. Swenson, James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A 

History of Project Mercury (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4201, 1966), pp. 55–82; David K. Stump, Titan 

II (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2000), pp. 56–63. 

15. “Man Will Conquer Space Soon” series, Collier’s, 22 March 1952, pp. 23–76ff. 

16. Robert Gilruth Oral History No. 6 by David DeVorkin and John Mauer, 2 March 1987, 

Glennan-Webb-Seamans Project, National Air and Space Museum. 

17. NASA Press Release H00-127, “Dr. Robert Gilruth, an Architect of Manned Spacefl ight, 

Dies,” 17 August 2000. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 7

flight proposal during the spring of the year.18 As a part of this effort they considered the best method for reaching space. At a series of meetings to discuss 

planning for human-in-space program approaches being developed by U.S. 

industry in January–February 1958, NACA offi cials found: 

Proposals fell into two rough categories: (a) a blunt-nose cone or 

near-spherical zero-lift high-drag vehicle of a ton to a ton-and-a-half 

weight, and (b) a hypersonic glider of the ROBO or Dyna-Soar type. 

The first category of vehicles used existing ICBM vehicles as boosters; 

the second used more complex and arbitrary multiplex arrangements of 

existing large-thrust rocket engines. A number of contractors looked at 

the zero-lift high-drag minimum weight vehicle as the obvious expedient for beating the Russians and the Army into space. Others, notably 

Bell, Northrup, and Republic Aviation, set this idea aside as a stunt and 

consequently these contractors stressed the more elaborate recoverable 

hypersonic glider vehicle as the practical approach to the problems of 

flight in space (I-3).19 

By April 1958, NACA engineers had concluded that the first of these options should 

become the basis for NACA planning for an initial human spacefl ight (I-4).20 

It soon became obvious to all that an early opportunity to launch human 

spacecraft into orbit would require the development of blunt-body capsules 

launched on modified multistage intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). 

Robert Gilruth recalled one of these decisions: 

Because of its great simplicity, the non-lifting, ballistic-type of vehicle 

was the front runner of all proposed manned satellites, in my judgment. 

There were many variations of this and other concepts under study by 

both government and industry groups at that time. The choice involved 

considerations of weight, launch vehicle, reentry body design, and to be 

honest, gut feelings. Some people felt that man-in-space was only a stunt. 

The ballistic approach, in particular, was under fire since it was such a 

radical departure from the airplane. It was called by its opponents ‘the 

man in the can,’ and the pilot was termed only a ‘medical specimen.’ 

Others thought it was just too undignified a way to fl y.21 

18. Abe Silverstein, Associate Director, NACA, to Langley, “Review of Prospective Langley Report 

Entitled “Preliminary Study of a Manned Satellite” by Maxime A. Faget, Benjamine E. Garland, and 

James J. Buglia, 7 March 1958; Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NACA, Memorandum 

for Mr. Gilruth, “Langley Manned-Satellite Program,” 11 April 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

19. Adelbert O. Tischler, Head, Rocket Combustion Section, NACA, Memorandum for 

Associate Director, NACA, “Minimum Man-In-Space Proposals Presented at WADC, January 29, 

1958 to February 1, 1958,” 10 April 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

20. Silverstein to NACA, “Review of Prospective Langley Report,” 7 March 1958. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

21. Robert R. Gilruth, “Memoir: From Wallops Island to Mercury; 1945–1958,” paper, Sixth 
8 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

While initially criticized as an inelegant, impractical solution to the challenge 

of human spaceflight, the ballistic spacecraft concept gained momentum as NACA 

engineers, led by Maxime A. Faget, championed the approach. At a meeting on 

human spaceflight held at Ames on 18 March 1958, a NACA position emerged on 

this approach to human spacefl ight, reflecting Faget’s ideas.22 By April 1958, NACA 

had completed several studies “on the general problems of manned-satellite vehicles,” finding that they could build in the near term “a basic drag-reentry capsule” 

of approximately 2,000 pounds and sufficient volume for a passenger.23 

In August 1958, Faget and his designers developed preliminary specifi cations 

that then went to industry, especially the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, for a 

ballistic capsule. Faget and his colleagues emphasized the simplicity, if not the 

elegance, of a ballistic capsule for the effort: 

The ballistic reentry vehicle also has certain attractive operational 

aspects which should be mentioned. Since it follows a ballistic path there 

is a minimum requirement for autopilot, guidance, or control equipment. This condition not only results in a weight saving but also eliminates the hazard of malfunction. In order to return to Earth from orbit, 

the ballistic reentry vehicle must properly perform only one maneuver. 

This maneuver is the initiation of reentry by firing the retrograde rocket. 

Once this maneuver is completed (and from a safety standpoint alone it 

need not be done with a great deal of precision), the vehicle will enter 

Earth’s atmosphere. The success of the reentry is then dependant only 

upon the inherent stability and structural integrity of the vehicle. These 

are things of a passive nature and should be thoroughly checked out 

prior to the first man-carrying fl ight. Against these advantages the disadvantage of large area landing by parachute with no corrective control 

during the reentry must be considered.24 

The Mercury spacecraft that flew in 1961 to 1963 emerged from these early 

conceptual studies by NACA engineers (I-9). 

International History of Astronautics Symposium, Vienna, Austria, 13 October 1972, pp. 31–32. 

22. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, p. 86; James M. Grimwood, Project Mercury: A Chronology 

(Washington, DC: NASA SP-4001, 1963), p. 17; “How Mercury Capsule Design Evolved,” Aviation 

Week, 21 September 1959, pp. 52–53, 55, and 57. 

23. Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NACA, Memorandum for Mr. Gilruth, 

“Langley Manned-Satellite Program,” 11 April 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

24. Maxime A. Faget, Benjamine J. Garland, and James J. Buglia, Langley Aeronautical 

Laboratory, NACA, “Preliminary Studies of Manned Satellites,” 11 August 1958. Folder 18674, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, 

DC; Grimwood, Project Mercury: A Chronology, pp. 19–24; Gilruth, “Memoir: From Wallops Island to 

Mercury,” pp. 34–37. 
Exploring the Unknown 9

Man-in-Space Soonest 

At the same time that NACA was pursuing its studies for a human spacefl ight 

program, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) proposed the development of a piloted 

orbital spacecraft under the title of “Man-in-Space Soonest” (MISS).25 Initially 

discussed before the launch of Sputnik I in October 1957, afterwards the Air 

Force invited Dr. Edward Teller and several other leading members of the scientific/technological elite to study the issue of human spaceflight and make recommendations for the future. Teller’s group concluded that the Air Force could 

place a human in orbit within two years and urged that the department pursue 

this effort. Teller understood, however, that there was essentially no military reason for undertaking this mission and chose not to tie his recommendation to 

any specific rationale, falling back on a basic belief that the first nation to do so 

would accrue national prestige and advance, in a general manner, science and 

technology.26 Soon after the new year, Lieutenant General Donald L. Putt, the 

USAF Deputy Chief of Staff for Development, informed NACA Director Hugh L. 

Dryden of the intention of the Air Force to aggressively pursue “a research vehicle 

program having as its objective the earliest possible manned orbital fl ight which 

will contribute substantially and essentially to follow-on scientific and military 

space systems.” Putt asked Dryden to collaborate in this effort, but with NACA as 

a decidedly junior partner.27 Dryden agreed; however, by the end of the summer 

he would find the newly created NASA leading the human spaceflight effort for 

the United States, with the Air Force being the junior player.28 

Notwithstanding the lack of clear-cut military purpose, the Air Force pressed 

for MISS throughout the first part of 1958, clearly expecting to become the lead 

agency in any space program of the U.S. Specifically, it believed hypersonic space 

planes and lunar bases would serve national security needs in the coming decades 

well. To help make that a reality, it requested $133 million for the MISS program 

and secured approval for the effort from the Joint Chiefs of Staff.29 Throughout this 

period, a series of disagreements between Air Force and NACA officials rankled both 

sides. The difficulties reverberated all the way to the White House, prompting a 

25. The MISS program called for a four-phase capsule orbital process, which would fi rst use 

instruments, to be followed by primates, then a pilot, with the final objective of landing humans on 

the Moon. See David N. Spires, Beyond Horizons: A Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership (Peterson 

Air Force Base, CO: Air Force Space Command, 1997), p. 75; Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 

33–97. 

26. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, p. 73–74. 

27. Lt. Gen. Donald L. Putt, USAF Deputy Chief of Staff, Development, to Hugh L. Dryden, 

NACA Director, 31 January 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

28. NACA to USAF Deputy Chief of Staff, Development, “Transmittal of Copies of Proposed 

Memorandum of Understanding between Air Force and NACA for joint NACA-Air Force Project 

for a Recoverable Manned Satellite Test Vehicle,” 11 April 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

29. The breakdown for this budget was aircraft and missiles, $32M; support, $11.5M; construction, $2.5M; and research and development, $87M. See Memorandum for ARPA Director, “Air 

Force Man-in-Space Program,” 19 March 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
10 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

review of the roles of the two organizations (I-5, I-6, I-7).30 The normally staid and 

proper Director of NACA, Hugh L. Dryden, complained in July 1958 to the 

President’s science advisor, James R. Killian, of the lack of clarity on the role of the 

Air Force versus NACA. He asserted that “the current objective for a manned satellite program is the determination of man’s basic capability in a space environment 

as a prelude to the human exploration of space and to possible military applications of manned satellites. Although it is clear that both the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration and the Department of Defense should cooperate in the 

conduct of the program, I feel that the responsibility for and the direction of the 

program should rest with NASA.” He urged that the President state a clear division 

between the two organizations on the human spaceflight mission (I-8).31 

As historians David N. Spires and Rick W. Sturdevant have pointed out, the 

MISS program became derailed within the Department of Defense (DOD) at 

essentially the same time because of funding concerns and a lack of clear military mission: 

Throughout the spring and summer of 1958 the Air Force’s Air 

Research and Development Command had mounted an aggressive campaign to have ARPA convince administration officials to approve its Manin-Space-Soonest development plan. But ARPA [Advanced Research 

Projects Agency] balked at the high cost, technical challenges, and uncertainties surrounding the future direction of the civilian space agency.32 

Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 

1958 into law at the end of July and, during the next month, assigned the USAF’s 

human spaceflight mission to NASA. Thereafter, the MISS program was folded 

into what became Project Mercury.33 By early November 1958, the DOD had 

acceded to the President’s desire that the human spaceflight program be a civil30. Maurice H. Stans, Director, Bureau of the Budget, Memorandum for the President, 

“Responsibility for “Space” Programs,” 10 May 1958; Maxime A. Faget, NACA, Memorandum for Dr. 

Dryden, 5 June 1958; Clotaire Wood, Headquarters, NACA, Memorandum for files, “Tableing [sic] 

of Proposed Memorandum of Understanding Between Air Force and NACA For a Joint Project For a 

Recoverable Manned Satellite Test Vehicle,” 20 May 1958, with attached Memorandum, “Principles 

for the Conduct by the NACA and the Air Force of a Joint Project for a Recoverable Manned Satellite 

Vehicle,” 29 April 1958; Donald A. Quarles, Secretary of Defense, to Maurice H. Stans, Director, 

Bureau of the Budget, 1 April 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

31. Hugh L. Dryden, Director, NACA, Memorandum for James R. Killian Jr., Special Assistant to 

the President for Science and Technology, “Manned Satellite Program,” 19 July 1958. Folder 18674, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

32. David N. Spires and Rick W. Sturdevant, “‘. . . to the very limit of our ability . . .’: Refl ections 

on Forty Years of Civil-Military Partnership in Space Launch,” in Roger D. Launius and Dennis R. 

Jenkins, eds., To Reach the High Frontier: A History of U.S Launch Vehicles (Lexington, KY: University 

Press of Kentucky, 2002), p. 475. 

33. For an overall discussion of the early military human program see Dwayne A. Day, “Invitation 

to Struggle: The History of Civilian-Military Relations in Space,” in John M. Logsdon, with Dwayne 

A. Day and Roger D. Launius, eds., Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. 

Civil Space Program, Volume II, External Relationships (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4407, 1996), 2: pp. 

248–251. 
Exploring the Unknown 11

ian effort under the management of NASA. For its part, NASA invited Air Force 

officials to appoint liaison personnel to the Mercury program office at Langley 

Research Center, and they did so.34 

Beginning Project Mercury 

Everyone recognized that time was of the essence in undertaking the human 

spaceflight project that NASA would now lead. Roy Johnson, director of ARPA 

for the DOD, noted in September 1958 that competition with the Soviet Union 

precluded taking a cautious approach to the human spaceflight initiative and 

advocated additional funding to ensure its timely completion. As he wrote to the 

Secretary of Defense and the NASA Administrator: 

I am troubled, however, with respect to one of the projects in which 

there is general agreement that it should be a joint undertaking. This is 

the so-called “Man-in-Space” project for which $10 million has been allocated to ARPA and $30 million to NASA. My concern over this project 

is due 1) to a firm conviction, backed by intelligence briefings, that the 

Soviets next spectacular effort in space will be to orbit a human, and 2) that 

the amount of $40 million for FY 1959 is woefully inadequate to compete 

with the Russian program. As you know our best estimates (based on some 

12–15 plans) were $100 to $150 million for an optimum FY 1959 program. 

I am convinced that the military and psychological impact on the 

United States and its Allies of a successful Soviet man-in-space “fi rst” program would be far reaching and of great consequence. 

Because of this deep conviction, I feel that no time should be lost 

in launching an aggressive Man-in-Space program and that we should 

be prepared if the situation warrants, to request supplemental appropriations of the Congress in January to pursue the program with the 

utmost urgency (I-10).35 

Johnson agreed to transfer a series of space projects from ARPA to NASA but 

urged more timely progress on development of the space vehicle itself. Two weeks 

later, ARPA and NASA established protocols for cooperating in the aggressive development of the capsule that would be used in the human spaceflight program (I-11).36 

34. Memorandum for Dr. Silverstein, “Assignment of Responsibility for ABMA Participation in 

NASA Manned Satellite Project,” 12 November 1958; Abe Silverstein to Lt. Gen. Roscoe C. Wilson, 

USAF Deputy Chief of Staff, Development, 20 November 1958; Hugh L. Dryden, Deputy Administrator, 

NASA, Memorandum for Dr. Eugene Emme for NASA Historical Files, “The ‘signed’ Agreement of 

April 11, 1958, on a Recoverable Manned Satellite Test Vehicle,” 8 September 1965. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

35. Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DOD, Memorandum for the Administrator, NASA, “Manin-Space Program,” 3 September 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

36. Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DOD, Memorandum for the Admistrator, NASA, 

“Man-in-Space Program,” 19 September 1958, with attached Memorandum of Understanding, 
12 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

To aid in the conduct of this program, ARPA and NASA created a panel for 

Manned Spaceflight, also referred to as the Joint Manned Satellite Panel, on 18 

September 1958. Holding its first meeting on 24 September, the panel established 

goals and strategy for the program. Chaired by Robert Gilruth and including 

such NASA leaders as Max Faget and George Low, the panel focused on a wide 

range of technical requirements necessary to complete the effort. Under this 

panel’s auspices, fi nal specifications for the piloted capsule emerged in October 

1958, as did procurement of both modified Redstone (for suborbital fl ights) and 

Atlas (for orbital missions) boosters (I-12, I-13, I-14).37 

Just six days after the establishment of NASA on 1 October 1958, NASA 

Administrator T. Keith Glennan approved plans for a piloted satellite project to 

determine if human spaceflight was possible, and on 8 October he established 

the Space Task Group at Langley Research Center under Robert Gilruth. Thirtyfive key staff members from Langley, some of whom had been working the military human spaceflight plan, were transferred to the new Space Task Group, 

as were 10 others from the Lewis Research Center near Cleveland, Ohio (I-15, 

I-16).38 These 45 engineers formed the nucleus of the more than 1,000-person 

workforce that eventually took part in Project Mercury, so named on 26 November 

1958 (I-17, I-18).39 On 14 November, Gilruth requested the highest national priority procurement rating for Project Mercury, but that did not come until 27 

April 1959 (I-23).40 As Glennan recalled, “the philosophy of the project was to 

use known technologies, extending the state of the art as little as necessary, 

and relying on the unproven Atlas. As one looks back, it is clear that we did not 

know much about what we were doing. Yet the Mercury program was one of the 

best organized and managed of any I have been associated with.”41 Throughout 

“Principles for the Conduct by NASA and ARPA of a Joint Program for a Manned Orbital Vehicle,” 

19 September 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

37. Minutes of Meetings, Panel for Manned Spaceflight, 24 and 30 September, 1 October 1958; 

NASA, “Preliminary Specifications for Manned Satellite Capsule,” October 1958; Paul E. Purser, 

Aeronautical Research Engineer, NASA, to Mr. R. R. Gilruth, NASA, “Procurement of Ballistic Missiles 

for use as Boosters in NASA Research Leading to Manned Spaceflight,” 8 October 1958, with attached, 

“Letter of Intent to AOMC (ABMA), Draft of Technical Content,” 8 October 1958. Folder 18674, all in 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

38. S. B. Batdorf, ARPA, Memorandum for File, “Presentation of MIS Program to Dr. Glennan,” 

14 October 1958; Robert R. Gilruth, Project Manager, NASA, Memorandum for Associate Director, 

NASA, “Space Task Group,” 3 November 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

39. Abe Silverstein, Director of Spaceflight Development, NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, 

NASA, “Code Name “Project Mercury” for Manned Satellite Project,” 26 November 1958; George M. Low, 

NASA, Memorandum for Dr. Silverstein, NASA, “Change of Manned Satellite Project name from “Project 

Mercury” to “Project Astronaut,” 12 December 1958. Folder 18674, both in NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; Linda Ezell, NASA Historical Data 

Book: Volume II: Programs and Projects 1958–1968 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4012, 1988), pp. 102, 139–140; 

James M. Grimwood, Project Mercury: A Chronology (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4001, 1963), pp. 31–32. 

40. George M. Low, NASA, Memorandum for House Committee on Science and Astronautics, 

“Urgency of Project Mercury,” 27 April 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

41. T. Keith Glennan, The Birth of NASA: The Diary of T. Keith Glennan, J. D. Hunley, ed. 

(Washington, DC: NASA SP-4105, 1993), p. 13. 
Exploring the Unknown 13

the fall of 1958, therefore, NASA leaders worked to press the Mercury program 

through to flight initially conceived as possible before the end of 1959 (I-19).42 

The Role of the Mercury Seven Astronauts 

As an important step in moving forward with Project Mercury, NASA selected 

and trained the astronaut corps.43 Although NASA at first intended to hold an 

open competition for entry into the astronaut corps, over the 1958 Christmas 

holiday, President Dwight D. Eisenhower directed that the astronauts be selected 

from among the armed services’ test pilot force. Indeed, NASA Administrator T. 

Keith Glennan visited the White House over Christmas of 1958. “When he came 

back to NASA,” NASA Chief Historian Eugene Emme wrote in 1964, “Project 

Mercury was to possess classifi ed aspects and the astronauts were to be military 

test pilots.”44 Although this had not been NASA leadership’s first choice, this decision greatly simplified the selection procedure. The inherent riskiness of spaceflight, and the potential national security implications of the program, pointed 

toward the use of military personnel. It also narrowed and refined the candidate 

pool, giving NASA a reasonable starting point for selection. It also made good 

sense in that NASA envisioned the astronaut corps first as pilots operating experimental flying machines, and only later as working scientists.45 

As historian Margaret Weitekamp has concluded in a recent study: 

From that military test flying experience, the jet pilots also mastered 

valuable skills that NASA wanted its astronauts to possess. Test pilots were 

accustomed to flying high-performance aircraft, detecting a problem, 

diagnosing the cause, and communicating that analysis to the engineers 

and mechanics clearly. In addition, they were used to military discipline, 

rank, and order. They would be able to take orders. Selecting military jet 

42. George M. Low, Memorandum for Administrator, “Status of Manned Satellite Program,” 

23 November 1958; George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Spaceflight, NASA, Memorandum 

for Administrator, NASA, “Status Report No. 1, Manned Satellite Project,” 9 December 1958; 

Abe Silverstein, Director of Spaceflight Development, NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, 

NASA, “Schedule for Evaluation and Contractual Negotiations for Manned Satellite Capsule,” 24 

December 1958; Message from NASA to Commanding General, Army Ordnance Missile Command, 

8 January 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

43. See Allan C. Fisher Jr., “Exploring Tomorrow with the Space Agency,” National Geographic, 

July 1960, pp. 48, 52–89; Kenneth F. Weaver, “Countdown for Space,” National Geographic, May 1961, 

pp. 702–734. 

44. George M. Low to NASA Administrator, “Pilot Selection for Project Mercury,” 23 April 

1959; Eugene M. Emme to Mae Link and James Grimwood, “Military Status of Mercury Astronauts,” 

23 March 1964. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

45. This was in striking contrast to the Soviet Union’s cosmonauts, whom space program leaders believed were essentially passengers without complex tasks to perform. See Slava Gerovitch, 

“Trusting the Machine: The Technopolitics of Automation in the Soviet Space Program,” paper 

presented at Society for History in the Federal Government annual meeting, 10 October 2003, copy 

in possession of author. 
14 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

test pilots as their potential astronauts allowed NASA to choose from 

a cadre of highly motivated, technically skilled, and extremely disciplined pilots.46 

In addition, since most NASA personnel in Project Mercury came out of the 

aeronautical research and development arena anyway, it represented almost no 

stretch on the Agency’s part to accept test pilots as the first astronauts. (It also 

guaranteed, as Weitekamp notes, that all of the original astronauts would be 

male.) After all, NACA had been working with the likes of them for decades and 

knew and trusted their expertise. It also tapped into a highly disciplined and 

skilled group of individuals, most of whom were already aerospace engineers, 

who had long ago agreed to risk their lives in experimental vehicles.47 

NASA pursued a rigorous process to select the eventual astronauts that 

became known as the Mercury Seven. The process involved record reviews, biomedical tests, psychological profiles, and a host of interviews.48 In November 

1958, aeromedical consultants working for the Space Task Group at Langley 

had worked out preliminary procedures for the selection of astronauts to pilot 

the Mercury spacecraft. They then advertised among military test pilots for candidates for astronauts, receiving a total of 508 applications (I-20).49 They then 

screened the service records in January 1959 at the military personnel bureaus 

in Washington and found 110 men that met the minimum standards established 

for Mercury: 

1. Age—less than 40 

2. Height—less than 5’11” 

3. Excellent physical condition 

4. Bachelor’s degree or equivalent 

5. Graduate of test pilot school 

6. 1,500 hours total fl ying time 

7. Qualified jet pilot 

This list of names included 5 Marines, 47 Navy aviators, and 58 Air Force 

pilots. Several Army pilots’ records had been screened earlier, but none was a 

graduate of a test pilot school.50 The selection process began while the possibility 

46. Margaret A. Weitekamp, “The Right Stuff, The Wrong Sex: The Science, Culture, and 

Politics of the Lovelace Woman in Space Program, 1959–1963,” Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 2001, 

p. 98. Dr. Weitekamp’s dissertation has been published as Right Stuff, Wrong Sex: America’s First Women 

in Space Program (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 2004). 

47. In some cases this was literally the case. The best example is Neil A. Armstrong, who 

worked with the NACA and NASA as a civilian research pilot on the X-15 program at its Flight 

Research Center in the Mojave Desert prior to selection for astronaut training in 1962. For an excellent account of fl ight research at NACA/NASA see Michael H. Gorn, Expanding the Envelope: Flight 

Research at NACA and NASA (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2001). 

48. This process is well told in Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 140–164. 

49. “Invitation to Apply for Position of Research Astronaut-Candidate, NASA Project A, 

Announcement No. 1,” 22 December 1958. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

50. See Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 155–165; Joseph D. Atkinson, Jr. and Jay M. Shafritz, 

The Real Stuff: A History of NASA’s Astronaut Recruitment Program (New York: Praeger Publishing, 1985), 

pp. 8–12. 
Exploring the Unknown 15

of piloted Mercury/Redstone flights late in 1959 still existed, so time was a critical 

factor is the screening process.51 

A grueling selection process began in January 1959. Headed by the Assistant 

Director of the Space Task Group, Charles J. Donlan, the evaluation committee 

divided the list of 110 arbitrarily into three groups and issued invitations for the 

first group of 35 to come to Washington at the beginning of February for briefings and interviews (I-22).52 Donlan’s team initially planned to select 12 astronauts, but as team member George M. Low reported: 

During the briefings and interviews it became apparent that the fi nal 

number of pilots should be smaller than the twelve originally planned 

for. The high rate of interest in the project indicates that few, if any, of 

the men will drop out during the training program. It would, therefore, 

not be fair to the men to carry along some who would not be able to 

participate in the flight program. Consequently, a recommendation has 

been made to name only six fi nalists.53 

Every one of the first 10 pilots interrogated on 2 February agreed to continue 

through the elimination process. The next week a second group of possible candidates arrived in Washington. The high rate of volunteering made it unnecessary 

to extend the invitations to the third group. By the first of March 1959, 32 pilots 

prepared to undergo a rigorous set of physical and mental examinations. 

Thereafter each candidate went to the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New 

Mexico, to undergo individual medical evaluations. Phase four of the selection 

program involved passing an elaborate set of environmental studies, physical 

endurance tests, and psychiatric studies conducted at the Aeromedical Laboratory 

of the Wright Air Development Center, Dayton, Ohio. During March 1959 each 

of the candidates spent another week in pressure suit tests, acceleration tests, 

vibration tests, heat tests, and loud noise tests. Continuous psychiatric interviews, 

the necessity of living with two psychologists throughout the week, an extensive 

self-examination through a battery of 13 psychological tests for personality and 

motivation, and another dozen different tests on intellectual functions and special aptitudes—these were all part of the Dayton experience (I-29).54 

51. Atkinson and Shafritz, The Real Stuff, pp. 18, 43–45. 

52. George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Spaceflight, NASA, Memorandum for 

Administrator, NASA, “Pilot Selection for Project Mercury,” 23 April 1959. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

53. Quoted in Swenson et al., This New Ocean, p. 161. 

54. Charles L. Wilson, Captain, USAF, WADC Technical Report 59-505, “Project Mercury 

Candidate Evaluation Program,” December 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. Although depicted as 

comic relief in the film version of The Right Stuff (1982), the battery of physiological tests were the 

most sophisticated designed up to that point. On these examinations see W. Randall Lovelace II, 

“Duckings, Probings, Checks That Proved Fliers’ Fitness,” Life, 20 April 1959; Mae Mills Link, Space 

Medicine in Project Mercury (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4003, 1965); John A. Pitts, The Human Factor: 

Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4213, 1985). 
16 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

Finally, without conclusive results from these tests, late in March 1959 NASA’s 

Space Task Group began phase five of the selection, narrowing the candidates to 

18. Thereafter, final criteria for selecting the candidates reverted to the technical qualifi cations of the men and the technical requirements of the program, as 

judged by Charles Donlan and his team members. NASA finally decided to select 

seven. The seven men became heroes in the eyes of the American public almost 

immediately, in part due to a deal they made with Life magazine for exclusive 

rights to their stories, and without NASA quite realizing it, they became the personification of NASA to most Americans.55 

NASA unveiled the Mercury Seven in the spring of 1959, a week before the cherry 

blossoms bloomed along the tidal basin in Washington, DC, drenching the city with 

spectacular spring colors. NASA chose to announce the first Americans who would 

have an opportunity to fly in space on 9 April 1959. Excitement bristled in Washington 

at the prospect of learning who those space travelers might be. Surely they were the 

best the nation had to offer, modern versions of medieval “knights of the round 

table” whose honor and virtue were beyond reproach. Certainly they carried on their 

shoulders all of the hopes and dreams and best wishes of a nation as they engaged in 

single combat the ominous specter of communism. The fundamental purpose of 

Project Mercury was to determine whether or not humans could survive the rigors of 

liftoff and orbit in the harsh environment of space. From this perspective, the astronauts were not comparable to earlier explorers who directed their own exploits. 

Comparisons between them and Christopher Columbus, Admiral Richard Byrd, and 

Sir Edmund Hillary left the astronauts standing in the shadows.56 

NASA’s makeshift Headquarters was abuzz with excitement. Employees had 

turned the largest room of the second floor of Dolly Madison House facing 

Lafayette Park near the White House, once a ballroom, into a hastily set-up press 

briefing room. Inadequate for the task, print and electronic media jammed into 

the room to see the fi rst astronauts. One end of the room sported a stage complete with curtain and both NASA officials and the newly chosen astronauts 

waited behind it for the press conference to begin at 2:00 p.m. The other end had 

electrical cable strewn about the floor, banks of hot lights mounted to illuminate 

the stage, more than a few television cameras that would be carrying the event 

live, and movie cameras recording footage for later use. News photographers 

gathered at the foot of the stage and journalists of all stripes occupied seats in the 

55. See Tom Wolfe, “The Last American Hero,” in The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline 

Baby (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1965); Atkinson and Shafritz, The Real Stuff, pp. 8–12; 

James L. Kauffman, Selling Outer Space: Kennedy, the Media, and Funding for Project Apollo, 1961–1963 

(Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1994), pp. 68–92; Mark E. Byrnes, Politics and Space: 

Image Making by NASA (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), pp. 25–46. 

56. On this dynamic, see Roger D. Launius, “Project Apollo in American Memory and Myth,” in 

Stewart W. Johnson, Koon Meng Chua, Rodney G. Galloway, and Philip J. Richter, eds., Space 2000: 

Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction, Operations, 

and Business in Space (Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000), pp. 1–13; Harvey 

Brooks, “Motivations for the Space Program: Past and Future,” in Allan A. Needell, ed., The First 25 

Years in Space: A Symposium (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983), pp. 3–26; Perry 

Miller, “The Responsibility of a Mind in a Civilization of Machines,” The American Scholar 31 (Winter 

1961–1962), pp. 51–69; Thomas Park Hughes, American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological 

Enthusiasm, 1870–1970 (New York: Viking, 1989), p. 2. 
Exploring the Unknown 17

gallery. Since the room was inadequate for the media, NASA employees brought 

in more chairs and tried to make the journalists as comfortable as possible in the 

cramped surroundings.57 

Many of the Mercury Seven astronauts have recorded their recollections of this 

singular event and all expressed the same hesitation and dread that Glennan experienced. They also expressed irritation at the huge and unruly audience assembled 

for the press conference. Alan Shepard and Donald ‘Deke’ Slayton had a brief conversation as they sat down at the table behind the curtain and contemplated the 

event ahead: 

“Shepard,” Deke leaned toward him. “I’m nervous as hell. You ever 

take part in something like this?” 

Alan grinned. “Naw.” He raised an eyebrow. “Well, not really. Anyway, 

I hope it’s over in a hurry.” 

“Uh huh. Me, too,” Deke said quickly.58 

When the curtain went up NASA Public Affairs Officer par excellence Walter 

Bonney announced: 

Ladies and gentlemen, may I have your attention, please. The rules 

of this briefing are very simple. In about sixty seconds we will give you the 

announcement that you have been waiting for: the names of the seven 

volunteers who will become the Mercury astronaut team. Following the 

distribution of the kit—and this will be done as speedily as possible— 

those of you who have p.m. deadline problems had better dash for your 

phones. We will have about a ten- or twelve-minute break during which 

the gentlemen will be available for picture taking.59 

Like a dam breaking, a sea of photographers moved forward and popped 

flashbulbs in the faces of the Mercury Seven astronauts. A buzz in the conference 

room rose to a roar as this photo shoot proceeded. Some of the journalists bolted 

for the door with the press kit to file their stories for the evening papers; others 

ogled the astronauts. 

Fifteen minutes later Bonney brought the room to order and asked Keith 

Glennan to come out and formally introduce the astronauts. Glennan offered a 

brief welcome and added, “It is my pleasure to introduce to you—and I consider 

57. “Press Conference, Mercury Astronaut Team,” transcript of press conference, 9 April 1959. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

58. See Donald K. Slayton and Alan B. Shepard, Moonshot: The Inside Story of America’s Race to the 

Moon (New York: Turner Publishing, Inc., 1994), p. 62; Roger D. Launius and Bertram Ulrich, NASA 

and the Exploration of Space (New York: Stewart, Tabori, and Chang, 1998), pp. 35–43; Donald K. “Deke” 

Slayton with Michael Cassutt, Deke! U.S. Manned Space from Mercury to Shuttle (New York: Forge Press, 

1994), pp. 73–74. 

59. “Press Conference, Mercury Astronaut Team,” transcript of press conference, 9 April 1959. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC.; also quoted in Launius and Ulrich, NASA and the Exploration of Space, pp. 40–41. 
18 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

it a very real honor, gentlemen—Malcolm S. Carpenter, Leroy G. Cooper, John 

H. Glenn, Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Alan B. Shepard, Jr., and 

Donald K. Slayton . . . the nation’s Mercury Astronauts!” These personable pilots 

faced the audience in civilian dress, and many people in the audience forgot 

that they were volunteer test subjects and military officers. Rather, they were 

a contingent of mature, middle-class Americans, average in build and visage, 

family men all, college-educated as engineers, possessing excellent health, and 

professionally committed to flying advanced aircraft.60 

The reaction was nothing short of an eruption. Applause drowned out the 

rest of the NASA officials’ remarks. Journalists rose to their feet in a standing 

ovation. Even the photographers crouched at the foot of the stage rose in acclamation of the Mercury Seven. A wave of excitement circulated through the press 

conference like no one at NASA had ever seen before. What was all of the excitement about? 

The astronauts asked themselves the same question. Slayton nudged Shepard 

and whispered in his ear, “They’re applauding us like we’ve already done something, like we were heroes or something.” It was clear to all that Project Mercury, 

the astronauts themselves, and the American space exploration program were 

destined to be something extraordinary in the nation’s history.61 

The rest of the press conference was as exuberant as the introduction. At fi rst the 

newly selected astronauts replied to the press corps’ questions with military stiffness, 

but led by an effervescent and sentimental John Glenn, they soon warmed to the 

interviews. What really surprised the astronauts, however, was the nature of the questions most often asked. The reporters did not seem to care about their fl ying experience, although all had been military test pilots, many had combat experience and 

decorations for valor, and some held aircraft speed and endurance records. They did 

not seem to care about the details of NASA’s plans for Project Mercury. What greatly 

interested them, however, were the personal lives of the astronauts. The media wanted 

to know if they believed in God and practiced any religion. They wanted to know if 

they were married and the names and ages and gender of their children, they wanted 

to know what their families thought about space exploration and their roles in it, and 

they wanted to know about their devotion to their country. God, country, family, and 

self, and the virtues inherent in each of them became the theme of the day.62 

It was thus an odd press conference, with the reporters probing the characters of the pilots. But the motivation was never to dig up dirt on the astronauts, 

as has so often been the case with the media since, and was certainly something 

they could have profitably done with these men; instead, it was just the opposite. 

The reporters wanted confirmation that these seven men embodied the best 

virtues of the U.S. They wanted to demonstrate to their readers that the Mercury 

Seven strode Earth as latter-day saviors whose purity coupled with noble deeds 

60. The Astronauts Themselves, We Seven (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962); William Leavitt, 

“First American into Orbit,” Space Digest, March 1959, pp. 62–65. 

61. Slayton and Shepard, Moonshot, chapter 1. 

62. “Space Voyagers Rarin’ to Orbit,” Life, 20 April 1959, p. 22 
Exploring the Unknown 19

would purge this land of the evils of communism by besting the Soviet Union on 

the world stage. The astronauts did not disappoint. 

John Glenn, perhaps intuitively or perhaps through sheer zest and innocence, 

picked up on the mood of the audience and delivered a ringing sermon on God, 

country, and family that sent the reporters rushing to their phones for rewrite. He 

described how Wilbur and Orville Wright had flipped a coin at Kitty Hawk in 1903 

to see who would fly the first airplane and how far we had come in only a little more 

than 50 years. “I think we would be most remiss in our duty,” he said, “if we didn’t 

make the fullest use of our talents in volunteering for something that is as important as this is to our country and to the world in general right now. This can mean 

an awful lot to this country, of course.” The other astronauts fell in behind Glenn 

and eloquently spoke of their sense of duty and destiny as the first Americans to fl y 

in space. Near the end of the meeting, a reporter asked if they believed they would 

come back safely from space, and all raised their hands. Glenn raised both of his.63 

The astronauts emerged as noble champions who would carry the nation’s 

manifest destiny beyond its shores and into space. James Reston of the New York 

Times exulted in the astronaut team. He said he felt profoundly moved by the 

press conference, and even reading the transcript of it made one’s heartbeat a 

little faster and step a little livelier. “What made them so exciting,” he wrote, “was 

not that they said anything new but that they said all the old things with such 

fierce convictions. . . . They spoke of ‘duty’ and ‘faith’ and ‘country’ like Walt 

Whitman’s pioneers. . . . This is a pretty cynical town, but nobody went away from 

these young men scoffing at their courage and idealism.”64 

These statements of values seem to have been totally in character for what was 

a remarkably homogeneous group. They all embraced a traditional lifestyle that 

reflected the highest ideals of the American culture. The astronauts also expressed 

similar feelings about the role of family members in their lives and the effect of 

the astronaut career on their spouses and children. In a recent study by sociologist Phyllis Johnson, analyzing several Apollo-era astronaut autobiographies, she 

found that the public nature of what the astronauts did meant that their family 

and work lives were essentially inseparable, often taking a toll on those involved 

in the relationship. She concluded: 

The data on these early astronauts need to be interpreted in light of 

the work-family views of the time: men were expected to keep their work 

and family lives compartmentalized. Their family life was not supposed 

to interfere with work life, but it was acceptable for work life to overlap into their family time. In high level professions, such as astronauts, 

the wife’s support of his career was important; rather than ‘my’ career, 

it became ‘our’ career. The interaction between work and family is an 

63. John Glenn with Nick Taylor, John Glenn: A Memoir (New York: Bantam Books, 1999); “Space 

Voyagers Rarin’ to Orbit,” Life, 20 April 1959, p. 22. 

64. John H. Glenn, “A New Era: May God Grant Us the Wisdom and Guidance to Use It Wisely,” 

Vital Speeches of the Day, 15 March 1962, pp. 324–326; Dora Jane Hamblin, “Applause, Tears and 

Laughter and the Emotions of a Long-ago Fourth of July,” Life, 9 March 1962, p. 34; Launius and 

Ulrich, NASA and the Exploration of Space, p. 43. 
20 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

important aspect of astronaut morale and performance, which has been 

neglected by researchers.65 

The media, reflecting the desires of the American public, depicted the astronauts and their families at every opportunity. The insatiable nature of this desire 

for intimate details prompted NASA to construct boundaries that both protected 

the astronauts and projected specifi c images that reinforced the already present 

traditional and dominant structure of American society. NASA, for obvious reasons, wanted to portray an image of happily married astronauts, not extramarital 

scandals or divorce. Gordon Cooper, one of the Mercury Seven, recalled that 

public image was important to some inside NASA because “marital unhappiness 

could lead to a pilot making a wrong decision that might cost lives—his own and 

others.”66 That might have been part of it, but the Agency’s leadership certainly 

wanted to ensure that the image of the astronaut as clean-cut, all-American boy 

did not tarnish. 

Sometimes the astronauts caused NASA officials considerable grief, and they 

sometimes had to rule them with an authoritarian hand. More often, however, 

they were benevolent and patriarchal toward the astronauts. Often this had 

to do with what rules they needed to follow and the lack of well-understood 

guidelines for their ethical conduct. For example, when the Space Task Group 

moved to Houston in 1962, several local developers offered the astronauts free 

houses. This caused a furor that reached the White House and prompted the 

involvement of Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. (In this case, the head of the 

Manned Spacecraft Center, Robert R. Gilruth, had to disallow an outright gift 

to the astronauts.)67 Gilruth’s boys also got into trouble over what they could 

and could not do to make additional money on the outside. NASA had facilitated the Mercury Seven to sell their stories to Life magazine. This had raised a 

furor, and NASA policies were changed thereafter, but in 1963, Forrest Moore 

complained to Johnson that the second group of astronauts was seeking to do 

essentially the same thing. Gilruth had to intervene and explain that any deals 

for “personal stories” would be worked through the NASA General Counsel and 

would only take place in a completely open and legal manner.68 Gilruth also 

defended the astronauts to the NASA leadership when they accepted tickets to 

see the Houston Astros season opener baseball game in the new Astrodome in 

65. Phyllis J. Johnson, “Work-Family Linkages in the Lives of Astronauts,” presentation at 55th 

International Astronautical Congress, 6 October 2004, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. 

66. Gordon Cooper and Barbara Henderson, Leap of Faith: An Astronaut’s Journey into the Unknown 

(New York: HarperCollins, 2000), p. 26. 

67. Edward Welsh to Lyndon B. Johnson, “Gift of Houses to Astronauts,” 2 April 1962, VP 

Papers, LBJ Library, box 182, University of Texas, Austin, Texas; Robert Gilruth Oral History No. 6 

by David DeVorkin and John Mauer, 2 March 1987, Glennan-Webb-Seamans Project, National Air 

and Space Museum, Washington, DC. 

68. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, Memorandum for Robert R. 

Gilruth, Director, Manned Spaceflight, NASA, “Astronaut Activities,” 30 August 1962. Folder 18674, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, 

DC; LBJ to Forrest Moore, President, Rominger Advertising Agency, 14 June 1963, VP Papers, LBJ 

Library, box 237, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. 
Exploring the Unknown 21

1965, although he reprimanded several for poor judgment. While he told his 

superiors that he saw no reason why the astronauts should not enjoy the experience, he ensured that this type of media problem did not repeat itself. He also 

privately chastised, but publicly defended, John Young over the famous corned 

beef sandwich episode during Gemini III. He took the licks for these actions 

from the NASA Administrator: 

If this were a military operation and this kind of fl agrant disregard 

of responsibility and of orders were involved, would not at least a reprimand be put in the record? . . . The only way I know to run a tight ship 

is to run a tight ship, and I think it essential that you and your associates 

give the fullest advance consideration to these matters, rather than to 

have them come up in a form of public criticism which takes a great deal 

of time to answer and which make the job of all of us more diffi cult.69 

None of this suggests that NASA officials let the astronauts run amuck. They 

tried to maintain order through more patriarchal means than military ones, but 

on occasion—as in the case of the Apollo 15 stamp cover sales by the crew—they 

could be enormously stern.70 Gilruth later said he tried to keep issues in perspective. These men put their lives on the line and deserved some leniency when 

minor problems arose. After all, they rose to the challenge repeatedly in conducting Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. 

The bravery of the astronauts touched emotions deeply seated in the 

American experience of the 20th century. Even their close associates at NASA 

remained in awe of them. The astronauts put a very human face on the grandest 

technological endeavor in history and the myth of the virtuous, no-nonsense, 

able, and professional astronaut was born at that moment in 1959. In some 

respects it was a natural occurrence. The Mercury Seven were, in essence, each 

of us. None were either aristocratic in bearing or elitist in sentiment. They came 

from everywhere in the nation, excelled in the public schools, trained at their 

local state university, served their country in war and peace, married and tried to 

make lives for themselves and their families, and ultimately rose to their places 

on the basis of merit. They represented the best the country had to offer and, 

most importantly, they expressed at every opportunity the virtues ensconced in 

69. James E. Webb to Robert R. Gilruth, 15 April 1965, James E. Webb Papers, Box 113, NASAAstronaut Notes, Truman Library, Independence, Missouri. 

70. On the stamp cover incident, in which the crew of Apollo 15 took collectibles with them to the Moon 

and then sold them after their return, see David Scott and Alexei Leonov, Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of 

the Cold War Space Race (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2004), pp. 328–331. Jeff Dugdale, Orbit magazine, 

notes that “David Scott, the Commander, was famously dismissed from the Astronaut Corps on the fi rst anniversary of his return from this mission as the Apollo 15 crew had smuggled 400 space covers with them. It was 

reported in newspapers in July 1972 that a West German stamp dealer had sold 100 of these at £570 each. Each 

of the three crew members had been expected to gain as much as £2,700 from the sale of covers. However 

they then declined to accept any money, acknowledging that their actions had been improper. Jim Irwin 

also resigned from the Astronaut Corps, and Worden was also moved out of the select group and made no 

more flights.” See Jeff Dugdale, “Moonwalkers,” available online at http://www.asss.utvinternet.com/articles1/ 

moonwalkers.htm, accessed 11 October 2004. 
22 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

the democratic principles of the republic. In many ways, the astronauts were the 

logical focal point of the space program because they were something that regular people could understand. Instead of mathematics, rockets, and acronyms, the 

astronauts served as an understandable entry point into a mysterious and elite 

world of science, technology, and exploration. In other words, the astronauts 

were the single most important element that made the space program something 

that resonated with the broader populace because of their (constructed to some 

degree) “everyman” status. They were not part of the technological elites that 

ran NASA, nor were they mechanical and alien like the machines they fl ew. They 

were quite aware of their status as national symbols and hoped to use that status 

to advance U.S. interests (I-28).71 

The astronauts worked enormously hard to make Project Mercury a success, undergoing training far from their professional experience (I-21).72 In December 1959, John 

Glenn described for a colleague some of the stress and strain of this effort: 

Following our selection in April, we were assigned to the Space Task 

Group, portion of NASA at Langley Field, and that is where we are based 

when not traveling. The way it has worked out, we have spent so much 

time on the road that Langley has amounted to a spot to come back to 

get clean skivvies and shirts and that’s about all. We have had additional 

sessions at Wright Field in which we did heat chamber, pressure chamber, and centrifuge work and spent a couple of weeks this fall doing additional centrifuge work up at NADC, Johnsville, Pennsylvania. This was 

some program since we were running it in a lay-down position similar to 

that which we will use in the capsule later on and we got up to as high as 

16 g’s. That’s a bitch in any attitude, lay-down or not (I-30).73 

NASA kept the astronauts enormously busy training for future space missions. As Robert B. Voas of NASA’s Space Task Group reported in May 1960: “The 

[training] program which has resulted from these considerations has allotted 

about one-half of the time to group activities and the other half to individually 

planned activities in each Astronaut’s area of specialization” (I-31).74 

When they were selected for Project Mercury in 1959, no one fully realized 

what would be the result of having highly skilled pilots involved in the effort. 

71. Mercury Astronauts, Memorandum For [Mercury] Project Director, NASA, “Exchange 

of visits with Russian Astronauts,” 21 October 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

This is also the subject of Roger D. Launius, “Heroes in a Vacuum: The Apollo Astronaut as 

Cultural Icon,” IAC-04-IAA.6.15.1.07, IAA History Session, International Astronautical Congress, 

Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 4–8 October 2004. 

72. Among other things they undertook scientific training. See Dr. William S. Augerson, 

Human Factors Branch, NASA, Memorandum for Chief, Operations Division, NASA, “Scientifi c 

Training for Pilots of Project Mercury,” 27 March 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

73. John Glenn, Mercury Astronaut, NASA, to Lt. Commander Jim Stockdale, USN, 17 

December 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection (Doc. VII-I-31), NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

74. Robert B. Voas, NASA Space Task Group, “Project Mercury Astronaut Training Program,” 
Exploring the Unknown 23

Originally they had been viewed as minor participants in the flights by engineers 

developing Project Mercury at NASA’s Langley Research Center in the winter 

of 1958 to 1959. Numerous skirmishes took place between engineers and astronauts in the development of the Mercury capsule, the “man-rating” of the launch 

vehicle, and in determining the level of integration of the astronaut into the system. Donald K. Slayton, who early took the lead for the Mercury Seven and later 

officially headed the astronaut office, emphasized the criticality of astronauts not 

as passengers but as pilots. In a speech before the Society of Experimental Test 

Pilots in 1959, he said: 

Objections to the pilot [in space] range from the engineer, who 

semi-seriously notes that all problems of Mercury would be tremendously 

simplified if we didn’t have to worry about the bloody astronaut, to the 

military man who wonders whether a college-trained chimpanzee or the 

village idiot might not do as well in space as an experienced test pilot . . . I 

hate to hear anyone contend that present day pilots have no place in the 

space age and that non-pilots can perform the space mission effectively. 

If this were true, the aircraft driver could count himself among the dinosaurs not too many years hence. 

Not only a pilot, but a highly trained experimental test pilot is desirable 

. . . as in any scientifi c endeavor the individual who can collect maximum 

valid data in minimum time under adverse circumstances is highly desirable. The one group of men highly trained and experienced in operating, 

observing, and analyzing airborne vehicles is the body of experimental test 

pilots represented here today. Selection of any one for initial spacefl ights 

who is not qualified to be a member of this organization would be equivalent to selecting a new flying school graduate for the fi rst flight on the B-70, 

as an example. Too much is involved and the expense is too great.75 

Slayton’s defense of the role of the Mercury astronauts has found expression 

in many places and circumstances since that time. 

Notwithstanding arguments to the contrary from some quarters, offi cials 

overseeing Project Mercury always intended that the astronauts should have control over the spacecraft that they flew in. Making these devices safe enough for 

humans took longer and exposed more doubts than NASA had expected and the 

astronauts themselves aided immensely in moving this integration forward. As 

the official history of Mercury reported in 1966: 

During the curiously quiet first half of 1960, the flexibility of the 

Mercury astronaut complemented and speeded the symbiosis of man 

26 May 1960; U.S. Naval School of Aviation Medicine, “Proposed Schedule, Project Mercury (NASA) 

Astronauts Training Program, 28 March-1 April 1960,” 11 February 1960. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

75. Donald K. Slayton, speech, annual meeting, Society of Experimental Test Pilots, Los Angeles, 

CA, 9 October 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
24 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

and missile, of astronaut and capsule. Technology, or hardware, and 

techniques, or procedures—sometimes called “software” by hardware 

engineers—both had to be developed. But because they were equally 

novel, reliability had to be built into the new tools before dexterity could 

be acquired in their use.76 

From the beginning, therefore, Project Mercury managers accepted the integral 

role of astronauts in controlling the spacecraft. 

Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., Chief Flight Director for Mercury, made the case 

that many in NASA wanted a “go slow” approach to astronaut integration because 

“at the beginning, the capabilities of Man were not known, so the systems had 

to be designed to function automatically. But with the addition of Man to the 

loop, this philosophy changed 180 degrees since primary success of the mission 

depended on man backing up automatic equipment that could fail.”77 Kraft and 

his colleagues came to realize that the astronauts served an exceptionally useful purpose for enhancing the chances of success with Project Mercury. As an 

example, when the astronauts first visited the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 

facilities in May 1959 they reviewed progress of the capsule they would fl y with 

a sense for the human factors that would be necessary to make it work. They 

came up with several requests for alterations—including an observation window, 

manual reentry thruster controls, and an escape hatch with explosive bolts—and 

based on their recommendations NASA and McDonnell engineers went to work 

to overcome their concerns.78 

One incident concerning the astronauts’ desire for changes to the Mercury 

capsule has entered the public consciousness as a representation of confl icts 

between the fliers and the engineers. One key alteration the astronauts pressed 

for was the addition of an observation window for navigational purposes. In the 

feature fi lm, The Right Stuff, this incident is depicted as a nasty confrontation that 

required the astronauts to threaten to appeal directly to the public through the 

media for their changes to be adopted. Only in the face of perceived embarrassment would the NASA and McDonnell engineers back down.79 This adversarial 

approach to astronaut involvement made for sparks on the screen, but it bore little 

resemblance to what actually took place. The design engineers working on the 

spacecraft were exceptionally concerned about weight, and glass thick enough to 

76. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, p. 167. 

77. Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., “A Review of Knowledge Acquired from the fi rst Manned Satellite 

Program,” MSC fact sheet No. 206, p. 1, Mercury Files, Special Collections, University of HoustonClear Lake, Texas. 

78. Minutes, “Mock-Up Review,” 12–14 May 1959, with enclosure addressed to C. H. Zimmerman 

and George M. Low, 23 June 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

79. The Right Stuff (Los Angeles: Warner Bros., 1983). Feature film directed by Philip Kaufman 

and produced by Irwin Winkler and Robert Chartoff, screenplay by Chartoff. A cast of unknown 

actors at the time depicted the develop ment of aeronautics and astronautics from 1947 through the 

time of the Mercury program. Scott Glenn, cast as Alan Shepard, played the astronaut perfectly, and 

Ed Harris as John Glenn captured the essence of being an astronaut. A box office hit, the fi lm also 

won an Academy Award for special effects. 
Exploring the Unknown 25

withstand the harsh environments of launch, spaceflight, and reentry would weigh 

quite a lot. As Maxime A. Faget, designer of the Mercury spacecraft, remarked in 

an interview on 1 February 1991: “When we started off, we thought the Atlas could 

put about 2,000 pounds into orbit. So our design weight at the initiation of the 

program was 2,000 pounds. That was our goal. We had to build it at 2,000 pounds, 

and it was very challenging.” To save weight Faget had only two portholes in the 

spacecraft and he thought that was good enough, but the astronauts pressed their 

point and got their navigation window. In the process of this and other changes, 

the Mercury capsule grew to a weight of about 2,700 pounds. Faget concluded, 

“Fortunately, as the Atlas was developed, we improved its performance, so it didn’t 

have any trouble carrying the full weight. I think a great number of changes to the 

Mercury capsule would not have happened if the Atlas had not been improved.” 

He added, “The astronauts were involved in the program decisions from the time 

they came on board. I think it was the right way to do it.”80 

Edward Jones made his point about human involvement even more succinctly 

in a paper delivered before the American Rocket Society in November 1959. He 

suggested that the astronaut was virtually necessary to the successful operation 

of Mercury missions. He commented: 

Serious discussions have advocated that man should be anesthetized 

or tranquillized or rendered passive in some other manner in order that 

he would not interfere with the operation of the vehicle. . . . As equipment becomes available, a more realistic approach evolves. It is now 

apparent with the Mercury capsule that man, beyond his scientifi c role, 

is an essential component who can add considerably to systems effectiveness when he is given adequate instruments, controls, and is trained. 

Thus an evolution has occurred . . . with increased emphasis now on the 

positive contribution the astronaut can make.81 

The result of these efforts led to the development of a Mercury spacecraft that 

allowed considerable, but not total, control by the astronaut. 

As Gordon Cooper recalled: “We weren’t just mouthpieces or pilots milling 

around a hangar waiting to fly. We were involved in all aspects of the program, 

and there was a job for everybody.” Of the Mercury Seven, Scott Carpenter took 

on communication and navigation, Alan Shepard handled worldwide tracking 

and capsule recovery, John Glenn worked on cockpit layout and design of the 

instrument panel in the spacecraft, Wally Schirra worked on spacesuits and lifesupport, Gus Grissom worked to develop automatic and manual control systems, 

Deke Slayton oversaw systems integration with the Mercury capsule and the Atlas 

80. Interview with Maxime A. Faget and Alan B. Shepard, 1 February 1991, Hall of Science and 

Exploration, Academy of Achievement: A Museum of Living History, available online at http://www. 

achievement.org/autodoc/page/she0int-2, accessed 7 November 2004. 

81. Edward R. Jones, “Man’s Integration into the Mercury Capsule,” paper presented at the 14th 

annual meeting of the American Rocket Society, Washington, DC, 16–19 November 1959, pp. 1–2. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 
26 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

rocket, and Gordon Cooper served as liaison with the rocket team developing the 

launch systems.82 When problems arose during MA-4, an unpiloted fl ight of the 

Mercury-Atlas system in September 1961, Robert Gilruth commented that had an 

astronaut been aboard he could have diagnosed and overcome the malfunctions 

of the automated system. That was why they were present, he asserted. In the end, 

Mercury as a system worked, but not without flaws, and the program successfully 

flew six humans in space between 5 May 1961 and 15 to 16 May 1963.83 

Building the Mercury Capsule 

The Mercury spacecraft flown by the first astronauts was the product of a 

genius incarnate in the form of a diminutive Cajun by the name of Dr. Maxime 

A. Faget, an engineering graduate of Louisiana State University and submarine 

officer in World War II. Working at the Langley Research Center in Hampton, 

Virginia, he was one of the most innovative and thoughtful engineers working on Mercury. While everyone thinking about spaceflight in the 1950s was 

obsessed with rocket planes, Faget realized that space was an entirely different 

environment and could effectively be accessed using an entirely different type 

of vehicle.84 

During November and December 1958, the Space Task Group energetically 

pursued the development of the ballistic capsule flown by the astronauts. Faget 

became the chief designer of the Mercury spacecraft, and on 7 November 1958, 

held a briefi ng for 40 aerospace fi rms to explain the requirements for bidding 

on a NASA contract to build the capsule according to Faget’s specifi cations. 

A week later, after 20 firms had indicated an interest, Faget’s team mailed out 

requests for proposals. They received 11 proposals on 11 December and worked 

over the Christmas holidays to complete an evaluation. The Source Evaluation 

Board, convened under Faget’s direction, recommended that the McDonnell 

Aircraft Corporation of St. Louis, Missouri, serve as the prime manufacturer 

for this system. The NASA leadership accepted this decision and announced the 

contract award on 9 January 1959. In the end NASA procured one dozen capsules at an estimated cost of $18.3 million—plus an award fee of $1.5 million— 

but the actual costs almost immediately spiraled upwards, causing considerable 

concern among senior government officials even as they made the funds avail82. Cooper with Henderson, Leap of Faith, pp. 20–22. See also Donald K. “Deke” Slayton with 

Michael Cassutt, Deke! U.S. Manned Space from Mercury to the Shuttle (New York: Forge, 1994), pp. 

78–79. 

83. John Catchpole, Project Mercury: NASA’s First Manned Space Programme (Chichester, UK: Springer 

Praxis, 2001), p. 310. Before the astronauts flew, however, NASA launched primates into space to 

test the system. See George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Spaceflight, NASA Memorandum for 

Mr. R. R. Gilruth, Director, Project Mercury, NASA, “Animal Payloads for Little Joe,” 19 June 1959, 

with attached Memorandum from T.K.G to George M. Low, 15 June 1959; NASA, Information Guide 

for Animal Launches in Project Mercury, 23 July 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

84. “Maxime A. Faget,” biographical file, NASA Historical Reference Collection. 
Exploring the Unknown 27

able to complete the effort (I-26).85 This two-month procurement process, from 

start to contract award, deserves special notice as something of a speed record 

with respect to the convoluted manner in which the federal government buys 

everything from paperclips to nuclear powered aircraft carriers. In the end, the 

Mercury project would cost approximately $350 million for research and development as well as operations.86 

McDonnell’s Mercury team, under the leadership of John F. Yardley, immediately began wrestling with Faget’s requirements. It had a good start on the capsule 

from work done the year before for the Air Force, but Yardley was unprepared 

for the difficulties encountered when actually building the spacecraft. First and 

most important, Yardley’s team struggled with strict weight requirements so that 

the capsule could be launched atop the Atlas rocket. NASA’s specifications for the 

capsule had been 2,000 pounds placed in orbit. McDonnell’s bid had proposed 

a 2,400-pound spacecraft, plus or minus 25 percent. The minus side allowed a 

capsule of 1,800 pounds, perfect for the capability of the Atlas, but anything 

over 2,000 pounds could not be put into orbit by the envisioned launcher. A 

combination of paring the capsule design down to the lightest weight possible 

and increasing the thrust of the Atlas finally made successful launches in Project 

Mercury attainable, but it was a difficult task and the capability margins were 

always stretched. Everyone was keenly aware of this and other problems in building the spacecraft. Wernher von Braun wrote a friendly letter to Robert Gilruth 

about McDonnell’s performance. “It has come to my attention that one of our 

ball carriers has his shoelaces untied and doesn’t know it,” he wrote. “If he trips 

and falls we may all lose the game and our astronaut his life. So I feel that I must 

pass along to you what has been brought to my attention, at the risk of making a 

few people sore” (I-27).87 In response to such concerns, teams of NASA engineers 

swarmed over contractors in an effort to keep the program on track. 

For the next year the NASA/McDonnell engineering team worked through 

the critical components of the spacecraft. They focused on the four major elements of any fl ying machine: 

• Aerodynamics/stability and control 

• Avionics/electronics 

• Propulsion 

• Materials 

In addition, they had the critical area of human factors to oversee in the 

development of this entirely new type of spacecraft.88 One of the McDonnell engi85. Cost had long been an issue, even before the McDonnell contract. See A. J. Goodpaster, Brigadier 

General, USA, Memorandum of Conference with the President, 29 September 1959. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

86. President’s Science Advisory Committee, “Report of the Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space,” 

14 November 1960 (final report 16 December 1960). Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

87. Wernher von Braun, Director, Development Operations Division, NASA, to Robert R. 

Gilruth, Space Task Group, NASA, 9 October 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

88. George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Spaceflight, NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, 

NASA, “Status Report No. 1, Manned Satellite Project,” 9 December 1958. Folder 18674, NASA
28 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

neering team’s important decisions was to use a pure oxygen atmosphere at 5 psi. 

This atmosphere would become the standard for American spacecraft until the 

Space Shuttle, but it had a fundamental drawback as a fire hazard, something that 

proved fatal in the Apollo 1 accident of 1967.89 

The Mercury capsule that emerged from this process stood 115 inches high 

with a tapering cylinder from 74 inches at its base so that it appeared to all as an 

upside-down ice cream cone. The pressurized cockpit for the pilot was the largest 

portion of the capsule, with most other systems packed throughout the cramped 

interior. Indeed, the astronaut had very little room for movement, being placed 

in an individually fitted contour seat for the duration of the flight. A smaller 

cylinder at the top housed other electronics as well as a parachute for recovery. 

Attitude control jets allowed the astronaut to orient the spacecraft during fl ight. 

An ablative heatshield with a ceramic coating affixed to the capsule’s base would 

protect the spacecraft during reentry. Designed to adhere to strict weight restrictions and maximum strength, much of the spacecraft was titanium, but heatresistant beryllium made up the upper cone of the vehicle since, other than the 

heatshield, it would suffer the greatest heat during reentry. Underneath the heatshield a retrorocket pack of three solid rocket motors served to slow the vehicle 

down and return it to Earth. Each motor produced 1,000 pounds of thrust for 

only about 10 seconds. The Mercury spacecraft also had 3 smaller posigrade rockets 

that produced 400 pounds of thrust each for a second, used for separating the capsule from its booster. Atop the capsule stood a launch escape tower with solid rocket 

motors producing 52,000 pounds of thrust that could shoot the capsule away from the 

rocket during an emergency on the launchpad or during ascent. The capsule proved 

a spare but serviceable space vehicle.90 

Adapting Launch Vehicles 

During Project Mercury two different boosters proved their mettle in sending 

astronauts into space. The first was the Redstone, built by Wernher von Braun’s 

rocket team at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) in Huntsville, Alabama, 

as a ballistic missile and retrofitted for human fl ights.91 NASA Administrator T. 

Keith Glennan materially aided this effort by securing the transfer of ABMA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

89. This was discussed in “Report of the Ad Hoc Mercury Panel,” 12 April 1961. Folder 18674, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

The report stated: “The idea of using a single gas, O2, atmosphere, in both the suit and capsule 

to simplify the system appears to be reasonable from an engineering standpoint if it meets the biomedical requirements. The environmental control system is capable of operating completely automatically if required and still provide redundancy in many areas against failure. In the automatic 

mode the only single point of failure without backup appears to be with the emergency oxygen rate 

valve. However, with man functioning in the system, this valve can be manually operated.” 

90. A description of the Mercury spacecraft may be found in Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 

223–262; Linda Ezell, NASA Historical Data Book: Volume II, pp. 134–139. 

91. See Wernher von Braun, “The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno,” in Eugene M. Emme, ed., The 

History of Rocket Technology (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1964), pp. 107–121. 
Exploring the Unknown 29

to NASA thereby facilitating the tapping of expertise from the builders of the 

Redstone rocket.92 In addition to a large number of other modifi cations, NASA 

engineers worked to lengthen the Redstone tanks and scrapped the original fuel, 

Hydyne, for alcohol. Hydyne proved too toxic and difficult to work with. In all, 

NASA’s rocketeers made some 800 changes to the Redstone to prepare it for 

human spacefl ight.93 

Then there was the problem with the reliability of the Atlas rocket, envisioned as the launcher of choice for the Mercury orbital missions. A converted 

ICBM, the Atlas had been undergoing an on-again, off-again development since 

1946. Canceled once and underfunded thereafter, the Air Force had been unable 

until the Sputnik crisis to secure sufficient resources to make serious progress on 

it. Because of this diffi culty, its designers at the Convair Corp. had accepted, as 

a given, a 20 percent failure rate. In fact, the rate proved much higher in the 

early going. As 1959 began, seven out of eight launches had failed. Sometimes 

the Atlas blew up on the pad and sometimes it veered off course in fl ight only 

to be destroyed by the range safety officer. Instead of 80 percent reliability, still 

not acceptable for human flight, the Atlas had an 80 percent failure rate.94 That 

would most assuredly not do with astronauts aboard. Robert Gilruth testifi ed to 

Congress about this problem a few months after the creation of the Space Task 

Group. “The Atlas . . . has enough performance . . . and the guidance system is 

accurate enough, but there is the matter of reliability. You don’t want to put a 

man in a device unless it has a very good chance of working every time.” Gilruth 

urged time and money to test the hardware under actual flight conditions without people aboard. “Reliability is something that comes with practice,” he said. 

Ever so incrementally, Atlas project engineers improved the performance of 

the launch vehicle. They placed a fiberglass shield around the liquid oxygen tank 

to keep the engines from igniting it in a massive explosion, a rather spectacular 

failure that seemed to happen at least half the time. They changed out virtually every 

system on the vehicle, substituting tried and true technology wherever possible to minimize problems. They altered procedures and developed new telemetry to monitor 

the operations of the system. Most important, they developed an abort sensing system 

92. T. Keith Glennan to the President, “Responsibilities and Organization for Certain Space 

Activities,” 2 November 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

93. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, p. 181; NASA Office of Congressional Relations, “MercuryRedstone III,” p. 5-1; William M. Bland, Jr., Space Task Group, Memorandum for Project Director, 

“Second Coordination Meeting Concerning Project Mercury with NASA, ABMA, and MAC 

Representatives Held 20 March 1959, at NASA, Space Task Group, Langley Field, Virginia,” 27 

March 1959; T. Keith Glennan, NASA Administrator, to Neil H. McElroy, Secretary of Defense, 

14 July 1959. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

94. For able histories of the Atlas, see Dennis R. Jenkins, “Stage-and-a-Half: The Atlas Launch 

Vehicle,” in Roger D. Launius and Dennis R. Jenkins, eds., To Reach the High Frontier: A History of U.S. 

Launch Vehicles (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), pp. 102–170; John Lonnquest, 

“The Face of Atlas: General Bernard Schriever and the Development of the Atlas Intercontinental 

Ballistic Missile, 1953-1960,” Ph.D. Diss., Duke University, 1996; Davis Dyer, “Necessity is the Mother 

of Invention: Developing the ICBM, 1954–1958,” Business and Economic History 22 (1993): pp. 194– 

209. Although dated, a useful early essay is Robert L. Perry, “The Atlas, Thor, Titan, and Minuteman,” 

in Eugene M. Emme, ed., History of Rocket Technology, pp. 143–155. 
30 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

(labeled ASS by everyone but the people involved in developing it) to monitor vehicle 

performance and to provide early escape of the Mercury capsule if necessary.95 

Suborbital Flights 

The first Mercury test flight took place on 21 August 1959, when a capsule carrying two rhesus monkeys was launched atop a cluster of Little Joe solid-fuel rockets 

(I-24). Other tests using both Redstone and Atlas boosters and carrying both chimpanzees and astronaut dummies soon followed (I-25). The fi rst flight of a MercuryRedstone combination took place on 21 November 1960 (Mercury-Redstone 1), but 

only with a “simulated man” in its capsule. It pointed out serious problems with 

the system. The rocket rose only 3.8 inches off the pad, and then it settled back 

on its fins. The parachutes deployed and fell to the launchpad while the capsule 

remained in place on the booster. The episode proved embarrassing, but NASA 

soon found that faulty grounding on electrical circuitry had caused a short in the 

system. They repaired the problem and the next test flight, Mercury-Redstone 1A, 

flown on 19 December 1960, went somewhat better but still experienced problems. 

The rocket boosted the capsule higher and at greater G forces than expected, pushing it some 20 miles downrange beyond the target area. This led to the 31 January 

1961, Mercury-Redstone 2 launch with Ham the chimpanzee aboard on a 16-minute, 39-second flight. Again, the booster overperformed and carried him 42 miles 

higher and 124 miles further downrange than planned. In the process, Ham suffered about 17 g’s going up and some 15 during reentry. NASA made one more test 

flight, on 24 March 1961, and this time the mission took place as planned.96 

With these tests, NASA was prepared to move on to the piloted portion of the 

suborbital Mercury program. As preparations for this flight progressed throughout the spring, on 12 April 1961, the Soviet Union suddenly launched Yuri 

Gagarin into orbit, counting coup on the U.S. space effort one more time.97 This 

spaceflight gave greater impetus to rescue national honor in the early launch 

of an astronaut in the U.S.’s Mercury program. Interestingly, the leaders of the 

program took extraordinary efforts to prepare for the release of public information about the mission. They kept the name of the astronaut assigned to fl y the 

mission secret until only a short time before the scheduled launch. 

Presidential science advisor Jerome B. Wiesner also expressed concern that 

the media should be prevented from making the flight “a Hollywood production, 

because it can jeopardize the success of the entire mission.” Wiesner, concerned 

95. “Report of the Ad Hoc Mercury Panel,” 12 April 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

96. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 293–318; Linda Ezell, NASA Historical Data Book, Volume 

II, pp. 134–143; NASA News Release, “Mercury Redstone Booster Development Test,” 22 March 1961, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection (Doc. IV-I-24); Richard J. Wisniewski, for Warren J. North, 

Head, Manned Satellites, to Director of Spaceflight Programs, “Mercury Status as of March 2, 1961,” 

3 March 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

97. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 332–335; Thomas A. Heppenheimer, Countdown: A 

History of Spacefl ight (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997), pp. 189–192. 
Exploring the Unknown 31

with NASA’s preparations for the mission, chartered a panel of the Presidential 

Scientific Advisory Committee to conduct an independent review of the program; 

that panel gave a qualified endorsement to NASA’s plans to launch the fi rst U.S. 

astronaut (I-32, I-33, I-34).98 

Alan Shepard made that first suborbital Mercury flight on 5 May 1961, in the 

process establishing that the U.S. could send an individual into space and return 

him to Earth. At 9:34 a.m., about 45 million Americans sat tensely before their 

television screens and watched a slim black-and-white Redstone booster, capped 

with a Mercury spacecraft containing Shepard, lift off its pad at Cape Canaveral 

and go roaring upward through blue sky toward black space. At 2.3 seconds after 

launch, Shepard’s voice came through clearly to Mercury Control; minutes later 

the millions heard the historic transmission: “Ahh, Roger; lift-off and the clock 

is started. . . . Yes, sir, reading you loud and clear. This is Freedom 7. The fuel is go; 

1.2 g; cabin at 14 psi; oxygen is go . . . Freedom 7 is still go!” Reaching a speed of 

5,146 miles per hour and an altitude of about 116.5 miles, well above the 62-mile 

international standard for the minimum altitude for spacefl ight, Shepard’s 

suborbital flight lasted only 15 minutes and 22 seconds and he was weightless 

only a third of that time. Freedom 7 landed 302 miles downrange from the Cape 

Canaveral in the Atlantic Ocean (I-35). It was an enormously signifi cant event 

for the U.S. The flight made Shepard a national hero, and his stoical persona 

and public countenance also served to solidify his stature among Americans as a 

role model. In the following months, how best to capitalize for propaganda purposes on the astronauts’ experiences without distorting them became a matter of 

policy concern (I-37).99 

NASA officials were euphoric in the aftermath of the Alan Shepard fl ight, and 

some even offered proposals for expansive follow-on missions such as a circumlunar flight using the Mercury hardware (I-36).100 Those schemes went nowhere, 

98. Abe Silverstein, Director of Spaceflight Programs, NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, 

NASA, “Astronaut Selection Procedure for Initial Mercury-Redstone Flights,” 14 December 1960; 

Jerome B. Wiesner, The White House, Memorandum for Dr. Bundy, “Some Aspects of Project 

Mercury,” 9 March 1961; James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, to James C. Hagerty, Vice President, 

American Broadcasting Company, 1 June 1961; Abe Silverstein, Director of Spacefl ight Programs, 

NASA, Memorandum for Administrator, “Use of a Television System in Manned Mercury-Atlas 

Orbital Flights,” 6 September 1961; Wernher von Braun, Memorandum, “Sensitivity of Mercury 

Launching Dates,” 3 March 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

99. NASA MR-3 Technical Debriefing Team, “Debriefing,” 5 May 1961; James E. Webb, 

Administrator, NASA, to James C. Hagerty, Vice President, American Broadcasting Company, 1 

June 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC; Alan B. Shepard, Jr., “A Pilot’s Story,” National Geographic 130 

(September 1961): pp. 432–444; The Astronauts Themselves, We Seven (New York: Simon and 

Schuster, 1962), Shepard wrote three sections, “The Urge to Pioneer,” pp. 65–69, “What to do Until 

the Ship Comes,” pp. 164–167, and “A Range Around the World,” pp. 285–299; Alan B. Shepard Jr., 

“The Astronaut’s Story of the Thrust into Space,” Life, 19 May 1961; “Shepard’s Space Saga,” Naval 

Aviation News 42 (June 1961): pp. 20–23; Roger D. Launius, “Alan B. Shepard Jr.,” in Research Guide to 

American Historical Bio graphy (Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1991), 5: pp. 2742–2748. 

100. Joachim P. Kuettner, Chief, Mercury-Redstone Project, NASA, to Dr. von Braun, 18 

May 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
32 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

and a second Mercury flight on 21 July 1961 proved less successful.101 After landing the hatch blew off prematurely from the Mercury capsule, Liberty Bell 7, and 

it sank into the Atlantic Ocean before it could be recovered. As Grissom noted 

about the incident: 

I was just waiting for their call when all at once, the hatch went. I had 

the cap off and the safety pin out, but I don’t think that I hit the button. 

The capsule was rocking around a little but there weren’t any loose items 

in the capsule, so I don’t see how I could have hit it, but possibly I did. 

I had my helmet unbuttoned and it wasn’t a loud report. There wasn’t 

any doubt in my mind as to what had happened. I looked out and saw 

nothing but blue sky and water starting to ship into the capsule. My fi rst 

thought was to get out, and I did. As I got out, I saw the chopper was having trouble hooking onto the capsule. He was frantically fishing for the 

recovery loop. The recovery compartment was just out of the water at this 

time and I swam over to help him get his hook through the loop. I made 

sure I wasn’t tangled anyplace in the capsule before swimming toward 

the capsule. Just as I reached the capsule, he hooked it and started lifting the capsule clear. He hauled the capsule away from me a little bit 

and didn’t drop the horsecollar down. I was floating, shipping water all 

the time, swallowing some, and I thought one of the other helicopters 

would come in and get me. I guess I wasn’t in the water very long but it 

seemed like an eternity to me. Then, when they did bring the other copter in, they had a rough time getting the horsecollar to me. They got in 

within about 20 feet and couldn’t seem to get it any closer. When I got the 

horsecollar, I had a hard time getting it on, but I finally got into it. By this 

time, I was getting a little tired. Swimming in the suit is diffi cult, even 

though it does help keep you somewhat afloat. A few waves were breaking 

over my head and I was swallowing some water. They pulled me up inside 

and then told me they had lost the capsule (I-38).102 

Some suspected that Grissom had panicked and prematurely blown the capsule’s side hatch into the water—and a panicked Grissom is how most people 

routinely remember him today because of a graphic misrepresentation of the 

incident in the movie The Right Stuff—but he became a national hero because of 

that flight, and appropriately so.103 Despite this problem, these suborbital fl ights 

proved valuable for NASA technicians who found ways to solve or work around 

101. This mission is recorded in Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 341–379. 

102. MR-4 Technical Debriefing Team, Memorandum for Associate Director, NASA, “MR-4 

Postfl ight Debriefing of Virgil I. Grissom,” 21 July 1961, with attached, “Debriefing.” Folder 18674, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

103. Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1979), pp. 280–296. See also 

William J. Perkinson, “Grissom’s Flight: Questions,” Baltimore Sun, 22 July 1961, which suggests that 

NASA had miscalculated in its rocketry and forced Grissom into the unenviable position of being 

outside the recovery area, thereby increasing the time it took to reach the spacecraft. Grissom had 

personally performed well, Perkinson noted. 
Exploring the Unknown 33

literally thousands of obstacles to successful spaceflight. The success of these two 

missions led to the cancellation of any more Mercury-Redstone fl ights, although 

two more had been planned (I-39).104 

Achieving Orbit 

Even as these suborbital flights reached completion, NASA began fi nal 

preparations for the orbital aspects of Project Mercury (I-40, I-41). In this phase, 

NASA planned to use a Mercury capsule capable of supporting a human in space 

not just for a few minutes, but eventually for as much as three days. As a launch 

vehicle for this Mercury capsule, NASA used the more powerful Atlas instead of 

the Redstone. But this decision was not without controversy. There were technical difficulties to be overcome in mating it to the Mercury capsule, to be sure, but 

most of the differences had been resolved by the first successful orbital fl ight of 

an unoccupied Mercury/Atlas combination in September 1961. On 29 November 

1961, the final test flight took place, this time with the chimpanzee Enos occupying the capsule for a two-orbit ride before being successfully recovered in an 

Atlantic Ocean landing.105 

Not until 20 February 1962, after several postponements, did NASA launch 

an astronaut on an orbital flight. After repeated delays, including a nationally televised 27 January 1962 scrub just 20 minutes before liftoff, John Glenn 

became the first American to circle Earth on 20 February, making three orbits 

in his Friendship 7 Mercury spacecraft.106 The flight had several diffi culties, and 

Glenn proved the worth of a pilot in the spacecraft. During his first orbit, Glenn’s 

spacecraft drifted out of proper orbit attitude, yawing to the right and not being 

corrected by the low-rate attitude thrusters. When it reached a 20-degree alteration, high-rate thrusters fi red to correct the problem, but this was an inappropriate use of these thrusters. Glenn took control and manually corrected for the yaw 

throughout much of the remainder of the mission using the low-rate attitude 

 control jets. It was an excellent object lesson in the advantage of having an astronaut step in to control the spacecraft in the event of a malfunction. Virtually 

every Mercury mission would require a similar type of action on the part of the 

astronaut, and with every demonstration, all those associated with the program 

became more comfortable with human/machine interaction. Even more significant, Glenn experienced a potentially disastrous event when he learned that 

104. Richard J. Wisniewski, Memorandum for Administrator, “Mercury Redstone 

4 Mission,” 24 July 1961; Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Space Task Group, NASA, to 

Marshall, NASA, (attention: Dr. Wernher von Braun), “Termination of Mercury Redstone 

Program,” 23 August 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; Swenson et al., This New Ocean, 

pp. 328–330; Linda Ezell, NASA Historical Data Book, Volume II, pp. 143–144. 

105. Von Braun, “The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno,” in Eugene M. Emme, ed., History of Rocket 

Technology, pp. 107–122. 

106. “Month’s Delay for Glenn Seen,” Washington Star, 31 January 1962; Art Woodstone, 

“Television’s $1,000,000 (When & If) Manshoot; Lotsa Prestige & Intrigue,” Variety, January 24, 1962; 

Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 419–436. 
34 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

on the back side of his Friendship 7 Mercury pressure shell, a landing bag, programmed to inflate a few seconds before splashdown to help cushion the impact, 

had possibly inflated in orbit. The landing bag was located just inside the heatshield, an ablative material meant to burn off during reentry, and was held in 

place in part by a retropack of three rocket motors that would slow the capsule 

down and drop it from orbit. Because of this apparent problem, Glenn had to 

return to Earth after only three orbits, instead of a planned seven, and leave the 

retropack in place during his fiery reentry, hoping that it would hold the heatshield in place. It did, and Glenn returned safely to Earth (I-42, I-43).107 

Glenn’s flight provided a welcome increase in national pride, making up for 

at least some of the earlier Soviet successes. The public, more than celebrating 

the technological success, embraced Glenn as a personification of heroism and 

dignity. Hundreds of requests for personal appearances by Glenn poured into 

NASA Headquarters, and NASA learned much about the power of the astronauts 

to sway public opinion. The NASA leadership made Glenn available to speak 

at some events but more often substituted other astronauts and declined many 

other invitations. Among other engagements, Glenn did address a joint session 

of Congress and participated in several ticker-tape parades around the country. 

NASA discovered, in the process of this hoopla, a powerful public relations tool 

that it has employed ever since. It also discovered that there was a need to control 

the activities of the Mercury astronauts so that they did not become a source of 

political or public embarrassment (I-44).108 

Three more successful Mercury flights took place during 1962 and 1963. Scott 

Carpenter made three orbits on 20 May 1962 (I-45), and on 3 October 1962, Wally 

Schirra flew six orbits. The capstone of Project Mercury came on the fl ight of 

Gordon Cooper, who circled Earth 22 times in 34 hours from 15 to 16 May 1963. 

The program had succeeded in accomplishing its purpose: to successfully orbit 

a human in space, explore aspects of tracking and control, and to learn about 

microgravity and other biomedical issues associated with spacefl ight.109 

As the Mercury program made strides toward enabling the U.S. to move on 

to a lunar landing, as promised by President John F. Kennedy in May 1961, the 

107. Dr. Robert B. Voas, Training Officer, NASA, Memorandum for Astronauts, “Statements 

for Foreign Countries During Orbital Flights,” 7 November 1961; Telegram, NASA—Manned 

Spacecraft Center, Port Canaveral, FL, to James A. Webb; “MA-6 Postlaunch Memorandum,” 21 

February 1962; R. B. Voas, NASA, Memorandum for Those Concerned, “MA-6 Pilot’s Debriefi ng,” 

22 February 1962, with attached, John Glenn, NASA, “Brief Summary of MA-6 Orbital Flight,” 20 

February 1962; NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, “Postlaunch Memorandum Report for MercuryAtlas No. 6 (MA 6),” 5 March 1962. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; The Astronauts Themselves, We Seven, pp. 

310–312; Roger D. Launius, NASA: A History of the U.S. Civil Space Program (Malabar, FL: Krieger Pub., 

Co., 2000 ed.), chapter 11. 

108. Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 422–436. 

109. W. J. North, Senior Editor, Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, “MA-7/18 Voice 

Communications and Pilot’s Debriefing,” 8 June 1962. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection (Doc. VII-I-47), NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; NASA 

Manned Spacecraft Center, Mercury Project Summary Including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital 

Flight May 15 and 16, 1963 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-45, 1963); Swenson et al., This New Ocean, pp. 

446–503. 
Exploring the Unknown 35

human spaceflight program found itself in turmoil over the relocation of the 

Space Task Group from Langley Research Center to a new Manned Spacecraft 

Center in Houston, Texas. A decision taken in September 1961 as it became apparent that the scope, size, and support for human spaceflight necessitated an entirely 

separate center, the new human spaceflight center rested on land granted from 

Rice University.110 Upon reaching Houston, the Space Task Group set to work not 

only settling into their new facility, but also in completing the design and development of their next projects. The center also became the home of NASA’s astronauts and the site of mission control.111 Within its first few months in Houston, said 

Robert Gilruth in June 1962, “the Manned Spacecraft Center has doubled in size; 

accomplished a major relocation of facilities and personnel; pushed ahead in two 

new major programs; and accomplished Project Mercury’s design goal of manned 

orbital flights twice with highly gratifying results.”112 

The early astronauts were, in too many instances, rambunctious men, as many 

had recognized during the Mercury program. They roughhoused and drank and 

drove fast and got into sexual peccadilloes. Rumors swirled around several of the 

astronauts, especially Gus Grissom, whom NASA offi cials considered a consummate professional in the cockpit and an incorrigible adolescent whenever offduty. Everyone laughed when Grissom said: 

There’s a certain kind of small black fly that hatches in the spring 

around the space center south of Houston. Swarms of the bugs can splatter windshields, but their real distinction is that male and female catch 

each other in midair and fly along happily mated. Grissom told a Life 

magazine reporter that he envied those insects. “They do the two things 

I like best in life,” he said, “fl ying and ****ing—and they do them at the 

same time.” For years thereafter, the insects were known as Grissom Bugs 

to local residents.113 

Several memoirs have recounted these and other anecdotes of the astronauts, 

many of which are the stuff of legend. It should come as no surprise to anyone that 

many astronauts had a wild, devil-may-care side to their personalities, the alter 

ego of the professional who faces danger and death in his or her daily work.114 

Project Mercury had been formally established just after the birth of NASA 

in 1958 and completed in a little less than five years at a cost of $384 million. It 

110. James C. Webb, NASA Administrator, Memorandum for the President, 14 September 1961. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

111. On the creation of this center see Henry C. Dethloff, “Suddenly Tomorrow Came . . .”: A 

History of the Johnson Space Center (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4307, 1993). 

112. Space News Roundup (Houston, TX), 11 July 1962. 

113. Quoted in James Schefter, The Race: The Uncensored Story of How America Beat Russia to the 

Moon (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1999), p. 72. LBJ also had great confidence in Grissom. 

See Lyndon B. Johnson to Gus Grissom, 21 July 1961, LBJ Papers, Vice Presidential Papers, box 116, 

January–July 1961, Space and Aero File, LBJ Library, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. 

114. See Guenter Wendt and Russell Still, The Unbroken Chain (Burlington, Ontario, Canada: 

Apogee Books, an imprint of Collector’s Guide Publishing Ltd., 2001). 
36 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

may have been the best bargain ever in human spaceflight, in no small measure 

because its goals were so simple. Although lagging behind the original schedule, 

it had succeeded in proving the possibility of safe human space exploration and in 

demonstrating to the world U.S. technological competence during the Cold War 

rivalry with the Soviet Union. At the conclusion of the Mercury effort, Walter C. 

Williams noted that “in the period of about 45 months of activity, some 25 fl ights 

were made which was an activity of a major flight in something less than every 2 

months.” He then commented on what NASA learned in the context of completing Mercury: 

I think we learned . . . a lot about spacecraft technology and how a 

spacecraft should be built, what its systems should be, how they should 

perform, where the critical redundancies are that are required. I think 

we learned something about man-rating boosters, how to take a weapons 

system development and turn it into a manned transportation system. I 

think, in this area, we found primarily, in a nutshell, that this was a matter of providing a malfunction detection system or an abort system, and, 

also, we found very careful attention to detail as far as quality control was 

concerned. I think that some of the less obvious things we learned—we 

learned how to plan these missions and this takes a lot of detail work, 

because it’s not only planning how it goes, but how it doesn’t go, and the 

abort cases and the emergency cases always took a lot more effort than 

the planned missions. . . . We learned what is important in training crews 

for missions of this type. When the crew-training program was laid down, 

the program had to cover the entire gamut because we weren’t quite sure 

exactly what these people needed to carry out the missions. I think we have 

a much better focus on this now. We learned how to control these fl ights in 

real time. This was a new concept on a worldwide basis. I think we learned, 

and when I say we, I’m talking of this as a National asset, not NASA alone, 

we learned how to operate the world network in real time and keep it up. 

And I think we learned a lot in how to manage development programs of 

this kind and to manage operations of this kind (I-47).115 

As Christopher C. Kraft, senior flight controller, concluded, Mercury “changed 

quite a few concepts about space, added greatly to our knowledge of the universe 

around us, and demonstrated that Man has a proper role in exploring it. There 

are many unknowns that lie ahead, but we are reassured because we are confi dent 

in overcoming them by using Man’s capabilities to the fullest” (I-48).116 

115. Dr. Walter C. Williams, Deputy Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, “Project 

Review,” 3 October 1963. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

116. Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., “A Review of Knowledge Acquired from the First Manned 

Satellite Program.” Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 37

Bridging the Technology Gap: Project Gemini 

Even as the Mercury program was underway and Apollo hardware was beginning development, NASA program managers recognized that there was a huge 

gap in the capability for human spaceflight between that acquired with Mercury 

and what would be required for a lunar landing. They closed most of the gap by 

experimenting and training on the ground, but some issues required experience 

in space. Several major areas immediately arose where this was the case. These 

included the following major mission requirements, as defined in the Gemini 

crew familiarization manual: 

A.	 Accomplish 14-day Earth orbital flights, thus validating that humans 

could survive a journey to the Moon and back to Earth. 

B.	 Demonstrate rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit. 

C.	 Provide for controlled land landing as the primary recovery mode. 

D.	 Develop simplified countdown techniques to aid rendezvous missions 

(lessens criticality of launch window). 

E. 	Determine man’s capabilities in space during extended missions (I-52).117 

These major initiatives defined the Gemini program and its 10 human spaceflight missions conducted in the 1965 to 1966 period.118 

NASA conceived of Project Gemini first as a larger Mercury “Mark II” capsule, but soon it became a totally different vehicle. It could accommodate two 

astronauts for extended flights of more than two weeks. It pioneered the use of 

fuel cells instead of batteries to power the ship, and it incorporated a series of 

modifications to hardware. Its designers also toyed with the possibility of using a 

paraglider being developed at Langley Research Center for land landings instead 

of a “splashdown” in water and recovery by the Navy.119 The whole system was to 

be powered by the newly developed Titan II launch vehicle, another ballistic missile developed for the Air Force. A central reason for this program was to perfect 

techniques for rendezvous and docking, so NASA appropriated from the military 

some Agena rocket upper stages and fitted them with docking adapters to serve as 

the targets for rendezvous operations. 

117. NASA Flight Crew Operations Division, “Gemini Familiarization Package,” 3 August 1962. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

118. The standard work on Project Gemini is Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood, On 

Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4203, 1977). See also David 

M. Harland, How NASA Learned To Fly in Space: An Exciting Account of the Gemini Missions (Burlington, 

ON, Canada: Apogee Books, 2004). 

119. Barton C. Hacker, “The Idea of Rendezvous: From Space Station to Orbital Operations, 

in Space-Travel Thought, 1895–1951,” Technology and Culture 15 (July 1974): pp. 373–388; Barton C. 

Hacker, “The Genesis of Project Apollo: The Idea of Rendezvous, 1929–1961,” Actes 10: Historic des 

techniques (Paris: Congress of the History of Science, 1971), pp. 41–46; Barton C. Hacker and James 

M. Grimwood, On Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4203, 

1977), pp. 1–26. 
38 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

The Gemini program emerged full-blown in October 1961 from a working group 

of NASA and McDonnell engineers. They developed a detailed project development 

plan that incorporated the following philosophy as central to the effort (I-49): 

In general, the philosophy used in the conception of this project is 

to make maximum use of available hardware, basically developed for 

other programs, modified to meet the needs of this project. In this way, 

requirements for hardware development and qualification are minimized and timely implementation of the project is assured. 

Another fundamental concept is that in the design of the spacecraft, 

all systems will be modularized and made independent of each other as 

much as possible. In this way, an evolutionary process of product improvement and mission adaptation may be implemented with a minimum 

of time and effort. Thus, it will be possible to use equipment of varying degrees of sophistication as it becomes available and as the mission 

requirements are tightened. It is important that a minimum of lead time 

can be obtained by making use of the latest hardware developments. This 

concept will make possible the attainment of mission and permits reasonable compromises to be made in the face of difficulties rather than excessive delays that otherwise might be required to meet the full objectives. 

This project will provide a versatile spacecraft/booster combination 

which will be capable of performing a variety of missions. It will be a 

fitting vehicle for conducting further experiments rather than be the 

object of experiments. For instance, the rendezvous techniques developed for the spacecraft might allow its use as a vehicle for resupply or 

inspection of orbiting laboratories or space stations, orbital rescue, personnel transfer, and spacecraft repair.120 

It took only a little longer for the Gemini name to be attached to the program; by early January 1962 the new program received its official moniker, chosen 

because of its reference to classical mythology and the “twins,” which D. Brainerd 

Holmes, NASA’s Director of Manned Spaceflight, thought most appropriate for 

the two-person spacecraft. Associate Administrator Robert Seamans presented 

a bottle of Scotch whiskey to the first person to suggest Gemini as the project’s 

name, engineer Al Nagy (I-50, I-51).121 

The Gemini spacecraft was a marked improvement on the Mercury capsule. It 

was 19 feet long (5.8 meters), 10 feet (3 meters) in diameter, and weighed about 

120. NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, “Project Development Plan for Rendezvous Development 

Utilizing the Mark II Two Man Spacecraft,” 8 December 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

121. Al Nagy, NASA, to George Low, NASA, 11 December 1961; D. Brainerd Holmes, NASA 

Director of Manned Spaceflight Programs, Memorandum for NASA Associate Administrator, 

“Naming Mercury-Mark II Project,” 16 December 1961; D. B. Holmes, Director of Manned 

Spaceflight, NASA, Memorandum for the Associate Administrator, NASA, “Naming the Mercury 

Mark II Program,” 2 January 1961. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 39

8,400 pounds (3,810 kilograms)—twice the weight of Mercury. But it had only 50 

percent more cabin space for twice as many people, and was extremely cramped 

for the long-duration missions envisioned. Ejection seats replaced Mercury’s 

escape rocket and more storage space was added for the longer Gemini fl ights. 

The long-duration missions also used fuel cells instead of batteries for generating electrical power, an enormously significant development in the methodology of generating power for the spacecraft.122 An adapter module fitted to the 

rear of the capsule (and jettisoned before reentry) carried on-board oxygen, fuel, 

and other consumable supplies. Engineering changes, such as systems that could 

be removed and replaced easily, simplified maintenance. Since extra-vehicular 

activities (EVAs) were an essential part of these missions, the spacesuit became a 

crucial piece of equipment, the suit providing the only protection for astronauts 

in the extremely hostile environment of space.123 By January 1964, NASA had 

developed a preliminary plan for one astronaut to conduct an EVA at some point 

during Gemini (I-53). To make EVAs possible, NASA redesigned the Gemini’s 

mechanical hatch to permit astronauts to leave the spacecraft in orbit. As early as 

July 1964, Gemini Deputy Manager Kenneth Kleinknecht suggested that NASA 

might attempt an EVA during Gemini IV, but some were opposed to doing this 

on the second crewed mission of the program, and astronauts James McDivitt 

and Edward White, the primary crew for Gemini IV, had to lobby to make it a 

reality the next year. The demonstration of the EVA proved to be one of the huge 

successes, both from a public relations and a knowledge-advancement viewpoint, 

of the whole Gemini program.124 

Problems with the Gemini program abounded from the start. The Titan II 

had longitudinal oscillations called the “pogo” effect because it resembled the 

behavior of a child on a pogo stick. Overcoming this problem required engineering imagination and long hours of overtime to stabilize fuel flow and maintain 

vehicle control. The fuel cells leaked and had to be redesigned, and the Agena 

reconfiguration also suffered costly delays. NASA engineers never did get the paraglider to work properly and eventually dropped it from the program in favor of a 

parachute system and ocean recovery, similar to the approach used for Mercury. 

All of these difficulties increased an estimated $350 million program cost to over 

$1 billion. The overruns were successfully justified by the Agency, however, as 

necessities to meet the Apollo landing commitment.125 

122. Linda Carrette, K. Andreas Friedrich, and Ulrich Stimming, “Fuel Cells: Principles, 

Types, Fuels, and Applications,” ChemPhysChem 1 (2000): pp. 162–193; Brian Cook, An Introduction to 

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: Heliocentris, April 2002), 

pp. 5–6; M. L. Perry and T. F. Fuller, “A Historical Perspective of Fuel Cell Technology in the 20th 

Century,” Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 149 no. 71 (2002): S59-S67. 

123. On EVAs and spacesuits, see David S.F. Portree and Robert C. Treviño, Walking to Olympus: 

An EVA Chronology (Washington, DC: Monographs in Aerospace History Series No. 7, 1997); David 

Shayler, Walking in Space: Development of Space Walking Techniques (Chicester, UK: Springer-Praxis, 

2003); Gary L. Harris, The Origins and Technology of the Advanced Extravehicular Space Suit (San Diego, 

CA: Univelt, Inc., 2001). 

124. Charles W. Mathews, Manager, Gemini Program, “Program Plan for Gemini Extravehicular 

Operation,” 31 January 1964. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

125. James M. Grimwood and Ivan D. Ertal, “Project Gemini,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 
40 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

By the end of 1963, most of the difficulties with Gemini had been resolved, 

albeit at great expense, and the program was approaching its first test fl ights. As 

they took place, NASA officials considered the possibility of reconfi guring the 

Gemini spacecraft for a circumlunar mission in the 1966 time frame. With continued pressures from the Soviet Union, examining the possibility of an early circumlunar flight as a contingency for the future appeared appropriate. The initial 

review in the spring of 1964 showed promise and Edward Z. Gray, Director of 

NASA’s Advanced Manned Missions Program, recommended: “I believe that a 

study should be initiated to more thoroughly investigate the Gemini circumlunar 

mode, utilizing the Saturn IB with a Centaur as the injection stage, in either a 

direct ascent or an Earth orbit rendezvous trajectory. . . . The purpose of such a 

study would be to more accurately determine the capability of each confi guration, 

the key technical problems, relative costs, development schedules and key decisions points to provide a basis for possible contingency-type decisions in the 

1965−66 time period” (I-54).126 

Further study the next year yielded a decision not to pursue this option. Eldon 

Hall, Director of Gemini Systems Engineering, commented: 

I think the proposal is feasible, but not within the time and effort 

indicated. The equipment and mission are too marginal to absorb 

changes and additions that will be required without extensive redesign 

and testing. . . . I personally would prefer to see us advance our Earth 

orbital capability. With the same or fewer modifications to the spacecraft 

advocated in this proposal and additional Agena payloads, we could 

attain a significant lead in the design and operation of Earth-orbital 

space stations (I-55).127 

In his typically convoluted “adminispeak” style, NASA Administrator James E. 

Webb communicated this perspective to Representative Olin E. Teague (D-Texas) 

in September 1965, adding, “I do not believe a decision not to make the substantial 

investment that would be required by a modified Gemini lunar fly-by will change 

the posture which our program has had for a number of years” (I-56).128 

81 (January 1968): pp. 393–418; James M. Grimwood, Barton C. Hacker, and Peter J. Vorzimmer, 

Project Gemini Technology and Operations (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4002, 1969); Robert N. Lindley, 

“Discussing Gemini: A ‘Flight’ Interview with Robert Lindley of McDonnell,” Flight International, 24 

(March 1966): pp. 488–489. 

126. Edward Z. Gray, Director, Advanced Manned Missions Program, Office of Manned 

Spaceflight, NASA, to Director, Gemini Program, NASA, “Gemini Lunar Mission Studies,” 30 

April 1964. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

127. Eldon. W Hall, Director, Gemini Systems Engineering, NASA, to Deputy Director, Gemini 

Program, NASA, “Circumlunar Missions,” 29 June 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

128. James E. Webb, NASA Administrator, to Olin E. Teague, Chairman, Subcommittee on 

NASA Oversight, Committee on Science and Astronautics, House of Representatives, 10 September 

1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 41

At the same time, confident that Gemini’s major technological challenges 

were being overcome, NASA moved out on mission planning for the humanpiloted portion of the program. LeRoy E. Day, the Gemini Program’s Deputy 

Director, outlined the missions in a 25 June 1964 memorandum: 

Flights 4, 5, and 7 will provide experience in long duration orbital 

flight . . . Many measurements and experiments will be performed to 

assess the effects of orbital weightless flight on man and machine for 

periods up to 14 days—more than adequate for the Apollo lunar expedition. Among the medical experiments, for example; M-1, Cardiovascular 

Reflex, will determine the feasibility of using inflatable cuffs to prevent 

cardiovascular deterioration—evidence of which was noted in Project 

Mercury flights MA-8 and MA-9. . . . In addition to these experiments, 

we also plan to conduct extravehicular activity to evaluate man’s performance outside the spacecraft. 

With Flight No. 6, we will establish the feasibility of rendezvous and 

provide experience for the visual manual docking mode, which is common to both Gemini and Apollo . . . Whereas radar computer guidance 

will be the primary onboard mode for the terminal rendezvous phase of 

Flight No. 6; the radar optical and optical guidance modes will be primary for Flights 8 and 9 respectively. 

By Flights 10 and 11, or earlier, we plan to flight test the feasibility of 

the LEM lunar orbit direct rendezvous mode in Earth orbit if possible. 

In this mode, the catch up or parking orbits are essentially by-passed and 

terminal rendezvous is initiated near first apogee. . . 

For Flight No. 12, we plan to simulate LEM abort maneuvers; either 

abort from an equiperiod transfer orbit (I-57).129 

Eldon Hall followed in July 1964 with another set of mission profi les that 

offered not only the already agreed-upon Gemini mission objectives, but also 

such proposals as tests of propellant transfer, rendezvous with an empty Apollo 

Command Module, rendezvous with a Lunar Module, using Gemini as a minimum space station, a joint NASA/Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) 

using Gemini spacecraft, satellite recovery on-orbit, and a one-astronaut Gemini 

mission with a telescope mounted in the other seat of the spacecraft. Of course, 

these missions did not come to pass (I-58).130 

129. L. E. Day, Deputy Director, Gemini Program, NASA, Memorandum for William C. 

Schneider, Deputy Director, Apollo Program, NASA, “Gemini Support of Apollo,” 25 June 1964. 

Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

130. John L. Hammersmith, Director, Gemini Systems Engineering, NASA, Memorandum for 

Deputy Director, Gemini Program, NASA, “List of Missions,” 17 July 1964. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
42 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

Flying the Gemini Missions 

Following two unoccupied orbital test flights, Gemini III, the fi rst crewcarrying mission, took place on 23 March 1965; it was a three-orbit fl ight. (The 

mission was originally designated GT-3, for Gemini/Titan-3.) Mercury astronaut 

Gus Grissom commanded the mission, with John W. Young, a Naval aviator chosen 

as an astronaut in 1962, accompanying him. This mission proved to be a huge success for many reasons, serving “to flight qualify the crew-spacecraft combination as 

well as checkout the operational procedures.” The system performed essentially as 

intended, although there were a few glitches in the technology that Mission Control 

and the astronauts aboard resolved satisfactorily. During this mission, as James 

Webb wrote to the President, “the two-man crew maneuvered their craft in orbit 

preparing the way for the rendezvous missions to follow. GT-3 also initiated the use 

of the Gemini spacecraft as an orbiting laboratory. Astronauts Grissom and Young 

also executed the first manned, controlled, lifting reentry” (I-66).131 

Despite the success of Gemini III, or perhaps because of it, the White House 

became concerned about the possibility of losing a crew in Earth orbit during a 

future mission and questioned NASA and the DOD about plans for space rescue 

should they be stranded in orbit (I-59).132 Both responded with analyses of the 

extremely low possibility of losing a crew because they were stranded in orbit, as 

well as by acknowledging the extremely risky nature of spaceflight. As Cyrus Vance 

told Bill Moyers, “It is possible we may strand an astronaut in orbit some day. It 

is very likely that astronauts will be killed, though stranding them is one of the 

less likely ways. The nation must expect such a loss of life in the space program. 

There have been several deaths already in our rocket development. We would 

be untruthful if we were to present any different image to our citizens” (I-60).133 

James Webb opined to President Lyndon B. Johnson, again in a masterpiece of 

indirect syntax, that: 

. . . in Gemini, we are building on all of the measures for safety that have 

come from our extensive experience in test flying and such advanced 

systems as the X-15—the measures which have also been instrumental 

in achieving our perfect record of astronaut safety thus far. The redundancy designed into the retro-system for return from orbit is optimized 

131. James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Cabinet Report for the President, “Signifi cance of 

GT-3, GT-4 Accomplishments,” 17 June 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

132. E.C. Welsh, National Aeronautics and Space Council, Executive Office of the President, 

Memorandum for the President, “Space Rescue,” 21 May 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

133. Bill Moyers, Special Assistant to the President, The White House, Memorandum for James 

Webb, Administrator, NASA, and Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense, 29 May 1965, with 

attached; Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Special Assistant to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense, 

Memorandum for Mr. Valenti/Mr. Busby, Special Assistants to the President, 29 May 1965, with 

attached; Cyrus Vance, Offi ce of the Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for Mr. Bill Moyers, The 

White House, “Comments on Need for Space Rescue,” 29 May 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 43

for crew safety. The orbital parameters of the next Gemini mission are 

planned so that the orbit will decay to reentry within 24 hours after the 

planned termination of the flight, should all other provisions for initiating the de-orbiting landing sequence fail. . . . It is our judgment that the 

knowledge needed to begin the design of such a space rescue system 

is not yet available, but will come from our present developmental and 

flight program. You may be assured, Mr. President, that we shall continue 

to give first priority to considerations of astronaut safety (I-61).134 

NASA has tended to follow this approach to crew safety to the present, relying on the development of the best possible technologies and processes to ensure 

safety and reliability rather than some type of space rescue capability. It also developed procedures in dealing with the necessity of informing the public about possible accidents and loss of astronauts, should that eventuality occur (I-71).135 

Also in the aftermath of the successful Gemini III mission, NASA began planning how to honor the astronauts after their flights. For the Mercury program there 

had been considerable pomp and circumstances, usually involving medals awarded 

by the President and ticker-tape parades. But Gemini was different, argued Julian 

Scheer, NASA’s Director of Public Affairs. “We are now entering a new phase of 

our program,” he wrote. “The image that is, perhaps, best for this nation is that of a 

nation with this capability, a nation that goes about its work in an orderly and wellplanned manner. We will fly these flights as best we can and put these fl yers right 

back into the flight schedule for a future mission” (I-62, I-63).136 Because of this 

desire to “routinize” spaceflight and in the process downplay the heroism of the 

astronauts, except in truly exceptional circumstances, the aftermath of the Gemini 

missions was more restrained than in Project Mercury. The Gemini III crew did 

visit the White House and received medals from President Johnson. In the case of 

the Gemini IV crew, President Johnson came to Houston to congratulate them and 

NASA Administrator James Webb sent them, at the request of the President, to the 

Paris International Air Show, where they met Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. Later 

missions were less pronounced in their public relations hoopla.137 

Based on the success of Gemini III, NASA accelerated plans to fly the next 

mission, a 66-revolution, 4-day mission that began on 3 June and ended on 7 June 

134. James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Memorandum to the President, “Space Rescue,” 

2 June 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

135. NASA, “Gemini Contingency Information Plan,” 11 May 1966. Folder 18674, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

136. Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, Memorandum to Mr. 

Marvin Watson, The White House, 24 May 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

137. Marvin Watson, The White House, Memorandum for the President, 25 May 1965. Folder 

18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. On the “routinization” of power see Eric Hoffer, The True Believer: Thoughts on the 

Nature of Mass Movements (New York: Harper & Row, 1951), pp. 3–23, 137–155; Max Weber, “The Pure 

Types of Legitimate Authority,” in Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building: Selected Papers, S. N. 

Eisenstadt, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 46. 
44 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

1965 (I-67).138 During that mission astronaut Edward H. White performed the fi rst 

American EVA. During his 20 minutes outside Gemini IV, White remained connected to the spacecraft’s life-support and communications systems by an “umbilical cord,” and he used a hand-held jet thruster to maneuver in space. McDivitt 

remained inside the spacecraft during this event.139 Although it turned out well, 

NASA leaders had debated intensely among themselves whether or not to allow 

the EVA on this mission. Those in favor emphasized the necessity of developing an EVA capability for the Apollo Moon landings and the necessity of haste 

because of the success of the Soviet efforts in space, including the first EVA by 

anyone, accomplished by Cosmonaut Alexey Leonov three months before the 

Gemini IV mission. Those opposed, who included NASA Deputy Administrator 

Hugh L. Dryden, argued that the EVA was premature, that it was risky, and that it 

looked like a direct response to Leonov’s earlier spacewalk. 

At a 24 May 1965 showdown at NASA Headquarters, Dryden raised the issue 

of “the element of risk to complete the 4-day Gemini flight because of EVA.” 

The reply was that the added risk was simply having to depressurize the spacecraft, open the hatch, seal the hatch, and repressurize the spacecraft. This was not 

an insignificant set of concerns, Dryden countered. As the memorandum of the 

meeting recorded: “There was a strong feeling to ratify EVA for Gemini 4 in order 

to get the maximum out of the flight. There was unanimity in that EVA eventually would be carried out, but there was some reservation as to whether or not it 

was the best judgment to have EVA on Gemini 4 as a risk beyond that which has 

to be taken.” Dryden, who was dying of cancer at the time and worked until his 

death on 2 December 1965, perhaps felt more keenly than others in the debate 

the weight of mortality and reflected this in his concern for the safety of the astronauts. No one could fault him for that concern, and everyone recognized the 

crew safety issue, but that had to be balanced against other factors that tipped the 

scales in favor of success. Calculating the risk and accepting the unknowns soon 

led NASA leaders to approve the EVA on Gemini IV. Since it turned out well, they 

looked like geniuses. Had it gone otherwise, they would have become scapegoats 

(I-64, I-65).140 As James Webb wrote to the President: “It is significant that the fi rst 

operational flight of Gemini, GT-4, has provided significant experience in each of 

the major mission areas of Gemini: long duration flight, rendezvous and docking, 

extra vehicular activity, and the conduct of experiments” (I-66).141 

138. NASA Program Gemini Working Paper No. 5038, “GT-4 Flight Crew Debriefi ng 

Transcript,” n.d. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

139. Reginald M. Machell, ed., Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity (Washington, DC: 

NASA SP-149, 1968). 

140. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, to The Administrator, “Extra 

Vehicular Activity for Gemini IV,” 24 May 1965; W. Vogel, Executive Officer, Memorandum for the 

Record, “Top Management Meeting on Gemini 4 Extra-Vehicular Activity,” 8 June 1965. Folder 

18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

141. James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Cabinet Report for the President, “Signifi cance of 

GT-3, GT-4 Accomplishments,” 17 June 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 45

Eight more Gemini missions followed through November 1966. Despite problems great and small encountered on virtually all of them, the program achieved 

its goals. This especially was the case in the development of rendezvous and 

docking procedures necessary for the successful accomplishment of the lunar 

landing commitment. For example, Buzz Aldrin, selected in the third group of 

NASA astronauts in 1963, had a unique impact in this area, given his Ph.D. in 

astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Aldrin had written 

his dissertation on orbital rendezvous and he applied this knowledge to solving 

one of the principal riddles of the Gemini program: how to accomplish rendezvous and docking of two spacecraft in Earth orbit.142 Acquiring the nickname 

“Dr. Rendezvous” from his fellow astronauts, Aldrin worked more than the others to develop the orbital maneuvers essential to the program’s success. During 

Project Gemini, Aldrin became one of the key figures working on the problem of 

spacecraft rendezvous and docking in Earth or lunar orbit. Without solutions to 

such problems, Apollo could not have been successfully completed. Rendezvous 

techniques remained largely in the realm of theory until Aldrin began to work 

on the problem. In 1963 and 1964, Aldrin worked hard to convince fl ight operations leaders that a concentric rendezvous would work. In his estimation, a target 

vehicle could be launched in a circular orbit with the rendezvousing spacecraft in 

a closer orbit to Earth. It would then take less time to circle the globe, he argued, 

and then catch up for rendezvous. Aldrin and others worked together to develop 

the trajectories and maneuvers that would allow the spacecraft to intercept a 

target vehicle.143 

Moreover, Aldrin argued that a closed-loop concept that relied more on 

machines than on astronauts could easily spell failure. Ground controllers 

wanted to use radar and computers to guide the two spacecraft together from 

the ground, making rendezvous essentially automatic. Should either the equipment or procedures fail, however, the mission would be lost. Aldrin argued for 

the astronauts as active participants in the process, even more involved than taking action should the equipment malfunction.144 

Systematically and laboriously, Aldrin worked to develop procedures and 

tools necessary to accomplish space rendezvous and docking. He was also central 

in devising the methods necessary to carry out the astronauts’ EVA. That, too, 

was critical to the successful accomplishment of Apollo. Techniques he devised 

have been used on all space rendezvous and docking flights since. Aldrin also significantly improved operational techniques for astronautical navigation star displays for these missions. He and a critical ally, Dean F. Grimm from the Manned 

Spacecraft Center’s (MSC) Flight Crew Support Division, convinced their supe142. See Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., “Line of Sight Guidance Techniques for Men in Orbital 

Rendezvous,” Ph.D. Diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1964. Later Aldrin legally changed 

his first name to “Buzz.” 

143. Hacker and Grimwood, On Shoulders of Titans, pp. 266–268. 

144. “Preflight Training Plan for Fourth Manned Gemini Flight Crew (GTA-6),” NASA 

Program Gemini working paper No. 5031, 23 August 1965. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; Hacker and Grimwood, 

On the Shoulders of Titans, p. 267. 
46 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

riors at MSC and McDonnell Aircraft to build a simulator to test this possibility. 

They explored how astronauts responded to various situations with maneuvers 

leading to target interception. Astronauts mastered procedures for overcoming 

the failure of any one piece of equipment, and soon convinced everyone that the 

astronaut as active participant was critical to successful rendezvous and docking 

of the Gemini systems.145 

What emerged was a combination system that relied on automated systems 

to get the Gemini spacecraft close enough to the target vehicle so that the crew 

could complete the rendezvous and docking process using the control handles, 

observing the pilot displays, and observing the optical targets through windows 

in the spacecraft. At some point in the approach, typically at about 60 meters separation, the rendezvous radar could no longer give an accurate estimate of range 

because of the closeness of the target. Then, visual observations of the docking 

targets by the crew were heavily relied upon. This approach worked fl awlessly 

throughout the Gemini program. In all, Gemini astronauts completed successful 

rendezvous and dockings on Gemini VIII in March 1996, Gemini X in July 1966, 

Gemini XI in September 1966, and Gemini XII in November 1996.146 

The first test of rendezvous in space occurred on the twin flights of Gemini 

VI and VII in December 1965. Gemini VI was initially intended to rendezvous 

with an Agena target spacecraft, but when the Agena failed during launch the 

mission was hastily modified to rendezvous with a piloted spacecraft (I-68). 

Consequently, Gemini VII, piloted by Frank Borman and James Lovell, was 

launched first on 4 December 1965 to become the rendezvous target for Gemini 

VI. When Gemini VI was launched on 15 December, piloted by Walter Schirra 

and Thomas Stafford, the two spacecraft rendezvoused and flew in formation for 

5 hours. Their first test of rendezvous had been successful and proved the concept of human involvement in space rendezvous. Gemini VII remained aloft for 

14 days to study the effects of long-duration fl ight. The 330 hours in space had 

no long-term harmful effects on the crew, but the flight turned into something of 

an endurance test for the two pilots, confined in their hot, cramped quarters. At 

the conclusion of the lengthy time cooped up together, Lovell joked to reporters 

that he and Borman were happy to announce their engagement. It was astronaut 

humor that said quite a lot about the masculine culture of the fl iers (I-69).147 

145. Buzz Aldrin, “Apollo and Beyond,” in Stephen J. Garber, ed., Looking Backward, Looking 

Forward: Forty Years of Human Spacefl ight Symposium (Washington, DC: NASA SP-2002-4107, 2002), pp. 

91–99; Roger D. Launius, Frontiers of Space Exploration, 2nd ed. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 

pp. 83–84. 

146. V. E. Jones, and J. E. Mangelsdorf, “Preliminary Rendezvous Experiments Defi nition and 

Design,” Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA, p. 4-1; D. Chiarrappa, “Analysis and 

Design of Space Vehicle Flight Control Systems, Volume VIII—Rendezvous and Docking,” NASA 

CR-827, prepared by General Dynamics Corp., San Diego, CA, for the NASA-Marshall Space Flight 

Center, Alabama, July 1967, p. 31; NASA Pocket Statistics, 1997 Edition (Washington, DC: NASA 

Headquarters Facilities and Logistics Management, 1998), pp. B-100–B-102. 

147. “Summary of Telephone Conversations RE Gemini 7/6,” 25–27 October 1965; “Gemini 

Program Mission Report, Gemini VI-A,” January 1966. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; J. H. Latimer, “Observation 

of Gemini 6-GEMINI 7 Rendezvous,” SAO Special Report #202 (Cambridge, MA: Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory, 1966); J. R. Burton, “Rendezvous With the Gemini Spacecraft,” Proceedings
Exploring the Unknown 47

It was perhaps the flight of Gemini VIII in the spring of 1966 that demonstrated 

more clearly than any other mission the capability of the program to accomplish 

rendezvous and docking in orbit. Gemini VIII had two major objectives, but was 

able to complete only one of them. The first objective involved completing the 

first ever on-orbit rendezvous and docking. Second, the crew was to accomplish 

an extended EVA. After launch on 16 March 1966, the crew of Neil Armstrong 

and David Scott approached their Agena target vehicle without diffi culty. The 

crew then docked with it as had been planned. While undertaking maneuvers 

when attached to the Agena, the crew of Gemini VIII noticed that for some unexplained reason the spacecraft was in a roll. Armstrong used the Gemini’s orbital 

maneuvering system to stop the roll, but the moment he stopped using the thrusters, it started again. They then turned off the Agena and this seemed to stop the 

problem for a few minutes. Then suddenly it started again. Scott then realized 

that the problem was with the Gemini capsule rather than the Agena. After transferring control of the Agena back to the ground, they undocked and with a long 

burst of translation thrusters moved away from the Agena. At that point, Gemini 

VIII began to roll about one revolution per second. They decided to turn off 

the orbital maneuvering system and try to regain control of the spacecraft with 

its reentry control system. If they failed to do so the accelerating rotation would 

eventually cause the crew to black out and for the mission to the lost, perhaps 

with loss of life. Even so, the use of the reentry control system would require 

Armstrong and Scott to return to Earth as soon as possible so as not endanger 

the mission any further. After steadying the spacecraft they tested each thruster 

in turn and found that Number 8 had stuck on. This had caused the roll. The 

mission then returned to Earth one orbit later so that it could land in a place that 

could be reached by the Navy. 

There was no question that astronauts Armstrong and Scott had salvaged the 

mission, even if they did have to return to Earth earlier than expected. A review 

of the incident found no conclusive reason for the thruster sticking as it did. 

But it was obvious that the crew’s presence allowed the diagnosis of the anomaly. 

Reviewers believed it was probably caused by an electrical short that caused a 

static electricity discharge. Even if the switch to the thruster was off, power could 

still fl ow to it. To prevent reoccurrence of this problem, NASA changed the system so that each thruster could be isolated (I-70).148 

of the Symposium on Space Rendezvous, Rescue, and Recovery, Volume 16, Part 2, American Astronautical 

Society, Edwards Air Force Base, CA, 10–12 September 1963, pp. 173–176. 

148. “Gemini VIII Technical Debriefing,” 21 March 1966. Folder 18674, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; S.R. 

Mohler, A.E. Nicogossian, P.D. McCormack, and S.R. Mohler Jr., “Tumbling and Spacefl ight: 

The Gemini VIII Experience,” Aviation and Space Environmental Medicine 61 (January 1990): 

pp. 62–66; Bo J. Naasz, “Classical Element Feedback Control for Spacecraft Orbital Maneuvers,” M.S. 

thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 2002, pp. 1–2; M. E. Polites, 

An Assessment of the Technology of Automated Rendezvous and Capture in Space (Huntsville, AL: NASA/ 

TP—1998–208528, 1998), pp. 3–9; H. J. Ballard, “Agena Target Vehicle for Gemini,” Proceedings of 

the Symposium on Space Rendezvous, Rescue, and Recovery, Volume 16, Part 2, American Astronautical 

Society, Edwards Air Force Base, CA, 10–12 September 1963, pp. 177–187. 
48 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini 

Conclusion 

By the end of the Gemini program in the fall of 1966, orbital rendezvous and 

docking had become routine: astronauts could perform spacewalks; it seemed 

clear that humans could live, work, and stay healthy in space for several weeks 

at a time. Above all, the program had added nearly 1,000 hours of valuable 

spaceflight experience in the years between Mercury and Apollo, which by 1966 

was nearing flight readiness. In every instance, NASA had enhanced the role 

of the astronauts as critical fliers of spacecraft, a role that would become even 

more significant in the accomplishment of the Moon landings between 1969 

and 1972. Additionally, as a technological learning program, Gemini had been 

a success with 52 different experiments performed on the 10 missions. The bank 

of data acquired from Gemini helped to bridge the gap between Mercury and 

what would be required to complete Apollo within the time constraints directed 

by the President (I-72, I-73).149 

149 Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Memorandum for Associate 

Administrators, Assistant Associate Administrators, and Field Center Directors, NASA, “Gemini 

Program; Record of Accomplishments, Attached,” 17 January 1967, with attached: “Project Gemini 

Summary”; George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA, “Gemini 

Summary Conference,” 1–2 February 1967. Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; Gemini Summary Conference 

(Washington, DC: NASA SP-138, 1967); Linda Ezell, NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. II, pp. 149–170. 
Document I-1

Document Title: H. J. E. Reid, Director, Langley Memorial Aeronautical 

Laboratory to National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, “Research on Space 

Flight and Associated Problems,” 5 August 1952.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Fort Worth, Texas.

As World War II was in its fi nal stages, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

(NACA) inaugurated sophisticated studies of high-speed upper atmosphere fl ight that had 

signifi cant ramifi cations for the development of human spacefl ight. The Langley Memorial 

Aeronautical Laboratory (LMAL), now the Langley Research Center, in Hampton, Virginia, 

led this effort. In early 1945, NACA asked Congress for a supplemental appropriation to 

fund the activation of the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD), and a short time later 

NACA opened the Auxiliary Flight Research Station (AFRS) to launch rockets on Wallops 

Island, Virginia. On 4 July 1945, PARD launched its fi rst test vehicle, a small two-stage, 

solid-fuel rocket to check out the installation’s instrumentation. The group soon began serious work to learn about the aerodynamics of spacefl ight. By 1952 Langley’s involvement 

in rocketry and spacefl ight research had transformed the Laboratory into one of the world’s 

leading facilities involved in this entirely new fi eld of fl ight research. This memorandum 

sought to capitalize on the work of the PARD and to advance the state of the technology by 

establishing a formal panel to plan for future research.

Langley Field, Va. 

August 5, 1952

From Langley

To: NACA 

Ref: NACA Letter, July 10, 1952 MBApep Enc. 

Subject: Research on space fl ight and associated problems

1. The Langley laboratory has carefully considered the subject proposed in letter of reference regarding research on space fl ight and associated problems. 

It was recommended that the laboratory assign a three-man group to study 

and prepare a report covering the various phases of a proposed program that 

would carry out the intent of the resolution of letter of reference. In order to 

effect NACA coordination of the program proposed by this study, it is further 

recommended that a review board with representatives of the 3 laboratories 

and the NACA High-Speed Flight Research Station at Edwards be appointed.

2. If this plan is approved, the Langley laboratory would appoint to the study 

group Messrs. C. E. Brown, C. H. Zimmerman, and W. J. O’Sullivan. The 

recommended members of the review board from Langley and Edwards are 

Messrs. Hartley A. Soulé and Walter C. Williams, respectively.

3. Results of some preliminary work relative to this subject are already available 

as a result of consideration given to this matter at Langley and Edwards.

H. J. E. Reid

Director

Exploring the Unknown 49
50 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-2

Document Title: H. Julian Allen and A. J. Eggers, Jr., NACA, “Research 

Memorandum: A Study of the Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Missiles 

Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere at High Supersonic Speeds,” 25 August 1953.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

In the later 1940s aerodynamicists began research on the best means of reentry to Earth from 

space, where the high speeds caused atmospheric heating in excess of 1,800°F. These investigations found that a blunt-nose body experienced much less heating than a pointed body, 

which would burn up before reaching Earth’s surface. The blunt reentry body, discovered in 

1951 by H. Julian Allen, an engineer with NACA’s Ames Research Center, created a stronger shock wave at the nose of the vehicle and dumped a good deal of the reentry heat into the 

airfl ow, making less heat available to heat the reentry vehicle itself. Allen’s work led to the 

design of wide-body bases for spacecraft, giving the capsules their characteristic “teardrop” 

shape, and to the use of the ablative heat shields that protected the Mercury, Gemini, and 

Apollo astronauts as their space capsules reentered Earth’s atmosphere. This document represents one of Allen’s earliest contributions to understanding the reentry problem. Coupled with 

his later contributions, as well as with the research of others including his early collaborator 

Alfred Eggers, Allen’s research made possible human spacefl ight in the 1960s.

NACA

RESEARCH MEMORANDUM

A STUDY OF THE MOTION AND AERODYNAMIC HEATING OF MISSILES 

ENTERING THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AT HIGH SUPERSONIC SPEEDS

By H. Julian Allen and A. J. Eggers, Jr.

Ames Aeronautical Laboratory

Moffett Field, Calif.

August 25, 1953

SUMMARY

A simplifi ed analysis is made of the velocity and deceleration history of missiles entering the earth’s atmosphere at high supersonic speeds. It is found that, 

in general, the gravity force is negligible compared to the aerodynamic drag force 

and, hence, that the trajectory is essentially a straight line. A constant drag coeffi cient and an exponential variation of density with altitude are assumed and generalized curves for the variation of missile speed and deceleration with altitude 

are obtained. A curious fi nding is that the maximum deceleration is independent 

of physical characteristics of a missile (e.g., mass, size, and drag coeffi cient) and 
is determined only by entry speed and fl ight-path angle, provided this deceleration occurs before impact. This provision is satisfi ed by missiles presently of more 

usual interest.

The results of the motion analysis are employed to determine means available 

to the designer for minimizing aerodynamic heating. Emphasis is placed upon 

the convective-heating problem including not only the total heat transfer but also 

the maximum average and local rates of heat transfer but also the maximum average and local rates of heat transfer per unit area. It is found that if a missile is 

so heavy as to be retarded only slightly by aerodynamic drag, irrespective of the 

magnitude of the drag force, then convective heating is minimized by minimizing 

the total shear force acting on the body. This condition is achieved by employing shapes with a low pressure drag. On the other hand, if a missile is so light as 

to be decelerated to relatively low speeds, even if acted upon by low drag forces, 

then convective heating is minimized by employing shapes with a high pressure 

drag, thereby maximizing the amount of heat delivered to the atmosphere and 

minimizing the amount delivered to the body in the deceleration process. Blunt 

shapes appear superior to slender shapes from the standpoint of having lower 

maximum convective heat-transfer rates in the region of the nose. The maximum average heat-transfer rate per unit area can be reduced by [2] employing 

either slender or blunt shapes rather than shapes of intermediate slenderness. 

Generally, the blunt shape with high pressure drag would appear to offer considerable promise of minimizing the heat transfer to missiles of the sizes, weights, 

and speeds presently of interest.

Document I-3

Document Title: Adelbert O. Tischler, Head, Rocket Combustion Section, NACA, 

Memorandum for Associate Director, NACA, “Minimum Man-In-Space Proposals 

Presented at WADC, 29 January 1958 to 1 February 1958,” 10 April 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-4

Document Title: Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NACA, Memorandum for Mr. Gilruth, “Langley Manned-Satellite Program,” 11 April 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The spring of 1958 brought to the fore a range of possibilities for advocates of an aggressive 

spacefl ight effort in the U.S. The Soviet successes with Sputniks I and II in the fall of 1957, 

coupled with the spectacular failure of a televised Vanguard launch on 6 December 1957, 

ensured that national leaders were under the gun to take positive action. Accordingly, this 

situation led directly to several efforts aimed at “catching up” to the Soviet Union’s space 

Exploring the Unknown 51
52 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

achievements. These included: a) a full-scale review of both the civil and military programs 

of the U.S. (scientifi c satellite efforts and ballistic missile development); b) establishment of 

a Presidential science advisor in the White House who had responsibility for overseeing the 

activities of the Federal government in science and technology; c) creation of the Advanced 

Research Projects Agency in the Department of Defense, and the consolidation of several 

space activities under centralized management by that agency; d) the proposed establishment 

of a new space agency, NASA, based on NACA to manage civil space operations; and e) passage of the National Defense Education Act to provide federal funding for education in the scientifi c and technical disciplines. As this was taking place, NACA leaders studied the possibility 

of launching a human into space. These documents represent the deliberations taking place 

during this time that explored how initial human spacefl ight might be accomplished and suggest the wide variety of concepts being examined. In Document I-3, WADC is the abbreviation 

for the Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson Field, Dayton, Ohio.

Document I-3

[CONFIDENTIAL][DECLASSIFIED]

NACA - Lewis

Cleveland, Ohio

April 10, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Associate Director

Subject: Minimum man-in-space proposals presented at WADC, January 29, 1958 

to February 1, 1958

1. The purpose of a series of meetings at WADC under the Chairmanship of 

Mr. E. Barton Bell was to hear proposals from various contractors on the quickest 

way to put man in space.

2. Proposals fell into two rough categories: (a) a blunt-nose cone or nearspherical zero-lift high-drag vehicle of a ton to a ton-and-a-half weight, and (b) a 

hypersonic glider of the ROBO or Dyna-Soar type. The fi rst category of vehicles 

used existing ICBM vehicles as boosters; the second used more complex and arbitrary multiplex arrangements of existing large-thrust rocket engines. A number of 

contractors looked at the zero-lift high-drag minimum weight vehicle as the obvious expedient for beating the Russians and the Army into space. Others, notably 

Bell, Northrup, and Republic Aviation, set this idea aside as a stunt and consequently these contractors stressed the more elaborate recoverable hypersonic 

glider vehicle as the practical approach to the problems of fl ight in space. In the 

following paragraphs the no-lift minimum weight vehicles are reviewed fi rst without regard for order of presentation and the hypersonic glider vehicles follow. An 

effort is made to summarize the pertinent gross features of each proposed vehicle 

at the head of each review and some of the details are discussed thereafter.
Exploring the Unknown 53

3. The proposal confi gurations were patterned directly after concepts developed by Allen, Eggers, et al of NACA-Ames and the background of data obtained 

through NACA research was impressively apparent throughout the proposals. 

Therefore, before going into the individual proposals it seems worthwhile to 

review briefl y the suggestions made by NACA people. This review is covered in 

the next three paragraphs.

4. Mr. John Becker of NACA-Langley discussed two separate minimum 

man-in-space proposals. The fi rst of these was a no-lift confi guration as diagrammed. 

[2] [Wind Diagram]

Wg < 3000 pounds

W/S = 35 pounds per square foot

This discussion considered only vehicles which fl y within the atmosphere at 

perigee so that a small impulse applied anywhere along the fl ight path will initiate 

reentry. With zero-lift the drag deceleration will reach a maximum of about 8.5 g’s 

with greater than 5 g’s for 20 seconds. Small controls (fl aps like air brakes) at the 

edge of the dish can be used to change angle of attack and thereby produce lift; 

this will reduce maximum g’s to 4.5. The heating rate will approach a maximum 

of 100-150 Btu per square foot per second. This heat can best be absorbed in a 

Berylium heat sink between 1/2 and 1-inch thick. The vehicle ultimately requires 

descent by parachute - this rules out landing in predesignated pin-point areas.

Boost with the ballistic-nose-cone-type vehicle can be accomplished with Atlas. 

During boost the heat shield is behind the pilot (passenger). Upon injection into 

orbit the vehicle must be reversed. This requires attitude controls that work in 

space. Reentry also requires a well-controlled gimbaled retrorocket of nominal 

impulse and weight (<100 pounds).

Langley is presently making a structural analysis and investigating aerodynamic behavior in hypersonic tunnel.

5. The second proposal was a lift fl at-bottomed wing device to enter the atmosphere at an angle of 25° (CL = 0.6). [Diagram with Canopy]
54 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

[3]

Blunt leading edge radius was given as 3 inches with W/S = 20 pounds per 

square foot. The heat transfer rate on the bottom was estimated at less than 12 Btu 

per square foot per second and the airframe can radiate all heat. Temperature 

of the skin would reach a maximum of 2000° F at the leading edge. This device 

would have less than 1 g deceleration at all times during reentry (except possibly 

at the earth’s surface). Range can be controlled somewhat by varying angle of 

attack (L/D = 3.5 to 1.0).

The weight of this aerodynamic-ski would be less than 5000 pounds, possibly 

considerably less.

One of the problems of both the NACA devices will be control of velocity and 

angle at injection into orbit. Present ICBM quality guidance is not good enough. 

A retrorocket to slow ski down by 200 feet per second at 300,000 feet perigee altitude will lower perigee by 50,000 feet. This will initiate reentry.

6. Mr. Clarence Syvertson of Ames outlined certain confi gurations that are 

being studied there. These assume an initial circular orbit at 500,000 feet. If at 

this altitude the velocity is reduced by 2 percent the altitude will be lowered by 

220,000 feet. [Diagram with Small Wings]

Wg < 5000 pounds
Exploring the Unknown 55

The CL for the above confi guration is 0.6. The maximum deceleration is 

always less than 1 g. Hypersonic wind tunnel studies of this confi guration have 

shown a serious aerodynamic center shift at transonic speeds. This A.C. shift [4] 

amounts to about 30 percent of the body length. Two suggested solutions are to 

use thicker wings or no wings at all. Drag-brake-like controls surfaces (about 5 in 

number) around the periphery of the confi guration are being studied.

Essentially this device is one half of an ICBM reentry body. The controllable lift provides control over range. A former idea for parachute landing is being abandoned.

AUTONEUTRONICS

Initial presentation by Mr. Krause who discussed an elaborate scheme of 

experiments to be accomplished with rocket-propelled vehicles along with an 

extended series of engine-vehicle assemblies to carry out the program. Even the 

manned satellite concept was regarded as the end experiment of a series starting 

with protozoa and bacteria and building up through invertebrates, vertebrates, 

and fi nally, man. Only the manned space vehicle is outlined below. The space 

program discussed is reviewed in the discussion section.

Vehicle: One man zero-lift nose-cone. [Diagram with Retrorockets]

[5] 

Weight: Payload 855 pounds:

 Man 175 pounds

 Oxygen and purifi er 85 pounds

 Water 20 pounds

 Food 10 pounds

 Clothing 110 pounds

 Temperature controls 130 pounds

 Attitude controls 85 pounds

 Communication 85 pounds

 Navigation 45 pounds

 Experiments 65 pounds

 Telemetering ---

 Total payload 855 pounds

 
56 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 Beryllium ablation shield 850 pounds

 Parachute 100 pounds

 Recovery (?) system 50 pounds

 Retrorocket 250 pounds

 Structure 300 pounds

 Instruments 70 pounds

 Capsule 70 pounds

 Total weight 2545 pounds

Boosters: Atlas and Rustler (F2

 – NH3)

Schedule: Manned earth satellite late in 1963 (with 3300 pound payload and 

Atlas-Rustler booster.) 

Costs $80 x 106.

[6]

Discussion

Concerning the high lift/drag glider confi gurations as opposed to the high drag 

zero-lift ballistic reentry concepts Mr. Krause presented the following arguments:

The high L/D confi guration entail:

 (a) Unsolved aerodynamic and structural problems 

 (b) Development of new test methods

 (c) Major test facilities 

 (d) Material development 

 (e) Long development schedule 

 (f) Structural fabrication problems

The high drag confi gurations entail:

 (a) Nominal test facilities

 (b) Development of heat sink materials

 (c) Short development schedule

 (d) Simple fabrication

 (e) Aerodynamic data available

A high altitude research program involves:

 (a) Procuring scientifi c data

 (b) Studying environmental effects 

 (c) Testing components

 (d) Developing recovery techniques

 (e) Biomedical experiments

 (g) Manned fl ight
Exploring the Unknown 57

The high altitude research and test work can be accomplished with: Thor, 

Polaris, Atlas, Titan, or special vehicles.

Satellite program mast include:

 (a) Study of physical environment

 (b) Precision experiments

 (c) Reconnaissance

[7]

Satellite fl ights can be accomplished with the Thor-Hustler, Thor-Rustler, 

Atlas-Hustler, and Fitan-Rustler. Both the Fitan and the Rustler will use fl uorine 

as oxidant

Lunar fl ight program might include

 (a) Navigation in precision orbit

 (b) Lunar impact

 (c) Instrument landing

For lunar fl ight, vehicles might be the Thor-Rustler-Vanguard 3rd stage, AtlasRustler, and Fitan-Rustler.

The vehicle development chart for these programs proceeds: (a) Thor -

Hustler, (b) Thor-Rustler, (3) Atlas-Rustler, and (4) Fitan-Rustler.

 For the earth satellite program estimated payload weights for several confi gurations were calculated:

Confi guration Payload, pounds Initial W0, pounds

Th-6V 201 [Payload]

Th-6V-V 335 [Payload]

Th-H 377 112,499

Th-R 858 113,169

A-H 3272

A-R 3848 [Payload]

F-R 5459 [Payload]

The schedule was for four earth-satellite fl ights in twelve months, fi rst recovery 18-20 months, biomedical experiments 22-25 months. Rustler (F2 - N2

H4) was 

predicted to be ready in the twenty-fi rst month (extremely optimistic). This would 

raise payload over 500 pounds within two years.

The purpose of the series of biomedical experiments is to establish survival limits and determine nervous system behavior. Protozoa-bacteria experiments were 

to be done with Thor-Hustler, Rhesus monkey experiments with Thor-Rustler, 
58 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

chimpanzee experiments with Atlas-Rustler, and manned fl ight also with the 

Atlas-Rustler. The Thor-Hustler program is expected to cost $50 x 106, boosters 

and range free, the Thor-Rustler program an additional $30 x 106

.

[8]

MARTIN

Introductions by Mr. Bunker, President, and Mr. Merrill, Vice President at the 

Denver facility. Outline of proposal by Mr. George Trimble, Vice President of engineering. Details by Mr. Demeret, head of the astronautics section(?), Denver.

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: One-man zero-lift body illustrated below. Later vehicles planned to 

have lift and controls. Later vehicle weights up to 40,000 – 60,000 pounds.

Weight: 3500 Pounds total; ablation shield (phenolic resin), 650 pounds; 

instruments, 150 pounds. [Diagram with Reversible Hammock, Escape, Propulsion, Guidance]

Boosters: Titan.

Time and altitude: 24-hour trip; 150 - 200 miles at perigee.

[9]

Reentry methods: Retrorocket (-500 feet per second) applied at apogee; ballistic reentry, W/CDA = 100 – 150, maximum g’s = 7.5 at 3o reentry angle; maximum temperature = not stated; maximum heat transfer = 5 – 6 Btu per square 

inch per second; ablation cooling.

 Recovery and landing: Parachute within +/- 50 miles.
Exploring the Unknown 59

 Tracking: ICBM inertial. Minitrack to provide altitude and position data.

 Safety feature: Retrorocket used to separate vehicle from booster if

 booster fails.

 Schedule: Manned fl ight by mid-1960.

 Cost: Not stated.

Discussion

Present ICBM guidance okay for attitude reference for ten days. Integrating 

accelerometer will gage retrorocket within +/- 10 feet per second. Propose H2

O2 

retrorocket with hot-gas vernier control system for attitude stabilization. Present 

Titan system fails to lift 3500 pound payload into orbit by 500 feet per second. 

(Can carry about 2900 pounds into orbit.) Twenty percent additional payload 

capacity is foreseeable growth by 1960.

No specifi c design proposed for controlled fl ight. A second proposal to carry 

16,000 pound third stage with a -5000 feet per second retrorocket (weigh ing 

10,000 pounds) was suggested - but not detailed - to avoid heating problem.

Maximum heat transfer can be reduced by same lift. [L/D slope graph]

[10]

Martin suggested use of control fl aps on reentry vehicle to produce angle of 

attack and lift. [Flap diagram]

The Martin proposal impressed me as the most thoroughly worked out proposal.
60 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

AVCO

Presentation principally by Dr. Arthur Kantrowitz, Director of Research. AVCO 

has twice previously proposed the following. (The last time in November, 1957.)

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: Eight-foot spherical vessel, zero lift. Parachute equipped to provide 

drag for reentry. [Diagram of Parachute, Bow Shock Wave, Separated Flow Region]

[11]

Weight: 1500 pounds

Capsule 220 pounds

Internal structure 114 pounds

Survival equipment 126 pounds

Parachute 330 pounds

Other 85 pounds

Escape rocket 240 pounds

Man and clothing 150 pounds

1265 pounds

Contingency 235 pounds

Total Weight 1500 pounds

Boosters: Titan (or Atlas) as is. Maximum g’s = 11 (second stage).

Time and altitude: Orbit at 110 - 120 miles (circular). Time arbitrarily variable. 

With parachute furled as many as 40 orbits are possible. Propose a three-day fl ight.

Reentry method: Thirty-six foot diameter stainless steel parachute creates 

drag to cause descent in one half orbit. Control of parachute used both to adjust 
Exploring the Unknown 61

orbit and to control landing point. Grazing angle (1/4°) reentry; maximum g’s 

@ 250,000 feet; maximum temperature, 1800° F; maximum temperature of parachute, 1140o

F; maximum heat transfer (?) @ 270,000 feet.

Recovery and landing: Parachute also used to land capsule; landing area about 

size of Kansas. Landing velocity, 35 feet per second. Fall requires one half hour.

Tracking: Existing minitrack systems. Man is strictly passenger – no control.

Controls: Air-jets to kill angular momentum (attitude)- Liquid paddles to 

maintain attitude. Parachute extension controllable by expansion of bellows ring 

at rim; changes drag by 50 x. Used to correct orbit. ICBM-quality guidance good 

for 0.8O, want 0.25O.

[12] [illustration deleted here]

Safety features: Solid rocket provided for safety escape if boosters fail; otherwise fi res along with second stage. Safety rocket separates from capsule after 

fi ring.

Schedule:

 58 59 60 61

Research ------------------ [58-9]

Model tests ----------- [58]

Capsule tests -------- [58]

Parachute tests ----------------------------------------- [58-59]

Escape system ----------------------- [59-60]

Balloon fl ights ----------------------------- [59-60]

Satellite launch ------------------- [61]

Animals ----------- [61]

Man -

Cost: $40 x 106

 plus $12 x 106 for fl ight vehicles excluding launchers.

Discussion

Dr. Kantrowitz looks at this proposal as the quickest way to manned satellite. 

This he regards as no stunt. A permanent orbit at 110 - 120 miles can be established with a solar propulsion device capable of overcoming the 5 grams drag 

force. The vehicle described may also offer a means for escape from a disabled 

large-scale vehicle.

[13]

The g factors and capsule atmosphere (60 percent oxygen, remainder N2

, He 

at .5 atmosphere pressure) are based on WADC Aeromedical group data. Certain 

upper atmosphere data on which the calculations are based are in doubt but better data will certainly be available before manned fl ight schedule.

The stainless steel parachute lies in a region of secondary fl ow (this is the 

reason for the shuttlecock shape) and will be subjected to peak temperatures of 
62 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1140° F, in contrast to the 1800° F peak at the sphere nose. The capsule will be 

above 200° F skin temperature for about 20 minutes. With the planned insulated 

wall construction the amount of heat transferred into the sphere will amount 

to about 1500 Btu (heat of fusion of a 10 pound block of ice) and is nearly negligible. Construction of the pressure vessel capsule is 0.020-inch stainless steel, 

insulation thermofl ex with 0.001-inch stainless steel radiation shield; the nose is 

coated with 0.010-inch molybdenum skin.

The parachute has infl atable stainless steel bellows around the rim (about 

3-inch diameter) and is made of 400 mesh stainless fabric covered with shim- stock 

“shingles”; total fabric weight about 60 pounds. Unfurling this chute increases the 

drag of the vehicle about 50 times. The chute can be opened and collapsed several times provided the bellows expansion doesn’t exceed two times its length.

There was some discussion of magneto-hydrodynamic propulsion and means 

of projecting the shock location away from the vehicle using magnetic fi elds. This 

was not part of the proposal.

This presentation impressed me as having the most thorough correlation 

with available scientifi c and aerodynamic data.

LOCKHEED

Proposal presented by Dr. Perkins, Development Planning.

Pertinent Features

Weight: Capsule 600 pounds, includes 150 pound man

 Ablating material 600 pounds

 Retrorocket 100 pounds

 Parachute 200 pounds

Total weight 1500 pounds [Equipment diagram indicated with hatch/wndow/retrorocket/parachute]

Vehicle: One-man nose-cone shape.
Exploring the Unknown 63

Boosters: Atlas and Bell Hustler. Hustler fi res for 80 seconds between 620 -700

seconds fl ight time to inject into orbit. Maximum g’s 6.6 (fi rst stage). Specifi c 

impulse = 280 pounds per second per pound required of Hustler.

Time and Altitude. Six hours; perigee 150 miles; apogee 300 miles.

Reentry method: Retrorocket (-225 feet per second. One mile altitude at 

perigee roughly equals 1.5 feet per second, Retrorocket weighs less than 5 percent of vehicle.) 

W/CO A = 0.01

Maximum g’s, 7.5 at 1° reentry angle

Maximum temperature, not stated 

Maximum heat transfer, not stated

Vehicle subsonic at 60,000 feet; 600 feet per second at 40,000 feet.

 Cooling by ablation material.

[15]

Recovery and landing: Cloth parachute to recover entire capsule. Landing area 

20 miles by 400 miles along path. Errors of 150 miles due to lack of knowledge of 

air density between 125,000 and 250,000 feet. Lockheed proposes water recovery.

Tracking: 108 mc minitrack plus two way voice. Flywheel attitude control. 

Either gimbal or jet-vanes on retrorocket.

Safety features: Overrides on man’s limited control functions. Hustler is fi red 

to escape if Atlas booster fails. If Hustler fails man has had it.

Schedule: Preliminary experimental fl ights (Thor with 300 pound payload) 

in late 1958. Experimental centrifuge and vacuum chamber testing in mid-1958. 

Manned fl ight in late 1959.

Cost: $10 x106 <cost < $100 x106

Discussion

X-17 tests (28 out of 38 successful) have confi rmed hot shot and shock tube 

high speed data. Lockheed Missile Systems Division (MSD) has three-inch shock 

tube which uses l-inch model.

Beryllium is better than copper for ablation cooling material. Vehicle has no 

cosmic or meteor protection.

Lockheed feels lift reentry is best in long run.
64 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

CONVAIR

Introduction by Mr. William H. Patterson of Convair Astronautics. Extended 

discussion by Mr. Krafft A. Ehricke. Much of Ehricke’s discussion was concerned 

with an extensive program of populating the solar system with reconnaissance, 

radio relay, etc., systems. Pulling that part of the presentation which applies to 

the minimum man-in-space concept from my notes is diffi cult. The program 

reviewed by Mr. Ehricke is contained in the Convair Astronautics report entitled: 

“A Satellite and Space Development Program”, December, 1957 (Copy No. 185 is 

charged to the Lewis Laboratory Library.).

Some notes on the minimum man-in-space device are outlined in the following.

[16]

Pertinent Features

 Vehicle: 60-inch sphere.

 Weight: Man plus 1000 pounds, 500 pound heat-sink.

 Boosters: Atlas Series D plus third stage. It is conceivable that the third stage 

need not be used – will require 5 specifi c impulse units improvement in present 

rocket performance.

 Time and altitude: Time not noted. Altitude – 300 miles.

 Reentry method: Retrorocket. Reentry angle, 2O maximum, COA/W = .05 to 

.08. Maximum g’s = 8, greater than 6 g for 60 seconds.

 Schedule: First fl ight (unmanned), February, 1959. Man in satellite orbit, 

April, 1961. Vehicle production schedule, one per month. Atlas D vehicle will 

not be fi red before May, 1959. 

McDONNELL

Introduction by Dr. Wokansky, coordinator of research. Presentation by Mr. 

Michael Weeks, Chief, preliminary design. McDonnell Aircraft presentation 

was an obvious bid for the “payload package” without the propulsion problem. 

Details were given in the McDonnell report to WADC.

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: One-man capsule. Data below are for a nose-cone device. Winged 

vehicle was considered possible in 30 months.

Weight:

 Crew 270 pounds

 Seat 50 pounds

 Oxygen (3 hours) 70 pounds

 Pressurization 134 pounds
Exploring the Unknown 65

 Canopy 135 pounds

 Structure 345 pounds

[17]

(Weight – continued.)

 Stabilization 202 pounds

 Retrorocket 90 pounds

 Electronic 400 pounds

 1693 pounds

 Landing chute 135 pounds

 Heat problem 450 pounds

 Incidentals 122 pounds

 

2400 = 25 percent

Boosters: Atlas and Polaris. Peak g’s (Polaris) about 7.

Time and Attitude: One orbit (1.5 hours); apogee not noted; reentry

initiated at 300,000+

 feet. 

Reentry method: Retrorocket (-143 feet per second). Ballistic reentry WCD/

M= .5 to 1; maximum g’s 10 (1O) to 13 (4O), above 7 g’s for 50 seconds, above 5 g’s 

for 100 seconds; maximum temperature, 1200O F one foot behind leading edge 

(?); heat sink (not ablative) cooling.

Recovery and landing: Ejection seat with parachute.

Safety features: Polaris fi red if Atlas fails. Ejection seat throws pilot clear.

Tracking: Ground control system for control of vehicle.

Schedule: Manned capsule fl ight 20-25 months.

Costs: Not stated.

GOODYEAR

After introduction by Mr. Baldwin, Mr. Darrell Romick described Phase 1 of 

a long-range (six to eight years) program to provide an operational satellite platform. The initial program was to conduct reentry tests (30 pound payload) [18] 

with Jupiter launcher; with primate (150 - 300 pound payload) with a Thor or 

Jupiter; manned spherical ball (1500 - 2000 pound payload) with Atlas or Titan. 

Only the features of the minimum man proposal are given here.

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: One-man 7-foot spherical vessel.

Weight: 1700 pounds; structure, 1050 pounds.
66 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Boosters: Atlas or Titan fi rst stage. Five third stage Vanguards or eight Irises 

(made by Goodyear Aircraft Corporation) for second stage. Maximum g’s 5 to 7.

Time and Altitude: 

Perigee = 110-115 miles; and Apogee = 600 - 800 miles.

Reentry method: External retrorocket (H2O2 -polyethylene, -800 feet per 

second, with tankage jettisoned before reentry.) W/CD A = 0.028; maximum g’s 

7.5, greater than 4 for fi ve minutes; maximum temperature, 3200O F, temperature greater than 2000° F for fi ve minutes; maximum heat transfer not stated. 

Ablative cooling using Goodyear Aircraft Corporation-developed material.

Recovery and landing: Parachute for entire capsule deployed at 15,000 

feet, with velocity 300 feet per second. Water landing in Western Pacifi c Ocean. 

Velocity at impact -- 28 feet per second.

Control features: Extendable skirt for attitude control. Peripheral jet nozzles 

for attitude stabilization with retrorocket.

Tracking: Minitrack and defense radar.

Schedule: First fi ring - 23 months; manned fl ight - 26 months.

Cost: $100 x 106

.

[19]

NORTHRUP

Northrup’s presentation stressed the previously presented Dyna-soar proposal along with the military advantages and capabilities of the reconnaissance-bomber glider vehicle. Their man-in-space proposal is essentially an 

adaptation of this vehicle.

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: A glider as outlined below:

Weight: 10,500 pounds including 400 pounds fuel and a J-83 turbojet engine 

for fi nal maneuver and landing.
Exploring the Unknown 67

Boosters: Three stages not detailed. The boost requirements vary in carrying 

out the separate steps in the development program. For the satellite fl ight the 

three stages of boost would each require a mass ratio of 3.6 with oxygen - JP-4. 

Initial gross weight, about 600,000 pounds. Maximum g’s - 3.

Range and Altitude- 22,000 miles. Total time 70 minutes, attitude and speed 

variable with time, maximum altitude 200,000 feet.

[20]

Reentry: By increasing drag as glider descends. Maximum temperatures 

3450° F at leading edge; 2150° F on lower surface, 1000° F on upper surface. 100 

pounds liquid coolant and radiation cooling.

Recovery and landing: Conventional glide landing.

Tracking: Self-contained navigational system claimed to have 2 miles C.E.P.

Schedule: First glider vehicle 1960, boost fl ight tests at 4000 - 5000 mile range 

1961, near-orbital manned fl ight - 1964.

Cost: 22 test vehicles.

Year Megadollars Year Megadollars

1958 0.5 1962 92

1959 26.5 1963 59

1960 57 1964 29

1961 116

Total 380

Discussion

The test sequence for the various stages of vehicle development would be: 

(1) air launch from a carrier aircraft, (2) unmanned version for boost development testing, and (3) manned tests. Several technologies are needed, particularly 

the development of reliable boost rockets. Results of the x-15 high-speed fl ights 

and development of stellar-sight guidance equipment are also required.

Development of this vehicle brings with it the possibility of bombing or reconnaissance missions. These Northrup has detailed in the “Dyna-soar” proposals. 

Much of the allotted discussion time was spent in reviewing these weapon system 

capabilities. 

[21]

Bell

Introduction by Dr. Dornberger. Presentation by Mr. Casey Forest. Dr. 

Dornber[g]er discussed briefl y a 3000 pound eight-foot sphere with retrorocket 
68 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

and maximum stagnation temperature of 3500O F; maximum deceleration - 8 

g’s. Although it could be accomplished one and one half years sooner, he dismissed the sphere as having no growth potential. Bell’s proposal therefore hinged 

strongly on their ROBO concept. The glide vehicle is outlined in the following.

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: Glider. [Diagram with Coolant, Control Console, Equipment]

Weight: 18,800 pounds.

Boosters. Several assembled confi gurations were discussed. The one favored 

was a three-stage clustered confi guration with three Titans, one Titan, One F2-

NH3 rocket, as diagrammed below:

Initial gross weight would be 747,000 Pounds; 1 = 521,300 pounds, 2 

= 175,300 pounds, 3 = 31,300 pounds, airplane - 18,800 pounds, research 

equipment 1500 pounds. Total propellants would be 659,500 pounds. Maximum 

acceleration - 4 g’s.

[22]

Time and altitude: 127 minutes duration. Boost for seven minutes. Altitude at 

end of boost - 260,000 feet. Follow maximum L/D (Breguet) path.

Recovery and landing: Conventional man-controlled glider landing.

Navigation: Self-contained.

Schedule: Five years. Flight in 1963.
Exploring the Unknown 69

Cost: $889 x 106 including everything. Maximum cost in 1961 - $240 x 106.

Discussion

A short term (10 hour) satellite glider was also mentioned.

Bell has had a contract for development of a F2

-NH3 rocket; they are willing to 

incorporate a F2N2H4 rocket in the manned glider as the third stage of boost. In 

their ROBO studies and F2NH3 development work Bell claims to have $2.5 x 106

effort, with the USAF also spending $2.5 x 106

.

A system development team has been in existence for more than a year. This team 

is organized as follows:

Airplane Bell Aircraft 

Electronics Bendix Aviation

Navigation Minneapolis-Honeywell

Boost --------

Ground and Supplies ---------

Special Radar Goodyear Aircraft

REPUBLIC

Introduction by Dr. Alexander Kartveli, Vice-President of Research and

Development. The Republic proposal was based on the hypersonic glider concept 

of Dr. Antonio Ferri.

[23]

Pertinent Features

Vehicle: A blunt leading-edge sled with solid propellant rockets housed in the 

edges, Surface = 120 square feet. W/S = 25 pounds per square foot. CL = .7.

Weight: [Solid Propellant]

Propulsion 1000 pounds
70 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Electrical 375 pounds

H2O2 control 175 pounds

Weight Total 3895 pounds (includes other factors)

Boosters: Atlas or Titan with modifi ed propellants.

Time and altitude: 24 hours. Perigee 550,000 feet, reentry altitude – 

300,000 feet.

Reentry method: Two retrorockets (-65 feet per second) applied at apogee. 

This reduces perigee to 300,000 feet. At this altitude produce negative lift (0.0005 

g) by fl ying airplane inverted to prevent increasing altitude. Reaches M = 2 at 

80,000 feet. Angle of attack on reentry about 40°. L/D = 1. Maximum temperature 2500° F.

Recovery and landing: Ejection seat for pilot and survival kit. Vehicle destroyed.

[24]

Safety features: H2-O2 attitude controls. Three aerodynamic control surfaces.

Guidance and tracking: Inertial guidance with short term rate gyros, accurate 

within 20 - 25 miles in position. Also UHF communication and beacon transponder.

Schedule: 18 months. Lead item claimed to be inertial guidance system.

Cost: Not estimated.

Discussion

The performance estimates of the booster units are summarized in the following:

 

 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

 Wo 198,700 74,000 15,000

 WBo 78,600 16,890 4,000

 F 304,000 72,200 16,000

 IS 230 250 265

CONCLUSION

This was the fi rst round of proposals. Mr. Bell and WADC people expected 

to review these critically (they solicited comments from the NACA representatives 

before breakup of the group). A second round of the favored proposals was in the 

latter part of February and was planned to yield a proposal for WADC to submit 

to the Pentagon.

[signed]
Exploring the Unknown 71

Adelbert O. Tischler

Head, Rocket Combustion Section

WTO

MG

GM

AOT:jcs

Document I-4

[confi dential] [declassifi ed]

NACA- Langley 

April 11, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Mr. Gilruth

Subject: Langley manned-satellite program

1. Langley has been working for several months on the general problems 

of manned-satellite vehicles. General studies have led to the choice of a basic 

drag-reentry capsule as the most logical fi rst vehicle. Following this choice several more specifi c studies were undertaken at Langley. The overall program into 

which these specifi c studies fi t are:

1) Reduced-scale recoverable satellite

2) Wind-tunnel and fl ight model studies of capsules and vertical fl ight 

vehicles

3) Laboratory studies (models, analyses, mock-ups) of structures, 

loads,stability and control, etc.

4) Full-scale vertical fl ight

5) Full-scale orbiting fl ight

Studies in item 1 above are summarized on the attached sheet 1 [not included]. 

Studies in items 2 and 3 are summarized in sheets 2 to 7 [not included]. All of 

these studies are pointed directly toward items 4 and 5. 

2. In addition to the above studies the following are underway:

a) The Langley Instrument Research Division is studying attitude-control systems for the vertical fl ight capsule. Some hardware is already on order. 

b) The Langley Theoretical Mechanics Division is studying orbits and general space-mechanics problems of satellite fl ight.

c) The human-factors problems of vertical-fl ight and satellite reentry capsules 

have been discussed with personnel of the Naval Medical Acceleration 
72 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Laboratory, Johnsville, PA. Copies of typical vertical reentry histories of V, 

g, h, and oscillation have been sent to NMAL for their further study.

[Signed] 

Paul E. Purser

Aeronautical Research Engineer

Document I-5

Document Title: Maurice H. Stans, Director, Bureau of the Budget, Memorandum 

for the President, “Responsibility for ‘Space’ Programs,” 10 May 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-6

Document Title: Maxime A. Faget, NACA, Memorandum for Dr. Dryden, 5 June 

1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-7

Document Title: Clotaire Wood, Headquarters, NACA, Memorandum for Files, 

“Tableing [sic] of Proposed Memorandum of Understanding Between Air Force 

and NACA For a Joint Project For a Recoverable Manned Satellite Test Vehicle,” 

20 May 1958, with attached Memorandum, “Principles for the Conduct by the 

NACA and the Air Force of a Joint Project for a Recoverable Manned Satellite 

Vehicle,” 29 April 1958. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC. 

Document I-8

Document Title: Hugh L. Dryden, Director, NACA, Memorandum for James 

R. Killian, Jr., Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, 

“Manned Satellite Program,” 18 July 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC. 

Perhaps the most diffi cult policy question to be resolved in the fi rst half of 1958 revolved 

around the roles and missions of individual governmental entities in the new space initiative. Virtually every service within the Department of Defense (DOD) sought to control at 

least the lion’s share of the human spacefl ight mission. The National Advisory Committee 
Exploring the Unknown 73

for Aeronautics (NACA), then in the process of being transformed into NASA, thought it 

should have control of the mission as well. These rivalries led to debate and disagreement, 

negotiation, and compromise among these various entities. At fi rst, NACA believed it would 

have to play a supporting role in the spacefl ight initiative, yielding human activities to the 

military, but it became clear as 1958 progressed that the White House wanted NASA to take 

the lead, with the military supporting its efforts. This set of documents provided a detailed 

perspective on these deliberations and their results.

Document I-5

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

BUREAU OF THE BUDGET

WASHINGTON 25, DC

May 10, 1958

MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT

Subject: Responsibility for “space” programs

In your letters of April 2, 1958, you directed the Secretary of Defense and 

the Chairman of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to review and 

report to you which of the “space” programs currently underway or planned by 

Defense should be placed under the direction of the new civilian space agency 

proposed in your message to Congress. These instructions specifi cally stated that 

“the new Agency will be given responsibility for all programs except those peculiar 

to or primarily associated with military weapons systems or military operations.”

It now appears that the two agencies have reached an agreement contemplating that certain space programs having no clear or immediate military 

applications would remain the responsibility of the Department of Defense. This 

agreement would be directly contrary to your instructions and to the concept 

underlying the legislation the administration has submitted to Congress.

The agreement is primarily the result of the determination of the Defense 

representatives not to relinquish control of programs in areas which they feel might 

some day have military signifi cance. The NACA representatives apparently have felt 

obliged to accept an agreement on the best terms acceptable to Defense.

Specifi cally, Defense does not wish to turn over to the new agency all 

projects related to placing “man in space” and certain major component projects 

such as the proposed million pound thrust engine development. The review by 

your Scientifi c Advisory Committee did not see any immediate military applications of these projects.

The effect of the proposed agreement would be to divide responsibility 

for programs primarily of scientifi c interest between the two agencies. This would 

be an undesirable and unnecessary division of responsibility and would be highly 
74 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

impractical. There would no be any clear dividing line, and unnecessary overlap 

and duplication would be likely. The Bureau of the Budget would have an almost 

hopeless task in trying to keep the two parts of the program in balance, and problems on specifi c projects would constantly have to come to you for resolution. 

The net result of the proposed arrangement would be a less effective program at 

higher total cost.

On the other hand, it will be relatively simple to work out practical working arrangements under which responsibility and control of the programs in 

question would clearly be assigned to the new agency as contemplated in your 

instructions, and the military interest would be recognized by the participation of 

the Department of Defense in the planning and, where appropriate, the conduct 

of the programs.

In the circumstances, it is recommended that you direct that the two 

agencies consult with the Bureau of the Budget and Dr. Killian’s offi ce to be sure 

that any agreement reached is in accordance with the intent of your previous 

instructions. It is especially important that the announcement of the agreement 

now being proposed be avoided at this stage of the consideration by the Congress 

of legislation to establish the new space agency.

If you approve this recommendation, there are attached memoranda to 

the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the National Advisory Committee 

for Aeronautics for your signature.

(Handled orally per President’s instructions. (AJG, 5/13/58) [AJG is General Andrew Goodpaster, the President’s military assistant.]

[Signed Maurice H. Stans]

Director

5/13/58

5/14/58

I notifi ed the Secretary of Defense (General Randall) and Dr. Dryden.

AJG

Document I-6

[SECRET] [DECLASSIFIED}

Washington DC

June 5, 1958

MEMORANDUM for Dr. Dryden

This memorandum is submitted to review my dealings with ARPA during the 

past several weeks.
Exploring the Unknown 75

A. Background

1. I made my fi rst contact with ARPA personnel on May 14, 1958. At that 

time the NACA was under the impression that it was to work with Dr. Batdorf 

to prepare a man-in-space program that would be acceptable to both the 

NACA and ARPA from a technical standpoint. My fi rst visit to the Pentagon 

revealed that ARPA had a somewhat different impression of what was to take 

place. I was told that at the request of Mr. Johnson a panel had been formed in 

ARPA to create a man-in-space program and to advise him how this program 

could best be managed. ARPA had formed this panel approximately a week 

earlier from members of the ARPA technical staff under the Chairmanship of 

Dr. Batdorf. I was told that this was only one of many such working groups that 

was concurrently attacking various jobs in ARPA and that the membership on 

these various panels greatly overlapped. Accordingly, my position on the manin-space panel was a special one resulting from an invitation by Dr. York. 

2. Inasmuch as this situation was not exactly in keeping with my impression of what it should be, I told the panel that while I would sit as a member 

of their panel I would also consider myself as a liaison representative of the 

NACA. In this respect, I reminded them that the direct responsibility for the 

man-in-space program may quite likely be given to the soon to be created 

civilian space agency. Thus, I would be concerned that the man-in-space program to be formulated would be one that is acceptable to the NASA and that 

the management responsibility would be one which could be transferred with 

the least diffi culty. I stated further that if there are any fi nal agreements to 

be reached between ARPA and NACA they would have to be approved by 

higher authority, presumably Dr. Dryden and Dr. York and quite possibly by 

knowledgeable people from the White House. Dr. Batdorf concurred with 

this and stated that the ARPA staff, most of whom work for IDA, serve only in 

an advisory capacity.

3. My dealings with the ARPA panel have been quite pleasant and I 

think fruitful. On the majority of the issues the panel has reached essentially 

unanimous agreement. On controversial subjects my viewpoints are apparently being given fair consideration. In addition, the panel is quite aware that 

the NACA has a fi rm position in the man-in-space business. From this standpoint, I have additional infl uence when the question of acceptability to NACA 

arises in certain instances. 

4. While a good number of the ARPA staff have attended the panel discussions and the presentations made to the panels by the services, those who 

actually serve on the panel are:

1. Dr. Sam Batdorf, recently from Lockheed

2. Dr. Arthur Stosick, recently from JPL

3. Mr. Bob Youngquist, recently from RMI

4. Mr. Jack Irvine, recently from Convair
76 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

5. Captain Robert Truax, recently from BMD (117L Project)

6. Mr. Dick Cesaro, recently from ARDC and NACA

5. The panel has conducted its business by questioning representatives 

of the Air Force, Navy, Army, and Industry who are familiar with proposed 

man-in-space programs and by conducting discussions within the panel 

alone. The Air Force has sent a large number of representatives to two panel 

meetings to answer questions. These have included people from HQ, ARDC, 

BMD, and WADC.

B. Present Situation

1. The work of the panel is apparently drawing to a close. We have put 

together a proposed man-in-space program that is not far different from the 

Air Force proposal. The essential elements of this program are:

a. The system will be based on the use of the Convair Atlas propulsion 

system. If the expected performance of the Atlas rocket alone is not obtained, then the Atlas 117L system will be used.

b. The man-in-space fl ights will be launched from “Pad-20” at AFMTC.

c. Retro-rockets will be used to initiate return from orbit.

d. The non-lifting ballistic type of capsule will be used.

e. The aerodynamic heating during atmospheric entry will be handled 

by a heat sink or ablation material.

f. Tracking will be carried out primarily with existing or already planned 

systems. The most important of which will be the G.E. Radio-inertial 

Guidance System which is highly accurate. [sic] The G.E. system will be in 

existence at AFMTC, San Salvadore, Australia, and Camp Cook.

g. The crew for the orbital fl ights will be selected from volunteers in the 

Army, Navy, and Air Force. The crew will be selected in suffi cient time to 

undergo aero-medical training functions.

2. The panel is in unanimous agreement that the man-in-space program should begin immediately. The panel feels that in spite of the unsettled 

status of both ARPA and NACA that this can be accomplished if a national 

man-in-space program is adopted. ARPA apparently has $10,000,000 to initiate the program. Future funding and management will of course depend on 

the outcome of present legislation.

3. The panel is recommending that the Air Force be given the management of the program with executive control to remain in the hands of NACA 

and ARPA. This could presumably be accomplished by the creation of an 

executive committee composed of NACA and ARPA people, plus representatives from the contractors, the Air Force, and perhaps Army and Navy.

4. In addition to meeting with the panel I had a short chat with Dr. York 

on June 4. His views differed from the panel on primarily two issues. He thinks 

the Atlas alone and the Atlas-117L combination should be considered equally 

competitive at this time as a propulsion system. The panel considers the 117L 
Exploring the Unknown 77

approach as a back up to be dropped as soon as suffi cient confi dence in the 

Atlas alone is achieved. Dr. York thinks that contract for the construction of 

the capsule should be awarded after proposals are received from industry. 

The panel, although they do not recommend this procedure, believe that it 

would be much quicker and just as satisfactory to choose a suitable contactor 

to build a capsule which has been tightly specifi ed. 

[Signed]

Maxime A. Faget

Document I-7

Washington, D.C.

May 20, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Files

Subject: Tableing [sic] of Proposed Memorandum of Understanding Between 

Air Force and NACA For a Joint Project For a Recoverable Manned Satellite 

Test Vehicle

Reference: NACA ltr to DCS/D dtd April 11, 1958

1. On April 11, 1958, Dr. Dryden signed a proposed Memorandum of 

Understanding for a Joint NACA-Air Force Project for a recoverable 

manned satellite test vehicle. Minor revisions to the Agreement were 

discussed and, with Dr. Dryden’s approval, agreed on between Colonel Heaton and myself on April 29, 1958.

2. Subsequent to April 29, 1958, it was agreed with Colonel Heaton that 

the prospective Agreement should be put aside for the time being. 

The matter may be taken up again when the responsibilities of ARPA 

and NASA have been clarifi ed.

 C. Wood

 CloW:dlf

[2]

[April 29, 1958]

MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING

Subject: Principles for the Conduct by the NACA and the Air Force of a Joint 

Project for a Recoverable Manned Satellite Vehicle.

A. A project for a recoverable manned satellite test vehicle shall be conducted jointly by the NACA and the Air Force, implementing an ARPA 
78 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

instruction to the Air Force of February 23, 1958. Accomplishment of 

this project is a matter of national urgency. 

B. The objectives of the project shall be:

a. To achieve manned orbital fl ight at the earliest practicable date 

consistent with reasonable safety for the man,

b. To evaluate factors affecting functions and capabilities of man 

in an orbiting vehicle,

c. To determine functions best performed by man in an orbiting 

weapon system.

C. To insure that these objectives are achieved as early and as economically 

as possible the NACA and the Air Force will each contribute their specialized scientifi c, technical, and administrative skills, organization and 

facilities.

D. Overall technical direction of the project shall be the responsibility of 

the Director, NACA, acting with the advice and assistance of the Deputy 

Chief of Staff, Development, USAF.

E. Financing of the design, construction, and operational phases of the 

project [the following words were in the April 11 version of the memorandum but were deleted on April 29. A handwritten note on the April 

29 version of the document says “this deletion suggested by Silverstein & 

Gilruth, agreed on by JWC & HCD.” The text continues: as well as of any 

studies which may be determined necessary to supplement Air Force or 

NACA studies to permit the accomplishment of the objectives,] shall be 

the function of the Air Force.

F. Management of the design, construction, and operational phases of the 

project shall be performed by the Air Force in accordance with the technical direction prescribed in paragraph C. Full use shall be made of the 

extensive background and capabilities of the Air Force in the Human 

Factors area.

[Handwritten note at bottom of page – “Col. Heaton advised 2:15 p.m. 4-29-58 

that this version agreeable to Director NACA provided that deletion is made as 

marked in paragraph E, Clo Wood.”]

G. Design and construction of the project shall be accomplished through a 

negotiated contract (with supplemental prime or sub-contracts) obtained 

after evaluating competitive proposals invited from competent industry 

sources. The basis for soliciting proposals will be characteristics jointly 

evolved by the Air Force and NACA based on studies already well under 

way in the Air Force and the NACA.
Exploring the Unknown 79

H. Flights with the system shall be conducted jointly by the NACA, the Air 

Force, and the prime contractor, with the program being directed by the 

NACA and the Air Force. The NACA shall have fi nal responsibility for 

instrumentation and the planning of the fl ights.

I. The Director, NACA, acting with the advice and assistance of the Deputy 

Chief of Staff, Development, USAF, shall be responsible for making periodic progress reports, calling conferences, and disseminating technical 

information and results of the project by other appropriate means subject to the applicable laws and executive orders for the safeguarding of 

classifi ed information.

General Thomas D. White

Chief of Staff, USAF

Hugh L. Dryden

Director, NACA

Document I-8

July 18, 1958

MEMORANDUM for Dr. James R. Killian, Jr.

Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology

SUBJECT: Manned Satellite Program.

1. The current objective for a manned satellite program is the determination of man’s basic capability in a space environment as a prelude to the human 

exploration of space and to possible military applications of manned satellites. 

Although it is clear that both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

and the Department of Defense should cooperate in the conduct of the program, 

I feel that the responsibility for and the direction of the program should rest with 

NASA. Such an assignment would emphasize before the world the policy statement in Sec. 102(a) of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 that “it is 

the policy of the United States that activities in space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefi t of all mankind.”

2. The NASA through the older NACA has the technical back ground, competence, and continuing within-government technical back-up to assume this responsibility with the cooperation and participation of the Department of Defense. For 

a number of years, the NACA has had groups doing research on such items as stabilization of ultra-high-speed vehicles, provision of suitable controls, high-temperature structural design, and all the problems of reentry. More recently, the NACA 

research groups have been working on these problems with direct application to 

manned satellites. The human-factors problems of this program are not far different from those for the X-15 which the NACA has been studying in cooperation 

with the Navy and Air Force. Thus, the NACA has enlisted the cooperation of the 

military services and marshaled the required technical competence. Included in 

this competence are large, actively-working, staffs in NACA laboratories providing additional technical back-up for the manned-satellite program.
80 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

3.The assignment of the direction of the manned satellite program to NASA 

would be consistent with the President’s message to Congress and with the pertinent extracts from the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 given in the 

appendix to this memorandum.

Hugh L. Dryden

Director

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

Attachment [not included]

Document I-9

Document Title: Maxime A. Faget, Benjamine J. Garland, and James J. Buglia, 

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA, “Preliminary Studies of Manned 

Satellites,” 11 August 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Prior to the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs of the 1960s, virtually everyone involved 

in space advocacy envisioned a future in which humans would venture into space aboard 

winged, reusable vehicles. That was the vision from Hermann Oberth in the 1920s through 

Wernher von Braun in the 1950s to the U.S. Air Force’s X-20 Dyna-Soar program in the 

early 1960s. Because of the pressure of the Cold War, NASA chose to abandon that approach 

to space access in favor of ballistic capsules that could be placed atop launchers developed 

originally to deliver nuclear warheads to the Soviet Union. This memorandum states the 

position, one NASA eventually adopted, that advocated using ballistic capsules for human 

spacefl ight. Led by Maxime A. Faget, one of the most innovative thinkers in NACA/NASA, 

the authors contend that because of the desire to launch humans as soon as possible, moving 

to a capsule concept represented the only genuine option available for the U.S. A capsule 

could make use of research on reentry undertaken for ballistic missiles, as well as make possible the ready adoption of ballistic missiles as launchers for spacefl ight. 

[CONFIDENTIAL] {DECLASSIFIED}

NACA

RESEARCH MEMORANDUM

PRELIMINARY STUDIES OF MANNED SATELLITES

WINGLESS CONFIGURATION: NONLIFTING

By Maxime A. Faget, Benjamine J. Garland, and James J. Buglia

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory

Langley Field, VA.

August 11, 1958
Exploring the Unknown 81

[Note: Only Summary and Introduction are included]

SUMMARY

This paper is concerned with the simple non-lifting satellite vehicle which 

follows a ballistic path in reentering the atmosphere. An attractive feature of such 

a vehicle is that the research and production experiences of the ballistic–missile 

programs are applicable to its design and construction, and since it follows a ballistic path, there is a minimum requirement for autopilot, guidance, or control 

equipment. After comparing the loads that would be attained with man’s allowable loads, and after examining the heating and dynamic problems of several 

specifi c shapes, it appears that, insofar as reentry and recovery is concerned, 

the state of the art is suffi ciently advanced so that it is possible to proceed confi dently with a manned-satellite project based upon the ballistic reentry type of 

the vehicle.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is concerned with the simple non-lifting satellite vehicle which follows a ballistic path in reentering the atmosphere. An attractive feature of such 

a vehicle is that the research and production experiences of the ballistic–missile 

programs are applicable to its design and construction.

The ballistic reentry vehicle also has certain attractive operational aspects 

which should be mentioned. Since it follows a ballistic path there is a minimum 

requirement for autopilot, guidance, or control equipment. This condition not 

only results in a weight saving but also eliminates the hazard of malfunction. In 

order to return to the earth from orbit, the ballistic reentry vehicle must properly 

perform only one maneuver. This maneuver is the initiation of reentry by fi ring 

the retrograde rocket. Once this maneuver is completed (and from a safety standpoint alone it need not be done with a great deal of precision), the vehicle will 

enter the earth’s atmosphere. The success of the reentry is then dependant only 

upon the inherent stability and structural integrity of the vehicle. These are things 

of a passive nature and should be thoroughly checked out prior to the fi rst mancarrying fl ight. Against these advantages the disadvantage of large area landing 

by parachute with no corrective control during the reentry must be considered.

In reference 1, Dean R. Chapman has shown that the minimum severity of 

the deceleration encountered during a ballistic reentry is related to the fundamental nature of the planet. Thus it can be considered a fortunate circumstance 

that man can tolerate this deceleration with suffi cient engineering margin. 

Document I-10

Document Title: Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DoD, Memorandum for the 

Administrator, NASA, “Man-in-Space Program,” 3 September 1958.
82 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-11

Document Title: Roy W. Johnson, Director, ARPA, DOD, Memorandum for the 

Administrator, NASA, “Man-in-Space Program,” 19 September 1958, with attached 

Memorandum of Understanding, “Principles for the Conduct by NASA and ARPA 

of a Joint Program for a Manned Orbital Vehicle,” 19 September 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

One of the issues that NASA, offi cially established on 1 October 1958, had to work in its fi rst 

weeks of existence was an agreement on how to manage the human spacefl ight program. 

Laboriously its leadership negotiated with interested organizations in the Department of 

Defense for transfer of some resources, as well as for support for the conduct of the mission. A constant consideration at the time was the next act of the Soviet Union, which had 

already several times bested the U.S. in “space fi rsts.” Should more money be allocated to 

human spacefl ight to ensure U.S. primacy in this arena? Should other actions be taken to 

ensure that the U.S. launched the fi rst human into space? Should the U.S. pursue a capsule 

approach because of this rivalry with the USSR? The answer to all of those questions was 

yes, as shown in these documents, but in the end the Soviets still launched Yuri Gagarin 

fi rst on 12 April 1961. 

Document I-10

[SECRET] [DECLASSIFIED]

ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY 

WASHINGTON 25, D.C.

Sep 3 1958

MEMORANDUM FOR THE ADMINISTRATOR, NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

 AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

SUBJECT: Man-in-Space Program

In accordance with agreements reached at the meeting with the Deputy 

Secretary of Defense on August 20, 1958 we have taken the following actions:
Exploring the Unknown 83

(1) Designated an ARPA offi cer to work with NASA to arrange for the transfer, 

not later than January 1, 1959, of all IGY tracking stations from the DoD to 

the NASA.

(2) Advised the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air of your intent to 

request the transfer to NASA of those persons at NRL engaged on the 

VANGUARD program.

(3) Arranged for visits by NASA teams to AOMC and to West Coast installations 

of the DoD for the purpose of evaluating capabilities to pursue future NASA 

projects.

(4) Arranged for the stationing of resident representatives of NASA at AOMC, 

BMD and NOTS to become familiar with the details of those scientifi c programs (covered by ARPA Orders 1, 2, 3 and 9) being conducted by ARPA, in 

anticipation of their transfer to NASA on or about October 1, 1958.

(5) Prepared a comprehensive management recommendation to the Secretary 

of Defense for coordination of all DOD satellite tracking and data reduction 

facilities designed to complement those facilities; to be operated by NASA.

Preparations have thus been made for an orderly transfer of appropriate programs without interruption.

I am troubled, however, with respect to one of the projects in which there is 

general agreement that it should be a joint undertaking. [2]

This is the so-called “Man-in-Space” project for which $10 million has been 

allocated to ARPA and $30 million to NASA. My concern over this project is due 

(1) to a fi rm conviction, backed by intelligence briefi ngs, that the Soviets next 

spectacular effort in space will be to orbit a human, and (2) that the amount of 

$40 million for FY 1959 is woefully inadequate to compete with the Russian program. As you know our best estimates (based on some 12 - 15 plans) were $100 to 

$150 million for an optimum FY 1959 program.

I am convinced that the military and psychological impact on the United 

States and its Allies of a successful Soviet man-in-space “fi rst” program would be 

far reaching and of great consequence.

Because of this deep conviction, I feel that no time should be lost in launching an aggressive Man-in-Space program and that we should be prepared if the 

situation warrants, to request supplemental appropriations of the Congress in 

January to pursue the program with the utmost urgency.

Certain projects planned and fi nanced by ARPA and now underway will contribute to this undertaking. I list them here for ready reference.

(1) The bio-medical project of WS-117 L will attempt the recovery of three primates, thus affording valuable information on space environmental data.
84 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

(2) Approximately fourteen ATLAS/117L fl ights are scheduled during the next 

eighteen months in connection with the WS-117L program. This would give 

a capability during this period of achieving 4, 000 pounds in a low orbit and 

offers the most promising early capability of placing a man in orbit with suffi cient safety considerations.

(3) A project to design a high energy upper stage (liquid hydrogen liquid oxygen) 

rocket for ATLAS/TITAN with an engine thrust of approxi mately 30,000 

pounds has been authorized. This has promise of placing 8,000 to 10,000 

pounds in orbit during 1960.

(4) A project to construct a 1 - 1.5 million pound thrust booster utilizing existing 

hardware in a “cluster” arrangement has been authorized. This should permit 

placing 25,000 pounds in orbit by 1961. It is our intention that this project 

be carefully coordinated with the single-chamber super thrust engine being 

developed by NASA so that much of the booster equipment later could be 

used on the large engine when it becomes available in 1964-l965. The early 

capability afforded by the cluster project would make possible a space platform for manned reconnaissance and for a related military space operating 

base. [3]

With these projects forming a basis for the propulsion requirements, parallel 

efforts should go forward as a matter of urgency on the recoverable vehicle itself. 

It is my understanding from talks with members of our staff that the NASA will 

concentrate on the “capsule” tech nique. I agree that this offers the earliest promise and urge that the program be pursued vigorously. As an alternate approach it 

is the intention of the DoD to proceed with a winged vehicle based on the general 

concept of the DYNA SOAR Weapon System 464L. The winged vehicle approach 

is believed to most nearly satisfy the military objectives in regard to fl exibility 

of mission and independence from ground guidance and recovery operations 

during hostilities. Many of the design require ments, especially those relating to 

human factors, will be similar for the two approaches. Thus we would expect to 

make maximum use of the NASA capsule data in our alternate approach.

I therefore urge that you join with me at the earliest practicable date to consider every possible step that we might take to achieve a U.S. lead in this important 

program.

[signed]

Roy W. Johnson

Director

Document I-11

September 1958

[Handwritten: ARPA]

MEMORANDUM FOR THE ADMINISTRATOR, NATIONAL AERONAUTICS 

AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Exploring the Unknown 85

SUBJECT: Man-in-Space Program

This is to confi rm that the agreement reached in our discussions of yesterday 

that ARPA will join with NASA in a joint Man-in-Space program based on the 

“capsule” technique.

I consider this program to be of the highest urgency and have directed appropriate members of my organization to work with your staff to outline a detailed 

program for early implementation. I believe it very desirable that at least an outline of an agreed program be available for presentation to the Space Council on 

October 20.

As indicated yesterday, ARPA is of the opinion that a follow-on winged maneuverable space vehicle is essential to meet military requirements and it is our intention to initiate a modest program in this direction during FY 1959.

[Signed]

Roy Johnson

Director

[Attachment included]

9/19/58

MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING

Subject: Principles for the Conduct by NASA and ARPA of a Joint Program 

for a Manned Orbital Vehicle

1. It is agreed that a program for a manned orbital vehicle will be conducted 

jointly by NASA and ARPA. It is agreed that accomplishment of this program 

is a matter of national urgency.

2. The objective of this program is to demonstrate the capability of manned 

orbital fl ight at the earliest practicable date consistent with reasonable safety 

for the man. The program will include constructing and testing in fl ight a 

manned-orbital vehicle.

3. It is agreed that this program will be supported by NASA and ARPA until it is 

terminated by the achievement of manned orbital-fl ights.

4. Technical direction and management of the program will be the responsibility of the Administrator of the NASA, acting with the advice and assistance of 

the Director of ARPA.

5. It is agreed that the concurrence of the Administrator of NASA will be 

required for any parts of this program which are carried out by contract.

6. It is the intent in this program to make full use of the background and capabilities existing in NASA and in the military services. [2]

7. It is agreed that a working committee consisting of members of the staff of NASA 

and ARPA will be established to advise the Administrator of the NASA and the 

Director of ARPA on technical and management aspects of this program, and 

that the chairman of this committee will be a member of the NASA staff.
86 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-12

Document Title: Minutes of Meetings, Panel for Manned Space Flight, 24 and 30 

September, 1 October 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

In August 1958, before NASA was offi cially established, NACA Director Hugh 

L. Dryden and Robert R. Gilruth, Assistant Director of Langley Aeronautical 

Research Laboratory, had both informed Congress of their intent to seek $30 

million for the development of a piloted satellite vehicle. One month later NASA 

Administrator T. Keith Glennan and Roy Johnson, Director of the Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (ARPA), managed to come to a general agreement 

concerning a joint NASA-ARPA program for developing a vehicle based upon a 

ballistic capsule concept that had been proposed by engineers at Langley. (See 

Documents I-10 and I-11.) The panel for Manned Spacefl ight, also referred to as 

the Joint Manned Satellite Panel, was established by executive agreement between 

NASA and ARPA on 18 September. It held its fi rst meeting on 24 September. In 

that and subsequent meetings in the following days, the panel established the 

basic goals and strategies for the initial U.S. piloted spacefl ight program.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

1520 H Street Northwest

Washington 25, D.C.

MINUTES OF MEETINGS

PANEL FOR MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

September 24, 30, October 1, 1958

A meeting of the Panel for Manned Space Flight was held on September 24 

and 30 and October 1, 1958, at NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.

 The following panel members were present:

 Robert Gilruth (Chairman), NASA

 Dr. S. B. Batdorf, ARPA

 D. A.J. Eggers, NASA (Sept. 24)

 Max Faget, NASA

 George Low, NASA

 Warren North, NASA

 Walter Williams, NASA (Sept. 24-30)

 Roberson Youngquist, ARPA (Sept. 24)
Exploring the Unknown 87

The objectives of this series of meetings were to set up a basic plan for the 

manned satellite project, determine a preliminary fl ight test schedule, and establish a funding program. Attached as Appendix A is the draft of “Objectives and 

Basic Plan.” Appendices B and C include the tentative fl ight test program and 

fl ight test schedule. A cost breakdown of the project is attached as Appendix D. 

[Appendices B, C, and D not included]

It was decided that no aero-medical experiments will be supported by the 

Manned Satellite Project except those required for the successful completion of 

the mission. Dr. Lovelace will aid in establishing the aero-medical and pilot training requirements. Mr. Williams mentioned that aero-medical information obtained 

from the X-15 project should be applicable to the Manned Satellite Project. 

Approval was obtained from General Boushey for use of a C-130 airplane in 

order to expedite some of the capsule and parachute drop tests. [2]

Mr. Williams will determine the feasibility of using a F-104 launch airplane for 

a portion of the drogue parachute tests.

Dr. Eggers stressed the fact that the panel should consider a lifting vehicle in 

planning for future manned space fl ight projects.

[Signed]

Warren J. North

Secretary

Appendix A

OBJECTIVES AND BASIC PLAN

FOR THE MANNED SATELLITE PROJECT

I. Objective

The objectives of the project are to achieve at the earliest practicable date 

orbital fl ight and successful recovery of a manned satellite, and to investigate the 

capabilities of man in this environment.

II. Mission

To accomplish these objectives, the most reliable available boost system will 

be used. A nearly circular orbit will be established at an altitude suffi ciently high 

to permit a 24-hour satellite lifetime; however, the number of orbital cycles is 

arbitrary. Descent from orbit will be initiated by the application of retro-thrust. 

Parachutes will be deployed after the vehicle has been slowed down by aerodynamic drag, and recovery on land or water will be possible.
88 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

III. Confi guration

A. Vehicle

The vehicle will be a ballistic capsule with high aerodynamic drag. It should 

be statically stable over the Mach number range corresponding to fl ight within 

the atmosphere. Structurally, the capsule will be designed to withstand any combination of acceleration, heat loads, and aerodynamic forces that might occur 

during boost and reentry of successful or aborted missions.

B. Life Support System

The capsule will be fi tted with a seat or couch which will safely support the 

pilot during acceleration. Provision will be made for maintaining the pressure, 

temperature, and composition of the atmosphere in the capsule within allowable 

limits for human environment. Food and water will be provided.

C. Attitude Control System

The vehicle will incorporate a closed loop control system which consists of 

an attitude sensor with reaction controls. The reaction controls will maintain the 

vehicle in a specifi ed orbital attitude, will [2] establish the proper angle for retrofi ring, reentry, or an abort maneuver. The pilot will have the option of manual or 

automatic control during orbital fl ight. The manual control will permit the pilot 

to visually observe various portions of the earth and sky.

D. Retrograde System

The retro-rocket system will supply suffi cient impulse to permit atmospheric 

entry in less than 1⁄2 revolution after application of retro-thrust. The magnitude 

and direction of the retro-thrust will be predetermined on the basis of allowable 

declarations and heating within the atmosphere, and miss distance.

E. Recovery Systems

A parachute will be deployed at an altitude suffi ciently high to permit a 

safe landing on land or water; the capsule will be buoyant and stable in water. 

Communication and visual aids will be provided to facilitate rescue.

F. Emergency Systems

An escape system will be provided to insure a safe recovery of the occupant 

after a malfunction at any time during the mission. Parallel or redundant systems 

will be considered for the performance of critical functions. 

IV. Guidance and Tracking

Ground-based and vehicle equipment will be employed to allow the establishment of the desired orbit within satisfactory tolerance, to determine the satellite 

orbit with the greatest possible accuracy, to initiate the descent maneuver at the 

proper time, and to predict the impact area.
Exploring the Unknown 89

V. Instrumentation

Medical instrumentation required to evaluate the pilot’s reaction to space 

fl ight will be incorporated in the capsule. In addition, instrumentation will be 

provided to measure and monitor the internal and external cabin environment 

and to make scientifi c observations. These data will be recorded in fl ight and/or 

telemetered to ground recorders.

VI. Communication

Provisions will be made for adequate two-way communications between the 

pilot and ground stations. [3]

VII. Ground Support

The successful completion of the manned satellite program will require considerable ground support, such as pre-launch support and an elaborate recovery network.

VIII. Test Program

An extensive test program will be required to implement this project. The 

test program will include ground testing, development and qualifi cation fl ight 

testing, and pilot training.

Document I-13

Document Title: NASA, “Preliminary Specifi cations for Manned Satellite 

Capsule,” October 1958. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Most of the design work for what became the Mercury spacecraft took place under the auspices of, and in many cases directly by, Max Faget. This document, written by Faget and his 

research team, established very detailed specifi cations for the Mercury spacecraft for the use 

of industry, necessary for their proposals to build the hardware. These specifi cations outlined 

the program and suggested methods of analysis and construction. Faget specifi cally asked for 

the construction of a simple, nonlifting vehicle that could follow a ballistic path in reentering 

the atmosphere without experiencing heating rates or accelerations that would be dangerous to an astronaut. He also called for modest pitch, yaw, and attitude control, as well as 

a retrorocket pack to bring the capsule down from orbital velocity. Finally, this document 

established the limits of size, shape, weight, and tolerances of the Mercury spacecraft. This 

set of specifi cations became the basis for the capsule’s construction by the McDonnell Aircraft 

Company based in St. Louis, Missouri.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

PRELIMINARY SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

MANNED SATELLITE CAPSULE
90 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

OCTOBER 1958

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. MISSIONS 2

 2.1 General 2

 2.2 Primary 2

 2.3 Checkout Missions 2

 2.4 Aborted Mission 4

3. CONFIGURATIONS 6

 3.1 Confi guration Requirements 6

 3.2 Confi guration Details 7

4. STABILIZATION AND CONTROL 9

 4.1 General 9

 4.2 Automatic Control System 9

 4.3 Manual Control System 11

 4.4 Retrograde Rocket System 12

5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN 13

 5.1 Design Loading and Heating Requirements 13

 5.2 Assumed Methods of Construction for Preliminary

 Design 15

6. ONBOARD EQUIPMENT 18

 6.1 Capsule Environment Controls 18

 6.2 Pilot Support and Restraint 19

 6.3 Landing System 20

 6.4 Cockpit Layout 22

 6.5 Communication 23

 6.6 Navigational Aids 25

 6.7 Power Supply 25

7. INSTRUMENTATION 26

 7.1 General 26

 7.2 List of instruments 26

 7.3 Recording 28

8. TESTING 31
Exploring the Unknown 91

[1]

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 This preliminary specifi cation outlines the technical design requirements 

for a manned satellite capsule. This capsule will be used in the initial 

research on manned space fl ight. The research will be concerned primarily with man’s ability to adapt to and perform in a space environment as 

well as in those environments associated with projection into space and 

with return to the surface of the earth.

1.2 The scope of this specifi cation encompasses the capsule confi guration, 

stability and control characteristics, heating and loads environments, 

structural design, onboard equipment and instrumentation. In certain 

areas, specifi c design approaches are outlined herein. The contractor 

shall follow the outlined approaches except in cases where mutual agreement is reached between the NASA and the contractor that an alternate 

approach is to be taken. Suggestions by the contractor of improved alternate approaches are invited.

1.3 The contractor shall undertake and be responsible for the design, fabrication or procurement, integration, and installation of all components of 

the capsule system as described herein. Details of the responsibilities for 

the matching of the capsule and the booster vehicle will be clarifi ed at a 

later date.

1.4 The design approach shall emphasize the safety of the mission. Although 

not specifi ed herein in every instance, due consideration shall be given 

to simplicity, redundancy, and the use of backup systems in order to 

improve mission reliability.

[2]

2. MISSIONS

2.1 General - All missions to be described shall be capable of accomplishment with and without a human occupant and with appropriate animals 

if desired. 

2.2 Primary Mission – The primary mission shall be the launching of a manned 

capsule into a semi permanent orbit and subsequent safe recovery to the 

surface of the earth at a designated time and/or position through use of 

retro thrust and aerodynamic drag. The design mission profi le is as indicated in fi gure 1 [not included] and from histories of pertinent trajectory 

variables are shown in fi gure 3 [not included].

2.2.1 The design of the capsule shall be based on the use of a single Atlas D 

missile as the launching booster. The capsule shall replace the missile 

nose cone in a manner which requires a minimum of modifi cations to 

the booster system. 
92 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2.2.2 The launching site shall be Cape Cannaveral, Florida. Launching shall be 

possible at any azimuth within thirty (30) degrees of due east.

2.2.3 A target value of effective launch weight shall be twenty-four hundred 

(2,400) pounds. Effective launch weight is defi ned by the following 

equation:

 We = WO + 0.2Wj

Where

 WO is the weight of capsule when projected into orbit

 Wj is the weight of capsule components jettisoned at Atlas staging

2.2.4 The launch booster system shall be capable of projecting the capsule into 

orbit with the following tolerances:

2.2.4.1 The projection altitude shall be not greater than one hundred and twenty 

(120) nautical miles.

2.2.4.2 The perigee altitude shall not be less than one hundred and ten (110) 

nautical miles.

2.2.4.3 The eccentricity shall not be greater than fi ve thousandths (0.005)

[3]

2.2.5 For the initial orbital missions, the number of orbital cycles per mission 

shall be two (2); however, an arbitrary number of orbital cycles per mission up to eighteen (18) shall be possible.

2.2.6 The following specifications pertain to the recovery of the capsule 

from orbit:

2.2.6.1 The nominal position of the point at which entry is initiated shall be such 

that impact occurs in a prescribed area in proximity to the launching station; however, in the event an emergency, it shall be possible to initiate 

the entry at any point in the orbit.

2.2.6.2 The entry shall be accomplished by application of retro thrust to produce 

a perigee altitude within the atmosphere. The magnitude and direction 

of the retro thrust shall be regulated so that angles of entry into the atmosphere at an altitude of sixty (60) miles shall be between one half (1/2) 

and three (3) degrees.

2.2.6.3 Consideration shall be given to high altitude deployment of a drogue parachute. This drogue parachute would be deployed near a Mach number 

of one (1) and is intended to provide improved dynamic stability to the 

capsule.

2.2.6.4 A landing parachute shall be deployed at an altitude suffi ciently great to 

allow time to deploy a second parachute in event of failure of the fi rst and 
Exploring the Unknown 93

to reduce sinking speed at impact to less than thirty (30) feet per second. 

Impact shall be considered to take place at an altitude of fi ve thousand 

(5,000) feet. Commensurate with the above requirements, deployment 

altitudes shall be low enough to keep drift from winds aloft from seriously 

affecting the area of impact.

2.2.6.5 The capsule shall be designed for water landing, and shall be buoyant and 

stable in the water; however, consideration shall be given in the design 

to emergency landing on land surfaces. Protection from serious injury to 

the human occupant shall be afforded under conditions of land impact.

2.2.6.6 The capsule and the systems within the capsule necessary for location, 

recovery, and survival shall be capable of sustained operation for a period 

of twelve (12) hours after impact with the surface of the earth. This 

requirement is in addition to the twenty-eight (28) hours requirement 

associated with the space fl ight phase of the operation

[4]

2.3 Checkout missions- In order to expeditiously lead up to successful achievement of the primary mission, the requirements of the following checkout 

missions shall be considered in the capsule design. 

2.3.1 Ballistic trajectories of limited velocity and range for entry and recovery 

simulation- A typical mission profi le of this type is illustrated in fi gure 3 

[not included]. The entry and recovery phases of this mission shall be 

accomplished in the same manner as specifi ed for the primary mission. 

The peak decelerations achieved during entry shall equal those applicable to the primary mission. As this type of checkout mission may represent the fi rst fl ight tests of a manned space capsule, a buildup in velocity 

and range may be required. Rocket motors which are immediately available shall be used for this checkout mission.

2.4 Aborted missions- During various periods of the launch operation, it may 

become necessary to abort the mission and escape from the vicinity of the 

rocket booster system. An active escape system shall be an [illegible] of 

the capsule until fi ve (5) seconds after booster staging. At times greater 

than booster staging plus fi ve (5) seconds, escape shall be accomplished 

by shutting down the Atlas sustainer engine and operating the nose cone 

separations motors which are part of the Atlas system. If desirable, the 

capsule retro rockets can be used to produce a more rapid separation 

after staging. 

2.4.1 The following requirements apply to the escape system.

2.4.1.1 The occupant shall remain within the capsule, and escape shall be 

accomplished by the fi ring of an escape rocket using solid propellants. 

In event of an abort, provisions shall be made for a thrust cut-off on the 

booster rocket.
94 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2.4.1.2 The minimum separation distance after one (1) second from escape 

rocket fi ring shall be two hundred fi fty (250) feet at ground launch.

2.4.1.3 In an escape from the ground launching pad, the maximum altitude 

achieved shall be greater than twenty fi ve hundred (2,500) feet.

2.4.1.4 Up to booster rocket staging, the capsule shall accelerate to a minimum 

velocity lateral to the plane of the trajectory of thirty (30) feet per second 

in one (1) second during an escape maneuver. 

[5]

2.4.1.5 During the fi ring of the escape rocket and until the capsule decelerates 

to low dynamic pressure, the capsule shall be aerodynamically stable and 

shall trim in the same attitude as normally exists in fl ight when mounted 

on the booster rocket. During the escape when the dynamic pressure 

approaches zero, the capsule confi guration shall be altered (if necessary) in a manner to provide an aerodynamically stable trim condition 

in the normal reentry attitude. 

2.4.1.6 When the escape maneuver takes place outside the atmosphere, the capsule shall be aligned in the reentry attitude by means of the attitude control system to be specifi ed in section 4.2.

2.4.1.7 Special consideration shall be given to selecting a launch trajectory that will 

minimize deceleration and heating during entry from an aborted mission. 

2.4.1.8 Consideration shall be given to providing a system which will detect 

[illegible] during launch and which will initiate the abort in [illegible] 

of this system, the independence of the booster guidance system shall 

be preserved.

[6]

3. CONFIGURATION

3.1 Confi guration requirements. – The confi guration selected for the capsule shall fulfi ll the following requirements:

3.1.1 The external confi guration shall have an extremely blunt forebody in the 

entry attitude.

3.1.2 The countours of the forebody shall be such as to provide the maximum 

practical wave drag and uniform surface heating consistent with other 

requirements.

3.1.3 The afterbody shape shall be dictated by requirement for subsonic stability, adequate volume, and low heating as well as requirements for parachute storage and attachment of the escape rocket system.
Exploring the Unknown 95

3.1.4 The overall capsule confi guration at the time of entry shall be aerodynamically stable in one direction only (blunt face leading) and shall exhibit 

no tendency to tumble during entry even in recovery from extreme initial 

angles of attack.

3.1.5 Oscillatory motions of the capsule during any phase of the mission shall 

not be of a character to incapacitate or injure a human occupant. If this 

requirement cannot be met by control of the confi guration shape automatic damping means may be employed.

3.1.6 The shape and internal volume of the capsule shall be amenable to certain experiments on manned space fl ight such as:

3.1.6.1 Limited mobility tests (calisthenics, programmed movements, etc.).

3.1.6.2 Observation tests (external and internal).

3.1.6.3 Manual control tests (open loop and closed loop).

3.1.7 The effect of entry forebody shape on water and land impact loads shall 

be considered in the design.

3.1.8 The confi guration shall be stable in the water with blunt face down and 

shall be capable of righting itself from any position.

[7]

3.2 Confi guration details – A confi guration meeting the requirements of 

these specifi cations is illustrated in fi gures 4, 5, and 6. An inboard profi le 

of the confi guration as it would appear when ready for the launch operation is shown in fi gure 4. Confi gurations for the different phases of fl ight 

are shown in fi gures 5 and 6. [No fi gures included]

3.2.1 The blunt forebody of the capsule shall incorporate a beryllium heat sink. 

A heat shield of the ablation type may be considered as an alternate form 

of heat protection providing experimental data directly applicable to the 

capsule reentry is obtained which establishes to the satisfaction of the 

NASA that this form of heat shield is applicable. The capsule forebody 

shall be attached to the launch rocket system by a suitable adapter.

3.2.2 The pylon-like framework on the launch confi guration (fi gures 5(a) and 

5(b)) [not included] shall support solid-fuel rocket motors that shall be 

used to accomplish an escape maneuver in the event of a malfunction of 

the launch rocket system. The escape motors shall be mounted on the 

pylon-like structure with enough ballast to give the launch confi guration 

static stability in its mounted orientation under all fl ight conditions to the 

time of staging. On a normal launch, the escape motors and pylon shall 

be jettisoned by small auxiliary motors at fi ve (5) seconds after staging of 

the launch rocket system.
96 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

3.2.3 In orbit, the capsule will have the confi guration shown in fi gure 5(e) [not 

included]. The retrograde maneuver shall be accomplished by fi ring 

the spherical rocket motors mounted outside of the heat shield. These 

motors shall then be jettisoned and the entry phase will be made by the 

confi guration illustrated in fi gure 5(f) [not included].

3.2.4 The capsule is to enter the atmosphere with the blunt face leading. The 

aerodynamic heating at this face would be absorbed by the heat shield. 

The area between this heat shield and the pressure vessel (in addition 

to containing carry-through structure) would contain equipment which 

is expendable at the time of deployment of the landing parachute, and 

the heat shield along with this equipment shall be jettisoned at this time. 

This operation will produce sizable reductions in the parachute loading 

and will prevent conduction of heat from the hot shield into the pressure 

vessel during the descent. The bottom contour of the pressure vessel shall 

be designed from consideration of water and land impact loads. In addition, an infl atable impact bag shall be used to absorb the shock of landing 

(fi gure 5(h)) [not included].

[8]

3.2.5 In the event of a malfunction in the launch rocket system, on the ground 

or in fl ight, the escape motors shall propel the capsule out of the danger 

area in the confi guration shown in fi gure 6(b) [not included]. This confi guration shall then coast in the pylon-fi rst attitude until the dynamic 

pressure approaches zero. At this point, the escape rocket system shall be 

jettisoned and the capsule, with its new center of gravity, will be rotated 

by aerodynamic moments (fi gs. 6(c) and 6(d)) [not included] until the 

heat shield moves to the windward side. If the escape maneuver takes 

place outside the atmosphere, the rotation of the capsule to the reentry 

attitude shall be accomplished by means of an attitude control system of a 

type to be specifi ed in 4.2. At this point, the capsule confi guration is [illegible] illustrated in fi gure 5(f) [not included] for a normal fl ight. Parachute 

deployment and heat shield separation shall then be as programmed for a 

normal fl ight (fi g. 5(g)) [not included].

[9]

4. STABILIZATION AND CONTROL

4.1 General - Stabilization and the control of the capsule shall be provided 

in accordance with the following outline of the various phases of the 

primary mission.

4.1.1 Launch- The launch trajectory control and guidance shall be considered an 

integral part of the launching rocket system. This system (or systems) shall 

make possible the missions described in Section 2 of this specifi cation.

4.1.2 Orbit – After booster burn out and separation, the capsule shall be automatically stabilized in attitude as specifi ed in Section 4.2. An independent 
Exploring the Unknown 97

manual control system shall be provided as specifi ed in Section 4.3. A passive optical instrument from which attitude information can be obtained 

shall also be provided as specifi ed in Section 4.3.3.2.

4.1.3 Entry- During the period from retro fi ring to build up of atmospheric 

drag, the automatic control system shall provide attitude stabilization 

according to Section 4.1.2. After drag build up to 0.05 g units, all [illegible] of the automatic control system shall convert to a damper mode. 

The manual control system shall function throughout the entire phase.

4.2 Automatic Control System

4.2.1 Requirements

4.2.1.1 The stabilized orientation of the vehicle during orbiting and reentry prior 

to build up of atmospheric drag shall be such that the longitudinal axis 

(axis of symmetry) is in the orbital plane and normal to the local earth 

vertical. The blunt face of the capsule shall be leading. The capsule shall 

be roll stabilized so that the occupants head is up with respect to the local 

earth vertical. 

4.2.1.2 After drag buildup to 0.05 g all channels of the stabilization system shall 

convert to a damper mode. The contractor shall study the desirability of 

imposing a low steady roll rate to reduce the impact error resulting from 

lift components of aerodynamic force.

4.2.1.3 The alignment described in Section 4.2.1.1 shall be attained within three 

(3) minutes after booster separation is achieved and maintained continuously throughout the orbiting phase and reentry prior to drag buildup 

except under the conditions described in Sections 4.2.1.5 and 4.3.

4.2.1.4 The accuracy of the stabilization system shall be within plus or minus fi ve 

(5) degrees about each of the three (3) axis except under the conditions 

described in Section 4.2.1.5.

[10]

4.2.1.5 Immediately before and during fi ring of the retrograde rocket the capsule 

alignment shall be maintained to within plus or minus one (1) degree of 

the orientation specifi ed in 4.2.1.1. The contractor shall study the desirability of controlling the pitch attitude of the capsule during fi ring of 

the retrograde rocket to the value which has minimum [illegible] to 

attitude error. 

4.2.1.6 The specifi cations given in Sections 4.2.1.3, 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 may be relaxed 

if properly justifi ed by the contractor. Consideration shall be given to the 

limits [illegible] for emergency fi ring of the retrograde rocket.

4.2.1.7 A study shall be made to determine the propellant utilization during 

the mission both for automatic and manual control. The expenditure of 

propellant in limit cycle oscillations shall be minimized by the design of 
98 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

the control system. The use of the deadband and an impulse chain closely 

matching the velocity perturbation are examples of such design techniques.

4.2.2 Reaction Controls

4.2.2.1 For attitude control of the capsule, consideration shall be given to a 

dual-mode system consisting of a high-torque mode and a low torque 

mode of operation.

4.2.2.2 The high torque mode shall employ reaction jets for free-axis control 

and shall operate during the following periods of high torque demand: 

(a) Damping of residual motion of the capsule after booster burnout and 

separation, (b) Stabilization during the fi rings of the retrograde rockets, 

(c) Damping during entry, (d) Periods of high torque requirement in the 

event that the low torque system becomes saturated.

4.2.2.3 The low torque mode shall employ reaction jets or reaction wheels for 

three-axis control during the orbiting phase and entry phase prior to 

drag buildup to stabilize the capsule against both external and internal disturbances.

4.2.2.4 The reaction jets shall be so situated that no net velocity change will be 

given to the capsule as a result of applying control torque.

4.2.2.5 The maximum disturbance torque for the high torque mode of operation may be assumed to be that resulting from fi ring of the retro rocket 

specifi ed in Section 4.4. It may be assumed that the pilot will be in the 

fully restrained condition during the retrograde fi ring.

[11]

4.2.2.6 High reliability shall be provided in the reaction control designs. 

Consideration shall be given to the use of redundancy in the automatic 

system and in addition, the advantage the manual control system on a 

safeguard against failures shall be determined.

4.2.3 Attitude Sensing

4.2.3.1 Consideration shall be given to roll and pitch attitude sensing accomplished with a horizon scan system, and yaw sensing obtained using rate 

gyros to determine the direction of orbital precessional rate of the attitude stabilized capsule.

4.2.3.2 As an alternate to the horizon scan system, the contractor shall study the 

feasibility of utilizing a stable platform with appropriate programming 

for this purpose. If such a system is proposed, it may be assumed that 

the pilot, using an optical device described in Section 4.3, can erect the 

platform to the alignment specifi ed in Section 4.2.1.1, but it shall be a 

requirement that the safety of the mission shall not be jeopardized in the 

event the pilot is unable to perform this function.
Exploring the Unknown 99

4.3 Manual Control System

4.3.1 General- The manual control system shall afford the pilot means of controlling the attitude of the capsule and enable him to achieve a safe reentry in the event of an emergency. The manual control system shall 

meet the following requirements.

4.3.2 Reaction Controls

4.3.2.1 Three-axis control of the capsule shall be achieved from a small 

controller(s) located so it is readily accessible from the pilot’s normal 

restrained position.

4.3.2.2 A mechanical linkage shall connect the controller(s) to mechanical valves 

which control the fl ow of reaction jets. The reaction jets and all components of the manual control shall be independent of the automatic control system.

4.3.2.3 The manual control jets shall be capable of overcoming the disturbance torque resulting from fi ring the retrograde rockets as specifi ed 

in Section 4.4.

4.3.2.4 Adequate safeguard shall be provided to prevent inadvertent operation 

of the manual controls. Positive action shall be required of the pilot to 

activate the manual control and de-activate the automatic control when 

he wishes to change the attitude of the capsule.

[12]

4.3.3 Attitude presentation

4.3.3.1 A display of capsule attitude shall be presented to the pilot to provide a 

reference from which he will initiate manual control action.

4.3.3.2 An optical system which gives an unobstructed view of the earth when 

the capsule is stabilized in orbit (as described in section 4.2.1.1) shall 

be conveniently located in the pilot’s fi eld of vision when in his normal 

restrained position.

4.3.3.3 The optical system specifi ed in 4.3.1 shall have features which will allow 

the pilot to derive capsule attitude information within suffi cient accuracy 

to enable him to level the capsule within 2 degrees of the orbit attitude 

specifi ed in 4.2.1.1.

4.4 Retrograde rocket system

4.4.1 Description – The entry shall be initiated by the fi ring of a retrorocket 

system incorporating a cluster of (3) three solid-propellant rockets all of 

which shall be fi red simultaneously.
100 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

4.4.1.2 The retrorockets shall be mounted external to the heat shield and shall 

be jettisoned after fi ring.

4.4.2 Requirements 

4.4.2.1 The magnitude of the retro-impulse shall produce a velocity decrement 

of fi ve hundred (500) feet per second.

4.4.2.2 A study shall be made to determine environmental protection for the retrorockets and adequate protection shall be incorporated in the design.

4.4.3 Method of fi ring

4.4.3.1 The retrograde rockets shall be fi red upon signal from a timer device carried on board. The timer shall be set at launch and reset periodically by 

command link from ground control. 

4.4.3.2 Under emergency conditions, the pilot shall be able to fi re the retrograde rockets. Safeguards shall be provided to prevent inadvertent fi ring. 

The pilot shall be able to fi re the individual rockets simultaneously or 

individually through use of redundant circuits. 

[13]

5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.1 Design loading and heating requirements

5.1.1 General scope- the requirements of this specifi cation apply to the following:

5.1.1.1 The strength and rigidity of the structure of the capsule and related components which include surfaces and supports provided for reacting aerodynamic, hydrodynamic, and inertial forces.

5.1.1.2 The strength of any control systems and their supporting structure that 

are provided for use during the launch, orbit, entry, or aborted mission 

phase including such items as retrorockets, escape rockets, attitude control rockets, and parachutes.

5.1.1.3 The strength of fi ttings attached to the capsule for the purpose of transmitting forces to the structure.

5.1.2 General Loads requirements

5.1.2.1 Ultimate factor of safety – In lieu of an ultimate factor of safety, design 

may be based on a specifi ed probability of destructive failure based on 

the design mission and specifi ed deviations from the design mission.
Exploring the Unknown 101

5.1.2.2 Ultimate strength – Failure shall not occur under design ultimate loads. 

Excessive leakage of the pressure capsule under ultimate load is considered as a failure.

5.1.2.3 Temperature – The effects of the temperature on loading conditions and 

allowable stresses shall be considered where thermal effects are signifi cant.

5.1.3 Loading types - The following types of loads are to be considered for all 

loading conditions:

5.1.3.1 Aerodynamic Loads

5.1.3.1.1 Maneuver (static – dynamic)

5.1.3.1.2 Gust

5.1.3.1.3 Wind shear

5.1.3.1.4 Buffeting

5.1.3.1.5 Flutter

5.1.3.2 Inertial loads

[14]

5.1.3.3 Impact loads (water and land)

5.1.3.4 Loads or stresses induced by vibration including noise effects

5.1.3.5 Loads or stresses induced by heating

5.1.4 Loading conditions - The following trajectory phases must be examined 

for loading conditions.

5.1.4.1 Ground handling – The effect of all ground handling conditions must 

be considered such as the strength of fi ttings attached to the capsule for 

purpose of transmitting handling loads to the capsule.

5.1.4.2 In-fl ight conditions

5.1.3.2.1 General – Air loads and inertial loads for all phases of the mission shall 

be associated with the design trajectories with deviations from the design 

trajectories to be specifi ed by the proved statistical reliability of the propulsion and control systems. 

In addition, certain specifi ed conditions of malfunction of the propulsion and control systems shall be considered specifi ed. The structural 

weight penalties associated with these malfunctions shall be assessed. 
102 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Consideration should also be given to the penalties in mission profi le 

caused by structural weight increases due to malfunction of the propulsion or control system. The mission profi le parameters for which a mission 

will be aborted rather than considered for design shall be designated by 

the limitations given in 2.2 of this specifi cation for the primary mission.

5.1.4.2.2Launch phase - Loading conditions shall be considered as indicated in 

5.1 of this specifi cation for all phases of launch trajectories including capsule separation.

5.1.4.2.3Aborted mission - The possibility of an aborted mission during all phases 

of the launching operation and trajectory shall be considered; however, 

aborted trajectories which would result in axial accelerations greater than 

twenty-fi ve (25) g need not be considered. (Safety features will, if necessary, include means for anticipating unsafe launch trajectories so that an 

abort maneuver can be accomplished to keep the g level below twentyfi ve (25).)

5.1.4.2.4Orbital phase – The following effect should be considered: Possibility of 

meteorite damage – The probability of penetration of the pressure capsule by meteorites such that the pressure loss would prove fatal shall be 

less than 0.001 for a twenty-eight (28) period.

[15]

5.1.4.2.5Entry – The loading conditions for entry are specifi ed by the design trajectory with deviations as indicated in 5.1 of this specifi cation. Consideration 

should also be given to the reactions of the retrorocket.

5.1.4.2.6Parachute deployment – The loads on the capsule, parachute, and related 

equipment shall be considered for entry and aborted mission conditions 

as given in 2.2, 2.4, and [illegible] of this specifi cation.

5.1.4.2 Landing – Consideration shall be given to impact loads for water and 

land impact conditions. 

(a) Water - Consideration shall be given to water impact loads in rough 

water as well as calm water. The capsule design must be such that the 

buoyancy and water stability is not affected by impact.

(b) Land - Consideration shall be given to emergency impact on land 

surfaces. The capsule design must be such that the human occupant will 

survive without injuries severe enough to prevent his own escape from 

the capsule.

5.1.5 Loads calculations - The loads on the structure and distribution of air 

and water loads used in design shall be those determined by the use of 

acceptable analytical methods and with the use of experimental data 

which are demonstrated to be applicable. The applicable temperature, 
Exploring the Unknown 103

Mach number, and Reynolds number effects must be included for the 

existing fl ow regime.

5.2 Assumed methods of construction for preliminary design – For the 

purpose of a feasibility study, a type of construction has been assumed 

which is compatible with the environment of anticipated vehicle trajectories. The principle components are a pressure capsule, external heat 

and micrometeorite shielding, and [illegible] layers of heat and noise 

insulation. With this arrangement, integrity of the pressure capsule structure and control of the internal environment can be maintained during 

widely varying external environmental conditions. A summary of major 

design requirements for each of these components and brief descriptions 

of possible structural solutions are given in the following sub-sections.

5.2.1 Pressure capsule –A construction is required capable of sustaining internal pressures up to fi fteen (15) psi with negligible air leakage after being 

subjected to the vibratory and sound pressure loadings associated with 

launch. It must also withstand collapsing pressures up to two (2) psi to 

withstand a blast wave from booster failure, and be vented to preclude the 

possibility [16] of greater collapsing pressures during a normal mission. 

The capsule must be designed to withstand rigid body accelerations of 

twenty-fi ve (25) g axially and four (4) g laterally corresponding to maximum which might be encountered during launch and entry. The trapped 

atmospheric pressure may be utilized to enhance structural stability and 

strength during the launch phase, but structural integrity during all entry 

phases shall not depend upon internal pressure for stabilization. The 

resulting design shall not be vulnerable to explosive decompression if 

punctured. The capsule must be leak resistant after a water impact loading of approximately fi fteen (15) g’s.

The capsule may be divided into three main sections for descriptive purposes; a bottom which supports the internal equipment and which will 

be subject to a water or earth impact, a mid-section designed to accommodate an entrance hatch, viewing ports, and a top dome designed to 

accommodate parachute attachments, and mounts for the escape rocket 

system. Each of these sections may experience somewhat different temperature time histories, with a possible temperature difference between 

sections of three hundred (300) degrees Fahrenheit. The maximum 

temperature of each part shall be held to six hundred (600) degrees 

Fahrenheit through use of heat shielding. Stresses in the capsule induced 

by differences in thermal expansion between the capsule and its external heat shielding shall be reduced to tolerable values through suitable 

fl exibility in shield mounting.

These design requirements may be met by a shell of titanium honeycomb 

sandwich. A vessel of this material provides maximum strength, stiffness, 

and heat resistance with the least weight. A more conventional construction capable of meeting the requirements is a welded semi-monicoque 
104 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

shell of either titanium or stainless steel. The material shall be chosen for 

maximum ductility and weldability.

5.2.2 Heat and micro-meteorite shielding – An analysis of the convective heating during atmospheric entry revealed the need for heat protection for 

both the blunt face and afterbody of the vehicle. In addition, the expected 

frequency of strikes by micro-meteorites of various sizes indicated that a 

shield thickness equivalent to 0.010 inch of steel is desirable for protection of the underlying pressure capsule against impacts.

Stagnation heating associated with the probable range of entry angles 1⁄2 

to 3 degrees, indicates duration of heating as long as 500 seconds and 

maximum heating rates in the range of 50 to 100 Btu/ft2

. A total heat 

input of about 8000 Btu/ft2 is associated with the entry angle of 1⁄2 degrees 

with lesser inputs for greater angles. A beryllium heat sink appears feasible for front face heat protection. Recent tests have indicated that this 

type of heating input may be compatible with the behavior of some of the 

available ablation materials. Hence, a back up approach for protection is 

an ablating shield.

[17]

The front shield must be supported on the capsule bottom and/or sidewalls in a manner which permits ready disengagement at parachute 

deployment to expose the landing bag system. The method of support 

must not cause excessive stresses in the shield during capsule pressurization. For the heat sink type of shield, thermal expansion capability relative to the capsule must be provided. 

Estimates of afterbody heating have led to predictions of radiation equilibrium temperatures on the side shields of one thousand and four hundred (1,400) to one thousand six hundred (1,600) degrees Fahrenheit. 

The total heat input is in the order of one thousand (1,000) Btu/ft2

. 

The simplest and lightest weight form of heat protection for these areas 

appears to be obtained with radiation shields. These shields must be fl utter free and yet be free to expand thermally with respect to the capsule 

structure. Although they are vented, a conservative design criterion is 

that they be able to carry the local pressure loading. This criterion insures 

adequate local stiffness and increased resistance to noise fatigue. They 

must withstand sound pressure fl uctuations caused by boundary-layer 

noise and booster engine noise.

[Illegible] have been made on various shield confi gurations and it appears 

that a shield constructed on a 0.010-inch thick longitudinally corrugated 

nickel base alloy may be satisfactory. Such a shield provides a low probability of being punctured by micrometeorites in a twenty-eight (28) hour 
Exploring the Unknown 105

orbital period, and with a proper corrugation depth and support spacing 

can meet the other design requirements.

5.2.3 Heat and Acoustical Insulation – The shielding arrangement previously 

described implies the use of insulation between the shields and the capsule structure. This insulation must be able to withstand a transient temperature pulse of fi fteen hundred (1,500) degrees Fahrenheit, and not 

deteriorate due to vibration. Transient heating calculations show that 3/8 

lb/ft2

 of commercially available insulations should provide the required 

heat protection to the capsule structure during the entry maneuver.

Heat soaked up by the structure must also be prevented form heating the 

capsule contents. The insulation required on the inner wall must also be 

effective in damping sound pressure waves. It is estimated that 1/8 lb/ft2

of dual-purpose insulation should reduce the total heat transmitted to 

the capsule contents to twenty-fi ve (25) Btu/ft2 of wall area during entry. 

The combination of two metal walls and two insulation layers should be 

capable of providing a 30 db reduction in noise at frequencies above six 

hundred (600) cps. 

[18]

6. ONBOARD EQUIPMENT

6.1 Capsule environment controls

6.1.1 General

6.1.1.1 Equipment shall be provided for control of the pressure, temperature, 

and humidity within the capsule and within a suitable pressure suit to be 

worn by the occupant.

6.1.1.2 Equipment shall be provided for the supply of breathing gas for the control of the oxygen partial pressure and carbon dioxide concentration in 

the breathing gas.

6.1.1.3 Equipment shall be provided for the control of the oxygen partial pressure and the carbon dioxide concentration of the capsule atmosphere.

6.1.1.4 The foregoing equipment shall be as simple and passive in operation 

as practical.

6.1.1.5 The absorptivity and emissivity of the capsule to radiation in the infrared shall be such that the shell is basically cold and that only small heat 

addition is required to maintain the internal temperature limits of the 
106 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

capsule; however, a study of the effects of the entry temperature pulse 

shall be made to establish if any cooling requirements exist. 

6.1.1.6 The possibility of buildup of toxic contaminations and objectionable 

odors in the capsule shall be evaluated and if required, provisions shall 

be incorporated for their removal.

6.1.1.7 Adequate drinking water and food should be provided for twenty-four 

(24) hour orbital period and a forty-eight (48) hour post-orbital period. 

The food should be of the low residue type.

6.1.1.8 Provision shall be made for the disposal and/or storage of human excretions.

6.1.1.9 Protection against failure of the capsule environmental control systems 

shall be achieved by incorporation of appropriate redundancies.

[19]

6.1.2 Quantitative requirements

6.1.2.1 The capsule temperature shall be maintained between fi fty (50) and 

eighty (80) degrees Fahrenheit.

6.1.2.2 The relative humidity in the capsule shall be maintained between the 

limits of twenty (20) and fi fty (50) percent.

6.1.2.3 The capsule pressure shall never be less than local atmospheric pressure.

6.1.2.4 The partial pressure of the oxygen supplied to the occupant of the capsule 

shall be maintained between one hundred and fi fty (150) and three hundred (300) mm Hg in either the normal or in any emergency condition.

6.1.2.5 The carbon dioxide content of the breathing gas shall be limited to less 

than one (1) percent.

6.1.2.6 The environmental control systems shall be capable of maintaining the 

foregoing conditions for: (a) the part of the prelaunch period when the 

environment cannot be maintained by external supply, (b) for a space 

fl ight period of twenty-eight (28) hours, (c) for the landing and recovery 

period of twelve (12) hours. The last condition can be waived if it can be 

demonstrated that satisfactory ventilation to the external atmosphere 

can be achieved in rough seas (through use of a snorkel-type apparatus, 

for example).

6.1.2.7 The character of the vibrations and the acoustic noise within the capsule 

shall be considered in the design and alleviation of undesirable conditions shall be provided.
Exploring the Unknown 107

6.1.2.8 Where it can be shown that any quantitative requirement herein severely 

restricts the design, consideration shall be given to a limited adjustment 

of the requirements.

6.2 Pilot support and restraint

6.2.1 A couch shall be provided which will safely and comfortably support the 

human occupant.

6.2.2 As a basis for the design, acceleration environments associated with 

the launch, the aborted launch, the entry parachute deployment, and 

the landing impact (land and water) shall be considered. In particular, 

aborted launch conditions in which peak accelerations of the order of 

twenty (20) g units shall be withstood by the occupant without incurring 

serious or permanent injury.

[20]

6.2.3 The support system shall be oriented within the capsule so that the peak 

accelerations can be withstood without repositioning during fl ight.

6.2.4 The support system shall distribute the loads over as large an area on the subject as practical and as uniformly as practical (eliminate pressure points).

6.2.5 Shock absorption shall be provided in the support system for the reduction of high but short term accelerations existing under such conditions 

as parachute deployment and landing impact.

6.2.6 Particular attention shall be paid to the elimination of the possibility of 

large negative accelerations on the occupant. Such conditions are most 

likely to occur during asymmetric impacts with water and land surfaces.

6.2.7 The occupant shall be fi rmly restrained in the support system by a suitable harness that shall provide satisfactory support for the conditions of 

maximum accelerations in a direction to lift the occupant off the couch. 

Such a condition will occur after burnout of the escape rocket when the 

escape takes place at the maximum dynamic pressures.

6.3 Landing system

6.3.1 General

6.3.1.1 A landing system shall be employed which shall utilize two (2) independent parachute systems mounted side by side and a system of air bags for 

landing impact protection.

6.3.1.2 The two independent parachute systems shall be deployed sequentially, 

but the reserve system shall be deployed only if the primary system fails to 

deploy satisfactorily.
108 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

6.3.1.3 In addition to the main landing parachute, a drogue parachute for 

the purpose of capsule stabilization shall be deployed at an altitude of 

approximately seventy thousand (70,000) feet and a Mach number of 

one (1).

6.3.1.4 The primary landing-parachute shall be deployed at an altitude of approximately ten thousand (10,000) feet. The primary landing parachute shall 

be deployed by releasing the drogue parachute from the capsule in such 

a manner as to serve as a pilot chute. The reserve landing parachute shall 

be deployed by a normal pilot chute.

[21]

6.3.1.5 At deployment of the primary landing parachute, the heat shield and 

expendable equipment shall be jettisoned and the landing impact bag 

shall be infl ated.

6.3.2 Drogue and pilot parachutes

6.3.2.1 The drogue parachute canopy shall be a FIST ribbon type and shall be 

capable of opening at Mach numbers up to one and one-half (1.5). This 

canopy shall have a diameter large enough to provide adequate dynamic 

stability to the capsule.

6.3.2.2 This canopy shall be built to conform to applicable military specifi cations.

6.3.2.3 The parachute shall incorporate a metallic coating in a manner to provide a suitable radar refl ector.

6.3.2.4 The drogue parachute shall be forcibly deployed by means a of a mortar 

tube. The deployment bag and packed drogue chute shall be housed in 

this mortar tube and shall be capable of withstanding the burning powder charge resulting from fi ring of the mortar. The bridle between the 

deployment bag of the main chute and the drogue chute shall be fortyfi ve (45) feet in length. The mortar shall have suffi cient force to propel 

the drogue chute and bag a distance equivalent to the bridle length.

6.3.2.5 The pilot chute for the reserve landing parachute shall be of standard 

pilot chute construction. This parachute shall be deployed in the same 

manner as specifi ed in 6.3.2.4. To aid deployment, lead shot may be sewn 

in at the apex. There shall be a forty-fi ve (45) foot bridle between the 

deployment bag and the pilot chute.

6.3.3 Main landing parachutes – The two main parachutes shall be of equal size 

and shall be an extended skirt design (similar to Pioneer Parachute Co. 

design drawing 1.425). Each of these parachutes shall be a proven type 

having previously been fl ight tested under conditions representative of 

the present application. The parachute shall be constructed to withstand 

the shock loads of opening at twenty-thousand (20,000) feet.
Exploring the Unknown 109

6.3.3.1 The gore colors shall be natural and international orange alternately arranged. 

6.3.3.2 The main canopy and risers shall be packaged in a deployment bag. The 

main parachute deployment bag shall conform to the interior of the 

parachute canister.

[22]

6.3.3.3 Actuation of deployment of the drogue chute shall be by reliable and 

proven barometric switches. Each switch on each chute shall be independent of the other although the secondary chute fi ring sequence should 

be arranged such that the primary chute is jettisoned prior to actuating 

the secondary chute. However, if the primary chute fails to jettison, this 

should not prevent the secondary chute actuation.

6.3.3.4 Provision should be made for manual override of the automatic system 

should it fail.

6.3.3.5 Provision shall be made for satisfactory operation of the chutes in case 

of abort.

6.3.3.6 Provision shall be made for release of the parachutes after impact.

6.3.4 Landing impact bag

6.3.4.1 The landing impact bags shall be constructed of an infl atable material 

and shall be located behind the heat shield in the defl ated condition. On 

separation of the heat shield, these bags shall be infl ated.

6.3.4.2 The bags shall be designed so they will defl ate on impact under a constant predetermined load. 

6.3.4.3 The bags shall be constructed and located in such a manner that they 

shall be effective under conditions of drift, parachute oscillation, and 

uneven landing terrain.

6.3.5 Helicopter pickup provisions – Provision shall be made for a helicopter 

pickup of the capsule after landing. An attachment point shall be located 

at approximately the parachute attachment point. Auxiliary attachment 

points shall also be provided just above the capsule water line.

6.4 Cockpit layout

6.4.1 The contractor shall submit proposed layouts of the capsule interior to 

the contracting agency for approval. In addition to the environment 

equipment specifi ed in section 6.1, these layouts shall show the location 

and approximate appearance of all pilot-actuated controls, instruments, 

and warning devices.
110 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

6.4.2 Consideration shall be given to the restrictions imposed on the pilot by 

the restraining harness specifi ed in Section 6.2.7 and by acceleration 

forces in the selection of location and method of actuating all pilot-operated controls and in the grouping and placement of instruments and 

warning devices so as to provide an optimum display of information.

6.4.3 The contractor shall submit a list of all instruments, pilot actuating 

devices and warning devices to be displayed to the pilot to the contracting 

agency for approval. This list shall include those instruments specifi ed or 

described in Section 7.

6.4.4 Consideration shall be given to the location and operation of the optical 

instrument for display of capsule attitude and navigational information 

specifi ed in Section 4.3.3. Consideration shall also be given to a means 

of displaying capsule attitude information to the pilot during the launch 

and entry period where the optical presentation may be inadequate.

6.5 Communications. –

6.5.1 This specifi cation is intended to include only the vehicle systems. However, 

these systems must be completely compatible with the ground station 

complex. It is intended that wherever practicable the systems of telemetry, tracking, and voice communications now existing will be used. 

6.5.2 List of communications systems – The following systems of communications will be required aboard the vehicle:

Two-way voice communication

Command receiver from ground to vehicle

Telemetry from vehicle to ground

Radio tracking beacon (108 megacycles)

Rescue beacons (HF and UHF) and other recovery aids.

S- and X- band beacons for GE Guidance System, with retro-rocket fi ring 

command system

C-band radar tracking beacon

Flashing lights, for tracking

[24]

6.5.2.1 The two-way voice communications system will utilize frequencies in both 

the HF and UHF bands. In the event of failure, a HF-UHF transceiver 

normally intended for use during the recovery phase may be employed at 

any time.
Exploring the Unknown 111

6.5.2.2 Two command receivers will be operated continuously on VHF to accept 

coded commands from ground stations. Verifi cation of the reception of 

the commands will be transmitted via telemetry. The command receivers 

will be capable of accepting and decoding retrograde rocket fi ring commands. Also, it will be used to turn on the telemetry system.

6.5.2.3 Initial guidance and orbit insertion will be accomplished through utilization of the GE Guidance system. Additional tracking data will be obtained 

from FPS-16 radars, from the 108 Megacycle Minitrack complex and 

other radio tracking devices, and from visual observations.

6.5.2.4 The 108 megacycle-tracking beacon will have an output of not less than 

0.10 watts, and will have frequency stability commensurate with Doppler 

measuring techniques.

6.5.2.5 The C-band radar tracking beacon is to be compatible with the FPS-16 

radar equipment, and will have an output peak power of at least 100 watts. 

The beacon receiver shall have the capability of triggering the beacon at 

line-of-sight ranges up to 1000 statute miles.

6.5.2.6 Consideration should be given to the installation of high-intensity fl ashing lights to aid ground observers in sighting the vehicle during dark 

phases of the orbit.

6.5.3 Antennas – Antennas will be provided for all systems – voice communications, telemetry, tracking, guidance, command, and rescue. Antennas 

for each system will provide maximum coverage for each phase of the 

mission. Design will be simplifi ed somewhat by the vehicle stabilization, 

in that coverage is required only for one hemisphere, during the orbiting phase. Recovery system antenna will protrude from the upper part of 

the capsule in such a manner to prevent loss of signal from water or salt 

spray. Multiplexers will be utilized where necessary to limit the number 

of antennas. Early developmental fl ights will determine vehicle skin temperatures, enabling more precise antenna design. This will aid in decisions as to types of antennas.

6.5.4 Recovery– The tracking of the vehicle shall be facilitated, during the 

landing phase, by the ejection of radar chaff at the opening of the 

drogue chute. 

[25]

The vehicle shall contain a suitable small rescue beacon to facilitate air 

search. It shall transmit suitable signals on 8.364 and 243.0 megacycles and 

have a range of at least two hundred (200). In the case of the low frequency 

signal, a thousand (1000) mile range would be desirable. It shall have selfcontained batteries suitable for at least twenty-four (24) hours operation.

A high-intensity fl ashing light system operating from self-contained batteries and automatically starting upon landing shall be provided with pro-
112 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

vision for twenty-four (24) hours operation. The lights shall be suitably 

mounted for maximum sighting distance.

A light weight transceiver shall be used for voice communication backup 

during the recovery phase. It shall have self-contained batteries, have a 

range of approximately 200 miles, be suitable for twenty-four (24) hours 

operation and have a suitable antenna on the vehicle.

So-Far bombs which will automatically fi re at reasonable time interval 

after landing shall be used so that signals received at suitable stations will 

aid in locating the vehicle.

Dye marker shall be deployed upon landing to aid in the visual location 

of the vehicle during the search phase.

6.6 Navigational Aids

6.6.1 The pilot shall be provided with a means of navigation. To provide a back 

up to the ground range tracking facilities, in the event of failure of the 

capsule tracking beacons or other contingency that would exceed the 

capability of the ground range system. This operation would entail the 

determination of altitude, velocity position and local earth vertical, and 

ground track over the earth.

6.6.2 The optical periscope, or equivalent specifi ed in Section 4.3.3 and a 

chronometer, shall be provided to fulfi ll the above requirements. Also 

manual aids in the form of simplifi ed tables or displays shall be provided 

to facilitate navigational problems based on observations of earth, sun, 

moon, or stars. The periscope will be used to indicate the misalignment 

of the longitudinal axis of the capsule with respect to the fl ight path over 

the earth. In the case of failure of the stabilization system, it will allow 

the pilot to manually align the capsule with the fl ight path prior to fi ring 

the retro rockets.

6.7 Power Supply

6.7.1 The main supply shall be of the silver-zinc type. It shall be suitable for 

providing the capsules various power-requirements for the twenty-eight 

(28) hour orbital fl ights plus the twelve (12) hour recovery phase.

6.7.2 Consideration should be given to the use of an emergency silver-zinc battery to operate vital equipment during the reentry phase in case of failure 

of the main power supply.

[26]
Exploring the Unknown 113

7. INSTRUMENTATION

7.1 General - In the design of the various instrumentation components, 

reliability, weight, and power requirements are to be considered of 

greatest importance.

7.1.1 The data to be measured are separated into the following categories:

a) Aero-Medical Measurements

b) Internal Environment

c) Vehicle Measurements

d) Operational Measurements

e) Scientifi c

7.2 List of Instrumentation.- The following detailed list of required measurements includes the data required on the fi rst orbital manned fl ight and 

does not refl ect the requirements for the unmanned fl ight tests. This list 

is to be considered only tentative and will be altered in accordance with 

the current needs of the project.

7.2.1 Aero Medical Pilots Ind. T.M. On-Board Recording

Electro Cardiogram x x [No On-Board Recordng]

Respiratory rate and depth x x [No On-Board Recordng]

Suit, Pressure x x x

Body Temperature x x [No On-Board Recordng]

Motion Picture of Pilot x [No T.M./On-Board Recordng]

Voice Recording x x [No On-Board Recordng]

Alarm (May Day) x x x

Mental Activity and Phys. 

Coordination x x [T.M/On-Board]

7.2.2 Capsule Environment Pilots Ind. T.M. On-Board Recording

O2

 Partial Pressure 

 (omit if single gas system) x x x

 CO2 Partial Pressure x x x [No On-Board Recordng]

 O2 Flow Rate x x [No T.M]

 CO2 Filter Status x x [No T.M.]
114 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 O2 Reserve x x x

 Cabin Pressure x x x

 Air Temperature x x [Pilots/On-Board]

 Humidity x [On-Board]

 Motion Pictures Inst. Panel x [On-Board]

 Noise Level x [On-Board]

 Vibration x [On-Board]

7.2.3 Vehicle Measurements Pilots Ind. T.M. On-Board Recording

 (1 long.)

Acc. -3 lin x x x

 Time x x x

 Q x x x

 Static Pressure x x [Pilots/On-Board]

 Attitude –3 from Stab Sensorsx x x

 Structural Temperatures x x x

 Pilot Control/ Motions 3 CPT/x

 Stabilizer Control /Motions 3 CPT/x

7.2.4 Operational Measurements

Power Supply Voltage x x x

Sequence of Events (Chute, Retro-Sep., etc.) x

[28]

Failure Signals for System x x x

Reaction Gas Supply Pressure x x x

7.2.5 Scientifi c Observations and 

 Photographic Measurements

Cosmic Radiation x [On-Board]

Meteorite Impacts x [On-Board]

Earth and Sky Cameras x [On-Board]
Exploring the Unknown 115

7.3 Recording – Four methods of data recording shall be employed as follows:

On-board data recording,

Telemetering to ground recorders,

On-board tape recording of voice,

Photographic recording of pilot and instrument panel.

7.3.1 General – It is evident, in the detailed instrument listing, that as many 

as three different systems are frequently used to record the output of a 

single data sensor or pickup. As it is not desirable from the standpoint 

of weight and power to use separate pickups for each system, a satisfactory isolation technique must be employed to avoid cross talk and interference between the several systems being fed from a common pickup. 

Where this is not feasible, duplicate pickups may be employed.

Provision shall be made for pre-launch check-out of all the instrument 

and communication systems. The pilot shall be provided with a suitable 

interphone connection with ground personnel to assist in this check-out 

procedure.

[29]

7.3.2 On-Board Data Recording – The on-board recorder shall handle the 

measurements as indicated in the detailed data list. This recorder shall 

operate on a continuous basis during launch, reentry and abort or 

emergency maneuvers. During orbit fl ight and after landing, the data 

recorded may be programmed to operate periodically to conserve the 

use of recording medium.

With the exception of EKG and respiratory rate and depth, which have 

fairly high frequency content, the data may be sampled at rates as low as 

once per second.

7.3.3 Telemetering to Ground Recorders – Data will be telemetered to ground 

stations to provide necessary real time information concerning pilot, capsule, and life support system. In addition, telemetry will afford back-up in 

the event the on-board recorded data are lost for any reason.

These data will be transmitted via radio lines operated in the 225-260 

megacycle telemetry band. Reliability will be improved through the use 

of two independent telemetry systems.

In addition to the two UHF links, the 108 megacycle beacon will be modulated with several channels of physiological and capsule environment 

data, for continuous transmission to ground stations.
116 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

One UHF system will operate continuously, with output power of at least 

0.25 watts. A second UHF system with 4 watts output power will operate 

only on a coded command signal from the ground. Upon interrogation, 

the system will operate for a period of 6 minutes, at which time it will turn 

itself off and be in ready status for the next interrogation.

[30]

All telemetered data will be tape recorded at the ground stations. In addition, certain physiological and other data will be displayed in real time for 

quick observation by engineering and medical personnel.

7.3.4 On-Board Tape Recording of Voice- The on-board recording of voice will 

be required continuously during launch, reentry, and abort maneuvers. 

During orbit and after landing, the voice recorder shall be turned on by the 

pilot to record comments and observations. In addition, all voice messages 

sent to ground stations by the pilot shall be recorded by this equipment.

7.3.5 Photographic Recording

7.3.5.1 Pilot and Instrument Panel - Two cameras are to be provided for use 

within the capsule. One for recording the pilot’s appearance and motions 

and the other for recording the indication of the pilot’s instruments. The 

frame rates may be as low as 3 fr/sec during the launch and reentry and 

1 frame every 10 seconds during orbit. The lighting for cameras and general illumination shall be a duplicate system. 

7.3.5.2 Photographic Recording of Earth and Sky – Cameras shall be used to 

record pictures of the earth with a 360 degree horizon coverage. As the 

line of sight at 120 mile altitude in about 2000 miles, the frame rate 

may be as low as 1 frame every 3 minutes to provide a 50% overlap of 

picture coverage.

[31]

8. TESTING

8.1 The capsule, all subsystems, and components shall be designed to withstand the environmental stresses encountered in the missions previously 

outlined. Suitable simulated environmental ground tests shall be performed by the contractor to establish proof of operational reliability 

and performance.

8.2 A program of research and development testing of the capsule will be 

undertaken by the NASA. This program will include full-scale fl ight tests 

of simplifi ed capsules. The simplifi ed capsules are not a part of the present specifi cations.

8.3 The capsules supplied by the contractor will be used in a qualifi cation test 

program to be conducted by the NASA. This qualifi cation program will have 

as its fi nal objective the accomplishment of the mission described in 2.1.
Exploring the Unknown 117

Document I-14

Document Title: Paul E. Purser, Aeronautical Research Engineer, NASA, to Mr. R. 

R. Gilruth, NASA, “Procurement of Ballistic Missiles for Use as Boosters in NASA 

Research Leading to Manned Space Flight,” 8 October 1958, with attached, “Letter 

of Intent to AOMC (ABMA), Draft of Technical Content,” 8 October 1958. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

When NASA was established it had virtually no in-house capability to build its own launch 

vehicles, and so its leaders quickly moved to procure that capability from other organizations 

in the federal government. This effort took two forms. First, it met with organizations that 

were developing ballistic missiles with the intention of acquiring some of them for its use. 

Second, it sought to acquire and enhance capability to develop its own launchers in the 

future. One was a short-term fi x and the other a more long-term solution. This memorandum 

documents the short-term fi x, reporting on a key meeting at the Army’s Redstone Arsenal in 

Huntsville, Alabama, in which NASA and the Army agreed to acquire eight Redstone ballistic missiles for test and operations during Project Mercury for recompense of approximately 

$7.5 million.

NASA – Langley

October 8, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Mr. R. R. Gilruth

Subject: Procurement of ballistic missiles for use as boosters in NASA research 

leading to manned space fl ight

1. A meeting of NASA, ARPA, and Army personnel was held on October 5, 1958 

at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Huntsville, Alabama. Personnel involved 

were: Mr. P. D. Purser, NASA; Mr. M. A. Faget, NASA; Mr. W. J. North, NASA; 

Dr. S. B. Batdorf, ARPA; Major Dunham (?), Army; Brigadier General Barclay, 

ABMA; Dr. W. von Braun, ABMA; Mr. Mrazek, ABMA; Mr. Carter, ABMA; 

Colonel Drewry, AOMC; Lieutenant Colonel James, AOMC; and other ABMA 

personnel. As a result of this meeting, it appears that the services and facilities 

of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency should be utilized in the NASA research 

program leading to manned space fl ight and that the Army is interested in 

participating in this program.

2. It appears that ABMA has available, in various stages of completion, some 

4 to 6 REDSTONE missile boosters which probably can be used as boosters 

for sub-orbital reentry tests of manned capsules. Other REDSTONEs can be 

made available on 12 to 14 month lead time basis.

3. It is anticipated that ABMA would furnish the design, construction, and 

launching of the boosters and the mating of the boosters and capsules. 
118 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Certain wind-tunnel tests and some research and engineering studies on the 

part of ABMA will also be required.

4. It is recommended, in view of the urgency of the subject program, that a letter-of-intent based on the attached draft be issued to the Army Ordinance 

Missile Command as soon as feasible. The proposed letter carries a fi nancial 

obligation of $2,400,000 to ABMA in order to allow their studies to begin 

immediately. It is anticipated that the total obligation to ABMA under this 

part of the program will be approximately $7,500,000.

Paul E. Purser

Aeronautical Research Engineer

Enc: Draft of letter-of-intent to AOMC 

PEP. Jbs

Letter-of-Intent to AOMC (ABMA)

Draft of Technical Content

October 8, 1958

Commanding General

Army Ordinance Missile Command

Huntsville, Alabama

1. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration intends to request 

that the Army Ordinance Missile Command participate in a program of 

research leading to manned space fl ight. As a part of this program, it is 

intended that the Army Ordinance Missile Command design, construct, 

and launch approximately eight (8) research and development launching vehicles utilizing the REDSTONE ballistic missile booster and its 

associated guidance and control equipment. It is anticipated that these 

vehicles will be required for launching on or about the following dates:

October 1, 1959 April 1, 1960

December 1, 1959 May 1, 1960

February 1, 1960 June 1, 1960

March 1, 1960 July 1, 1960

Or at such earlier times as may appear feasible following further 

study and discussion between the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration and the Army Ordinance Missile Command. The payloads for these vehicles will be developmental and prototype versions of 

habitable capsules and will be supplied by the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration. Details of the payloads and missions will be determined at a later date.

2. You are requested to submit as soon as possible, for review and approval 

by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, detailed develop-
Exploring the Unknown 119

ment and funding plans for the design, construction, and launching of 

these vehicles. These plans shall include time schedule for the work and 

estimates of the work to be performed at:

a. AOMC

b. By contract

c. By other Government agencies [2]

3. There is hereby made available a total of $2,400,000 ($300,000 per vehicle) under appropriation symbol for obligation by the Army Ordinance 

Missile Command only for purposes necessary to accomplish the work 

specifi ed herein. These funds are immediately available for direct obligation and for use in reimbursing the Army Ordinance Missile Command 

for costs incurred under this project. These funds are not available for 

construction of facilities. Upon approval of detailed development and 

fi nancial plans, as required herein or in accordance with amendments to 

this request, these funds will be increased as appropriate.

4. The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

or his designated representatives will provide policy and technical guidance for this project. The Army Ordinance Missile Command will exercise 

the necessary detailed technical direction. This general relationship may 

be specifi ed in greater detail at a later time if such action is necessary.

5. The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

will be kept informed of progress on the project by proper management, 

technical, and accounting reports.

6. The disposition of equipment and materials procured in connection with 

this project is subject to direction of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration. All reports, manuals, charts, data, and information as 

may be collected or prepared in connection with the project shall be 

made available to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

prior to release to other agencies or individuals under procedures to be 

approved. Such procedures may include, in the future, simultaneous 

release to the NASA and to other specifi ed agencies. 

7. AOMC shall be responsible for preserving the security of these projects in 

accordance with the security classifi cation assigned and with the security 

regulations and procedures of the Department of the Army.

8. Notwithstanding any other provisions of this request, AOMC shall not be 

bound to take any action in connection with the performance of this work 

that would cause the amount for which the Government will be obligated 

hereunder to exceed the funds made available, and the authorization of 

the Army Ordinance Missile Command to proceed with the performance 

of this work shall be limited accordingly. AOMC shall be responsible 

for assuring that all commitments, obligations, and [3] expenditures of 

the funds made available are made in accordance with the statutes and 

regulations governing such matters provided that whenever such regula-
120 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

tions require approval of higher authority such approvals will be obtained 

from or through the Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, or his designed representative. 

Document I-15

Document Title: S. B. Batdorf, ARPA, Memorandum for File, “Presentation of 

MIS Program to Dr. Glennan,” 14 October 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

One of the fi rst decisions T. Keith Glennan had to make after taking offi ce as NASA’s fi rst 

Administrator was to approve Project Mercury. This decision came on 5 October 1958. 

Glennan wrote in his memoirs that, “I am certain that the allocation of such a program to 

NASA had been agreed between Dryden, Killian, and DOD before NASA was born,” suggesting that the briefi ng to the new Administrator and his decision to support it was more of a 

fait accompli than anything else. But Glennan’s refl ection on the decision is telling. “As one 

looks back, it is clear that we did not know much about what we were doing,” he wrote. “Yet 

the Mercury program was one of the best organized and managed of any I have been associated 

with.” The decision to invest management of Project Mercury to a Space Task Group based at 

Langley Research Center, taken at the same time, proved equally auspicious. The hard-driving leader, Robert R. Gilruth, provided critical oversight, loyalty to NASA Headquarters, and 

technical competence that helped ensure success. 

This document describes an early briefi ng to Keith Glennan about planning for a Man in 

Space (MIS) mission. It was written by one of the individuals who had led early planning for 

the mission with the Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Planning Agency. 

INSTITUTE FOR DEFENSE ANALYSES

ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS DIVISION

Washington 25, D.C

October 14, 1958

MEMORANDUM FOR FILE

SUBJECT: Presentation of MIS [Man in Space] Program to Dr. Glennan

At the rather urgent invitation of Mr. Gilruth, I attended the presentation 

to Dr. Glennan of the MIS Program at NASA Headquarters, 9:00 p.m., October 7. 

Those present were Dr. Glennan, Dr. Dryden, Dr. Silverstein, and Messrs. Gilruth, 

Faget, Low, North, Crowley, and Wood.

 At the beginning of the discussion, Dr. Silverstein outlined the history of 

the MIS Program and showed Dr. Glennan a copy of the proposed memorandum 
Exploring the Unknown 121

of understanding. Dr. Glennan appeared to accept all of it except the section 

requiring joint approval on all contracts. He felt that it would not only be clearer 

from a management point of view, but in addition he would vastly prefer to have 

ARPA contribute its money to NASA to dispose of as it sees fi t. I believe he might 

accept the section as written as a second best solution to the problem but intends 

to discuss his preferred solution with Mr. Johnson.

 It was brought out that the public relations problem is a particularly diffi cult one in this project. The possibility of fi ring from some place other than 

Canaveral was discussed but does not seem to be feasible. It was decided that the 

public relations aspect needs to be carefully planned right from the start, and they 

will probably put a man on this fulltime as soon as possible. Dr. Glennan proposes 

to present the MIS Program at an early meeting of the space council and possible 

to solicit OCB advice on the matter of handling public relations.

 Dr. Glennan attaches a very great time urgency to this project and agrees 

with the desirability of seeking application of emergency funds of the Secretary of 

Defense as proposed by Mr. Johnson last week. Dr. Dryden indicated that the MIS 

Committee should go ahead and plan on the assumption that the money will be 

available regardless of the source from which it comes. [2]

 

 The last item of business was a rather lengthy dispute as to how the program should be managed within the NASA. It was decided that Dr. Dryden’s recommendation would be followed, namely that the work would be done by a task 

force under Gilruth, reporting to Silverstein. This task force might have most of 

its members at the Langley Laboratory, but the Langley management would have 

no hand or voice in the management of the project. Dr. Glennan appeared very 

pleased with the project plan and admonished the committee to put it into operation as rapidly as possible.

[Signed]

S.B. Batdorf

Copies to:

MIS Panel

Mr. Johnson

Adm. Clark

Dr. York

Mr. Gise

Mr. Godel

Mr. Smith

Document I-16

Document Title: Robert R. Gilruth, Project Manager, NASA, Memorandum for 

Associate Director, NASA, “Space Task Group,” 3 November 1958.
122 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

The creation of the Space Task Group based at Langley Research Center proved a critical 

decision for the management of Project Mercury. NASA handpicked the members of this 

group from among the best in the agency and placed Robert Gilruth in charge. Gilruth, 

perhaps more than any other NASA offi cial, served as the godfather of human spacefl ight 

in the U.S. Under his direction NASA successfully completed Projects Mercury, Gemini, and 

Apollo. His organization recruited, trained, and oversaw the astronauts and the human 

spacefl ight program throughout the heroic age of spacefl ight. Yet, his name is lesser known 

than many others associated with these projects. He was a contemporary on par with Wernher 

von Braun, and he certainly contributed as much to human spacefl ight as any of his colleagues, yet his name is rarely mentioned as a key person. He is a representative of the engineering entrepreneur, a developer and manager of complex technological and organizational 

systems, accomplishing remarkably diffi cult tasks through excellent oversight of the technical, 

fi scal, cultural, and social reins of the effort.

This memorandum identifi es the individuals selected by Gilruth as the original members of 

the Space Task Group. Many of the Group’s original members went on to be central to the 

development of the U.S. human spacefl ight program.

NASA - Langley

November 3, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Associate Director

Subject: Space Task Group

1. The Administrator of NASA has directed me to organize a space task group 

to implement a manned satellite project. This task group will be located at 

the Langley Research Center but, in accordance with the instructions of 

the Administrator, will report directly to NASA Headquarters. In order that 

this project proceed with the utmost speed, it is proposed to form this space 

task group around a nucleus of key Langley personnel, many of whom have 

already worked on this project.

2. It is request, therefore, that initially the following 36 Langley personnel be 

transferred to the Space Task Group:

Anderson, Melvin S. (Structures)

Bland, William M., Jr. (PARD)

Bond, Aleck C. (PARD)

Boyer, William J. (IRD)

Chilton, Robert G (FRD)

Donlan, Charles J. (OAD)

Faget, Maxime A. (PARD)

Field, Edison M. (PARD)

Gilruth, Robert R. (OAD)

Hammack, Jerome B. (FRD)
Exploring the Unknown 123

Hatley, Shirley (Steno.)

Heberlig, Jack C. (PARD)

Hicks, Claiborne R., Jr. (PARD)

Kehlet, Alan B. (PARD)

Kolenkiewicz, Ronald (PARD)

Kraft, Christopher C., Jr. (FRD)

Lauten, William T., Jr. (DLD)

Lee, John B. (PARD)

Livesay, Norma L. (Files)

Lowe, Nancy (Steno.)

MacDougall, George F., Jr. (Stability)

Magin, Betsy F. (PARD)

Mathews, Charles F. (PARD)

Mayer, John P. (FRD)

Muhly, William C. (Planning)

Purser, Paul E. (PARD)

Patterson, Herbert G. (PARD)

Ricker, Harry H., Jr. (IRD)

[2]

Robert, Frank C. (PARD)

Rollins, Joseph (Files)

Sartor, Ronelda F. (Fiscal)

Stearn, Jacquelyn B. (Steno.)

Taylor, Paul D. (FSRD)

Watkins, Julia R. (PARD)

Watkins, Shirley (Files)

Zimmerman, Charles H. (Stability)

[Signed]

Robert R. Gilruth

Project Manager

PEP.jbs

[Handwritten at bottom of document] To Personnel Offi cer for admin. This 

request is OK with the exception of Boyer. On Buckley’s recommendation substitute Kyle for Boyer. 

 FL Thompson 

 Acting Director 11-4-58]

Document I-17

Document Title: Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Development, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Code Name ‘Project Mercury’ for 

Manned Satellite Project,” 26 November 1958.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Clear Lake Library, Clear Lake, Texas.
124 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 Document I-18

Document Title: George M. Low, NASA, Memorandum for Dr. Silverstein, NASA, 

“Change of Manned Satellite Project name from “Project Mercury” to “Project 

Astronaut,” 12 December 1958.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Forth Worth, Texas.

In the fall of 1958, NASA was preparing to implement its initial human spacefl ight effort. 

The space agency decided to name the effort “Project Mercury,” after the messenger of the 

gods in ancient Roman mythology. The symbolic associations of this name appealed to Abe 

Silverstein, NASA’s Director of Space Flight Development. On December 1958, the 55th anniversary of the fi rst fl ight of the Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk, T. Keith Glennan announced 

the name for the fi rst time. A last-minute attempt by the head of the Space Task Group, Robert 

Gilruth, to change the name to “Project Astronaut” was not successful.

Document I-17

Washington, D.C.

November 26, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Administrator, NASA

Subject: Code name “Project Mercury” for Manned Satellite Project.

1. Considerable confusion exists in the press and in public discussions regarding the Manned Satellite Project because of the similarity of this program with 

other Man-in-Space proposals.

2. At the last meeting of the Manned Satellite Panel it was suggested that the 

Manned Satellite Project be referred to as Project Mercury.

3. It is recommended that the code name Project Mercury be adopted.

[Signed]

Abe Silverstein

Director of Space Flight Development

Cc: Robert Gilruth, Langley Task Group

Dr. S.B. Batdorf, ARPA

Document I-18

Washington, D.C.

December 12, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Dr. Silverstein
Exploring the Unknown 125

Subject: Change of Manned Satellite Project name from “Project Mercury” to 

“Project Astronaut”

1. Bob Gilruth feels that “Project Astronaut” is a far more suitable name for the 

Manned Satellite Project than “Project Mercury.”

2. If you agree, this should be brought to Dr. Glennan’s attention immediately. 

Present plans call for Dr. Glennan to refer to “Project Mercury” in his policy 

speech on December 17.

George M. Low

Low:lgs

Document I-19

Document Title: George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Status Report No. 1, Manned Satellite 

Project,” 9 December 1958. 

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Fort Worth, Texas.

If there was any one person at NASA who obsessed over the details of each of the human spacefl ight projects of the agency’s heroic years it was George M. Low, in 1958 NASA’s Manned 

Spacefl ight Program Chief. Low had been born in Vienna, Austria, and came to the U.S. in 

1940. After completing his B.S. in aeronautical engineering he joined NACA in 1949 at Lewis 

Flight Propulsion Laboratory. He also held important positions in Gemini and Apollo before 

serving as Deputy Administrator of NASA in 1969 to 1976 and then as acting administrator 

from 1970 to 1971. Low prepared notes at least weekly on all of the initiatives for which he 

was responsible. They were always both comprehensive and candid. He heavily focused on the 

technical issues and, until he came to NASA Headquarters in late 1969, rarely commented on 

policy, but his regular memoranda on these various programs represent an historical treasure 

trove. This status report is an example of Low’s approach to documentation. He ensured that 

his superiors understood the key issues at play, but he also had a concern for history by leaving 

these detailed commentaries, to which he often appended key documents.

Washington, D.C.

December 9, 1958

MEMORANDUM For Administrator

Subject: Status Report No. 1,

 Manned Satellite Project

1. This is the fi rst of a series of weekly or biweekly status reports on the Manned 

Satellite Project. In general, these reports will consist of short statements concerning only the progress made during the reporting period. For completeness, however, this fi rst report will contain a summary of the progress made 

since the formal inception of the project.
126 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. Capsule and Subsystems

a. Preliminary specifi cations mailed to prospective bidders on 

October 23, 1958.

b. Bidders conference held at Langley Field on November 7, 1958. 

About 38 fi rms represented.

c. Nineteen fi rms indicated by November 14 that they plan to 

prepare proposals. Final specifi cations sent to these fi rms on 

November 17.

d. Proposals must be received by December 11.

e. Technical assessment will be started by members of the Space 

Task Group on December 12. Mr. Charles Zimmerman heads 

the technical assessment team. Concurrently, cost and management assessment will be carried out by Mr. A. E. Siepert’s offi ce.

f. Source Selection Board will meet on December 29. Membership: 

Messrs. Gilruth, Wyatt and Low, and representatives from the 

Offi ces of the General Counsel and of the Director of Business 

Administration; ARPA has been invited to participate in a nonvoting capacity. 

3. Booster Procurement

a. Little Joe. This booster consists of a cluster of four Sergeant rockets; it is capable of imparting a [2] velocity of 6000 ft/sec to a fullscale capsule, and will be launched from Wallops. A contractor is 

now being selected.

b. Redstone. The Redstone vehicle is also capable of achieving a 

velocity of 6000 ft/sec with a full-scale capsule; it will be used for 

manned short-range ballistic fl ights. ABMA has submitted a tentative proposal for 8 boosters at a total cost of $13.179 million. The 

Redstones will be ordered as soon as a fi rm proposal is received.

c. Thor or Jupiter. Either vehicle has a capability of boosting a fullscale capsule to about 16000 ft/sec. A tentative decision to purchase Jupiter was made on December 8; this decision will be fi rm 

if proposed fl ight test schedules can be met. Probable cost for 3 

vehicles: $5.634 million.

d. Atlas. This booster will be used both for sub-orbital and orbital 

fl ights. Funds have been transferred to AFBMD for one Atlas C 

and nine Atlas D boosters.
Exploring the Unknown 127

4. Flight Test Operations

a. Several full-scale dummy capsules have been dropped from a 

C-130 airplane. Purpose: to check subsonic stability and parachute 

deployment. Initial results: parachute deployment is satisfactory.

b. The fi rst Atlas Flight (Atlas C) is scheduled for June or July 1959. 

Primary purpose: to check ablation heat shield.

5. Pilot Selection: The aero medical group at Langley (Maj. White, USAF, Lt. 

Voas, Navy, and Capt. Augerson, Army), have set up a tentative procedure for 

pilot selection and training. Briefl y, the plan calls for a preliminary meeting on 

[3] December 22 with representatives from the services and industry. These representatives will “nominate” a pool of 150 men by January 21. From this pool, 36 

candidates will be selected by February 15. A series of physical and other tests will 

eliminate all but 12 by the middle of March; these 12 men will then go through 

a nine months training and qualifi cation program. Six men are fi nally expected 

to qualify. 

George M. Low

Program Chief

Manned Space Flight

Cc: Dr. Dryden

Dr. Silverstein

Mr. Sanders

Low:lgs

Document I-20

Document Title: Invitation to Apply for Position of Research Astronaut-Candidate, 

NASA Project A, Announcement No. 1, 22 December 1958.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division,

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

In November 1958 aeromedical consultants working for the Space Task Group at 

Langley worked out preliminary procedures for the selection of astronauts to pilot the Mercury 

spacecraft. Their proposal involved meetings with industry and the military services which 

would result in the nomination of 150 men. This would be narrowed down to 36 to undergo 

extensive physical and psychological testing. Ultimately, 12 would be selected to undergo 

training and qualifi cation, of which only 6 were expected to fl y.

This plan led Charles Donlan, Technical Assistant to the Director of Langley; Warren 

J. North, a former NACA test pilot and head of the offi ce of Manned Satellite; and Allen O. 

Gamble, a psychologist detailed from the National Science Foundation, to draft job specifi cations for applicants for the astronaut program. Although carefully drawn up, this plan was 

abandoned when President Eisenhower (during the Christmas holiday) decided that only 

military test pilots should be allowed to apply. This eliminated the option of including civilians in the civilian manned space program, but greatly simplifi ed the selection process. 
128 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 Even though NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan had announced on 17 

December that the program would be called “Project Mercury,” this document still uses the 

name preferred by the Space Task Group, “Project Astronaut.” 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington 25, D.C.

NASA Project A

Announcement No. 1

December 22, 1958

Invitation to apply for Position of 

RESEARCH ASTRONAUT-CANDIDATE 

with minimum starting salary range of $8, 330

to $12, 770 (GS-12 to GS-15) depending 

upon qualifi cations

at the NASA Langley Research Center

Langley Field, Virginia

I. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT ASTRONAUT

The Manned Satellite Project is being managed and directed by NASA. 

The objectives of the project are to achieve, at the earliest practicable date, orbital 

fl ight and successful recovery of a manned satellite; and to investigate the capabilities of man in a space environment. To accomplish these objectives, a re-entry 

vehicle of the ballistic type has been selected. This vehicle not only represents 

the simplest and most reliable confi guration, but has the additional advantage of 

being suffi ciently light, so that it can be fi tted on an essentially unmodifi ed ICBM 

booster. The satellite will have the capability of remaining in orbit for 24 hours, 

although early fl ights are planned for only one or two orbits around the earth.

Although the entire satellite operation will be possible, in the early phases, 

without the presence of man, the astronaut will play an important role during the 

fl ight. He will contribute to the reliability of the system by monitoring the cabin 

environment, and by making necessary adjustments. He will have continuous displays of his position and attitude and other instrument readings, and will have 

the capability of operating the reaction controls, and of initiating the descent 

from orbit. He will contribute to the operation of the communications system. 

In addition, the astronaut will make research observations that cannot be made 

by instruments; these include physiological, astronomical, and meteorological 

observations.

Orbital fl ight will be accomplished after a logical buildup of capabilities. 

For example, full-scale capsules will be fl own on short and medium range ballistic 

fl ights, before orbital fl ights will be attempted. Maximum effort will be placed on 

the design and development of a reliable safety system. The manned phases of the 

fl ight will also undergo a gradual increase in scope, just as is common practice in 

the development of a new research aircraft. [2]
Exploring the Unknown 129

II. DUTIES OF RESEARCH ASTRONAUT-CANDIDATES

Research Astronaut-Candidates will follow a carefully planned program of 

pre-fl ight training and physical conditioning. They will also participate directly in 

the research and development phase of Project Astronaut, to help insure scientifi -

cally successful fl ights and the safe return of space vehicles and their occupants. 

The duties of Research Astronaut-Candidates fall into three major categories:

a. Through training sessions and prescribed reading of technical reports, they will acquire specialized knowledge of the equipment, operations, 

and scientifi c tests involved in manned space 

fl ight. They will gain knowledge of the concepts 

and equipment developed by others and, as 

their knowl edge and experience develops, they 

will contribute their thinking toward insuring 

maximum success of the planned fl ights.

b. They will make tests and act as observers-under -

test in experimental investigations designed (1) 

to develop profi ciency and confi dence under 

pe culiar conditions such as weightlessness and 

high accelerations; (2) to enable more accurate 

evalu ation of their physical, mental, and emotional fi tness to continue the program; and 

(3) to help elicit the knowledge necessary to 

evaluate and enable the fi nal development of 

communication, display, vehicle-control, environmental-control, and other systems involved 

in space fl ight.

c. They perform special assignments in one or 

more of their areas of scientifi c or technical 

com petence, as an adjunct to the regular programs of the research team, the research center, 

or NASA. These assignments may include doing 

re search, directing or evaluating test or other 

programs, or doing other work which makes use 

of their special competencies.

Appointees who enter this research and training program will be expected 

to agree to remain with NASA for 3 years, including up to one year as Research 

Astronaut-Candidates. During the initial months fi nal selection will be made of 

about half of the group to become Research Astronauts. Candidates who are not 

at that point designated Research Astronauts will have the option of continuing 

with NASA in other important capacities which require their special competence 

and training, without loss of salary and with other opportunities for advancement, 

and may remain eligible for future fl ights. [3]
130 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

III. QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

A. Citizenship, Sex, Age

Applicants must be citizens of the United States. They must be 

males who have reached their 25th birthday but not their 40th birthday on 

the date of fi ling application.

Applicants must be in excellent condition and must be less than 

5 feet 11 inches in height.

B. Basic Education

Applicants must have successfully completed a standard 4-year or 

longer professional curriculum in an accredited college or university leading to a bachelor’s degree, with major study in one of the physical, mathematical, biological, medical, or psychological sciences or in an appropriate 

branch of engineering or hold a higher degree in one of these fi elds. Proof 

of education will be required (see paragraph IV-4, below).

C. Professional Experience or Graduate Study

 In addition to a degree in science or engineering or medicine, applicants 

must have had one of the following patterns of professional work or graduate 

study or any equivalent combination:

1. Three years of work in any of the physical, mathematical, biological, 

or psychological sciences.

2. Three years of technical or engineering work in a research and development program or organization.

3. Three years of operation of aircraft or balloons or submarines, as 

commander, pilot, navigator, communications offi cer, engineer, or 

comparable technical position.

4. Completion of all requirements for the Ph.D. degree in any 

appropriate fi eld of science or engineering, plus 6 months of 

professional work.

5. In the case of medical doctors, 6 months of clinical or research work 

beyond the license and internship or residency.

Preference will be given to applicants in proportion to the relatedness of 

their experience or graduate study to the various research and operational 

problems of astronautics. [4]

NASA desires to select and train a team of Astronaut-Candidates representing a variety of fi elds including physical and life sciences and technology.
Exploring the Unknown 131

D. Hazardous, Rigorous, and Stressful Experience

Applicants must have had a substantial and signifi cant amount of experience which has clearly demonstrated three required characteristics: (a) willingness 

to accept hazards comparable to those encountered in modern research airplane 

fl ights; (b) capacity to tolerate rigorous and severe environmental conditions; 

and (c) ability to react adequately under conditions of stress or emergency.

These three characteristics may have been demonstrated in connection with certain professional occupations such as test pilot, crew member of 

experimental submarine, or arctic or antarctic explorer. Or they may have been 

demonstrated during wartime combat or military training. Parachute jumping 

or mountain climbing or deep sea diving (including with SCUBA), whether as 

occupation or sport, may have provided opportunities for demonstrating these 

characteristics, depending upon heights or depths attained, frequency and duration, temperature and other environmental conditions, and emergency episodes 

encountered. Or they may have been demonstrated by experience as an observerunder-test for extremes of environmental conditions such as acceleration, high 

or low atmospheric pressure, variations in carbon dioxide and oxygen concentration, high or low ambient temperatures, etc. Many other examples could be given. 

It is possible that the different characteristics may have been demonstrated by 

separate types of experience.

Pertinent experience which occurred prior to 1950 will not be considered. 

At least some of the pertinent experience must have occurred within one year 

preceding date of application.

Applicants must submit factual information describing the work, sport, or 

episodes which demonstrate possession of these three required characteristics. 

See paragraph 5 in next section.

IV. MATERIAL TO BE SUBMITTED

These positions are to be fi lled through a procedure which requires sponsorship of each candidate by a responsible organization. An indication of this 

sponsorship and a rating of the candidate will be made on a Nomination Form by 

a member of the sponsoring organization, preferably a superior well acquainted 

with the candidate. The Nomination Form is attached to this announcement for 

distribution to solicited organizations, and will be fi lled out by them and returned 

by January 12, 1959, if at all possible, to Personnel Offi ce (Project A), NASA, 

Langley Field, Virginia. [5]

The following materials must be submitted by the applicant himself no 

later than January 26, 1959 to:

 Personnel Offi ce (Project A)

 NASA

 Langley Field, Virginia
132 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1. Standard Form 57 (Application for Federal Employment). These 

forms will be furnished to applicants, but copies can be obtained 

from any U.S. Post Offi ce or Federal agency.

2. Standard Form 86 (Security Investigation Data for Sensitive Position). 

This form will be furnished to applicants. Those applicants who are 

invited to report in person for further testing will be asked to bring 

with them one copy of this form completed in rough draft.

3. Standard Forms 88 (Report of Medical Examination) and 89 (Report 

of Medical History). These forms will be distributed to applicants. 

They should be completed by the applicant (paragraph 1 through 

14 on S.F. 88 and all appropriate paragraphs of S.F. 89) and taken to 

the nearest military hospital, base, or procurement offi ce authorized 

to administer fl ight physicals. A special letter addressed to such military installations is attached to this announcement, to be detached 

for use. Applicants should report for these physicals no later than 

January 21 in order to allow time for receipt of the forms at Langley 

by January 26. The examining military agencies will forward the 

S.F.’s 88 and 89 direct to NASA, Langley.

4. College transcript(s). Each applicant must submit a transcript (not 

necessarily an offi cial copy) of his college or university record including descriptive course titles, grades and credits. These should accompany the application if possible.

5. A description of hazardous, rigorous, and stressful experiences pertinent to section D, above. This description should not exceed 2 or 

3 typed pages. It must be factual (dates, events, etc.) and should be 

corroborated where practicable.

6. A statement concerning the pertinence of the applicant’s professional or technical background to the problems of astronautical 

research and operations. This should not exceed one typed page.

7. A statement as to why the applicant is applying for this position. This 

statement should not exceed one typed page. [6]

V. SELECTION PROGRAM

On the basis of evaluations of the above-described applications and supporting material, a group of men will be invited to report to the NASA Space Task 

Force at Langley Field, Virginia, on February 15, 1959. For about three weeks 

these men will be given a variety of physical and mental tests on a competitive 

basis to evaluate their fi tness for training for the planned space fl ights. This will 

involve trips to Washington, D.C., and other locations and will include tests with 

such equipment as decompression chambers and centrifuges and also aircraft 
Exploring the Unknown 133

fl ights. At the end of this competitive testing program all the candidates will 

return to their homes and jobs.

During the ensuing period of 2 to 3 weeks, laboratory and other test results 

will be evaluated and a small group of men will be fi nally selected to become 

Research Astronaut-Candidates. These men will be notifi ed to report for duty at 

NASA, Langley Field, on or about April 1, 1959. Travel and moving expenses for 

them (and their families, if married) will be provided.

VI. APPOINTMENTS AND PAY

These appointments are to civilian positions in the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration. They are excepted appointments due to the unusual nature 

of the duties and the selection process, but carry the benefi ts and protections of the 

U.S. Civil Service System including a high level of insurance and retirement.

Original appointments of Research Astronaut-Candidates will be to pay 

levels commensurate with their backgrounds of education and experience, within 

the pay range of $8,330 to $12,770 per year (GS-12 to GS-15).

As these men become profi cient in the fi eld, they will become eligible for 

Research Astronaut positions with salaries commensurate with those of the most 

highly skilled NASA Research Pilots and Aeronautical and Space Scientists.

Document I-21

Document Title: Dr. William S. Augerson, Human Factors Branch, NASA, 

Memorandum for Chief, Operations Division, NASA, “Scientifi c Training for 

Pilots of Project Mercury,” 27 March 1959.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

As the fi rst astronauts were selected for Project Mercury from among the test pilot cadre 

in existence in the various military services, questions arose about the other types of skills 

NASA desired of those that would fl y in space. Since one of the key components of Mercury 

was the expansion of scientifi c knowledge, the scientifi c community wanted the most qualifi ed 

people possible to engage in this endeavor. In addition to the pilot training all astronauts 

received before coming to NASA, consensus quickly mounted to further train the Mercury 

astronauts to undertake scientifi c research. The additional scientifi c training required for 

Project Mercury was not rigorous, as demonstrated by this memorandum, but enhanced the 

capability of crewmembers to perform experiments on-orbit. 

NASA - Space Task Group, Langley

March 27, 1959

MEMORANDUM For Chief, Operations Division
134 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Subject: Scientifi c training for pilots of Project Mercury

1. It is recommended that pilots of Project Mercury be given graduate level 

training in areas relating to astronautics and geophysics. It is further recommended that they receive this training early in the course of the project.

2. Justifi cation

a. Background information in the area of astronautics is an important requisite to understanding of the environment into which 

these men will be traveling. It will aid them in understanding 

the vehicle design and the operational procedures. While some 

of this information can be provided by Space Task Group engineers, they will not have time to provide more than a minimum 

of information in this area. 

b. It has been stated offi cially that Project Mercury will investigate 

human performance in space environment. Since one of the 

important scientifi c and peaceful activities of man in space is 

scientifi c observation, simple scientifi c observations should be 

made by the astronaut. To make these observations, training will 

be required. The following areas are possible activities:

i. Simple astronomical observations; that is, coronal studies.

ii. Simple meteorological observations; that is, synoptic weather reports from visual observations and 

photographs.

iii. Simple biophysical studies.

iv. Radiation physics studies

c. These pilots will become important “scientifi c ambassadors” after 

completing this mission, and should have a general knowledge 

in areas related to astronautics. This may be of additional importance in a period when other nations may ridicule our space 

effort as an unscientifi c stunt. Even in this country, there are 

persons who believe this project should be more than an aerodynamic fl ight study. [2]

d. By giving training early, there will be less interference with the 

project and will provide time for individual growth along lines of 

personal interest.

e. By equipping pilots with training in these areas, we may provide 

an extra benefi t from this project in terms of useful information 

obtained. It is believed that their grasp of the whole project may 

be improved. 
Exploring the Unknown 135

3. Procedure

a. To condense the maximum information in the minimum time, 

it is recommended that a university, such as Harvard, MIT, or 

Penn., be asked to construct a special (if no appropriate course 

exists) two-three-week course in July or August in a survey of 

astronautics and geophysics.

b. It is recommended that this be further supplemented by an occasional seminar with local or visiting experts in these areas to help 

keep the astronauts up-to-date on current research; for example 

reports on data from cloud-cover satellites.

c. Some of the pilots may wish to work with some of the groups 

doing supporting research; for example, radiation studies administered by the Washington offi ce.

d. It is recommended that attempts be made, while performing 

simulated missions, to fi nd out what observations the men can 

make. It is believed that by using the synthesizing ability of the 

individual, good meteorological studies can be made using apparatus already in the vehicle.

4. It is understood that there is reason for contrary opinions to the above. 

However, it is believed that the effi ciency of the vehicle system will be 

such that time for scientifi c observations will be available (especially on 

28-hour missions) and that the expense of this operation makes it desirable to obtain all the data we can from it. The training necessary to perform these tasks can be given fairly easily considering the experience and 

intelligence of these pilots. Even if no observations are permitted, it is 

believed that training in the area of astronautics and geophysics will aid 

in the operational accomplishment of Project Mercury.

Dr. William S. Augerson

Human Factors Branch

Document I-22

Document Title: George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Pilot Selection for Project Mercury,” 

23 April 1959.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Astronaut selection became a topic of interest to many in the general public early on. 

Who was chosen and why? What criteria were used? Who might have been excluded from 

consideration, either intentionally or not? This memorandum documents an issue that arose 

almost simultaneously with the unveiling of the Mercury Seven astronauts in mid-April 
136 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1959. Why were there no Army or civilian pilots selected? NASA was exceptionally conscious 

of the interservice rivalries extant in the DOD and sought to ensure that Army personnel 

received consideration, even going so far as to undertake a special screening of some candidates, but in the end found none that met NASA’s selection criteria. In accordance with 

President Eisenhower’s December 1958 decision to limit the pool of candidates to military test 

pilots, civilians were not systematically considered in this fi rst round of astronaut selection, 

although a few applications were screened. 

Washington, D.C.

April 23, 1959

MEMORANDUM for Administrator

Subject: Pilot Selection for Project Mercury

1. The criteria used for the pilot selection were established at a meeting 

held at NASA Headquarters on January 5, 1959. This meeting was attended by 

Dr. Lovelace, General Flickinger, Mr. Gilruth, and others. Capt. Augerson was 

present and represented the Army. At the time, Capt. Augerson appeared to be in 

full agreement with the selection criteria, although it was even then apparent that 

these criteria might exclude Army participation.

2. At the time of our fi rst briefi ng of the astronauts on February 9, 1959, Gen. 

Flickinger informed Dr. Silverstein that no Army men had met all of our selection criteria. He suggested that we should approach the Army for names of men 

who came close to qualifying. Dr. Silverstein agreed and asked Gen. Flickinger to 

contact the Army. Gen. Flickinger, in turn, asked Capt. Augerson to supply NASA 

with names of candidates that he thought would qualify.

3. Several days later, Capt. Augerson appeared with the fi les of six Army men. 

He turned these over to Mr. Donlan and the group participating in the selection 

proceedings. After it was ascertained that none of these men met our selec tion 

criteria, and after another discussion with Dr. Silverstein, it was decided not to 

consider these Army men as candidates for Project Mercury. Capt. Augerson was 

informed of this decision.

4. On the subject of possible civilian participation, approximately ten letters were received by me. Several letters were obviously from cranks, while others 

were sincere. None of the civilians met our selection criteria. All letters received 

were answered. Other letters may have been received in other parts of the 

organization.

5. The heads of the fl ight activities at all. NASA Centers and Stations were 

contacted by either Mr. Gilruth or by myself. They, in turn, sought volunteers 

for Project Mercury among their pilots. None of the NASA pilots volunteered 

although several expressed interest in joining the Project at a later date.
Exploring the Unknown 137

[Signed]

George M. Low

Program Chief

Manned Space Flight

cc: Dr. Dryden

Dr. Silverstein

Mr. North

GML:lgs

Document I-23

Document Title: George M. Low, NASA, Memorandum for House Committee on 

Science and Astronautics, “Urgency of Project Mercury,” 27 April 1959.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

From virtually the beginning of the Mercury program, its leaders at the Space Task 

Group believed that it should receive the nation’s highest priority. This status ensured ready 

cooperation from other federal entities and streamlined procurement and other regulations. 

Only programs and projects deemed critical to national defense received this designation. 

In 1958 numerous spacefl ight efforts such as the Minuteman and Polaris ICBM development efforts, the Vanguard program, and satellite reconnaissance were already on what was 

offi cially named the DOD Master Urgency List. Admittance to the DX, the part of the DOD 

Master Urgency List associated with the highest industrial procurement priority, required 

the approval of the National Security Council, but it had already delegated authority to the 

Secretary of Defense to approve DX status on space projects. Space Task Group leaders, therefore, had to convince Secretary Neil H. McElroy of the signifi cance of Project Mercury. This 

did not prove an easy task. While senior offi cials agreed that Mercury was important, key 

offi cials at the White House, Congress, and NASA Headquarters regarded both the development of a one-million-pound-thrust rocket, which eventually became the Saturn I, and space 

science efforts as equally important. However, a priority list is only useful if some items have 

less priority than others. Why should Project Mercury receive this special designation?

When NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden initiated the request for DX 

status to the DOD on 14 November 1958, he specifi cally requested that both the “manned 

satellite and the one-million-pound-thrust engine” be added, but because of disagreements, 

especially within the National Aeronautics and Space Council (NASC) created by the same 

act that has chartered NASA, consideration of this proposal was deferred until a united 

position could be crafted. It took several months of discussion during the winter of 1958 

to 1959 before consensus could be achieved, and only on 27 April 1959, did Eisenhower 

approve DX status for Mercury. This memorandum prepared by George Low explains to 

the Congressional committee overseeing NASA the agency’s policy with respect to balancing 

urgency and astronaut safety.

April 27, 1959

In reply refer

To: DAL
138 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

MEMORANDUM: For House Committee on Science and Astronautics

Subject: Urgency of Project Mercury

 The primary goal of Project Mercury is to achieve orbital fl ight, and successful recovery, of a manned satellite at the earliest practicable date, and to study 

man’s capabilities in a space environment. This project is NASA’s most urgent 

program, and is being pursued at a rate that will give this nation a highly reliable 

space vehicle and completely prepared astronaut at the earliest moment.

 We have also a desire to be fi rst, because we realize that much in the way 

of national prestige comes from space fl ight achievements. But, we cannot place 

the prestige of the nation above the safety of the astronaut. With this overriding 

consideration for the safe return of the pilot, we must recognize that another 

country may accomplish a manned space mission before we do.

 But neither the value nor the success of Project Mercury can be gauged 

by whether it is the fi rst, second or third manned space fl ight. Mercury is a stepping-stone in the manned exploration of space. From the Mercury program will 

develop this nation’s plans for more advanced manned satellites, space laboratories and stations, missions to the moon, and interplanetary explorations. The 

most vigorous pursuit of Project Mercury is required to insure that this nation will 

enjoy a role of leadership in future manned explorations of space.

Document I-24

Document Title: George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA 

Memorandum for Mr. R. R. Gilruth, Director, Project Mercury, NASA, “Animal 

Payloads for Little Joe,” 19 June 1959, with attached Memorandum from T. K. G 

(T. Keith Glennan) to George M. Low, 15 June 1959.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Fort Worth, Texas.

In preparation for the human fl ights of Project Mercury, NASA decided to undertake several tests of the spacecraft using the Little Joe booster to launch the capsule on a sub-orbital trajectory. The Little Joe booster was produced specifi cally for Mercury test usage, and consisted of 

four Pollux or Castor motors grouped with four smaller Recruit motors. Out of a total of eight 

Little Joe fl ights, two carried American-born rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). This memorandum discusses the use of these monkeys, obtained from the School of Aviation Medicine 

at Brooks Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas. The Little Joe 2 (LJ-2) mission carried an 

American-born rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) named “Sam,” an acronym for School of 

Aviation Medicine, to the edge of space. The mission launched on 4 December 1959, from 

Wallops Island, Virginia, and fl ew 51 miles toward space. Sam was housed in a cylindrical 

capsule within the Mercury spacecraft. Approximately one minute into the fl ight, traveling at 

a speed of 3,685 mph, the Mercury capsule aborted from the Little Joe launch vehicle. It was 

safely recovered in the Atlantic Ocean after a fl ight of only 11 minutes, 6 seconds.

A second rhesus fl ight took place on 21 January 1960, fl ying only 8 minutes, 35 seconds to an altitude of 9 miles. Its passenger, “Miss Sam,” also returned safely after taking 

part in a Max Q abort and escape test.
Exploring the Unknown 139

NASA Headquarters

June 19, 1959

MEMORANDUM: For Mr. R. R. Gilruth, Director

 Project Mercury

Subject: Animal Payloads for Little Joe

1. I am enclosing a copy of a memorandum from the Administrator 

requesting that only American-born rhesus monkeys will be used in 

Mercury fl ights.

2. I understand that we have been assured by the School of Aviation 

Medicine that all rhesus monkeys supplied by them for the Little Joe 

fl ights meet the above requirements. However, I suggest that SAM be 

informed that “birth certifi cates” of these monkeys will be required at 

the time of each fl ight.

George M. Low

Program Chief 

Manned Space fl ight

[handwritten at bottom: “Hindoos might object”]

Attachment:

Memo to George Low

Dtd 15 June 1959

GM: mdp

Cc: Dr. Smith

 Dr. Worf

 Dr. Henry – Langley STG

 Mr. Sanders

 Mr. C. Wood without attachment

 Mr. W. Hjornevik without attachment

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

1520 H STREET NORTHWEST

WASHINGTON 25, DC

15 June 1959

MEMORANDUM TO:

George Low

Offi ce of Space Flight Development
140 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 Following the public announcements of the use of the American-born 

rhesus monkey in the recent Jupiter test, the Secretary of HEW raised questions 

with the Defense Department and with NASA as to the intention of these agencies with respect to the use of Indian-born rhesus monkeys in the future. A copy 

of the response of the Department of Defense prepared by Admiral John Clark 

is attached for your information [not included]. For NASA, I informed [Health, 

Education, and Welfare] Secretary Flemming that we proposed to use relatively 

few biological specimens and where we felt a rhesus monkey was indicated as the 

proper animal, we would use American-bred animals. Please take this as your 

instruction to abide by this statement on my part.

[Signed]

T.K.G

Cc: Dr. Silverstein

 Dr. Randt

Attachment:

Thermofax copy of Memo dtd 6/11/59

From Adm. Clark, ARPA, to Secy.,

HEW [not included]

Document I-25

Document Title: NASA, “Information Guide for Animal Launches in Project 

Mercury,” 23 July 1959.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

In all, there were four launches of Mercury spacecraft with primates aboard to test the 

life support systems of the vehicle. The fi rst of these was the Little Joe 2 fl ight of 4 December 

1959 with Sam, an American-born rhesus monkey, aboard. Sam was recovered, several 

hours later, with no ill effects from his journey. He was later returned to his home at the 

School of Aviation Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas, where he died 

in November 1982. Miss Sam, another rhesus monkey and Sam’s mate, was launched on 

21 January 1960, on the Little Joe 1B mission. She was also recovered and returned to the 

School of Aviation Medicine. On 31 January 1961, Ham, whose name was an acronym 

for Holloman AeroMed, became the fi rst chimpanzee in space, aboard the Mercury Redstone 

2 (MR-2) mission on a sub-orbital fl ight. Ham was brought from the French Camaroons, 

West Africa, where he was born in July 1957, to Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico in 

1959. Upon the completion the successful fl ight and a thorough medical examination, Ham 

was placed on display at the Washington Zoo in 1963 where he lived until 25 September 

1980, when he moved to the North Carolina Zoological Park in Asheboro until his death 

on 17 January 1983. Enos became the fi rst chimp to orbit the Earth on 29 November 1961, 

aboard Mercury Atlas 5 (MA-5) launched on 29 November 1961, from Cape Canaveral, 

Florida. This two-orbit, 88 minute, 26 second fl ight, proved the capability of the Mercury 

spacecraft. Enos died at Holloman Air Force Base of a non-space related case of dysentery 
Exploring the Unknown 141

11 months after his fl ight. Because of the interest in and the sensitivity about these primate 

fl ights, NASA took considerable pains to explain how the animals were treated and what 

role they played in the program, as shown in this information guide. These guidelines were 

approved by Deputy Administrator Hugh Dryden, Associate Administrator Richard Horner, 

and Director of Space Flight Development Abe Silverstein on 23 July 1959.

[7-23-59]

NASA INTERNAL USE

INFORMATION GUIDE FOR ANIMAL LAUNCHINGS

IN PROJECT MERCURY

1. Background

 Animals will be used in the Project Mercury developmental program to gain 

information on the biological response to space fl ight. Problems facing manned 

orbital fl ight essentially are engineering in nature, and the animal program will be 

relatively simple in scope. Knowledge from animal fl ights will contribute information to the program in the areas of life support systems; instruments to measure 

physiological reactions in the space environment; prove out design concepts when 

they are near known limits in such areas as high-g loads; test equipment and instrumentation under dynamic load conditions, and to develop countdown procedures 

and train personnel in these procedures prior to manned fl ight.

 NASA has selected three animals for developmental work in the Mercury 

program: rhesus monkey (Macaca Mulatta), chimpanzee and mouse. Primates were 

chosen because they have the same organ placement and suspension as man. Both 

rhesus and chimp have relatively long medical research backgrounds, and the type 

of rhesus born and bred in American vivarium has a 20-year research background as 

a breed. The chimp is larger and more similar to man in body systems, and will be 

used for advanced developmental fl ights with the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 

capsule. A “mouse drum” will be used to study the effects of weightless fl ight and 

may be the fi rst biological package to be sent into orbit in the Mercury program.

 (Page 2 contains a summary of fl ights and test objectives.)

 Management of the animal program is the responsibility of the NASA 

Space Task Group. Responsibility for supply, training, installation and post-fl ight 

evaluation has been assigned to:

 USAF Aeromedical Field Laboratory, Hol[l]oman AFB – Chimps

 USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB – Rhesus

 USAF Aeromedical Laboratory, WADC, Wright-Patterson AFB- Mice

 The U.S. Army and U.S. Navy will provide advice and assistance through 

out the program.

[2]
142 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

STUDY OF LITTLE JOE FLIGHTS AND TEST OBJECTIVES

(All at Wallops Station)

Flight # Animal Capsule Mission*

1. None NASA Escape system-booster quals.

2. Rhesus NASA High-angle re-entry

3. Rhesus NASA High-angle re-entry

4. Rhesus NASA Low-angle re-entry

5. Chimp MAC Maximum load escape

6. Backup booster

OTHER ANIMAL FLIGHTS IN PROJECT MERCURY

(All at Atlantic Missile Range)

Redstone Chimp MAC Ballistic fl ight quals.

Atlas Chimp MAC High-g escape

Atlas Mouse drum MAC Weightless fl ight

Atlas Chimp MAC Orbital fl ight

Notes:

* Mission- physiological measurements and environmental readings will 

be taken during all animal fl ights.

There will be two animals available for each fl ight, one of which will be 

used as a backup.

The above is not necessarily the order in which fl ights will take place.

[3]

2. Information Procedures

 The press will be permitted to witness two Little Joe launches – one of the 

early fl ights to be determined by the Deputy Administrator and the Director of 

Space Flight Development, and Flight No. 5 identifi ed on Page 2.

 Procedures at both Wallops Station and the Atlantic Missile Range will 

be in accordance with the joint NASA-DOD East Coast Launching Plan. For each 

launching open to the press, a press kit will be prepared containing handout 
Exploring the Unknown 143

materials on: 1-Program objectives; 2-Launching vehicle, and 3-Project Mercury 

background.

 Only qualifi ed NASA personnel will be permitted to make public statements on the program. The Defense Department, through the Assistant Secretary 

of Defense for Public Affairs, will be asked to cooperate in this desire so that 

objective information goals will be attained.

A. Pre-Launch Activities (At Wallops Island) – The afternoon before 

the fi rst open launch at Wallops, the press will be permitted to view 

the Little Joe booster. This activity will take place before the animal 

subject (in the case of an animal fl ight) is inserted in the capsule. 

Photography will be permitted. The press kit will be handed out 

simultaneously at Wallops and in Washington on a “Hold for Release 

Until Launched” embargo.

Meanwhile, the Navy will be asked to provide photographic coverage on 

the recovery ships, and a billet for one NASA OPI representative.

The logistics briefi ng at Wallops will cover press release details, safety 

requirements and general test objectives. The Wallops Station will provide bus 

transportation on Wallops Island. No members of the launching team will be 

required until phase (c) below.

B. Launch Activities - The press will meet at the Mainland Dock two 

hours before launch for transportation to arrive at the viewing site 

one hour before scheduled launch.

C. Post-Launch Activities (Wallops Island) – A brief post-launch briefing will be held either at the viewing site or at the cafeteria building 

on Wallops. This briefi ng will discuss the launching phase, mission 

profi le, and any recovery data available at that time. Representatives 

of the launching team and Space Task Group will participate. 

[4]

(Washington) - NASA Washington will be the source of all post-launch scientifi c information. A Technical press briefi ng will be conducted about 24 hours 

after the launch to summarize all information known at that time. Representatives 

on the panel will be from NASA Headquarters; Space Task Group; STG Biomedical 

Group; Launching Team, and Recovery Team. 

Pre-launch information activities require training and housing still and 

motion pictures of the animal subjects. The responsible agency (i.e., USAF) will 

be asked to provide footage and a selection of photographs in these areas.

NASA will take and provide photographs (still and motion picture) of the 

animals in biopacks and the biopack insertion into the capsule.

At no time will the animal subjects be available to the press either for 

photography or viewing. NASA will follow this policy for these reasons:
144 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1- Test results are infl uenced by excitement, particularly since the animal 

subjects have led sheltered lives. A minimum of crowd activity is justifi ed from both scientifi c and clinical standpoints.

2- Elimination of all but necessary scientifi c persons curtails added 

chances of the primates contacting diseases.

3- Complex handling procedures for the animals will not be required.

4- The undesirable effects of the “Roman Holiday” atmosphere are 

eliminated.

While the above procedures indicate fairly full-dress coverage, the press 

will be permitted on the spot viewing at only two of the fi ve Wallops Station launchings. NASA OPI will assure that there will be no interruption of scientifi c activities 

and personnel until after the launch.

For the launches not open to the press, a NASA OPI representative will 

witness the fi rings and prepare releases on them.

Press activities at AMR are governed by the joint NASA-DOD agreement, 

but will be supplemented with the requirement that the animal subjects will at not 

time be available to the press, for the above reasons.

3. Summary 

NASA OPI will conduct information activities associated with animal 

launches in a factual manner which will satisfy requirements [5] for accurate reporting and non-interference with scientifi c personnel conducting the 

program.

Two launches at Wallops Island will be open to news media.

NASA and DOD personnel will be requested not to comment on aspects of the 

technical program outside their cognizance. Lines of responsibility are clear:

Management and overall responsibility – Space Task Group

Boosters- Langley Research Center (Little Joe)

- Army Ballistic Missile Agency (Redstone, Jupiter)

- Air Force Ballistic Missile Division – (Atlas)

Medical data correlation – NASA biomedical group

Capsule recovery - U.S. Navy under DOD assignment (Note: the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs has been designated sole liaison to 

NASA for the Mercury project. He is expected to detail cognizant military agencies to act in his name.)

Information - NASA OPI (Headquarters and fi eld)
Exploring the Unknown 145

 Before there is any critical deviation from this plan, the NASA Director of 

Public Information will discuss details with the Director, Space Flight Development 

and Director, Space Task Group.

-ENDDocument I-26

Document Title: A. J. Goodpaster, Brigadier General, USA, Memorandum of 

Conference with the President, 29 September 1959.

Source: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas.

From the beginning of his fi rst term in January 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower 

had a strategy for defeating the Soviet Union. It revolved around long-term economic, military, international, and social and moral perquisites that would enhance the U.S. as the 

world leader. It represented a commitment to constant pressure on the Soviet Union on a 

broad front, but refrained from a confrontation that would require nuclear war to resolve. A 

key ingredient of this strategy involved not responding to every situation vis à vis the Soviet 

Union as a crisis. Accordingly, he resisted the crisis sentiment that Sputnik and the early 

space race fostered among many policy-makers in Washington. This memorandum captures 

the spirit of that resistance by reporting on the President’s questioning of NASA’s proposed 

budget. Eisenhower’s approach to space activities stressed the development of launch vehicles 

for use in the ICBM program, satellite technology for reconnaissance and communications, 

infrastructure required to support these activities such as tracking and launch facilities, and 

utilitarian science that either directly supported those missions or was a natural byproduct of 

them. Eisenhower’s space program, however, did not include any real commitment to, or belief 

in, the goal of human spacefl ight. In Eisenhower’s view, human spacefl ight did not have a 

serious national security component, and therefore was probably not worthy of signifi cant federal expenditures. NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan was largely in sympathy with the 

President’s objectives, but faced pressures from elsewhere to surpass the Soviet efforts, hence the 

large increase in NASA’s budget for fi scal year 1961. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson (Dem-Texas), 

for one, vowed to put additional funding into any NASA budget submission so that it could do 

so. Glennan wrote in his diary that “Congress always wanted to give us more money . . . Only a 

blundering fool could go up to the Hill and come back with a result detrimental to the agency.” 

This memorandum refl ects these realities as NASA began undertaking Project Mercury.

[SECRET] [DECLASSIFIED]

September 30, 1959

MEMORANDUM OF CONFERENCE WITH THE PRESIDENT

 September 29, 1959

 Others present: Dr. Kistiakowsky

 General Goodpaster
146 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

The President began by saying had heard that Dr. Glennan is putting in for 

some $800 million in the FY-61 budget for space activities. He though this was 

much too great an increase over the current year and in fact said that he thought 

a program at a rather steady rate of about a half-billion dollars a year is as much 

as would make sense. Dr. Kistiakowsky said that he has had about the same fi gure 

in his mind, but pointed out that this amount would not allow enough funds for 

space “spectaculars” to compete psychologically with the Russians, while being a 

great deal more than could be justifi ed on the basis of scientifi c activity in relation to other scientifi c activities.

The President recalled that he has been stressing that we should compete in 

one or two carefully selected fi elds in our space activity, and not scatter our efforts 

across the board. He observed that other countries did not react to the Russian 

Sputnik the way the U.S. did (in fact, it was the U.S. hysteria that had most affect 

on other countries), even the United States did not react very greatly to the Soviet 

“Lunik” – the shot that hit the moon.

The President said he had understood that, through the NASA taking over 

ABMA, there was supposed to be a saving of money, but that it appeared this 

would in fact increase the NASA budget. He thought that Dr. Glennan should be 

talked to about this, away from his staff, who are pushing a wide range of projects, 

and advised not to overstress the psychological factor. The President thought we 

should take the “man in space project” and concentrate on it. He added he did 

not see much sense to the U.S. having more than one “super-booster” project. 

There should be only one. 

[2] 

Dr. Kistiakowsky said he strongly agreed on this. He pointed out that, by putting ABMA into NASA, there would be an over-all saving of money. The President 

reiterated that there is need for a serious talk with Dr. Glennan. He thought 

ABMA should be transferred to NASA and that we should pursue one big-booster 

project. Our concentration should be on real scientifi c endeavor. In the psychological fi eld, we should concentrate on one project, plus the natural “tangents” 

thereto. He thought perhaps Dr. Glennan is overrating the need for psychological impact projects. Dr. Kistiakowsky said that the Defense Department states that 

if Dr. Glennan does not push fast enough in space activities, Defense will do so. 

The President said we must also talk to Dr. York, and call on him to exercise judgment. He asked that a meeting be set up, to be attended by Dr. Glennan, Dr. 

Dryden, Dr. Kistiakowsky, Dr. York, and Secretary Gates in about ten days. The 

President stressed that we must think of the maintenance of a sound economy as 

well as the desirability of all these projects. He thought perhaps NASA sights are 

being set too high, including too many speculative projects. 

Dr. Kistiakowsky said that if Dr. Glennan goes in with a lower budget, there 

will be need for the President to support him publicly, because there will be a 

great deal of criticism about this. Dr. Kistiakowsky himself thinks that such a 

limitation may be wise, however, particularly when one contrasts the $60 million 

being given to the Science Foundation for research purposes with the $3/4 billion proposed to go into space activity, but a much lower NASA budget may not 
Exploring the Unknown 147

allow us to “compete” with the USSR. The President commented that the space 

activity is in the development and production state, which is more expensive, and 

Dr. Kistiakowsky recognized that, of course, this is true.

[Paragraphs 6-12 not included]

 A.J. Goodpaster

 Brigadier General, USA

Document I-27

Document Title: Wernher von Braun, Director, Development Operations Division, 

Army Ballistic Missile Agency, to Robert R. Gilruth, Space Task Group, NASA, 9 

October 1959.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Forth Worth, Texas.

Wernher von Braun (who was working for the U.S. Army at the time but transferred to 

NASA in1960), together with his German-led rocket team, wrote this memorandum to Robert 

Gilruth of the Space Task Group, which points out two critical aspects of early relations in 

NASA. First, it demonstrates the friendly rivalry that existed between competing entities in the 

Agency. Wernher von Braun, certainly pleased to be of assistance to a colleague and exceptionally mindful of the high quality of work required in building space technology, also enjoyed 

pointing out the fl aws that he saw in the construction of the Mercury spacecraft by McDonnell 

Aircraft Corporation that Gilruth’s group was managing. Gilruth and von Braun demonstrated this type of relationship throughout the era. Second, the memorandum demonstrates 

the intense level of “contractor penetration” that von Braun’s team was famous for in the 

management of its spacefl ight projects. Industry offi cials sometimes complained that working 

for von Braun’s engineers required acquiescing in a technical take-over in which government 

inspectors, many of whom were more qualifi ed to do the work than the industry technicians, 

constantly peered over the shoulders of the company workers and got involved in every aspect of 

the project. The comment in this memo on “soldering rods” would certainly be considered today 

to be a governmental intrusion into something that was the proper province of the company. 

The longstanding debate over “contractor penetration” lasted throughout Project Mercury, 

and indeed to the present, as NASA sought to strike a balance between necessary oversight and 

contractor autonomy. The letter was apparently drafted by Joachim Kuettner, von Braun’s 

associate who was the project engineer for the Mercury-Redstone portion of Project Mercury.

Kuettner/vonBraun/bh/4814

ORDAB-D 252

9 October 1959

Mr. Robert R. Gilruth

NASA- Space Task Group

Langley Field, Virginia

Dear Bob:
148 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 I am writing this letter in full knowledge that I am poking my nose into 

something that’s none of my business. But I am convinced that projecting a man 

two hundred miles down-range simply requires the ultimate in teamwork. This 

team composed of NASA, McDonnell, and ABMA must operate fl awlessly to drive 

on to a touchdown; for this time, there is human life at stake.

 It has come to my attention that one of our ball carriers has his shoelaces 

untied and doesn’t know it. If he trips and falls we may all lose the game and our 

astronaut his life. So I feel that I must pass along to you what has been brought to 

my attention, at the risk of making a few people sore.

 On a recent trip to McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, ABMA personnel 

were permitted to tour the facilities used to fabricate electrical cable harnesses. 

They discovered to their great consternation that in MAC’s electrical shops procedures long since discarded by ABMA as being inadequate and dangerous are still 

in practice.

 Samples:

-Soldering irons of excessive wattage are being used to make 

joints in pygmy connectors. (Reason: The shop is not air-conditioned; large cooling fans prohibit the use of correct, smaller 

soldering irons.)

-Poor connections are being hidden by potting compound (making inspection impossible).

 It has been our experience that conventional methods of soldering for 

aircraft are simply not acceptable in the missile [2] fi eld where any and all component [failures] usually result in an aborted mission. In MERCURY the life of 

an astronaut and the success of the entire project could be jeopardized by one 

bad solder connection.

 I don’t want to blame anyone in particular at MAC. I don’t even know 

who is responsible for this electrical shop. But I should like to suggest that you 

have someone from Langley look into this. While we would prefer to leave it up 

to you to take any further actions that you may deem advisable we are at your disposal if we can be of any further help.

Sincerely yours,

[Signed]

WERNHER VON BRAUN

Director

Development Operations Division

Copies furnished:

AB-DSRM (Record)

AB-D (Info)
Exploring the Unknown 149

Document I-28

Document Title: Mercury Astronauts, Memorandum For [Mercury] Project 

Director, NASA, “Exchange of Visits with Russian Astronauts,” 21 October 1959.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Fort Worth, Texas.

From the start of their careers at NASA, the seven Mercury astronauts were eager to make 

contact with their Soviet counterparts. These efforts were discouraged by NASA and White 

House leadership.

It was not until the 1960s that NASA astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts met each 

other in various places around the world. These visits were arranged for mostly propaganda 

purposes on both sides. American intelligence offi cials also foresaw the opportunity to pierce 

some of the secrecy surrounding the Soviet program if the two sets of pilots could talk with 

each other. The fi rst such interchange took place following the fl ight of Gherman Titov, when 

he visited with John Glenn at a May 1962 technical meeting in Washington, DC. The two 

men and their wives toured the Capitol and visited President John F. Kennedy in the White 

House. The next exchange between astronauts and cosmonauts did not take place until June 

1965 when astronauts James A. McDivitt and Edward H. White, along with Vice President 

Hubert H. Humphrey, met Yuri Gagarin at the Paris Air Show. As years passed cosmonauts 

and astronauts began to meet more frequently and freely.

NASA – Space Task Group

Langley Field, Virginia

October 21, 1959

MEMORANDUM: For Project Director

Subject: Exchange of visits with Russian Astronauts

1. The Russians have recently announced their man-in-space program and have 

given some publicity to the pilots selected. In the eyes of the rest of the world, 

it appears that Project Mercury is placed in a competitive position, whether 

we like it or not. This, of course, sets up for another barrage of unfavorable 

propaganda when, and if, the Russians achieve space fl ight before we do.

2. Certain action at this time might place us in a better position to gain information about their program and also take the propaganda initiative away from 

the Russians with regard to manned space fl ight. Suggested action is to propose mutual visits between the Astronauts of the two countries with the purpose of sharing information on training and mutual problem areas.

3. Propaganda-wise, we apparently stand to gain a great deal and could lose little 

or nothing.

a. The U.S. would have taken the initiative in sponsoring international 

cooperation in the manned space fi eld.
150 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

b. Such a proposal would support, to the world, our statements of the 

peaceful intent of Project Mercury as a scientifi c exploration with no 

ulterior motives. 

c. It is in keeping with the current political atmosphere engendered by 

the Khrushchev visit and the proposed presidential visit to Russia.

4. There appears to be little we could lose, in that practically all of the details of 

Project Mercury are already public domain and have been covered repeatedly 

in the press. The Russian program, on the other hand, has been secret, so 

anything we could learn would be new information. 

5. Refusal of the Russians to cooperate in such a proposal would certainly refl ect 

unfavorably in the eyes of other countries. These are countries already concerned about where the American-Russian space race is leading.

[2]

6. Timing of such a proposal is very important. If such a proposal is made, it 

should be done very soon, before either Russia or the U.S. has accomplished 

a man-in-space mission.

7. If we wait until we make the fi rst orbital fl ight, and then propose an exchange, 

it would appear that we are “rubbing it in” a little and are willing to throw a 

little information to our poor cousins who could not do it themselves. This 

would probably do us more harm than good in the attitude with the rest of the 

world.

8. If, on the other hand, we wait until the Russians have made the fi rst orbital 

fl ight before we propose such an exchange, it would appear that we are trying 

to get information on how they did it because we have not been able tot do 

the same thing. This would also do us harm in the eyes of other countries.

9. To summarize, we stand to gain information in an exchange of visits, while 

giving little information that is not already known. Propaganda value of such 

a proposal and visit should be very favorable for us, if the proposal is made 

from the U.S. and before either country has made an orbital fl ight.

10. One way to assess the value of such a proposal is to think of our reaction and 

the reaction of other countries if the Russians make such a proposal fi rst. It 

appears that we stand to gain by making the proposal fi rst. 

11. It is realized that there are many considerations involved in such a proposal. 

NASA, State Department, Intelligence, and many other government sources 

concerned must have vital inputs that will determine whether the proposal is 

not only feasible, but advisable.

12. The proposal is herewith submitted for consideration.

M. Scott Carpenter

Lieutenant, USN
Exploring the Unknown 151

Leroy G. Cooper

Captain, USAF

John H. Glenn

Lt. Col., USMC

Virgil I. Grissom

Captain, USAF

Walter M. Schirra

Lt. Cmdr., USN

Alan B. Shepard

Lt. Cmdr., USN

Donald K. Slayton

Captain, USAF

Document I-29

Document Title: Charles L. Wilson, Captain, USAF, ed., WADC Technical Report 

59-505, “Project Mercury Candidate Evaluation Program,” December 1959.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The selection of the astronauts for Project Mercury involved numerous organizations 

and types of activities for the various candidates. One of the key organizations was the 

Aeromedical Laboratory of the Wright Air Development Center in Dayton, Ohio. This U.S. Air 

Force facility was one of the most prestigious in the world and had been involved in aerospace 

medicine for many years. Its scientists had conducted tests on NASA’s astronaut candidates in 

the spring of 1959 to ascertain which of them might be most appropriate for spacefl ight. This 

technical report discusses how and why the center became involved in the initial astronaut selection process and the work undertaken in choosing the Mercury Seven.

WADC TECHNICAL REPORT 59-505

PROJECT MERCURY CANDIDATE EVALUATION PROGRAM

Charles L . Wilson, Captain. USAF, MC

Editor

Aerospace Medical Laboratory

December 1959

Project No. 7164

Task No. 71832
152 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

WRIGHT AIR DEVELOPMENT CENTER

AIR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COMMAND

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO

INTRODUCTION

C. L. Wilson, Capt., USAF, MC

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a U.S. 

Government civilian agency, has been assigned the task of exploring the feasibility 

of space travel. As a result of thorough and exhaustive study, NASA has concluded 

that certain aspects of space travel are feasible and, furthermore, that some will 

be practicable in the very near future. One profi le of space travel envisions that a 

human pilot, transported in a life support system (capsule), could be thrust into 

orbit by a liquid fuel rocket, maintained there for several revolutions around the 

earth, and successfully and safely recovered from orbit. Project Mercury intends 

to realize this vision.

Among the many strategic questions to be answered is: “Who will the 

pilot be?” This report describes how and why the Aerospace Medical Laboratory 

participated in the selection of the seven Mercury Astronauts.

HISTORY

The Human Factors Division of the Air Research and Development 

Command (ARDC) has been keenly aware of the need for clarifi cation of the 

parameters of human endurance, safety, and com fort during periods of unusual 

stress. In 1952 Brig.Gen. Don Flickinger, USAF, MC, began directing biomedical 

research toward the development of tests to assist in selecting pilots for special 

research projects. Under his guidance Capt. T. F. McGuire, USAF, MC, of the 

Aerospace Medical Labora tory, employed a series of physiological, psychological, and biochemical tests which were incorpo rated into a stress-test program. Dr. 

McGuire’s experience extended over a 4-year period, during which time he tested 

several special groups. These included USAF pilots and young volunteers from 

the University of Dayton. In his fi nal months at the Aerospace Medical Laboratory 

he stress-tested 12 USN underwater demolition men (frogmen) kindly loaned 

by the Underwater Demolition Unit 11, Little Creels, Virginia. The results of 

his research are presented in Stress Tolerance Studies, Part I, and Tolerance to 

Physical Stress, Part II. Part III is being completed and will contain a supportive 

bibliography. Dr. McGuire rightfully should receive credit for his work in this 

fi eld and development of early prototype crew selection profi les. Several new tests 

have been made available since then and are discussed later.

Captain F. J. Leary, USAF, MC, of the Aerospace Medical Laboratory also 

gained considerable experience in candidate evaluation. His research brought 

about modifi cation of the cold pressor test to its present form. Previous testing 

utilized the immersion of one foot, then both feet. He also studied the reproducibility of physiological response on the same subject when tested on different 
Exploring the Unknown 153

days. He developed early scoring techniques based on physiological response. 

Modifi cations of his techniques were employed in the Mercury Candidate 

Evaluation Program.

Captain W.S. Augerson, USA, MC, was immensely valuable in the development of the fi nal test profi le. He assisted in a review of literature, experienced 

the actual tests, and offered valuable opinions on areas where improvement was 

indicated.

Two assistant investigators during the period of 1957 to 1958 were 

Gardner Edwards, M, D. (then a University of Virginia medical student on a 

USAF-sponsored scholarship), and Robert McAdam, associate professor of physical education, Northern Illinois University.

[2]

APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF CANDIDATE EVALUATION

The ultimate purpose of any crew recommendation development program is to devise and validate tests which can be used with reliability in selecting crew members for future projects. The Project Mercury Candidate Evaluation 

Program was an important stage in this ARDC development program. Since the 

actual approach to this research problem departs from the ideal approach, it will 

help to present both the ideal and actual methods of attack.

Ideal Approach to Problem:

1 . The candidates must be medically acceptable and technically capable 

before they will he considered as potential candidates.

2. Those who are tested must be the actual project candidates. A large 

candidate population will increase the reliability of the results.

3. The test profi le must simulate all aspects of the stresses anticipated 

during the actual project. The simulated stresses must be combined in the same 

relationship and intensity as they would occur during the project.

4. A battery of nonsimulating but relevant tests must be included in 

the testing program. These tests will be used to identify signifi cant correlations 

between the response to simulating and nonsimulating tests. The ultimate goal is 

to replace simulating tests with the more easily administered, nonsimulating tests 

in future programs

5. In the fi nal recommendation of candidates, the investigators must only 

interpret subject performance on the simulating tests. Nonsimulating test performance will not affect recommendation of this fi rst group of candidates.

6. All candidates, both recommended and not recommended, must enter 

the project.
154 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

7. At the completion of the project all of the participants must be graded 

on the effectiveness of their performances.

8. The investigators must then seek signifi cant correlations between subject performances on the various simulating and nonsimulating tests and successful mission performances.

9. Those nonsimulating tests bearing signifi cant correlation with successful mission performances may then be used to select future subjects from an 

identical population for identical projects. These future crew members will be 

highly reliable risks in successfully completing their missions. This is the goal of 

all endeavors at crew selection.

Actual Approach to Problem:

Inherent errors are frequently introduced when making a transition from 

an ideal to an applied test program due, for example, to time limitations, accelerated schedules, or unforeseen changes. The actual approach to the problem is 

stated below, preceded by an underlined restatement of the ideal approach:

 1. The candidates must be medically acceptable and technically capable 

before they will be considered as potential candidates. The candidates were medically acceptable and technically capa ble. They met the following requirements: a. 

were pilots in the Department of Defense, b. had received engineering degrees, 

c. had successfully graduated from a military test pilot school, d. had achieved at 

least 1500 hours of total fl ying time, and e. each man’s height was 5’11” or less 

One hundred and ten men met the above requirements. Sixty-nine of these men 

were invited to a [3] NASA briefi ng where the detailed plans of Project Mercury 

were revealed. The subjects were then asked if they desired to volunteer as competitive candidates. Fifty-fi ve of them volunteered.

 2. Those who are tested must be the actual project candidates. A large 

candidate population will increase the reliability of the results. Those who were 

tested actually were the Project Mercury candidates. The 55 men who were 

accepted were given a series of interviews and psychological tests. On the basis 

of the data thus obtained, 32 were chosen for the fi nal phase of the selection 

program. The 32 candidates were sent to the Lovelace Foundation, Albuquerque, 

New Mexico, for extensive medical histories, physical examinations, and biochemical and physiological tests.* A large random candidate population was not 

used. If the candidate population had been larger it would have been impossible 

to process them in time to meet the close time schedules of the project.

3. The test profi le must simulate all aspects of the stresses anticipated 

during the actual project. It was impossible to devise a laboratory situation which 

exactly duplicated the stresses anticipated during Protect Mercury. A rational 

alternative approach was to list the anticipated stresses and to use what laboratory 

tools were available.
Exploring the Unknown 155

Anticipated Stresses:

a. The men who were chosen could expect a 2- to 3-year period of intensive training including a study of space-frame structures, propulsion, inertial 

guidance, systems reliability, aerodynamics, and physiology. They would actively 

participate in training exercises such as: physical fi tness, capsule parachute landings, ballistic trajectory fl ights, and underwater escape from capsules. These represent a prolonged period of genuine stresses.

The best practical laboratory tools to test these areas were: (1) review their 

past accomplishments, (2) extract personal histories, and (3) conduct psychiatric 

interviews and psychological tests. Additional information could be derived from 

observation of these candidates during moments of calibrated hazing such as: 

acceleration, pressure suit testing, immersing feet in ice water, and isolating the 

subject. The accumulated impressions of these trained observers should guarantee highly reliable maturity in those recommended.

b. Psychological and physical stresses will exist before, during, and after 

each fl ight. The psychological stresses will include fears and anxiety about possible 

accidents or death. Although well disguised in the mature test pilot, they will be present. The psychiatric evaluation should reveal those who are stable and reliable.

The physical stresses of blast-off and orbit will include acceleration, noise, 

vibration, weightlessness, tumbling if stabilization is not achieved, and possible 

capsule depressurization. Those insults of re-entry will contain deceleration, 

noise, vibration, and heat if the cooling system fails. Landing will be accompanied 

by deceleration. Before recovery there is the possibility that the capsule will sink. 

There is also the possibility of isolation in a remote and uninhabitable climate 

and topography.

The physical facilities available at the Aerospace Medical Laboratory are 

able to duplicate the important physical and psychological stresses mentioned 

above. These facilities include: human centrifuge, extremely low-pressure (high-altitude) chamber, heat-controlled test rooms, equilibrium-vibration chair, intense 

noise generator, aircraft (C-131B) specially modifi ed to safely fl y Keplerian trajectories (weightlessness), tumbling turntable, psychiatric interviewing rooms, and 

anechoic chamber.

Simulating Tests:

* The tests performed at the Lovelace Foundation are detailed in the 

Appendix. [not included]

Those tests simulating stresses anticipated during Project Mercury are: 

transverse g profi les (acceleration tests) and vibration-equilibrium and intense 

noise profi les (biological acoustical tests). Weightlessness tests were not performed on the candidates for one main reason: it would have been impossible 

in scheduling always to meet the minimum fl ying safety requirements for each 

fl ight each day for 6 weeks. Tumbling tests are so unpleasant and the nausea so 

prolonged as to warrant its exclusion for the profi le.
156 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

4. The simulated tests must be combined in the same relationship and 

intensity as they would occur during the project. The physical separation of test 

facilities rendered it highly impractical to improvise superimposed stress. While 

a multi-stress facility was desirable, it was not mandatory for study of the candidates. In any interpretation, partial data when expertly gathered is much more 

desirable than no data at all. This reasoning serves to defend the approach that 

was fi nally taken.

5. A battery of nonsimulating but relevant tests must be included in the 

testing program. These tests must be easy to administer and safe. A battery of easily administered and safe nonsimulating tests was incorporated into the program. 

They were (physical fi tness tests): Harvard step, Flack, cold pressor, and tilt table. 

A battery of more complex nonsimulating tests was also devised. The investigators 

believed these might correlate signifi cantly with simulating tests. The complex 

tests cannot be easily and/or safely administered. These tests are: positive g to 

blackout (acceleration); extensive anthropometric and photogrammetric measurements, somatotyping (anthropological); urinary catacholamines, plasma corticosteroids, urinary 3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid (biochemical); speech 

intelligibility (biological acoustical); 2 hours of heat stress (thermal); treadmill, 

MC-1 partial pressure suit (physical fi tness); all tests administered (psychological); and maximum breathing capacity, bicycle ergometer, electrical stimulation 

of muscles (Lovelace Foundation).

6. In the fi nal recommendation of candidates the investigators must only 

interpret subject performance on the simulating tests. Nonsimulating test performance will not affect recommendation of this fi rst group of candidates. Some of 

these nonsimulating tests were interpreted and did affect the recommendation of 

candidates. This was intentional. The sum total of data gathered from all of the 

simulating tests, although valuable, was insuffi cient to render candidate recommendations with confi dence. However, the investigators agreed that, if they were 

also allowed to interpret some of the nonsimulating tests with which they were 

intimately familiar, they could then attach great con fi dence to the fi nal recommendations. It was unanimously agreed that each investigator-group would be 

allowed to interpret the nonsimulating tests which they chose. The main goal of 

this particular crew selection development program was to recommend outstanding candidates. An important but secondary goal was to discover the existence 

of signifi cant correlations. It was unsound practice to omit data or impressions 

which might possibly affect the success of Project Mercury. Those nonsimulating tests which were interpreted and which did affect the fi nal candidate recommendations were: positive g (acceleration); index of strain (thermal); Harvard 

step, Flack, cold pressor (only if feet were prematurely withdrawn), treadmill, 

MC-1 partial pressure suit (if subject terminated test for psychological reasons), 

tilt table (physical fi tness tests); and all tests administered (psychological).

Those nonsimulating tests which were not used in the fi nal candidate 

recommendations were: all measurements (anthropological); all measurements 

(biochemical); speech intelligibility (biological acoustical); and cold pressor test 

development of hypertension and/or tachycardia, MC-1 test development of presyncope or tachycardia >160, Valsalva overshoot., and tilt table (physical fi tness tests).
Exploring the Unknown 157

7. All candidates both recommended and not recommended must enter 

the project. All of the candidates did not enter the project. The fi nal selection 

took into consideration all of the assets of the candidates. These assets included 

past training, experience, recommendations from the Lovelace Foundation, and 

recommendations from the Aerospace Medical Laboratory (AML).

 8. At the completion of the project all of the participants must be graded on 

the effectiveness of their performances. The above condition has not been satisfi ed 

as this report nears completion. It will require several years to satisfy this condition.

 9. The investigators must then seek signifi cant correlations between subject performances on the various simulating and nonsimulating tests and successful mission performances. Since condition [5] 8. is not satisfi ed, this condition also 

cannot be satisfi ed. An alternative approach has been used. It has been assumed 

that the Mercury Astronauts are the best potential group to fulfi ll the mission of 

Project Mercury. It has also been assumed that they will carry out the mission successfully. There is confi dence that these assumptions will mature into fact. Based 

upon these assumptions a signifi cant correlation study has been sought. Ideally, it 

is premature. Practically, it is valuable, since the program has demonstrated tests 

that should be pursued in future crew recommendation studies.

Each chapter has been written by the appropriate principal investigator. Throughout this report the candidates will be referred to by alphabet letters 

assigned to their names. There is no relationship between these alphabetical designations and their names or NASA numbers. It is impossible for the reader to 

identify a particular subject’s name or performance. This system was designed to 

maintain the privileged communication due each candidate.

REFERENCES

0.1. McGuire, T. F. Stress Tolerance Studies, Part I. Unpublished Data. 1958.

0.2. McGuire, T. F. Tolerance to Physical stress, Part II. Unpublished Data. 1958.

[pp. 6-98 not included]

[99]

CHAPTER X

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Thirty-one highly selected adult males were the subjects of a crew recommendation study. Data were gathered from the performance of each subject on 

each test. One hundred and four performance variables were correlated. The following statements represent preliminary impressions from this Project Mercury 

Candidate Evaluation Program. It is recognized that the investigators were studying a small, highly selected population. Therefore, it is diffi cult to render conclusions on statistical signifi cance.
158 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1. Psychological stability is the most important consideration in evaluating a candidate. The intelligence, maturity, and motivation of a candidate are 

vital areas to be assessed before rendering a recommendation.

2. Excellent physiological performance was a secondary consideration in 

the fi nal Committee recommendations.

3. The main value of a severely stressful physiological test was the interpretation of the psychological response to that stress test. Whenever a subject 

terminated a severe test for psychological reasons, he was not recommended by 

the Committee.

4. It is possible to eliminate subjects by use of stressful tests. It is not presently possible to select subjects with confi dence, where selection is based entirely 

upon their excellent physiological performances.

5. No single, nonsimulating test has been identifi ed which will be of great 

assistance in recommending crew members. A large battery of tests, such as were 

performed, lends confi dence to the fi nal recommendations.

6. Whenever a candidate is being considered for a special mission, it is 

desirable that a large number of trained observers each have the opportunity to 

test him and to render an opinion before the fi nal recommendation

7. This study has demonstrated that there is no statistically signifi cant difference in the physiological or biochemical responses of the Mercury Astronauts 

when compared with the remainder of the NASA candidates.

8. There is no evidence to support a thesis which maintains that visual 

inspection, biochemical measurements, or physiological responses of a candidate 

are of principal value in rendering a reliable recommendation of suitable candidates. These are secondary considerations.

9. While the hormones and their metabolites are valuable research 

tools, this study has demonstrated that they were not signifi cantly different in the 

Mercury Astronauts when compared with the remaining NASA candidates.

10. There is every reason to suspect that safe, standardized, moderately 

stressful and severely stressful tests (such as having the subject walk on the treadmill until he voluntarily terminates) would be of great assistance in future crew recommendation programs, since severe stress also tests the candidate’s motivation.

11. It is believed that testing of those who did not volunteer as candidates 

would be valuable, since the nonvolunteer group might lack the same intensity of 

motivation which was possessed by the volunteers.

Document I-30

Document Title: John Glenn, Mercury Astronaut, NASA, to Lieutenant Commander 

Jim Stockdale, USN, 17 December 1959.
Exploring the Unknown 159

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

This letter from astronaut John Glenn to then Lieutenant Commander James B. 

Stockdale, United States Navy, offers a personal perspective on the early Mercury program 

and the role of the astronaut in it. Stockdale, a classmate of Glenn’s at the Navy’s Test Pilot 

School at Patuxent River, Maryland, would later gain fame as one of the earliest heroes of 

Vietnam when he was shot down in 1965 and was held as a prisoner of war in the Hoa Lo 

prison for seven years. Debilitated by torture and maltreatment, Stockdale could hardly walk 

upon his return to the U.S. in 1973. He received the Medal of Honor in 1976. Stockdale 

eventually retired from the Navy as a Vice Admiral. In 1992, he was a candidate for Vice 

President on a ticket headed by Ross Perot. 

December 17, 1959

Lt. Commander Jim Stockdale, USN

VF-24

C/O FPO

San Francisco, California

Dear Jim:

 Quite a bit of water over the dam or under the bridge since I saw you last. 

Saw Phil Bolger at the TPT Reunion a couple of months ago and, in talking about 

various and sundry subjects, your name came up naturally. I don’t know if you fall in 

the category of various or sundry, but anyhow, Phil reminded me again of something 

I had already known before and that was of your interest in the space program. So 

I thought I would give you a short run down on what we have been doing.

 How are things doing on the USS Boat incidentally? I don’t have any idea 

if you are still deployed or not, but I think from what Phil said that this letter will 

probably fi nd you still at sea.

 This past 8 or 9 months has really been a hectic program to say the least 

and by far the most interesting thing in which I have ever taken part, outside of 

combat. It is certainly a fascinating fi eld, Jim, and growing so fast that it is hard to 

keep up with the major developments, much less everything in the fi eld.

 Following our selection in April, we were assigned to the Space Task 

Group, portion of NASA at Langley Field, and that is where we are based when 

not traveling. The way it has worked out, we have spent so much time on the 

road that Langley has amounted to a spot to come back to get clean skivvies and 

shirts and that’s about all. We have had additional sessions at Wright Field in 

which we did heat chamber, pressure chamber, and centrifuge work and spent a 

couple of weeks this fall doing additional centrifuge work up at NADC, Johnsville, 

Pennsylvania. This was some program since we were running it in a lay-down position similar to that which we will use in the capsule later on and we got up to as 

high as 16 g’s. That’s a batch in any attitude, lay-down or not.
160 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

 With the angles we were using, we found that even lying down at 16 g’s, 

it took just about every bit of strength and technique you could muster to retain 

consciousness. We found there was quite a bit more technique involved in taking 

this kind of g than we had thought. Our tolerances from beginning to end of runs 

during the period we worked up there went up considerably as we developed our 

own technique for taking this high g. A few runs a day like that can really get to you. 

Some other stuff we did up there involved what we call tumble runs or [2] going 

from a +g in 2 seconds to a –g and the most we did on this was in going from a +9g 

to a –9g. Obviously, a delta of 18. This was using pretty much a standard old A/N 

seat belt, shoulder harness type restraint system that we have used in Beechcraft for 

many years. When we fi rst talked about doing this, I didn’t think it would be possible at all, but in doing a careful build-up, we happily discovered that this was not so 

horrible. At +9g to –9g, we were bouncing around a bit but it was quite tolerable.

 I guess one of the most interesting aspects of the program has been in 

some of the people we have been fortunate enough to meet and be briefed by. 

One of the best in this series was the time we spent at Huntsville, Alabama, with 

Dr. Wernher von Braun and crew. We were fortunate enough to spend an evening with him in his home until about 2:30 in the morning going through a scrap 

book, etc., from Peenemunde days in Germany and, in general, shooting the bull 

about his thoughts on the past, present, and future of space activities. This was a 

real experience for a bunch of country boys fresh caught on the program and a 

very heady experience as you can imagine.

 We have had a good run-down at Cape Canaveral and got to see one of 

their shots. I guess that is one of the most dramatic things I have ever seen. The 

whole procedure they go through for a night launch at the Cape is just naturally 

a dramatic picture far better than anything Hollywood could stage. When the Big 

Bird fi nally leaves the pad, it doesn’t have to be hammed up to be impressive.

 Much of our work, of course, has involved engineering work on the capsule and systems. My particular specialty area has been the cockpit layout and 

instrumentation presentation for the Astronauts. This has been extremely interesting because we are working on an area way out in left fi eld where our ideas are 

as good as any one else’s. So, you try to take the best of your past experiences 

and launch from there with any new ideas you can contrive. This is the kind of 

development work, as you well know, that is by far the most enjoyable.

 We just fi nished an interesting activity out at Edwards Air Force Base 

doing some weightless fl ying in the F-100. This was in the two-place F-100 so that 

we could ride in the rear seat and try various things such as eating and drinking 

and mechanical procedures while going through the approximately 60-second 

ballistic parabola that you make with the TF-100. That started at about 40,000 

feet, 30 degree dive to 25,000, picking up about 1.3 to 1.4 Mach number, pull out 

and get headed up hill again at 25,000 and about a 50 to 60 degree climb angle, at 

which point they get a zero-g parabola over the top to about 60 degrees down hill.

[3]
Exploring the Unknown 161

 You can imagine quite a bit in a full minute in those conditions and contrary to this being a problem, I think I have fi nally found the element in which I 

belong. We had done a little previous work fl oating around in the cabin of the 

C-131 they use at Wright Field. That is even more fun yet, because you are not 

strapped down and can fl oat around in the capsule doing fl ips, walk on the ceiling, or just come fl oating full length of the cabin while going through the approximately 15-seconds of weightlessness that they can maintain on their shorter 

parabola. That was a real ball and we get some more sessions with this machine 

some time after the fi rst of the year. 

 Before this next year is out, we should get the manned Redstone ballistic 

shots started which will put us to orbital altitude of 105 nautical miles, but not up 

to the orbital speeds so that we arc back down off the Cape about 200 miles from 

the pad. We fi gure now that the fi rst actual manned orbital shots should follow in 

mid to late 1961.

 If you get back this way, Jim, be sure and give me a call. There is no 

information available yet at all on follow-on programs and what or who might get 

involved in them. I know you are probably still interested in that who part.

 I don’t know if this letter is too informative, but if it gets any longer we 

will have to grade it like a TPT fl ight report - by the pound.

 Give my regards to the family and I hope you get off that unprivate yacht 

before too long

Sincerely,

[Signed John Glenn]

Document I-31

Document Title: Robert B. Voas, NASA Space Task Group, “Project Mercury 

Astronaut Training Program,” 30 May 1960.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

During the build up to the fi rst U.S. spacefl ight, NASA’s public affairs staff allowed controlled 

media access to the Mercury astronauts; numerous photographs abound showing the Mercury 

Seven engaged in weightless simulations during parabolic fl ight, centrifuge tests, altitude 

chamber research, physical fi tness training, survival school, pilot profi ciency preparation, 

or a host of other activities. But even so, few understood how these various activities fi t 

together and led to the creation of the astronaut team that fl ew on Project Mercury. This 

document helps to explain this process, providing a general outline of the nature of the 

various activities of the astronauts as they prepared for their missions, and the reasons for 

undertaking such rigorous activities.

PROJECT MERCURY ASTRONAUT TRAINING PROGRAM

By Robert B. Voas*
162 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

NASA Space Task Group

Langley Field, Va.

For Presentation at the Symposium on

Psychophysiological Aspects of Space Flight

San Antonio, Texas

May 26-27, 1960

*Voas- Training Offi cer, Lt. U.S. Navy Medical Service Corps, assigned to NASA 

Space Task Group.

[1]

SUMMARY

This paper gives a general outline of the NASA Project Mercury Astronaut 

training program. Basic considerations which entered into the development of 

the program are listed. Six primary training areas are described, together with the 

training equipment and facilities which have been employed. Problem areas for 

future training programs are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Any training program must be based on three factors: the nature of the 

job for which training is required, the characteristics of the men to be trained, and 

the facilities and time available in which to do the training. In Project Mercury 

the Astronaut’s job involves both fl ight and nonfl ight tasks. He is expected to 

contribute to systems design and to the development of operational procedures 

through his daily contact with the project engineers. It was considered that by 

virtue of the selection process, the Astronaut had the required skills to make 

these contributions; therefore, no training was attempted for these nonfl ight 

tasks. The Astronaut’s in-fl ight activities can be broken down into six areas: (1) 

“programming” or monitoring the sequence of vehicle operations during launch, 

orbit, and reentry; (2) systems management - the monitoring and operation of 

the onboard systems, such as the environmental control, the electrical systems, 

the communications systems, and so forth (3) the vehicle attitude control; (4) 

navigation; (5) communications; and (6) research and evaluation. In addition to 

these in-fl ight activities, the Astronaut has a number of ground tasks connected 

with the fl ight operations. He has a role in the countdown and preparation of the 

vehicle; in communications from the ground to the vehicle; and in the recovery 

program following the fl ight. It is for these activities associated with the fl ight 

itself that a training program was undertaken. More detailed descriptions of the 

Astronaut’s tasks are available in papers by Slayton (ref. 1) and Jones (ref. 2). 

It should be noted that the Astronaut’s job is only one of many associated with 

space fl ight for which training is required. Brewer (ref. 3) has outlined the overall 

training requirements for Project Mercury.

[2]
Exploring the Unknown 163

The Astronaut selection program was designed to select individuals 

who would require a minimum of training in order to fulfi ll the Mercury job 

requirements. Particularly desired were individuals who had suffi cient experience 

in aircraft development operations to make immediate contributions to the 

Project Mercury program. On this basis, the following criteria were adopted as 

the minimum requirements for qualifi cation as a Project Mercury Astronaut:

(1) Age - less than 40

(2) Height - Less than 5 ft 11 in.

(3) Excellent physical condition

(4) Bachelor’s degree (or equivalent)

(5) Graduate of test-pilot school

(6) 1,500 hours fl ying Time

(7) Qualifi ed jet pilot

Records of 508 Air Force, Navy, Marine, and Army pilots who had 

graduated from test-pilot school were reviewed and screened on the basis of these 

requirements. Of these, 110 met the seven basic requirements. Forty-one of these 

pilots were eliminated through further screening based on recommendations 

from instructors at the test-pilot schools. The remaining 69 pilots were interviewed 

and given an opportunity to volunteer for the Project Mercury program. Of 

these, 37 pilots either declined or were eliminated as a result of the initial job 

interviews. The remaining 32 who were considered to be qualifi ed in education 

and experience were given detailed medical examinations and were exposed to 

the physical stresses expected in the space fl ight. The nature of these tests has 

been described in more detail in references 4 and 5. On the basis of the medical 

examination and the stress tests, the number of candidates was reduced to 18, 

from which were selected the seven who demonstrated the most outstanding 

professional background and knowledge in relationship to the job requirements. 

Through this procedure, a group of experienced test pilots with extensive training 

in engineering, excellent health, and a high motivation in the Mercury Project 

were selected for the training program. The availability of such individuals makes 

it possible to utilize to a great extent self-instruction and to minimize the amount 

of formal group training required.

At the outset, few, if any, facilities were available to support the training 

program. Both training devices and training manuals have become available in 

stages throughout the fi rst 12 to 15 months of the training program. The more 

elaborate and complete training devices were [3] not placed in operation until 

over a year after its initiation. As a result, the early part of the training program 

depended upon review of design drawings in vehicle components and on travel to 

various Mercury production facilities to attend design briefi ngs. Great dependence 

was put upon verbal presentations by scientists of the NASA Space Task Group 

and of the prime contractor. In addition, early in the program, extensive use was 
164 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

made of established Armed Forces aeromedical facilities for familiarizing the 

Astronauts with the conditions of space fl ight. Thus, the training methods and 

the order in which topics were presented were, to a great extent, dictated by the 

resources available at the time the program was initiated.

Since mature, intelligent trainees were selected and since little if any 

training equipment was available initially, it might have been argued that the 

Astronauts should be allowed to work completely on their own without any attempt 

to a group program. There are, however, a number of desirable factors to be 

gained by such a program. A planned group program facilitates the scheduling of 

activities with other organizations. In addition, a structured program permits more 

effi cient use of instructor and student time. It also makes possible progress from 

one aspect of the operation to the next in an appropriate sequence. Sequence in 

training activities is important, since learning is simplifi ed if material is presented 

in a logical order. An organized program also insures completeness in that no 

major training requirement is overlooked. Finally, since this project represents 

a fi rst effort of its kind, the use of a group program facilitates the collecting of 

records and the evaluation both of the Astronaut’s progress and of the various 

training activities.

The program which has resulted from these considerations has allotted 

about one-half of the time to group activities and the other half to individually 

planned activities in each Astronaut’s area of specialization. A review of the 

Astronauts’ travel records provides an example of the relative division of their time 

between group training and other duties associated with the development of the 

Mercury vehicle. During the 6-month period from July 1 to December 31, 1959, 

the Astronauts were on travel status almost 2 months or 1 out of every 3 days. Half 

of this travel time (28 days) was spent on four group-training activities: a centrifuge 

program; a trip to Air Force Flight Test Center, Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, 

and Convair; a weightless fl ying program; and trips to fl y high-performance aircraft 

during a period when the local fi eld was closed. The other half of their travel time 

(27 days) was devoted to individual trips to attend project coordination meetings 

at McDonnell and the Atlantic Missile Range, or for pressure-suit fi ttings, couch 

moldings, and viewing of qualifi cation tests at McDonnell, B. F. Goodrich Co., and 

their subcontractors’ plants. These individual activities, while providing important 

trailing benefi ts, are primarily dictated by the Project Mercury development program 

requirements and are not considered part of the group training program.

[4]

The extent to which the Mercury crew space area is “customized” to the 

seven Astronauts and the time required to fi t the man to the vehicle should be 

noted. Each man has had to travel to B. F. Goodrich for a pressure-suit fi tting and 

to a subcontractor for helmet fi ttings; then to the Air Crew Equipment Laboratory 

for tests to the suit under heat and lowered pressure; then to McDonnell for couch 

molding. Usually, he has been required to return to the suit manufacturer for a 

second fi tting and to McDonnell for fi nal fi ttings of the couch and studies of his 

ability to reach the required instruments and controls in the capsule. While the 

Mercury vehicle is more limited in size than future spacecraft, the cost of space 

fl ight and the limited personnel involved will probably always dictate a certain 
Exploring the Unknown 165

amount of customizing of the crew space. The time required for this hype of 

activity should not be underestimated.

TRAINING PROGRAM

The Astronaut training program can be divided into six major topic areas. 

The primary requirement, of course, is to train the Astronaut to operate the vehicle. In 

addition, it is desirable that he have a good background knowledge of such scientifi c 

areas related to space fl ight as propulsion, trajectories, astronomy, and astrophysics. 

He must be exposed to and familiarized with the conditions of space fl ight such as 

acceleration, weightlessness, heat, vibration, noise, and disorientation. He must 

prepare himself physically for those stresses which he will encounter in space fl ight. 

Training is also required for his duties at ground stations before and after his own 

fl ight and during the fl ight of other members of the Astronaut team. An aspect of the 

training which might be overlooked is the maintenance of the fl ying skill which was an 

important factor in his original selection for the Mercury program.

Training in vehicle operation. – Seven training procedures or facilitates were 

used in developing skills in the operation of the Mercury capsule. These included 

lectures on the Mercury systems and operations; fi eld trips to organizations engaged 

in the Mercury Projects; training manuals; specialty study programs by the individual 

Astronaut; mockup inspections; and training devices. To provide the Astronaut with 

a basic understanding of the Mercury system, its components, and its functions, a 

lecture program was set. up. A short trip was made to McDonnell at which time a 

series of lectures on the capsule systems was presented. These systems lectures were 

then augmented by lectures on operations areas by Space Task Group scientists. 

This initial series of lectures provided a basis for later self-study, in which use was 

made of written descriptive material as it became available. Individual lectures have 

been repeated as the developments within project Mercury have required a series 

of lectures on capsule systems by both Space Task Group and McDonnell personnel 

have been scheduled to coincide with the delivery [5] and initial operation of the 

fi xed-base Mercury trainer. In these lectures, the same areas are reviewed in an 

attempt to bring the Astronauts up-to-date on each of the systems as they begin their 

primary procedures training program.

In addition to this lecture program, indoctrination trips have been 

made to the major facilities concerned with the Project Mercury operations. 

Two days were spent at each of the following facilities: McDonnell, Cape 

Canaveral, Marshall Space Flight Center, Edwards Flight Test Center, and Space 

Technology Laboratories and Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. One day was 

spent at Rocketdyne Division, North American Aviation, and fi ve days were spent 

at Convair/Astronautics. At each site there was a tour of the general facilities 

together with a viewing of Mercury capsule or booster hardware and lectures by 

top-level personnel covering their aspect of the Mercury operation. The Astronauts 

also had an opportunity to hear of related research vehicles such as the X-l5 and 

Discoverer and received a brief discussion of the technical problems arising in 

these programs and their signifi cance to Project Mercury.

Obtaining current and comprehensive study materials on a rapidly 

developing program such as Project Mercury is a major problem. McDonnell has 
166 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

been providing manuals covering Project Mercury systems. The fi rst of these was 

the Indoctrination Manual and was delivered at the time of an early Astronaut 

visit in May 1959. No attempt was made to keep this manual current and a fi rst 

edition of a full systems manual (Familiarization Manual) was issued in September 

1959. It quickly became out of date, however, and a new manual, a second edition 

of the Familiarization Manual was issued in December of the same year. A fi rst 

copy of the Capsule Operations Manual (Astronauts’ Handbook) was delivered 

in June of 1960. During initial phases of the program, the Astronauts have had to 

depend primarily on capsule specifi cations and specifi cation control drawings for 

written information on capsule systems. Copies of these, however, were not always 

available and they were too large to compile into a single manual.

Valuable aids to the Astronauts in keeping abreast of the status of the 

development program are the regularly issued reports of the Capsule Coordination 

Group Meetings. At these meetings, the status of each of the capsule systems is 

reported and any changes are discussed. Miscellaneous reports on boosters 

and on programs conducted by cooperating agencies have also been provided 

to the Astronauts. Maintaining an up-to-date fl ow of accurate information on 

vehicle development status is a critical problem not only for the Mercury training 

program, but in all probability, for most near-future space fl ight applications since 

training must proceed during the vehicle development phase.

Another method employed to aid in the dissemination of information to 

the Astronauts was to assign each a specialty area. These assignments [6] were as 

follows: M. Scott Carpenter, navigation and navigational aids; Leroy G. Cooper, 

Redstone booster; John A. Glenn, crew space layout; Virgil I. Grissom, automatic 

and manual attitude control system; Walter M. Schirra, life support system; Alan B. 

Shepard, range, tracking, and recovery operations; and Donald K. Slayton, Atlas 

booster. In pursuing these specialty areas, each man attends meetings and study 

groups at which current information on capsule systems is presented. Regular 

periods are set aside for all the men to meet and report to the group. Another 

important source of information about the vehicle, particularly in the absence of 

any elaborate fi xed-base trainers, bas been the manufacturer’s mockup. Each of 

the men has had an opportunity to familiarize himself with the mockup during 

visits to McDonnell.

Following the initial familiarization with the Mercury system, the 

primary training in vehicle operation is being achieved through special training 

devices developed for the Mercury program. Early training in attitude control 

was accomplished on the Langley Electronics Associates Computer (fi g. 1) [not 

included] which was combined with a simulated Mercury attitude display and hand 

controller. This device was available during the simmer of 1959. Later, another 

analog computer was cannibalized from an F-100F simulator and combined with 

actual Mercury hardware to provide more realistic displays and controls. This 

MB-3 trainer (fi g. 2) [not included] also included provision for the Mercury 

couch and the pressure suit.

In addition to these two fi xed-base simulators, three dynamic simulators 

were used to develop skill in Mercury attitude control. The fi rst, of these, the 

ALFA (Air Lubricated Free Attitude) Simulator (fi g. 3) [not included] permits 
Exploring the Unknown 167

the practice of orbit and retrofi re attitude control problems by using external 

reference through simulated periscope and window displays. A simulated ground 

track is projected on a large screen which is viewed through a reducing .lens to 

provide the periscope display. This simulator also permits training in the use of 

earth reference for navigation. The Johnsville Centrifuge (fi g. 4) [not included] 

was used as a dynamic trainer for the reentry rate damping task because it adds 

the acceleration cues to the instruments available in the fi xed-base trainers. It 

also provides some opportunity to practice sequence monitoring and emergency 

procedures during launch and reentry. Another dynamic simulation device used 

to provide training in recovery from tumbling was the three-gimbaled MASTIF 

(Multi-Axis Spin Test Inertia Facility) device at the NASA Lewis Laboratory (fi g. 5) 

[not included]. In this device, tumbling rates up to 30 rpm in all three axes were 

simulated and the Astronaut was given experience with damping these rates and 

bringing the vehicle to a stationary position by using the Mercury rate indicators 

and the Mercury-type hand controller.

Two more elaborate trainers became available in the summer of 1960. These 

trainers provide practice in sequence monitoring and systems management. The 

McDonnell Procedures Trainer (fi g. 6) [not included] is similar to the fi xed-base 

trainers which have become standard in aviation operations. The [7] computer 

used on the MB-3 has been integrated with this device to provide simulation of the 

attitude control problem. External reference through the periscope is simulated 

by using a cathode ray tube with a circle to represent the earth. Provision has been 

made for pressurizing the suit and for some simulation of heat and noise effects. 

The environmental control simulator (fi g. 7) [not included] consists of the actual 

fl ight environmental control hardware in the capsule mockup. The whole unit can 

be placed in a decompression chamber in order to simulate the fl ight pressure 

levels. This device provides realistic simulation of the environmental-control 

system functions and failures. Effective use of these two simulators is predicted 

upon adequate knowledge of the types of vehicle systems malfunctions which can 

occur. A failure-mode analysis carried out by the manufacturer has provided a basis 

for determining the types of malfunction which are possible and the requirements 

for simulating them (ref. 2). A record system on which possible malfunctions are 

listed on cards, together with methods of their simulation, has been set up. On 

the back of these cards there is space for noting when and under what conditions 

this failure has been simulated and what action the Astronaut took to correct it. In 

this way, it is hoped that the experience in the detection and correction of systems 

malfunctions can be documented.

Training in space sciences. – In addition to being able to operate the 

Mercury vehicle, the Astronaut will be required to have a good general knowledge 

of astronomy, astrophysics, meteorology, geophysics, rocket engines, trajectories, 

and so forth. This basic scientifi c knowledge will enable him to act as a more 

acute observer of the new phenomena with which he will come in contact during 

the fl ight. It will also provide a basis for better understanding of the detailed 

information which he must acquire on the Mercury vehicle itself. In order to 

provide this broad background in sciences related to astronautics, the Training 

Section of the Langley Research Center set up a lecture program which included 

the following topics: Elementary Mechanics and Aerodynamics (10 hours); 

Principles of Guidance and Control (4 hours); Navigation in Space (6 hours); 
168 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Elements of Communication (2 hours); Space Physics (12 hours). In addition, 

Dr. W. K. Douglas, Flight Surgeon on the Space Task Group staff, gave 8 hours of 

lectures on physiology.

Following this initial lecture program, training in specifi c observational 

techniques is planned. The fi rst activity of this program was training in the 

recognition of the primary constellations of the zodiac at the Morehead 

Planetarium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. A Link trainer body was modifi ed with 

a window and headrest to simulate the capsule external viewing conditions. Using 

this device, the Astronauts were able to practice the recognition of constellations 

which the Planetarium was programmed to simulate orbital fl ight. Future plans 

call for further training in star recognition together with methods of observing 

solar and meteorological events, earth and lunar terrain, and psychological and 

physiological reactions. These activities will be in support of [8] a primary objective 

of the Project Mercury program which is to determine man’s capability in a space 

environment. The training program contributes to this objective in three ways:

(1) First, by establishing base lines, both for the Astronaut’s performance 

and his physiological reactions. These base lines can then be compared with 

psychological and physiological. factors in the space environment.

(2) Second, through the program in basic sciences described above, the 

Astronaut is given suffi cient background with which to appreciate the importance 

of the observations which he can make in the space environment.

(3) Specifi c training in observational techniques and the use of scientifi c 

equipment arms him with the skills with which to collect data of value to science.

Thus, the training program attempts to lay the ground work for the 

scientifi c activities of the Astronauts, as well as to provide the specifi c skills which 

are required to fl y the Mercury vehicle.

Familiarization with conditions of space fl ight. – An essential requirement 

of the training program is to familiarize the Astronaut with the novel conditions 

which man will encounter in space fl ight. An important part of the Astronaut 

training program has been to provide the trainees with an opportunity to 

experience eight types of conditions associated with Mercury fl ights: high 

acceleration, weightlessness, reduced atmospheric pressures, heat, disorientation, 

tumbling, high concentration of CO2

, and noise and vibration.

The Astronauts experienced acceleration patterns similar to those 

associated with the launch and reentry of the Mercury fi rst at the Wright Air 

Development Division (WADD) in Dayton, Ohio, and later at the Aviation Medical 

Acceleration Laboratory at Johnsville, Pennsylvania. During this training, they 

were able to develop straining techniques which reduced the problem of blackout 

and chest pain. It was generally the opinion of the Astronauts that the centrifuge 

activity was one of the most valuable parts of the training program.

The Astronauts were given an opportunity to experience weightless fl ying 

both in a free-fl oating condition in C-131 and C-135 aircraft and strapped down to 
Exploring the Unknown 169

the rear cockpit of a F-100 F fi ghter. While the latter is more similar to the Mercury 

operation, the Astronauts, being experienced pilots, felt that there was little or 

no difference between this experience and their normal fl ying activities. The 

free-fl oating state, however, they felt was a novel and enjoyable experience. Since 

the longer [9] period of weightlessness available in the F-100E aircraft is valuable 

for collecting medical data, while the C-131 aircraft appears to give the most 

interesting experiential training, both types of operations appear to be desirable 

in a training program. The fact that the pilots experienced no unusual sensations 

during weightlessness when fully restrained was an encouraging fi nding for the 

Mercury operation and supports the desirability of selecting fl ying personnel for 

this type of operation.

The Astronauts experienced reduced atmospheric pressure while wearing 

full pressure suits fi rst at WADD and later at Air Crew Equipment Laboratory (ACEL); 

in addition to reduced pressure, they also experienced thermal conditions similar 

to those expected during the Mercury reentry while wearing a full pressure suit. 

At the Naval Medical Research Institute (NMRI), they were given an opportunity 

to become familiar with the body’s thermal response and the effect of moderate 

heat loads on the body’s regulatory mechanisms was demonstrated. At the end of 

March 1960, the Astronauts experienced disorientation in the U.S. Naval School of 

Aviation Medicine Slowly Revolving Room. As already mentioned, they have also 

experienced angular rotation up to 50 rpm in all three axes on a gimbaled device 

with three degrees of freedom at the NASA Lewis Laboratory.

In order to indicate the effects of the high concentration of CO2

 which 

might result, from a failure of the environmental. control system, the Astronauts 

were given a 3 hour indoctrination period in a sealed chamber at NMRI In this 

chamber, they experienced a slow buildup of CO2 similar to that which they would 

encounter in the event of failure of the environmental system. None of the men 

showed any adverse effects of symptoms from this training; As part of the selection 

program, the Astronauts experienced high noise and vibration levels at WADD. 

During the second Johnsville centrifuge program, noise recorded of the Mercury 

test fl ight was played back into the gondola. Further opportunities to adapt to the 

high noise levels associated with the Mercury launch will be provided by a sound 

system connected to the McDonnell Procedures Trainer at Langley Field.

Physical fi tness Program. – To insure that the Astronaut’s performance 

does not deteriorate signifi cantly under the various types of stresses discussed in 

the previous section, it is important that he be in excellent physical condition. 

Since most of the trainees entered the Project Mercury program in good physical 

health, a group physical fi tness program, with one exception, has not been 

instituted. SCUBA training was undertaken because it appeared to have a number 

of potential benefi ts for the Project Mercury, in addition to providing physical 

conditioning. It provides training in breathing control and analysis of breathing 

habits, and in swimming skill (desirable in view of the water landing planned 

in the Mercury program). Finally, there is, in the buoyancy of water, a partial 

simulation of weightlessness, particularly if vision is [10] reduced. Aside from this 

one organized activity, each individual has been undertaking a voluntary fi tness 

program tailored to his own needs. This program has included, for most of the 

Astronauts, three basic items. First of all, as of December 1959, they have reduced 
170 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

or completely stopped smoking. This was an individual, voluntary decision and was 

not a result of pressure by medical personnel, but a result of their own assessment 

of the effect of smoking on their tolerance to the stresses to be encountered in 

the fl ight, particularly acceleration. Some of the members of the team who have a 

tendency to be overweight have initiated weight-control programs through proper 

diet. Nearly all members make it a habit to get some form of daily exercise.

Training in ground activities. – Frequently overlooked are the extent. and the 

importance of the ground activities of the Astronauts. Their knowledge of the vehicle 

and its operation makes them specially qualifi ed for certain ground operations. 

The training in ground procedures has fallen into the three main areas; countdown 

procedures, ground fl ight monitoring procedures, and recovery and survival. The 

Astronauts are participating in the development of the countdown procedures and 

will be training themselves in their own part of the countdown through observation 

of countdown procedures for the initial unmanned shots, and fi nally, by participating 

in the preparation procedures for the actual manned fl ights.

An important aspect of the Astronaut’s activities when not actually fl ying 

the vehicle will be to aid in ground communications with the Mercury capsule. 

Since he is fully familiar with the capsule operation and intimately acquainted 

with the Astronaut who will be in the capsule, he makes a particularly effective 

ground communicator. Procedures for ground monitoring and communicating 

personnel are presently being developed with the aid of the Astronauts. At 

Langley Field, a ground monitoring station simulator will be tied in with the 

McDonnell procedures simulator. By using this device, ground station activities 

can be practiced and coordinated with capsule simulator training. They will also 

participate in training exercises at the Mercury Control Center at Cape Canaveral. 

Finally, just prior to manned fl ights, Astronauts not involved in launch activities 

will be deployed to remote communications stations, at which time they will have 

an opportunity for some on-site training.

A fi nal area of ground training is in recovery and survival procedures. Study 

materials such as maps and terrain descriptions of the areas under the Mercury 

orbits are being obtained. They will be augmented by survival lectures and by fi eld 

training in survival at sea and in desert areas. Finally, extensive training on egress 

from the capsule into the water has been given. This activity was accomplished in 

two stages, using the Mercury egress trainer (fi g. 8) [not included]. Phase I made 

use of a wave-motion simulation tank at Langley Field for initial training followed 

by a Phase II program in open water in the Gulf of Mexico.

 [11] Maintenance of fl ight skills. – One of the continuing problems 

in training for space fl ight is the limited opportunity for actual fl ight practice 

and profi ciency training. The total fl ight time in the Mercury capsule will be no 

more than 4 to 5 hours over a period of 3 years for each Astronaut. The question 

arises as to whether a1l the skills required in operating the Mercury vehicle can 

be maintained purely through ground simulation. One problem with ground 

simulation relates to its primary benefi t. Flying a ground simulator never results 

in injury to the occupant or damage to the equipment. The penalty for failure is 

merely the requirement to repeat the exercise. In actual fl ight operations, failures 

are penalized far more severely. A major portion of the Astronaut’s tasks involves 
Exploring the Unknown 171

high-level decision making. It seems questionable whether skill in making such 

decisions can be maintained under radically altered motivational conditions. 

Under the assumption that vigilant decision making is best maintained by 

experience in fl ight operations, the Mercury Astronauts have been provided with 

the opportunity to fl y high-performance aircraft. The program in this area is a 

result of their own interest and initiative and is made possible by the loan and 

maintenance of two F-102 aircraft by the Air Force.

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE PROGRAMS

In conclusion, the problems with implications for future space fl ight 

projects which have been encountered in development of the Mercury program 

can be reviewed. In developing skills in operation of the vehicle, the diffi culty of 

providing up-to-date information on the systems when the training must progress 

concurrently with the development program has been discussed. Concurrent training 

and development should tend to be a feature of future space fl ight programs, since 

many of these will be experimental in nature, rather than operational.

All spacecraft have in common the problem of systems which must be 

kept functional for long periods without recourse to ground support. Even in the 

event of emergency termination of the mission with immediate return to earth, 

prolonged delay may occur before safe conditions within the atmosphere have 

been achieved. Thus, emphasis on “systems management” will increase in future 

space operations. Recognition of malfunctions has always been a part of the pilot’s 

task; usually, however, little in-fl ight maintenance is attempted. Since aborts are 

dangerous and, in any event, involve greater delay before return, the Astronaut 

must do more detailed diagnoses of malfunctions and more in-fl ight maintenance. 

This will require extensive knowledge of the vehicle systems and training in 

malfunction isolation and correction. In order to provide this training as many 

as possible of the numerous malfunctions which can occur in even a relatively 

simple space vehicle must be identifi ed and simulated. Considerable effort has 

been devoted to this area in the Mercury training and [12] development program 

and it should become an increasingly important feature of future programs.

The physical conditions (heat, acceleration, and so forth) associated with 

space fl ight are simulated to permit the trainees to adapt to these stressors in order 

that during the actual fl ight such stimuli may be less disturbing. Present measures 

of the adaptation process are inadequate to provide criteria for training progress. 

A second purpose for the familiarization program was to give the trainees an 

opportunity to learn the specifi c skills required to minimize the effects of these 

factors on their performance. However, in many cases, the skills required have not 

been fully identifi ed or validated. For example, in developing straining techniques 

for meeting increased acceleration, the effi cacy of a straining technique has not 

been fully demonstrated nor has the technique itself been adequately described. 

As yet, inadequate data are available on the effects of combining physical stress 

factors. Therefore, it is diffi cult to determine the extent to which the increased cost 

and diffi culty of providing multiple stress simulation is warranted. In the present 

program, it has been possible to simulate both reduced atmospheric pressure and 

acceleration on the centrifuge. Initial experience seems to indicate that this is 
172 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

desirable but not critical. However, further data on the interacting effects of these 

stresses are required before any fi nal conclusions can be developed.

A factor in space fl ight not yet adequately simulated for training purposes 

is weightlessness. Short periods of weightlessness have been used in the present 

program, as described previously. True weightlessness can be achieved through 

too short a period to be fully adequate for training purposes. On the other 

hand, ground simulation methods using water seem to be too cumbersome and 

unrealistic to be fully acceptable substitutes. At the present time, this lack of 

adequate simulation does not seem to be critical since the effects of weightlessness 

on performance appear to be minor and transitory. Should early space fl ights 

uncover more signifi cant problems, greater efforts will be justifi ed in developing 

weightless simulation methods.

Finally, it seems important to reiterate the requirements for reproducing 

adequate motivational conditions in the training program. The basic task of the 

Astronaut is to make critical decisions under adverse conditions. The results of the 

decisions he makes involve not just minor discomforts or annoyances, but major 

loss of equipment and even survival. Performance of this task-requires a vigilance 

and decision-making capability diffi cult to achieve under the artifi cial conditions 

of ground simulation. It appears probable that-training in ground devices should 

be augmented with fl ight operations to provide realistic operational conditions.

[13]

REFERENCES

1. Slayton, Donald K.: Paper presented at Annual Meeting of Society of 

Experimental Test Pilots, Los Angeles, Calif., Oct. 1959.

2. Jones, Edward R.: Man’s Integration Into the Mercury Capsule. [Preprint] 

982-59, presented at the Am. Rocket. Soc. 14th Annual Meeting 

(Washington, D.C.), Nov. 1959.

3. Brewer, Gerald W.: Operational Requirements and Training for Project 

Mercury. Presented to Training Advisory Comm. of Nat. Security Ind. 

Assoc. (Los Angeles, Calif.), Nov. 17, 1959.

4. Douglas William K.: Selection and Training of Space Crews. Lectures in 

Aerospace Medicine. School of Aviation Medicine, USAF Aerospace 

Medical Center (Brooks AFB, Texas), Jan. 1960.

5. Wilson, Charles L.: Project Mercury Candidate Evaluation Program. WADC 

Tech. Rep. 59-505, U.S. Air Force, Dec. 1959.
Exploring the Unknown 173

Document I-32

Document Title: Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Programs, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, NASA, “Astronaut Selection Procedure for 

Initial Mercury-Redstone Flights,” 14 December 1960.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

For all of NASA’s human spacefl ight initiatives, the method of crew selection for individual 

missions has been one of its most contentious and misunderstood. The process outlined in 

this memorandum for choosing the fi rst astronauts to fl y in Project Mercury is instructive 

of the process. It called for each of the Mercury Seven to identify three top candidates other 

than themselves, and then for a board to recommend a selection of the top three, with 

actual selection made by the Project Mercury director. These three astronauts would then 

be trained for the mission, without any of them knowing who would actually be the prime. 

Only a few days before the launch the astronaut to fl y the mission would be named and 

an order for future mission assignments would follow from that decision. Designed to give 

all a voice in the selection, this approach also sought to avoid a leak to the media of the 

astronaut selected.

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

In reply refer to:

DA-1 (WJN:rfr)

Dec 14 1960

MEMORANDUM for Administrator

Subject: Astronaut Selection Procedure for Initial Mercury-Redstone Flights

1. The purpose of this memorandum is to document the procedure 

for Mercury-Redstone Astronaut Selection as discussed in your offi ce 

December 12.

2. The fi rst possible manned Redstone mission is MR-3; however, 

manned occupancy of MR-3 is, of course, contingent upon successful 

accomplishment of MR-1 and MR-2. Since capsule 7, for MR-3, arrived 

at the Cape December 8, the pilot should be chosen in the near future 

so that he can become fully familiar with the capsule systems and 

operational procedures. Capsule 7 is the only manned confi guration with 

a mechanical-latching side hatch, interim clock timer, small windows, and 

control system which does not include the rate stabilization mode.

3. Since it is impractical to train all 7 Astronauts on the proper Procedures 

Trainer confi guration, three men will be chosen as possible pilots and 

all three will begin working with the capsule 7 confi guration. It is hoped 
174 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

that the identity of the three men can be kept secure from the press. The 

fi rst pilot and his alternate will not be selected until approximately one 

week before the launch date of the fi rst manned Redstone. The identity 

of the two-man fl ight crew for this fl ight would thus not be available for 

announcement to either the Astronauts or the press until approximately 

a week before the fl ight. The assignments for the fi rst two manned 

Redstone fl ights might be as follows:

Astronauts

First manned Redstone 1,3

Second manned Redstone 2,3

[2]

4. An astronaut Flight Readiness Board consisting of fi ve men will be 

established with Robert Gilruth serving as chairman. Individuals on 

this board will evaluate the following pertinent areas of Astronaut 

performance.

A. Medical

a. General health

b. Reaction to physical stress

c. Weight control

B. Technical

a. Profi ciency on capsule attitude control simulators

b. Knowledge of capsule systems

c. Knowledge of mission procedures

d. Ability to contribute to vehicle design and fl ight 

procedures

e. General aircraft fl ight experience

f. Engineering and scientifi c background

g. Ability to observe and report fl ight results

C. Psychological

a. Maturity

b. Motivation

c. Ability to work with others

d. Ability to represent Project Mercury to public

e. Performance under stress

Expert witnesses in the various areas will be called before the Board. 

Based on evaluations by the Board, the actual selection of the three men and of 

the fi nal two-man fl ight crew will be made by the Director of Project Mercury.

5. The Astronauts themselves will be asked to submit to the Board chairman 

their recommendations for the three best-qualifi ed pilots, excluding 

themselves. This input will be known by the chairman only and will be 

used as an additional factor in the selection.

6. The Flight Readiness Board will meet either during the week of December 26 

or January 2.
Exploring the Unknown 175

[Signed]

Able Silverstein

Director of Space Flight Programs

Enclosure:

 Astronaut instruction sheet

Cc: AD/Dryden

 AA/Seamans

 STG (Gilruth)

[3]

ASTRONAUT INSTRUCTION SHEET

You are asked to submit a list of three Astronauts, excluding yourself, who 

in your judgment are best qualifi ed for the fi rst two manned Redstone fl ights. We 

assume you would rate yourself in the group, therefore please omit your name 

from the list.

#1. .

#2. .

#3. .

Comments, if any:

 Signed _________________.

Document I-33

Document Title: Jerome B. Wiesner, The White House, Memorandum for 

Dr. [McGeorge] Bundy, “Some Aspects of Project Mercury,” 9 March 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC. 

When President Eisenhower chose to use military test pilots as astronauts in 1958 to1959, 

it set in motion several discussions in various sectors about the signal it would send to the 

world of the U.S.’s peaceful intentions in space. The inauguration of John F. Kennedy as 

president in January 1961 brought to the nation’s highest political offi ce a different political 

party and a different philosophy on such matters. This memorandum sent by Presidential 
176 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

science advisor Jerome Wiesner to National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy, suggests that 

JFK revise that earlier decision and allow civilians to become astronauts. This plea became 

policy in 1962, when NASA chose its second groups of astronauts and for the fi rst time 

civilians were selected for the position. The memorandum also discusses the then-controversial 

question of live television coverage on the initial Mercury suborbital launch.

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

March 9, 1961

MEMORANDUM FOR DR. BUNDY

SUBJECT: Some Aspects of Project Mercury

We have an ad hoc panel which is making a technical review of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration project to put a man in an earth 

orbit, Project Mercury. The time is now nearing when man will be fi rst introduced 

into the system in a sub-orbital launch using a modifi ed Redstone booster. 

Although the interest of the panel is primarily in the technical details, two phases 

of the operation which fall mostly outside the technical area have caused them 

considerable questioning, and I would like to take this opportunity to bring them 

to your attention.

1. Many persons involved in the project have expressed anxiety over 

the mounting pressures of the press and TV for on-the-spot coverage of the fi rst 

manned launch. Our panel is very concerned that every precaution should be 

taken to prevent this operation from becoming a Hollywood production, because 

it can jeopardize the success of the entire mission. The people in the blockhouse 

and in the control center are not professional actors, but are technically trained 

people involved in a very complex and highly coordinated operation. The effect 

of TV cameras staring down their throats during this period of extreme tension, 

whether taped or live, could have a catastrophic effect. Similarly, following a 

manned launch and recovery, the astronaut must be held in a confi ned area for a 

considerable time period so that the doctors can accomplish the debriefi ng which 

will produce the basic information on possible effects of space fl ight on man. The 

pressures from the press during this time period will probably be staggering, but 

should be met with fi rmness. The experience with the RB-47 pilots has proven 

that this can be accomplished. [2]

Our panel does not profess to be expert in the fi eld of public relations, 

but the overriding need for the safety of the astronaut and the importance to our 

nation of a successful mission make them feel that the technical operation should 

have fi rst consideration in this program. The sub-orbital launch will, in fact, be 

man’s fi rst venture into space. It is enough different from the X15 program to 

require special consideration. It is my personal opinion that in the imagination 

of many, it will be viewed in the same category as Columbus’ discovery of the 

new world. Thus, it is an extremely important venture and should be exploited 

properly by the Administration.
Exploring the Unknown 177

2. Some members of the panel (and other individuals who have contacted 

me privately) believe that the decision by the previous Administration, that the 

astronauts should be military personnel, was wrong. They point out that NASA was 

created expressly for the purpose of conducting peaceful space missions, and the 

orbiting of a military astronaut will be identifi ed by the world in general as a military 

gesture, and is sure to be seized upon by the U.S.S.R. for propaganda purposes.

My personal feeling is that any change in status (such as asking the 

astronauts to become civilians) at this late date will be recognized for what it is, 

an artifi cial maneuver. Nevertheless, it might be desirable for this Administration 

to review the past decision and perhaps lay plans by which astronauts selected for 

later manned space programs could be given the option to become civilians. It 

would seem to me that the following might be the appropriate group to discuss 

the situation: The President, The Vice President, Dr. Bundy, Mr. Webb and 

Dr. Dryden, Mr. Murrow, and Secretary Rusk. 

 /S/

Jerome B. Wiesner

Document I-34

Document Title: “Report of the Ad Hoc Mercury Panel,” 12 April 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

A special President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) panel, under the chairmanship of 

Donald F. Hornig, was formed in February 1961 and charged with reviewing Project Mercury. 

By April 1961, the Space Task Group had concluded that Mercury was near the end of its 

development phase and that the fi rst human fl ight could be planned. Several test fl ights of 

Mercury capsules on both Redstone and Atlas boosters were in the process being readied. On 10 

April, foreign correspondents in Moscow reported rumors that the Soviet Union had already 

placed a man in space. At the same time, the Space Task Group heard rumors that the Hornig 

panel was recommending up to 50 more chimpanzee fl ights before launching a man into 

space. This recommendation ultimately did not fi nd its way into the fi nal report of the Ad Hoc 

Mercury Panel, although the panel did express concern about the limited information available 

about the likely impact of spacefl ight on a human. But the same day that the panel submitted 

its report, the Soviet news agency Tass reported that Yuri Gagarin had been launched into 

orbit and successfully returned to Earth. Apparently, that answered the question of whether a 

human could fl y in space and return to Earth in good health. 

OFFICIAL USE ONLY

April 12, 1961

REPORT OF AD HOC MERCURY PANEL
178 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

I. Introduction

Project Mercury has reached a stage where manned suborbital fl ight is being 

planned within months and manned orbital fl ight within a year. Manned fl ight will 

involve great personal risk to the pilot and political risk to the country. The object 

of the panel, therefore, was to become as well acquainted with Project Mercury as 

possible with a view toward giving advice on the future conduct of the project.

In order to gain some understanding of the project, the panel spent an 

intensive fi ve days visiting McDonnell Aircraft (where the capsule is being built), 

Cape Canaveral, and Langley Field. We were brief [sic] by McDonnell, the Space Task 

Group, representatives of Marshall Space Flight Center (Redstone), BMD (Atlas), 

and had two general discussions with NASA personnel. Subsequently, a sub-group of 

the panel with biomedical competence met with representatives of CIA, Air Force, 

and the Army, and spent two more days at Langley and a day in Washington.

We would like to express our gratitude for the excellent cooperation 

we received from everyone. Information was made available to us freely, and the 

discussions were frank and to the point. We were impressed by the magnitude of 

what has been accomplished and the competence which has been exhibited in 

organizing and executing the program. We naturally tend to focus on the areas 

about which we are not happy, particularly those which we feel might imperil the 

success of the mission, but it must be realized that these are a small number of 

items out of an enormous enterprise.

II. Purpose of Mercury Program

The objective of Project Mercury is to advance the state of the art of 

manned space fl ight technology. In order to achieve this objective, the following 

goals have been adopted:

1. Place a manned space capsule in orbital fl ight around the earth;

2. Investigate man’s performance capabilities and ability to survive in 

true space environment; and [2]

3. Recover the capsule and the man safely.

Mercury is an initial step in manned space fl ight and rests on an article of 

faith – that man wants to venture into space and that he will be an essential part 

of future space missions. In this sense, it may be likened to the Wright Brother’s 

[sic] fi rst fl ight or Lindbergh’s crossing the Atlantic. In a real sense, it is a national 

exploratory program. Its justifi cation lies not in the immediate ends achieved but 

in the step it provides toward the future.

III. The Mercury Program

The Mercury Program is a large one and has several major sub-divisions, 

each involving great effort and the solution of complex problems. These include:
Exploring the Unknown 179

1. The development of an aerodynamically stable reentry vehicle, 

parachutes, reliable telemetry, control systems, life support system, 

escape mechanism, etc.

2. The adaptation of a booster to the capsule and escape systems.

3. The establishment of a world-wide net of tracking stations for voice, 

telemetry, and command communications with the capsule, and 

for communication with a control center which is in contact with 

computers to help digest the information received.

4. The selection and training of pilots (Astronauts) to fl y the capsule 

and to back up the automatic devices.

5. The development of suitable test procedures to achieve the necessary 

reliability of all of the preceding.

6. The development of recovery methods and the organization of 

recovery and rescue operations over a large part of the globe.

The primary responsibility for the project rests with the Space Task Group 

of NASA under the direction of R. R. Gilruth, Director, C. J. Donlan, Associate 

Director for Research and Development, and W. C. Williams, Associate Director of 

Operations. It is being assisted by the Department of Defense in testing, tracking, 

recovery, transportations, medical and other supporting activities. All indications 

are that the various agencies are well [3] integrated into a working relationship to 

give the project the necessary support. It is essential, however, with such a complex 

organization that along with the responsibility, the NASA Space Task Group must 

have full authority over the entire operation at all times.

The program is behind its original schedule but each of its component parts 

has come along suffi ciently well so that we did not ascertain particular bottlenecks 

which will eventually dominate the schedule. General comments are:

1. Complete capsules are just now being delivered from McDonnell. 

One of them (No. 5) was fl own on Redstone (MR-2) with the chimpanzee. Two 

environmental test chambers, simulating high altitudes, have been put into 

operation and extended tests on the capsules are just beginning. There are still 

a number of problems to be worked out. For example, the impact bag which 

absorbs the landing shock and stabilizes the capsule in the water needs further 

development. There has been a limited amount of testing of the escape system 

in fl ight tests. The complete capsule was tested under maximum heating and 

acceleration on the MA-2 shot (2/21/61). (MA – Mercury Atlas).

Although failure of the Atlas-to-capsule interface occurred on 

MA-1 (7/29/60), stiffening the Atlas with a “belly-band” resulted in a completely 

successful test on MA-2 (2/21/61). Future shots will use an Atlas with a thicker 

upper skin.
180 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. The equipment installation at all of the major tracking stations is 

nearing completion. Stations ready to go include the control center at Canaveral, 

the computers at Goddard, the communications center at Goddard, the subsidiary 

center at Bermuda, the Atlantic ship, and Canary Islands. The mainland-Bermuda 

complex was tested on MR-2 (MR – Mercury Redstone) and MA-2 and the net as far as 

the Canary Islands will be tested on MA-3. Installation is continuing at other stations 

and checkouts are being made with the aid of aircraft-borne instrumentation, but the 

world-wide net will not be ready for full operation until about 5/1/61.

3. Pilots have been selected. They have been subjected to a training 

program including performance at high g and under weightless conditions. 

They have practiced the manual controls in simulators and have fl own simulated 

missions with surprise emergencies occurring. They have practiced leaving the 

capsule in the water and under water. [4]

4. Recovery operations have been rehearsed and organization of the 

world-wide recovery and rescue system is proceeding.

The program is approaching the state where manned suborbital fl ight is 

contemplated in the near future. The question of our readiness will be discussed 

at length later in the report since there are still serious problems. Manned orbital 

fl ight is probably about a year away but a number of problems must still be solved 

before such a launch.

IV. Assessment of Risk and Probability of Success

1. The Reliability Problem

In the assessment of probable system performance, there are two distinct 

analyses to be made:

(a) Probability of mission success;

(b) Probability of astronaut survival.

Both of these depend on subsystem and component reliabilities, but in 

very different ways; e.g., a booster failure means mission failure but by no means 

implies an astronaut fatality or injury.

Thus an estimate of either of these probabilities must begin with the 

failure probabilities of the individual subsystems. Two remarks of somewhat 

opposing tendency are important here. The fi rst is that subsystem failure 

probabilities are not really independent numbers. There are always interactions, 

or correlations, among subsystems and components such that the failure of 

subsystem “A” will make the failure of subsystem “B” more probable than before. 

In large missile systems, it is not feasible to assess these interactions numerically 

with any degree of confi dence without a large number of launchings. However, 

it is well to remember they are there. The second remark is that except for the 

booster the system, its several subsystems and even the components themselves 

are provided with a generous degree of redundancy, both at the hardware level 
Exploring the Unknown 181

and in the provision of alternative modes of procedure. Thus, there is both an 

automatic control system and an essentially independent manual control system; 

there are regular and emergency oxygen supplies, two modes of egress, and 

the like. Such redundancy is a standard and effective way of creating over-all 

reliability with the use of individually less than perfect components. It is necessary 

to keep this consideration in mind when examining reliabilities of individual 

components. [5]

2. Subsystem reliabilities

The subsystems are common to both the orbital and ballistic missions, 

and hence at this point it is not necessary to make a distinction between the 

Redstone and Atlas missions. When the ultimate probabilities of mission success 

and astronaut survival are considered, the distinction is, of course, a very 

important one.

There is a considerable body of test data on components and subsystems 

to which the panel has had access. Also, both NASA and McDonnell perform 

continuing reliability analyses of the over-all system on the basis of these data. 

For present purposes, it seems undesirable to present such detailed analyses, 

even in summary form. What follows, then, represents a distillation into very 

general terms of the Panel’s considered reaction to these data. Reliabilities are 

aggregated into three categories:

Class Reliability Range

Class 1 95 – 100%

Class 2 85 – 95%

Class 3 70 – 85%

The following chart indicates the major subsystems and lists our judgment 

of the reliability of each. It should be emphasized that the numerical categorization 

in the chart is the result not of calculations but rather of the subjective judgment 

of the panel. Following the chart is a brief discussion of certain of its entries. 

Those to be discussed are marked by and asterisk.

Subsystem or Component Reliability Category

Capsule structure and 

re-entry properties

Class 1

Separation mechanism and 

Posigrade Rocket

Class 1

Tower and Abort Rockets Class 1

Voice Communications Class 1

*Abort sensing instrumentation systemClass 1

[6]
182 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Subsystem or Component Reliability Category

Manual Control System Class 1

Retro-rocket system Class 1

Parachute Landing System Class 1

Ground Environment system Class 1

Recovery operation Class 1

Pilot and Pilot training Class 1

*Landing Bag Class 2

*Environmental control system Class 2

*Automatic Stabilization and 

Control System

Class 2

*Booster (Redstone or Atlas) Class 3

*Telemetry Class 3

The starred items require a few brief remarks, which follow:

Abort Sensing and Implementation System (ASIS): In light of the 

necessity to provide maximum safety to the pilot with 80% (approximately) 

booster reliability, critical attention must be focused on the abort sensing system. 

This system provides the warning of impending failure and automatic aborting of 

the fl ight to avoid danger to the pilot. Within itself it is completely redundant for 

reliability. Other systems, i.e., ground control and pilot over-ride provide further 

redundancy in an “after the fact” manner for separating of the pilot from the 

booster; however, the abort sensing system gives the earliest warning and therefore 

the maximum capability of safety to the pilot in the event of an abort. Viewed in 

this manner, it is imperative that this system have as high a reliability as possible.

The discussions during the ad hoc panel meetings left some questions 

on the reliability of the ASIS which were not included in the NASA summary. It 

has been fl own open and closed loop on Atlas fl ights with no apparent failures 

to operate as designed. The slosh problem in the last (MA-2) Atlas/Mercury 

[7] fl ight showed roll oscillations which were near the initiating limits of the 

ASIS. Admittedly, this condition is not extraordinary to expect at this stage of 

development, but one of the suggested solutions to the roll rate problem may 

involve changing the roll rate limits on the ASIS. If the ASIS on the Redstone 

missile is ready for a manned fl ight and utilizes the same design philosophy as the 

Atlas ASIS, then the limit settings for abort should not be amenable to change. 

These functions should have been settled beyond any doubts by impending 

disaster criteria and not be changed to adapt to a missile fi x. It is recommended 

that NASA probe again into the reliability of the ASIS to insure to themselves that 

the system reliability is adequate.

Landing Bag: This buffer against landing shock performs its function well. 

The steel binding straps, however, have been observed to fatigue under prolonged 

wave action and the capsule has been punctured when struck by the heat shield. 

Redesign and test are being vigorously pursued to eliminate these problems. This 
Exploring the Unknown 183

must be a Class 1 item before the date of the MR-3 manned ballistic mission and 

it seems likely that satisfactory solutions can be obtained by the present research 

program and engineering drop tests.

Environmental Control System: Due to the critical role of the environmental 

control system in the success of the Mercury program, a more detailed engineering 

review of this system was conducted with members of the NASA Space Task Group 

at Langley Field, Virginia during the days of 15 and 16 March 1961.

The idea of using a single gas, O2

, atmosphere, in both the suit and capsule 

to simplify the system appears to be reasonable from an engineering standpoint if 

it meets the biomedical requirements. The environmental control system is capable 

of operating completely automatically if required and still provide redundancy in 

many areas against failure. In the automatic mode the only single point of failure 

without backup appears to be with the emergency oxygen rate valve. However, with 

man functioning in the system, this valve can be manually operated.

From the limited drawings available for inspection, good mechanical 

designs practices appear to have been followed. This conclusion also is confi rmed 

by the results of what testing has been done to date. To the best knowledge of the 

panel at the present writing, the complete unit incorporating the fi nal design 

of the ECS has not been subjected to full environmental and vibration testing. 

In the absence of such testing, it is impossible a priori to categorize this critical 

subsystem as a class 1 item. Such tests should be performed so that any doubts in 

this area can be removed.

Automatic Stabilization and Control System: This system is not critical 

for suborbital missions; it is mandatory for the later orbital missions. Both the 

automatic and manual systems have in the past had peroxide corrosion [8] 

problems in the valves. It is probable that new drying methods and procedural 

improvements have corrected this condition. The automatic system is much more 

complex than the manual, and a Class 2 categorization of the system is probably 

fair. However, in the event of a failure of the ASCS, a functioning pilot can bring 

the capsule in under manual control from an orbital fl ight.

Booster: There is a good deal of fl ight data on both the Redstone and 

Atlas boosters. These indicate reliabilities of the order of 75 to 80%. However, the 

Redstone used in the Mercury program is a modifi ed version and a vibrational 

problem was observed in the MR-2 fl ight. Several fi xes were applied including a 

fi lter in the control system to eliminate control vane fl utter and stiffening to dampen 

airframe vibrations in the control section of the booster. These fi xes were tested in 

the MR-BD fl ight of 3/24/61 and appear to have been completely successful.

The relative unreliability of boosters is not per se a cause of alarm; 

booster failure will invalidate the mission, will of necessity reduce the probability 

of astronaut survival, but will not necessarily reduce it below an acceptable value.

Telemetry: Some failures or outages of telemetry are to be contemplated, 

most of which do not endanger the astronaut. Absence on the ground of biomedical 

data (particularly if a simultaneous outage of all three communication channels 
184 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

to the astronaut were to occur) could result in an unnecessary abort. This again 

results in a reduction, but not necessarily below acceptable limits, of astronaut 

survivability. 

3. Redundant or Backup Systems

During the presentations a great deal of stress was placed on the many 

redundant features of the entire system. The basic need for alternate ways to 

bring the astronaut to safety in case of system failure centers around the desire 

to provide much more reliable over-all operation than can be assured from the 

presently available reliability of either the Atlas or Redstone boosters. In addition, 

many newly designed subsystems are involved, and there is no way to guarantee an 

acceptable reliability without an inordinate amount of testing, unless the backup 

or redundant system philosophy is adopted.

The following chart illustrates the multiple possibilities which are available 

to bring the astronaut to safety in case of a subsystem failure. [9]

Critical Functions or Events Redundant Modes of Operation or Actuation

Accelerate to altitude Normal booster operation – Abort by use of 

escape rockets

Initiation of abort Radio command from Control Center or 

Blockhouse; direct actuation by astronaut; radio 

command by range safety; abort sensing and 

implementation system.

Release of escape rocket 

tower, and Separation from 

booster bolts.

Electrical exploding bolts; alternate electrically 

exploding bolts; direct activated exploding

Oxygen environment for 

astronaut

Capsule pressurization; space suit with separate 

oxygen system; emergency oxygen supply

Monitoring astronaut’s 

condition

Telemetry of biomedical instruments; UHF 

voice link; alternate UHF voice link; HF voice 

link; manual key on telemetry link.

Attitude control of Capsule Automatic stabilization control system with dual 

sets of jets; manual control system with separate 

set of jets; switch-over between the two systems.

Retro-fi re Three rockets when two are needed; two fi ring 

mechanisms and two power supplies.

Landing Normal parachutes descent of capsule; 

emergency chute for the capsule, and in 

Redstone fl ight a personal chute for astronaut 

egress from capsule top hatch; and emergency 

side hatch

Recovery Helicopter pickup in water plus numerous 

ground and sea pickup arrangements. [10]
Exploring the Unknown 185

In a similar way, the astronaut can be recovered from the capsule in a 

variety of ways in the event of a prelaunch emergency. Depending on the time, 

he can use the escape mechanism, the gantry can be moved into place, or rescue 

may be attempted with the remote controlled “cherry picker” egress tower or the 

armored rescue vehicle.

It must be emphasized that these alternate modes of operation for the 

main events in the fl ight are only illustrative of the many redundancies which 

are built into all of the systems, subsystems, and components. Of course, the 

redundant design philosophy has not proved to be easy. When a backup system is 

introduced, extra care must be exercised to insure that there is not some subtle 

common link in the two which can fail and thereby inactivate both the main and 

emergency system or that the emergency system is not inadvertently used at the 

wrong time.

In summary, the Mercury system is heavily dependent on the use of 

redundant systems and upon the reliability and decision-making ability of the 

astronaut to achieve the desired degree of over-all systems reliability. As far as 

the panel could learn, the Space Task Group has given ample attention to the 

interrelationships between the redundant systems and of the relationship of the 

astronaut to the system.

4. Fire Hazard

The atmosphere in both the capsule and suit is pure oxygen. Consequently 

the possibility of fi re, with electrical switches or pyrotechnic devices as a source 

of ignition, has to receive careful attention. A number of precautions have been 

taken to minimize the risk of fi re. These include: (a) All electrical switches are 

potted or hermatically [sic] sealed; (b) all squibs and shaped charges used in the 

vehicle have been installed to vent outward; (c) all combustible materials have 

been eliminated wherever this has been possible. Where this was not possible, 

materials have been chosen which are incapable of ignition from the hot surfaces 

of the capsule. It is important to observe, however, that the astronaut’s suit is made 

of the combustible material; (d) the capsule can be depressurized to extinguish a 

fi re if one should start. Despite these precautions, a certain hazard of fi re remains. 

Particular attention is required to the period before launch when capsule and the 

astronaut’s suit are being purged with pure oxygen at atmospheric pressure.

In particular, it was felt by the panel that an experiment should be 

performed in which the emergency hatch was blown off by its explosive bolts with 

an internal capsule atmosphere of oxygen. [11]

5. Possibility of Failure with no Redundant Backup

In a system which is heavily dependent upon redundancies to obtain 

acceptable reliability, it is necessary to single out the situations or devices for which 

there is no backup and in which a single failure would inevitably result in failure 

of the mission. Experience has shown that in all major systems, there are some 

operations for which it becomes virtually impossible to provide a backup. During 

the presentations, no mention was made of the non-redundant operations. A 
186 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

subsequent cursory analysis of the systems showed that there are several such. For 

example, three retro-rockets are provided to decelerate the capsule out of orbit. 

The entire package is held on by a single explosive bolt. There is a possibility that a 

stray current in the circuit beyond the main switch could fi re the bolt prematurely 

and jettison the rocket package before it had performed its function and thus 

make it impossible to get out of orbit. Just such unexplained currents have plagued 

two of the Little Joe shots. Another possible diffi culty centers around the necessity 

for releasing both the main and the emergency parachutes from the capsule upon 

impact with the water. There is a possibility that a premature spurious signal may 

make the release at high altitude and drop the capsule with catastrophic results.

The panel is concerned that steps may not have been taken to specifi cally 

tabulate the operations or functions in which a signal failure would lead to 

catastrophe. When such possibilities have been defi ned, then special testing, 

inspection, and check out procedures should be adopted in order to obtain the 

maximum possible reliability for the associated components.

6. Status of the Quantitative Reliability Studies

The recommendation of the preceding section that the single failure 

possibilities be critically analyzed serves to emphasize the value which a 

reliability analysis has in a program of this magnitude and complexity. From 

the presentations, it was learned that the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation had 

performed an extensive failure mode analysis and that a separate reliability study 

had been initiated at NASA Headquarters and, subsequently, had been transferred 

to the Space Task Group.

Through a misunderstanding, the questions which were asked by the 

panel about the McDonnell study were deferred until later in the briefi ng when 

the reliability studies would be presented in detail. The later presentation proved 

to be on the NASA study, and consequently, very little was learned about the 

failure mode analysis studies of McDonnell. Hence, no evaluation of their impact 

on the program can be made. [12]

When the NASA reliability studies were presented, it became apparent 

that as yet they had not played an important role in the design. The mean time to 

failure of each component which was the basic parameter in the analysis did not 

refl ect the changes which had been made to correct obvious early diffi culties. The 

results which are available from a reliability analysis for the Atlas orbiting mission 

in which the man is assumed to play no role. The analysis was in the process of 

being revised and results would not be available until approximately July 1,1961. 

In view of this situation, the panel was left in doubt as to how comprehensive has 

been the analysis of the possibilities of single mode failures, of simple correlated 

multiple failures, and of subtle failures in redundant subsystems which might 

preclude the use of either subsystem for the Atlas shots.

In view of this uncertainty, the panel wishes to express an opinion that an 

emphasis be placed on having the results of such a systematic analysis available 

prior to the fi rst launchings of the manned Atlas vehicles. Further, the panel 
Exploring the Unknown 187

recommends that the Space Task Group review with the Marshall Space Flight 

Center the Redstone subsystem reliability data prior to fi rst manned fl ight.

V. Medical Aspects of Project Mercury

1. General Comments 

The major medical effort for the Mercury has followed the traditional 

aeromedical approach. Once the “mission” was determined, the philosophy 

emphasized selection of outstanding individuals to be the fi rst astronauts. A training 

program was established to expose these men as realistically as possible to the 

anticipated stresses of space fl ight. Medical personnel provided specifi cations and 

requirements for the design and construction of life support systems for the ballistic 

and orbital fl ights and participated in the testing and training utilization of prototype 

systems; undertook ground simulation of anticipated stressing situations; developed a 

medical monitor system for ground control at Cape Canaveral and a series of stations 

along the intended orbital path; participated in requirements for and extensive fl otilla 

of recovery ships and aircraft and provided medical contributions to recovery plans 

and debriefi ng of the astronauts. These efforts by the small dedicated medical staff of 

the Space Task Group have been exemplary.

Much less medical effort has been directed to understanding the unique 

features of stress anticipated during space fl ight. During the program, when a new 

physiological stress was identifi ed, tests were designed to simulate the conditions. 

After the astronaut “took” the test, the assumption was that [13] he could endure it as 

a part of a combination of all the stresses in actual fl ight. The panel was disappointed 

to learn that no attempt was made to evaluate the degree of the physiological stress on 

the body. Thus, no penetrating medical analyses can be made of even those combined 

stresses which can be simulated in a ground environment. As a result, it is not known 

whether the astronauts are likely to border on respiratory and circulatory collapse 

and shock, suffer a loss of consciousness or cerebral seizures, or be disabled from 

inadequate respiratory or heat control. These uncertainties are awesome. Data from 

NASA and DOD aircraft and high altitude balloon fl ight programs demonstrate a 

demanding constellation of stresses, and yet measurements are not available which 

would provide assurances of physiological fi tness and survivability characteristics of 

the pilots. When one must predict response in a more demanding situation apparent 

health and satisfactory performance are not enough. Essential observations which 

could provide the basis for extrapolation have not been made before, during, or after 

these fl ight programs nor during comparable ground simulation tests. How great a 

risk is being hazarded in the forthcoming Mercury fl ights is at present a matter for 

clinical impression and not for scientifi c projection.

The considered opinion, reluctantly arrived at by the panel, is that the 

clinical aspects of the Mercury medical program have been inadequate. We fi nd 

that this opinion is also shared by several Mercury consultants, by individuals 

contributing to the simulation training program, and by other qualifi ed observers.
188 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. Mercury Ballistic Program

The proposed ballistic fl ight (MR-3) has been scheduled for early May. 

NASA personnel state that from a medical standpoint, all essential studies are 

complete. Medical approval is based on experience which includes the apparent 

ability of pilots to adapt to the increasing stresses generated by the F and X series 

of aircraft, the balloon programs, the centrifuge trails in the Mercury profi le and 

the successful fl ight of Ham in MR-2. The increased severity of the several known 

stresses of ballistic fl ight are recognized, but it is argued, the individual parameters 

involved are not greatly in excess of those already experienced.

The panel’s uneasiness arises from incidents experienced for which 

little or no explanation is available. These include the unexplained but apparent 

medical deaths of three pilots in the F series of aircraft, experimental fi ndings of 

temporal lobe epilepsy in monkeys at 5g (no comparable [14] detailed studies 

exist on man), loss of consciousness and seizures in qualifi ed pilots during jet 

fl ights and disorientation experienced by an astronaut for two days following a 

centrifuge run, and lack of comparable animal data on the centrifuge for the 

profi le fl own by Ham. Further, although perhaps of less importance, vomiting by 

one of the early monkeys in ballistic fl ight and the presence of blood on Ham’s 

harness have not been explained. Finally, the animal experimental program at 

Johnsville and elsewhere has been limited in scope. Data on maximum stress 

limits and physiological and neurological observations which would allow one to 

draw a series of medical graphs represents animal vs man leading to an estimation 

of man’s position are not available.

3. Mercury Orbital Program

In contrast to the ballistic program, NASA personnel state that much more 

needs to be done prior to the fi rst manned orbital fl ight. The combined stresses 

may be much greater than any heretofore experienced. Thus the requirement for 

ground and animal fl ight tests data is stringent. The panel is not aware of any fi rm 

programs which will accomplish the necessary medical studies, although brief 

references were made of plans to obtain metabolic information, blood pressure 

measurements, and electroencepholographic [sic] tracings during centrifuge 

and actual fl ight tests. We are concerned that these plans were not designed to 

assess the critical parameters in suffi cient detail to permit predictions of astronaut 

reactions to prolonged orbital fl ight.

The current program is centered on a small in-house group of physicians. 

Funds are not available to provide for the extensive university support required or 

expand current work in DOD laboratories. While it is true that Project Mercury 

cannot be expected to provide the national effort in space medicine, certain 

problems must be vigorously and intelligently attacked to provide a minimum of 

clinical data. Certainly, all relevant information, including that obtained by the 

Soviet Union should be assembled and subjected to critical analysis.

The panel noted with approval plans to fl y a second chimpanzee in orbit 

prior to man; however, it should be realized that this one additional fl ight can only 

provide minimum data, and consideration should be given to whatever animal 
Exploring the Unknown 189

fl ights including those in the DOD Discoverer series are necessary to insure the 

safety of man in space. [15]

VI. Manned Suborbital Flight

As with most development projects, it is desirable and often mandatory that 

the fi nal mission capability be attained in a series of development steps. The Redstone 

manned fl ights provide such steps prior to orbiting a man. The MR-3 is the fi rst in a 

series of proposed manned suborbital fl ights. These provide much of the actual fl ight 

training for the pilot and qualifi cation of the equipment under realistic condition 

but with considerable reduction in the severity of fl ight conditions and consequent 

dangers which may be encountered when orbiting conditions are possible but not 

necessarily intended. In particular, the environmental control system of the capsule 

itself can be used to demonstrate its functional adequacy under limited ballistic fl ight 

conditions with reduced risk to the man compared to that of the later Atlas fl ights.

The Redstone mission is limited in range and the capsule will necessarily 

land in water (short of possible aborts on the stand). The pilot can commit 

errors without affecting his landing region dangerously or inadvertently leaving 

himself in orbit. In the same sense the basic systems, particularly the automatic 

stabilization and control system and the ground command and data links can 

be demonstrated for adequacy without undue severe consequences if there are 

failures. Therefore, if the Redstone booster reliability is equal to or better than 

that of the Atlas, its use can provide an invaluable step in the progression to an 

orbital mission.

In addition, in the earlier phases of the Mercury program, concern 

over the unknown factors involved in having a man perform specifi c duties 

under weightless conditions following high acceleration resulted in an approach 

commands. Training programs since that time have shown that man’s tolerance 

for conditions in fl ight is considerably higher than early estimates. As a result, it 

appears that the man may be the most reliable single item in the capsule. The 

suborbital manned fl ight will give a better insight into whether this is the case by 

combining stresses which cannot be adequately simulated and testing the skill of 

the pilot under these conditions. For all of these reasons, the suborbital fl ight is a 

necessary prerequisite to later manned orbital fl ights.

Nevertheless, for the reasons mentioned in the preceding section, we are 

concerned that enough data has been accumulated to predict with certainty the 

margin of physiological safety for the astronaut.

Before further ballistic fl ights are undertaken, it must be seriously 

inquired in each case whether the objectives justify the repeated risk of a man’s 

life. [16]

VII. Conclusions

1. The program is a reasonable step in attaining manned space fl ight. 

It represents the highest degree of technical advancement available 

at the time of its inception.
190 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. The system is a complicated one and is made so largely by the 

automatic devices, which are often duplicated, plus the alternate 

manual control and safety devices.

 3. The system is not completely reliable and cannot be made so in the 

foreseeable future. It is not more unreliable then could have been 

predicted at its inception. The thought and organization which have 

gone into making it as reliable as possible have been careful and 

thorough and most of the problems have been thought through. 

There does not appear to be any shortage of funds for reliability 

and safety measures.

4. Manned Mercury fl ights will defi nitely be a hazardous undertaking, 

although related to such initial efforts as the fl ights of the Wright 

Brothers, Lindbergh fl ight, and the X-series of research aircraft. 

5. A suborbital fl ight or fl ights are needed as a prelude to orbital 

fl ight. They will check out the pilot’s performances, including 

his ability to orient the capsule in fl ight, adding elements which 

cannot be adequately simulated such as the anxiety and stress of 

a real fl ight and the extension of weightlessness to a fi ve minute 

period, all under conditions where the risk is very much less than in 

orbital fl ight since descent in a reasonably accessible recovery area 

is assured under all conditions.

6. The presence of a man in the capsule will very greatly increase 

the probability of a successful completion of the mission over 

uninhabited or primate fl ights. One of the possible conclusions of 

the Mercury program is that the design philosophy of the automatic 

system to designing automatic mechanisms as a backup to the man.

7. We urge that NASA appoint a group of consultants to plan and 

implement a full-scale crash effort on the Johnsville centrifuge and 

at other appropriate laboratories to obtain essential measurements 

under as many kinds of combined stresses as possible. The 

measurements should be suffi cient to permit correlations between 

man and primates with enough certainty to estimate the human 

margin of reserve during the anticipated stresses of space fl ight. 

Substantial data should be on hand prior to [17] committing an 

astronaut to the fi rst Mercury fl ight. In view of the limited time 

available, and commitments of the Space Task Group Medical 

personnel to MR-3, we urge that additional qualifi ed personnel be 

recruited to accomplish the studies.

8. We recommend consideration of including a chimpanzee in the 

forthcoming MA-3 fl ight. This is designed for an abort of the 

McDonnell capsule, complete with life support systems, from an 

Atlas booster just prior to capsule insertion into orbit.
Exploring the Unknown 191

9. We urge a considerable expansion of the scientifi c base of the 

medical program. Working consultants, additional in-house 

personnel and suffi cient funds to permit implementation of a 

sound program, based on the resources and capabilities of several 

university laboratories and utilizing additional contracts with DOD 

and other government facilities, are essential if we are to insure 

reasonable programs toward orbital fl ight.

General Conclusion

The Mercury program has apparently been carried through with great 

care and there is every evidence that reasonable stops have been taken to obtain 

high reliability and provide adequate alternatives for the astronaut in the event 

of an emergency. Nevertheless, one is left with the impression that we are 

approaching manned orbital fl ight on the shortest possible time scale so that the 

number of over-all system tests will necessarily be small. Consequently, although 

it is generally assumed by the public that manned fl ight will not be attempted 

until we are “certain” to be able to return the man safely and that we are more 

conservative in our attitude toward human life than is the USSR, the fact seems 

to be that manned fl ight will inevitably involve a high degree of risk and that the 

USSR will have carried out a more extensive preliminary program particularly in 

animal studies than we will before sending a man aloft.

It is diffi cult to attach a number to the reliability. The checkout procedures 

on individual components and for the fl ight itself are meticulous. There appear 

to be suffi cient alternative means by which the pilot can help himself if the 

already redundant mechanical system fails. However, there is no reliable current 

statistical failure analysis and although we feel strongly that such analyses should be 

certainly be brought up to date before the fi rst orbital fl ight we see no likelihood 

of obtaining an analysis which we would really trust. One can only say that almost 

everything possible to assure the pilot’s survival seems to have been done. [18]

The area of greatest concern to us has been the medical problem of the 

pilot’s response to the extreme physical and emotional strains which space fl ights 

will involve. On this score the pilot training has been thorough and it has been 

demonstrated that a man can perform under the conditions of acceleration and 

weightlessness to which he will be subjected. Nevertheless, the background of 

medical experimentation and test seems very thin. The number of animals that 

will have undergone fl ights will be much smaller than in the USSR program. 

Consequently, we are not as sure as we would like to be that a man will continue 

to function properly in orbital missions although the dangers seem far less 

pronounced in a suborbital fl ight.

Altogether, the probability of a successful suborbital Redstone fl ight is 

around 75 percent. The probability that the pilot will survive appears to be around 

90 to 95 per cent although the NASA estimates are somewhat higher. This does 

not appear to be an unreasonable risk, providing the known problems are taken 

care of before the fl ight, and those of our members who have been very close to 

the testing of new aircraft fell that the risks are comparable to those taken by a test 

pilot with a new high performance airplane.
192 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

It is too early to say anything as defi nite for the risks of orbital fl ight. 

Nevertheless, if the planned program of tests is carried through it seems probable 

that the situation at the time of the fi rst fl ight will be comparable to that for 

a Redstone fl ight now – a high risk understanding but not higher than we are 

accustomed to taking in other ventures. [19]

MEMBERSHIP

of the 

AD HOC MERCURY PANEL

Dr. Donald F. Hornig, Chairman

Dr. Paul Beeson

Mr. W. John Beil

Dr. Milton U. Clauser

Mr. Edward H. Heinemann

Mr. Lawrence A. Hyland

Dr. Donald P. Ling

Dr. Robert B. Livingston

Mr. Harrison A. Storms

Dr. Cornelius Tobias

Mr. Douglas R. Lord, Technical Assistant

Dr. James B. Hartgering, Technical Assistant

Special Consultants to the Panel

Dr. Alfred P. Fishman

Mr. Paul Wickham

Document I-35

Document Title: MR-3 Technical Debriefi ng Team, NASA, “Debriefi ng,” 5 May 1961. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

At the conclusion of the suborbital fl ight of the fi rst American astronaut into space on 5 May 

1961, a NASA team debriefed astronaut Alan Shepard on the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Lake 

Champlain soon after his recovery from his capsule’s water landing. This transcript of his 

debriefi ng captured critical information about the mission, the performance of the spacecraft, 

the ability of the astronaut to function in space, weightlessness, and the success of the various 

systems that made the fl ight possible. It offers immediacy to the fi rst American steps into 

space. It also set the precedent for debriefi ngs after all future space missions. This interaction 

was followed by a more formal and extensive debriefi ng that took place upon return of the 

astronaut to the Langley Research Center.
Exploring the Unknown 193

SECTION A [Enclosure 4, page A1-4]

CARRIER DEBRIEFING

IMMEDIATELY AFTER FLIGHT

MAY 5, 1961

1. The following is a transcription of a tape recording made by Astronaut 

Shepard aboard the aircraft carrier approximately one to two hours after 

fl ight. This tape recording constitutes an essential part of the planned 

debriefi ng of Shepard and covers the time period from his entrance 

into the capsule to his arrival aboard the aircraft carrier. The period 

of the fl ight between retrojettison and main chute deployment was not 

described aboard the carrier. A description of this part of the fl ight was 

made on the day after the fl ight and is included herein. 

2. “This is the fi rst fl ight debriefi ng, and before I go into the formal 

debriefi ng kit, I would like to say, as a general comment, that I quite 

frankly did a whole lot better than I thought I was going to be able to 

do. I was able to maintain control of the capsule fairly well throughout 

all of the manual maneuvers I made. I was able to follow the sequences 

fairly well throughout the entire fl ight, and, as a general comment, I 

felt that even though I did not accomplish every single detail that we 

had planned for the fl ight, I still did much better than I had originally 

thought I would. 

3. “With that general comment as a start, I’ll go into the fi rst question 

of the debriefi ng kit which says ‘What would you like to say fi rst?’ and I’ve 

just said it.

4. Question, No. 2 ‘Starting from your insertion into the capsule and ending 

with your arrival aboard the recovery ship, tell us about the entire mission.’

“Starting with foot over the sill back at Pad 5, I make these remarks. 

The preparations of the capsule and its interior were indeed excellent. 

Switch positions were completely in keeping with the gantry check lists. 

The gantry crew had prepared the suit circuit purge properly. Everything 

was ready to go when I arrived, so as will be noted elsewhere, there was no 

time lost in the insertion. Insertion was started as before. My new boots 

were so slippery on the bottom that my right foot slipped off the right 

elbow of the couch support and on down into the torso section causing 

some superfi cial damage to the sponge rubber insert – nothing of any 

great consequence, however. [Page A4-7] From this point on, insertion 

proceeded as we had practiced. I was able to get my right leg up over 

the couch support and part way across prior to actually getting the upper 

torso in. The left leg went in with very little diffi culty. With the new 

plastic guard I hit no switches that I noticed. I think I had a little trouble 

getting my left arm in, and I’m not quite sure why. I think it’s mainly 
194 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

because I tried to wait too long before putting my left arm in. Outside of 

that, getting into the capsule and the couch went just about on schedule, 

and we picked up the count for the hooking up of the face plate seal, 

for the hooking up of the biomedical connector, communications, and 

placing of the lip mike. Everything went normally.

5. “The suit purge went longer than usual because of the requirement of 

telemetry to change the potentiometers on the EKG cards; so, as a result, 

I got a fairly good long suit purge and comfortable one. The temperature 

was certainly comfortable during suit purge. Joe1

 seemed to have no 

trouble with the straps as he was strapping me in. Everything seemed to 

go as scheduled. I think we would have saved a little time at this point, 

since we were already in a very long suit purge, if Joe had tightened the 

straps up immediately rather than going out and coming back in again. 

However, at this point, he may have been getting a little bit tired, so it was 

probably just as well that the sequence went as we planned it according to 

the SEDR. As a result of this very long purge, I was surprised that the suit 

circuit oxygen partial pressure was only 95 percent.

6. “The oxygen partial pressure in the suit circuit apparently is not 

necessarily a function of the length of the purge. If it is, then there is a 

leveling off point so that 95 percent seems to be a fairly good endpoint for 

the present system that we are using. After suit purge, of course, the gross 

suit-pressure check showed no gross leaks; the suit circuit was determined 

to be intact, and we proceeded with the fi nal inspection of the capsule 

interior and the safety pins. I must admit that it was indeed a moving 

moment to have the individuals with whom I’ve been working so closely 

shake my hand and wish me bon voyage at this time.

7. “The point at which the hatch itself was actually put on seemed to 

cause no concern, but it seemed to me that my metabolic rate increased 

slightly here. Of course, I didn’t know the quantitative analysis, but it 

appeared as though my heartbeat quickened just a little bit as the hatch 

went on. I noticed that this heartbeat or pulse rate came back to normal 

again shortly thereafter with the [page A7-10] execution of normal 

sequences. The installation of the hatch, the cabin purge, all proceeded 

very well, I thought. As a matter of fact, there were very few points in the 

capsule count that caused me any concern.

8. “As will be noted by members of the medical team, it became apparent 

that we were going to hold fi rst for lack of camera coverage as a result of 

clouds. At this point, I decided that I better relieve my bladder, which 

I did, and felt much more comfortable. It caused some consternation. 

My suit inlet temperature changed, and it may possibly have affected the 

left lower chest sensor. We can check back to see if the moment at which 

the bladder was relieved actually coincided with a loss or deterioration 

of good EKG signal from that pair. My general comfort after this point 

seemed to be good. Freon fl ow was increased from 30 to 45, and although 

1. Joe Schmidt, NASA Suit Technician
Exploring the Unknown 195

I suspect body temperature may have increased slightly, I at no time really 

felt uncomfortable. I, of course, shifted around continuously to try to 

get proper circulation, particularly in the lower limbs, and found that 

normal upper torso and arm movements and following sequence items 

were such that proper circulation was provided. The couch fi t was fi ne. 

The helmet fi t and sponge support was fi ne for the static condition. I’ll 

describe other deviations later. 

9. “The parachute is defi nitely in the way of a yaw movement. When you 

make an attempt to yaw left, the wrist seal bearing on the right wrist bumps 

into the parachute, not to the point where it makes less yaw possible, but 

it certainly does interfere with it. It also, of course, interferes with the 

voice-operated relay sensitivity control and voice-operated relay shutoff 

switch which I did reach later in the fl ight using the ‘window pole’. So 

then we had several holds during the count, but my general comfort was 

maintained, and I found as we did fi nally proceed down to the last part of 

the count that my pulse rate did appreciably increase.

10. “I felt no apprehension at any time, but I did fi nd that if I thought 

that some people were a little slow in reporting that their panel was in 

GO condition, I started to get a little bit fl ustered. I think that I was 

anxious to go at this point after having been in the capsule for some 

time.2

 The transition from the freon fl ow to suit capsule water fl ow was 

made smoothly even though we were very late in the count at that time. 

11. [Page A11-14] “The transfer from MOPIS circuitry to RF was made 

smoothly. I was able to transmit and get an RF check with the control 

center and with the chase planes as well as with the block house in plenty 

of time prior to T minus one minute, when, of course, attention did 

naturally shift to the umbilical and the periscope. 

12. “Backtracking here slightly, I see that I have slipped by gantry removal 

at –55 which, as far as I was concerned, posed no problem to me. I was 

well tied in by that time, and at –45 the panel check posed no problem. I 

had no diffi culty at any time with the CTC3 on any of the check-off items 

– I think primarily due to his foresightedness in reading the check-off lists 

when he had the opportunity, rather than following the launch count 

document to the second. Escape tower arming at –22 was no problem 

– all you had to do was throw a switch, and, as all know, the escape tower 

did not fi re. The T-15 panel check was satisfactory, the –5 status check 

was satisfactory, and I would say that the countdown right up to the point 

of umbilical pull indeed was satisfactory. This ties me back in where I was 

before, to the periscope.

13. “I noticed the umbilical go out and I saw the head of the boom start 

to drop away as the periscope retracted electrically. This fact was reported 

as well as main bus voltage and current over RF prior to lift-off. I had 

2. About 4 hours by now.

3. Capsule Test Conductor
196 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

the feeling somehow that maybe I would’ve liked a little more over RF 

with respect to the booster countdown steps. I remember hearing fi ring 

command, but it may very well be that although Deke4

 was giving me other 

sequences over RF prior to main stage and lift-off, I did not hear them. I 

may have been just a little bit too excited. I do remember being fairly calm 

at this point and getting my hand up to start the watch when I received 

the lift-off from the Control Center on RF. The time-zero relays closed 

properly, the onboard clock started properly, and I must say the lift-off was 

a whole lot smoother than I expected. I really expected to have to use full 

volume control on UHF and HF to be able to receive. I did not have to – I 

think I was legible to Tel 35 because all of my transmissions over UHF were 

immediately acknowledged without any repeats being requested. 

14. “Again, insofar as the mission itself is concerned, lift-off was very 

smooth. I noticed no vibrations of any consequence at all during the 

period of about the fi rst 30-45 seconds (I would say as a guess). [Page 

A14-17] I got an extra transmission in primarily to insure myself of a 

good voice link and also to let the people on the ground know I was in 

good shape. The 30-second scheduled transmission went according to 

schedule, right on time. I did start that a little bit early, I remember, as I 

wanted to again let people know that I was in good shape. It seemed to me 

then that somewhere about 45 seconds to a minute after lift-off, I started 

noticing an increase in vibrations at the couch. It was a gradual increase; 

there was not any concern. As a matter of fact I’d really been looking for 

an increase in sound levels and roughness just after one minute because, 

of course, going transonic, and because of the max q point, so I wasn’t 

too upset by this. I think maybe if we look back at fi lm (the pilot coverage 

fi lm) we’ll be able to see my helmet bouncing around vibrating. Actually 

there was [sic] vibrations there to the degree where it distorted some of 

the reading of the instruments. I made the voice report at one minute 

on schedule and from there on up to max q noticed the increase in the 

sound level and increase in vibrations.

15. “The cabin pressure, as we know, sealed properly at 5.5. It seemed to slow 

down a little bit at 6. As a matter of fact, I almost reported it as being sealed 

at 6, but it gradually came down to 5.5. A quick glance at the suit circuit 

absolute-pressure gauge confi rmed this. After this, things really started to 

smooth out. The booster noises seemed to fade away, and booster vibrations 

got a lot smoother. As a matter of fact, I mentioned that over RF, so we’ll have 

that on the record. There was a very defi nite transition in vibration, not a 

sharp one, but a gradual one, nonetheless noticeable. The report at 1 minute 

and 30 seconds was made on schedule. We, of course, included the main-bus 

and isolated-battery voltage at that time. I found that my scan pattern was not 

as good as it might have been, and I don’t remember looking at the electrical 

panel as much I probably should have, paying more attention, of course, to 

the oxygen panel and the fuel panel. 

4. Capsule Communicator in Mercury Control Center. [Astronaut Deke Slayton]

5. Mercury Control Center
Exploring the Unknown 197

16. “At 2 minutes, normal periodic transmission was made, and, of course, 

I gave all systems ‘GO’ at that point. I remember feeling particularly happy 

at that point because the fl ight was proceeding very smoothly here, the 

capsule was working very nicely as far as I could tell. I also called out an 

additional acceleration of, I think, 5-1/2 g here.

17. “Cut-off as far as I could tell on the clock came exactly on schedule, 

right around 142 seconds, 2 minutes and 22 seconds on the count. The 

tower jettisoned. Immediately I noticed the noise in the tower jettisoning. 

I didn’t notice any smoke coming by the porthole as I expected I might 

in my peripheral vision. I think maybe I was riveted on that good old 

‘tower jettison’ green light which looked so good in the capsule. I threw 

the ‘retrojettison’ switch to disarm at this point as I noted over RF, and 

‘capsule separation’ came on [page A17-19] green right on schedule at 

2 minutes and 32 seconds. Aux damping at this point, I thought, was 

satisfactory. I don’t remember reporting it specifi cally because I reported 

the periscope coming out, and I think at this point I was going to report 

it, but the turnaround maneuver actually started on ASCS.6 I remember 

reporting the turn around maneuver, and at that point, at about 3 minutes, 

I went though hand control motions7, as was noted, and I started switching 

to the manual control system. I switched of course to pitch fi rst, pitched to 

retroattitude, and back to orbit attitude. The ASCS controlled in yaw and 

roll as I was doing this. I then switched next to manual yaw, and ASCS roll 

still continued to function. I switched then fi nally to manual roll. I was 

in the full manual system and found that controlling the capsule was just 

about the same as it been on the trainers.

18. “I did not pickup any noticeable noise of the jets. I think if I’d had 

time I might have been able to decrease the volume control of the voice 

radio circuits and picked it up but at this point I didn’t have time to 

investigate it. I remember thinking that I did not hear the noise of the 

manual jets fi ring at this time.

19. “I controlled fairly close to orbit attitude on manual and then switched 

to the scope, and the picture in the scope certainly was a remarkable 

picture. Unfortunately, I had a fi lter in the scope to cut the sunlight 

down on the pad, and I did not feel that I had the time to reach it and 

change it on the pad. It was diffi cult for me to reach the fi lter-intensity 

knob with the suit on without bumping the abort handle with the wrist 

seal bearing of the left arm, so as a result I remember saying, ‘Well, I’ll 

leave the periscope fi lter in this position and try to remember to change it 

later on even though it may get me in trouble.’ Of course, actually, it did, 

because I had in the medium gray fi lter which very effectively obliterated 

most of the colors. Clarifying that last remark, there is no question about 

being able to distinguish between cloud masses and land masses. This is 

very easy to do even with a gray fi lter, and I was able to distinguish the low 

6. Automatic Stabilization and Control System

7. A psychomotor test of positioning the hand controller at predetermined positions.
198 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

pressure area as described8 in the southeastern part of the United States. 

As I think I mentioned over RF, Cape Hatteras was obliterated by cloud 

cover. The cloud cover of 3 to 4 tenths, low scattered on the east coast of 

Florida, was most apparent. The west coast of Florida and the Gulf were 

clear. I could see Lake Okeechobee. As I described, I could see the shoals 

in the vicinity of Bimini. I could see Andros Island. The Bahama Islands, 

Grand Bahama Island itself, and Abaco [page A19-21] were confusing 

because there was cloud cover there, just enough to confuse my view. I 

think if I had a little bit more time with a periscope here, though, I would 

have been able to defi nitely distinguish these islands, but the cloud cover 

was confusing to me at that point. I noticed also that I apparently had in 

a slow pitch rate because I noticed that I wasn’t controlling the manual 

pitch too much at this point. I think I was paying too much attention 

looking out at the awe-inspiring sight in the periscope.

20. “The countdown to retrosequence helped me. It helped me come 

back to the next sequence which was to occur. The next sequence of 

course was retro. The onboard timer started retro essentially on schedule; 

the retrosequence and retroattitude lights came green, as expected. I 

went manually to retroattitude, and I wasn’t quite as happy with the pitch 

control here as I was with yaw and roll. Somehow I got a little bit behind 

with my pitch control, and I got down fairly close to 20 to 25 degrees 

rather than staying up around the 34 degrees. Of course, as we all know, 

the index of this particular capsule is at 45 degrees, but I don’t think this 

added to the confusion; however, I think the confusion was my own here. 

Okay, with respect to retrofi ring – there is no question about it, when 

those retros go, your transition from zero g of weightlessness to essentially 

5g is noticeable. You notice the noise of the retros and you notice the 

torque9

 of the retros. I think I did a fairly good job of controlling the 

retros outside of the pitch deviation which I mentioned, and I thought 

that I was able certainly to control them within reasonable tolerance. 

21. “At the end of retros, the plan was to go to fl y-by-wire, which I did. I 

switched to fl y-by-wire, pulled manual, and then, at this point, the plan 

was to go to yaw and then roll fl y-by-wire, but I noticed I was a little lower 

in pitch than I wanted to be at the end of retrofi re itself, so I started back 

on the pitch – then , at this point, it was either a yaw or roll maneuver that 

I made, I’m not sure which one. I think it’s probably yaw because that is 

the one I was supposed to make fi rst – a fl y-by-wire yaw maneuver – and1, 

about the time the retros were to have jettisoned, I heard the noise and 

saw a little bit of the debris. I saw one of the retropack retaining straps. 

I checked and there was no light at that time. Deke10 called up and said 

he confi rmed retrojettison, and about this time I hit the manual override 

and the light came on. This, as I recall, is the only item sequence-wise in 

the capsule that did not perform properly. I did not do the specifi c roll 

8. In prefl ight weather briefi ng

9. Misalignment Torques.

10. Astronaut Donald K. (Deke) Slayton, Capsule Communicator in the Mercury Control Center.
Exploring the Unknown 199

[page A21-23] 20 degrees and back as we had planned, because it took a 

little extra time to verify that retropack jettison had occurred.

22. “I went down to reentry attitude on fl y-by-wire, and I think I made 

the general comment already that as far as I am concerned, the trainers 

– all the trainers that we have – the procedures trainer as well as the ALFA 

trainer, are all pretty close to the actual case. I say this now, because 

on these I have a tendency to be able to control these trainers on the 

manual system better than I can with the fl y-by-wire system. And I think 

it’s just a matter, really of not using fl y-by-wire very much. By that I mean 

that normally we’re controlling retros manually and normally controlling 

reentry manually, and when you switch to fl y-by-wire as we had been doing 

here, the fi rst tendency is to over-control in rate – at least for me – because 

the microswitch distances for the high and low thrust jets are very small, 

and we’ve had trouble on this. With these microswitches, particularly 

capsule seven, you get high torque right away, whether you want it or not, 

and so I noticed the same thing on the capsule. The fi rst thing I do is 

over- control and get a higher rate than I thought I should have gotten.

23. “On fl y-by-wire I went to reentry attitude, and switched to ASCS 

which stabilized at about 40 degrees, then at this point, the periscope 

came in on schedule, and I remember reporting ‘periscope in.’ Then 

I got involved with looking out the windows for the starts and anything 

else that I could see. At this time in the fl ight, of course, this window 

looks generally at the horizon, at the moon and the stars.11 There was 

nothing there at all – I couldn’t see anything in the way of stars or planets 

out in that area, and I did move my head around. I got a little confused 

because I though I ought to get my head up to see the horizon out that 

window, but I never did get a horizon out that window at this point, 

and I think it was because of the attitude. We had fi gured out it was 15 

degrees above the horizon as I recall, and I thought I ought to be able to 

see the horizon but I never did see it. Well, that, plus the fact that I was 

looking for the stars that I couldn’t see out of that window, actually got 

me behind in the fl ight – this was the only point in the fl ight that I felt 

that I really wasn’t on top of things. What happened here was that .05g 

came quickly, as I reported, and I started switching to manual control, 

and I thought I had time to get on to manual control, but I didn’t. The 

g-build-up started sooner than I fi gured it would. I don’t know whether 

it was just that [page A23-26] I was late because of being on the time, 

or whether we don’t have the same time difference between .05g and gbuild-up on our trainer that we actually had in fl ight – we can check this 

later. What I’m talking about is the time period between .05g and the 

g-build-up in reentry. As I can remember on the trainer, I would have 

time to go ahead and get on manual control and get set up before the 

g’s built up, but I was surprised when the g’s started building up as soon 

as they did. I wasn’t ready for it, but I thought we were in good shape 

11. The stars he was to look for.
200 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

because we were still on the ASCS when the .05g relay latched in. As a 

result, the roll12 started on schedule. . . .” END OF RECORD.

24. (There is a portion of Astronaut Shepard’s report missing from 

the tape recording at this part of the fl ight. During a later debriefi ng 

at GBI the next day, Shepard described this portion of the fl ight 

essentially as follows:) 

25. The acceleration pulse during reentry was about as expected and as 

was experienced on the Centrifuge during training, except that in fl ight 

the environment was smoother. During the early part of g-build-up, 

Shepard switched to manual-proportional control on all axes. He allowed 

the roll put in by the ASCS to continue. He controlled the oscillations 

somewhat in pitch and yaw during g-build-up only. The oscillations 

during and after the g-pulse were mild and not uncomfortable. He 

arrived at 40,000 feet sooner than he expected and at that time switched 

to ASCS in all axes in order to give full attention to observing drogue 

chute deployment. The drogue came out at the intended altitude and 

was clearly visible through the periscope. The capsule motions when 

on the drogue chute were not uncomfortable. The snorkel opened at 

15,000 feet which Shepard thought was late. The main chute came out 

at the intended altitude.

Astronaut Shepard’s recording made on the carrier continues:

26. “As to the chute, I was delighted to see it. I had pushed all hand 

controllers in so that I noticed that all the peroxide had dumped on 

schedule. At this point I shifted to the R/T position of the UHF-DF switch. 

The UHF-select was still normal, and I think at this point I reached over 

and fl ipped off the VOX relay switch which was obviously, I realized after 

I had done a superfl uous maneuver because the transmitters were keyed 

anyway. I was a little confused here, I guess. I felt that the carrier13 was 

coming in and out for some reason, so I went over there and threw that 

VOX power switch off. [Page A26-29] In any event, after going to the 

R/T positions, shortly thereafter, I established contact with the Indian 

Ocean Ship14 and gave them the report of the parachute being good, the 

rate-of-decent indicator being at about 35 ft/sec and everything looked 

real good. The peroxide was dumped, the landing bag was green, and, of 

course the ‘Rescue Aids’ switch was off at that point. They relayed back 

shortly after that, as I recall.

27. “CARDFILE 23, the relay airplane, came in fi rst of all with a direct shot 

and then with a relay, so that I was able to get the word to the Cape prior 

to other sources that I was indeed in good shape up to this point. The 

opening shock of the parachute was not uncomfortable. My colleagues 

will recognize it was a reassuring kick in the butt. I think I made the hand 

12. Programmed reentry roll rate of 10 to 12 degrees per second.

13. The hum of the carrier frequency.

14. This ship was being exercised for the MR-3 mission and had been positioned in the landing area.
Exploring the Unknown 201

controller movements after the main chute. I can’t vouch for it. The 

exact times of these sequences I do not recall at this point but we can 

cross-check again. Altitude-wise, the drogue and main came out right on 

the money, as far as indicated altitude was concerned.

28. “I put the transmission through that I was okay prior to impact. I 

was able to look out and see the water, with the capsule swinging back 

and forth. It was not uncomfortable at all. As a matter of fact I felt no 

uncomfortable physiological sensations, really, at any point during the 

fl ight. Excited, yes, but nothing uncomfortable at all. Prior to impact, I 

had removed my knee straps; I had released my face plate seal bottle and 

had removed the exhaust hose from the helmet. Back to the impact now 

– the impact itself was as expected. It was a jolt but not uncomfortable. 

The capsule went over on its right-hand side, down pretty close to the 

water, and of course stayed at about 60° off the vertical. I reached down 

and fl ipped the ‘Rescue Aids’ switch at this time to jettison the reserve 

chute and to eject the HF antenna although I did leave my transmit switch 

in the UHF position. At this point, I could look out the left window and 

tell the dye marker package was working properly. The right window 

was still under water. I began looking around for any indication of water 

inside but did not fi nd any. I had broken my helmet at the neck ring seal 

at this point, and I did no transmitting here. I left the Switch on R/T 

because I didn’t want any discharge from the UHF antenna.

29. “The capsule righted itself slowly to a near vertical position, though 

I thought myself ‘It is taking an awfully long time to get up there,’ but it 

did get up there, and about the time it did get up [page A29-31] there, I 

started to relax a little bit and started to read off my instruments. I had 

made a report to CARDFILE 23 after impact over UHF that I was indeed 

all right, and it was relayed back to the Cape. Then, getting back to the 

point where the capsule was close to the vertical, I was going to get a readoff of the instruments at this time prior to shutting down the power. I got 

the main bus voltage and current, and I got a call from the helicopter and 

thought that communicating with him was much more important. So I 

did. I communicated with him and established contact with the chopper. 

I am not sure he heard me at fi rst, but I was able to get through to him 

that I would be coming out as soon as he lifted the door clear of the 

water. In the meantime, I experienced very little diffi culty in getting the 

cable from the door around the manual controller handle and tightened 

up so that when I called the helo and told him I was ready to come out 

and he verifi ed that he was pulling me up and I told him I was powering 

down and disconnecting communications. The door was ready to go off. 

I disconnected the biomedical packs. I undid my lapbelt, disconnected 

the communications lead, and opened the door and very easily worked 

my way up into a sitting position on the door sill. Just prior to doing this, 

I took my helmet off and laid it over in the position in the – as a matter of 

fact, I put it over the hand controller. 

30. “The helo was right there. I waited before grabbing the ‘horse-collar’ 

for a few minutes because I hadn’t seen it hit the water. They dropped 
202 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

it down in the water and pulled it back up again, and I grabbed it and 

got into it with very little diffi culty, and shortly thereafter, was lifted right 

directly from a sitting position out of the capsule up toward the chopper. 

The only thing that gave me any problem at all, and it was only a minor 

one, was that I banged into the HF antenna but, of course, it is so fl exible 

that it didn’t give me any trouble. I got into the chopper with no diffi culty 

at all, and I must admit was delighted to get there. Of course, the pickup 

of the capsule went very nicely. The sea conditions were such that they 

were able to get it up right away, and the next thing I knew we were making 

a pass on the fl at top. My sensations at this time were very easy to describe 

and very easy to notice. It was a thrill, and a humble feeling, an exultant 

feeling that everything had gone so well during the fl ight.

31. “I have not used the script15 here, so I will go over it now to be sure 

I have covered most of these items. Item 3 – the most outstanding 

impression of the fl ight in special sensory areas. I think [page A31-34] it 

is really very diffi cult to describe any one thing as being more outstanding 

than the other. It was all fascinating, and interesting, and challenging, 

and everything, all wrapped up into one. But I don’t really remember 

noticing the weightless condition until I noticed a washer fl ying by. ‘Well,’ 

I thought, ‘you are supposed to be making some comment on being 

weightless.’ So I did think about it a little bit. Of course, as we had known 

before, in the backseat of the F-100’s, it is a real comfortable feeling. 

Being strapped in like that, there is no tendency to be thrown around 

at all and no uncomfortable sensations. I guess the most outstanding 

impression that I had was the fact that I was able to do as well as I did. A 

very good fl ight.

32. “Major surprises? No major surprises. Some minor ones which I have 

described. I expected to be able to see the stars and planets, which I did 

not do. I think I could have found them with a little more time to look. 

The fact that I did not hear the jets fi ring – although I do remember 

now hearing the control jets working just after reentry, after I went back 

to ASCS. I remember hearing some of the high-thrust jets going at this 

time. In reference to the sky and stars, I have described the stars which 

I did not see and which I tried to see. I described the landing in the 

water; I described the check points; I remember mentioning over RF that 

I was able to see Okeechobee, also Andros and the Bimini Atoll which was 

(the latter) most apparent because of the difference in color between the 

shoals and the deep water.

33. “I did not describe the perimeter16 too well because of cloud cover 

around the perimeter. The predicted perimeter cloud cover was most 

accurate. The clouds were such that the ones that had any vertical 

formation were pretty far away, and I didn’t really notice much difference 

in critical cloud heights. I think had I been closer to them, I would have 

been able to notice this a little more. They were pretty far from the center 

15. The debriefi ng form.

16. The perimeter of the fi eld of view through the periscope
Exploring the Unknown 203

of the scope where some distortion occurs. We talked about the horizon. 

Essentially, there was only the one haze layer between the cloud cover and 

the deep blue.

34. “Weightlessness gave me no problem at all. The last question: 

‘Describe any sound, smell, or sensory impressions associated with the 

fl ight experienced.’ Sounds? Of course, the booster sounds, the pyros 

fi ring, the escape tower jettisoning and the retros fi ring. Of course all 

these sounds were new, although none of them were really loud enough 

to be upsetting. They were defi nitely noticeable. The only unusual smell 

in the capsule was a gunpowder smell after – it seems to me – after main 

chute deploy. I think this was after the main antenna can [page A34-35] 

went off. I don’t remember smelling it before, but I did get it after main 

chute and, of course, I didn’t get it until after I opened my face plate. It 

didn’t appear to be disturbing to me, so I didn’t close the face plate. No 

other sensory impressions that I noticed that I can recall at this time that 

we did not have in training. The g-load, the onset and relief of g were 

familiar during reentry and powered fl ight. They were not upsetting. 

They were not unusual.

35. “I am sorry that I did forget to work the hand controller under gload during powered fl ight as we had discussed, but I thought that I was 

operating fairly well during powered fl ight. I think the fact that I forgot 

this is not too signifi cant. Well, I think that’s just about the size of it for 

now. We will continue this on a more quantitative basis later on. This is 

Shepard, off.”

Document I-36

Document Title: Joachim P. Kuettner, Chief, Mercury-Redstone Project, NASA, 

to Dr. von Braun, 18 May 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

In 1958 Joachim P. Kuettner joined NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center at Huntsville, 

Alabama, and became the Center’s Director of the Mercury-Redstone Project, overseeing efforts 

at the center for the fi rst spacefl ights of U.S. astronauts. Subsequently, he became Director 

of the Apollo Systems Offi ce, responsible for the integration of the Apollo spacecraft and the 

Saturn V rocket for the lunar landing. The euphoria surrounding the fl ight of Alan Shepard 

on 5 May 1961 prompted him to prepare this bold memorandum to Center Director Wernher 

von Braun advocating a circumlunar mission using a spacecraft under development. He 

had found that with a follow-on space capsule, which became the Gemini spacecraft, it might 

be feasible to undertake the truly signifi cant “space spectacular” of a circumlunar fl ight. 

Such an endeavor would steal the march on the Soviet Union and signifi cantly advance 

U.S. prestige in the space race. At the time Kuettner made this proposal President John F. 

Kennedy had not yet made his famous Apollo landing speech. That would come only a week 
204 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

later, and because of it this proposal was overcome by events. It would be revisited in the 1963 

to1964 timeframe, however, but never adopted.

M-DIR, Dr. von Braun

May 18, 1961

M-S&M-TSM

MERCURY PROJECT

[Section 2 only]

2. Circumlunar “Shortcut”

a. You will remember the proposal we discussed a few weeks ago, using 

C-1 and MERCURY hardware. This “Beat-Russia” proposal which you 

took along envisioned a trip around the moon within three years. You 

considered the capsule problem as the time-critical item and suggested 

possible use of the present MERCURY capsule (beefed-up)

b. In the meantime, I have done some “incidental” digging and exploring 

among “savvy” STG people (Cooper, Slayton, Grissom, Glenn, Dr. 

White, Dr. Voss, Gilruth, Williams, and Faget). I learned that a slightly 

scaled-up MERCURY capsule is already being developed by McDonnell 

for prolonged orbital fl ights. Chamberlin, one of Gilruth’s Division 

Chiefs, carries the ball. (He is the only one I missed.)

c. There was very little deviation in the general reaction: It can be done 

with almost existing hardware if the astronaut is given enough room 

to stretch to full length and to do some regular body exercises in 

order to avoid muscular dystrophy under prolonged weightlessness. 

This means some additional room around his body so that he can 

move his extremities freely. There is no walk-around requirement. I 

will fi nd out whether the scaled up capsule at McDonnell fulfi lls these 

conditions.

d. Some astronauts, like Cooper, would ride the present MERCURY 

capsule for a week without hesitation, but the doctors may object. 

The reaction to the whole idea of an early circumlunar fl ight of this 

type varied from friendly to most positive. There was no objection 

raised by anybody except that Williams doubted that C-1 can do the 

job, payload wise. (Of course, the plan was to augment C-1 by four 

solids such as SCOUTS or MINUTEMEN [handwritten: Or by a 3rd 

of the Minutemen)].

e. Since this is one of the few real possibilities to accomplish an important 

“fi rst” without requiring excessive funding (most of the hardware 

is developed anyway), I would like to know if you are interested in 
Exploring the Unknown 205

pursuing this idea. We may look into the costs and get some more 

details on the scaled-up capsule.

Joachim P. Kuettner

Chief

MERCURY-REDSTONE Project

Enc:

Letters of Commendation

Copies to: M-S&M-TSM (Record copy)

 M-S&M-DIR

Document I-37

Document Title: James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, to James C. Hagerty, Vice 

President, American Broadcasting Company, 1 June 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

James C. Hagerty had served as President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s press secretary between 

1953 and 1961, and in that capacity he had dealt often with the media issues brought to the 

forefront by Soviet “space spectaculars.” Upon his departure from Washington with the end 

of the Eisenhower administration he keenly understood the excitement of spacefl ight and in 

that context tried, as this letter suggests, to play upon the public’s interest in the astronauts 

to aid his new organization, ABC, by organizing a joint television special with the fi rst two 

humans in space, Yuri Gagarin and Alan Shepard. NASA Administrator James E. Webb’s 

instinct was probably correct in refusing this offer. Even if the Soviets were willing to allow 

Gagarin’s appearance on ABC , the question at the time of this correspondence was, why 

would the U.S. want to allow the Soviet Union to upstage the 5 May success of Shepard’s 

fl ight with the joint television appearance? Instead, Shepard spent several months making 

public and media appearances to bolster confi dence in the American space effort vis à vis its 

rival, the Soviet Union.

June 1, 1961

Mr. James C. Hagerty

Vice President

American Broadcasting Company

7 West 66th Street

New York 23, New York
206 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Dear Jim:

Since our discussion on May 19th I have given a good deal of thought 

to the proposal outlined in the letter you delivered to me on that date, that Alan 

Shepard and Yuri Gagarin appear together in New York City on a nation-wide 

telecast. I cannot see how Shepard’s appearance would serve a useful purpose, 

and I believe it could be detrimental to the best interests of the United States.

Although, as I told you, your proposal involves national policy questions 

beyond my own direct responsibility, I feel that it is my duty to state my conviction 

that the whole plan is unwise.

The Mercury fl ight of Alan Shepard was performed before the eyes of the 

whole world. He reported his immediate experience and reactions at the press 

conference on May 8th in Washington. On June 6th Shepard and other members 

of the Space Task Group will give a full report on the results of the fl ight at a 

scientifi c and technical conference in Washington which will be widely reported 

and whose proceedings will be published. Further reporting could add nothing 

signifi cant.

The free and open way in which we have proceeded to share our manned 

contrast to Soviet secrecy and their unsupported and confl icting descriptions of 

the Gagarin fl ight.

If, [2] as you have proposed, Gagarin would be free to tell his story in whatever 

manner he so desired, it is fair to assume it would not be in a full and complete 

factual framework but a rather in the same framework as previous reports.

Why then should we permit the Soviet Union to blunt the impact of the 

open conduct of our program by the use of a nation-wide telecast as a propaganda forum?

From past experience, the Russians might very well use Gagarin’s appearance 

here in the United States to announce and to exploit, again without full facts, and 

to a large audience, another Russian manned fl ight, timed to coincide with his 

appearance here—perhaps a fl ight of two or three persons. In such a situation, 

to compare Shepard’s sub orbital fl ight with that of Gagarin, or with some other 

Russian achievement, would be inconsistent with the reporting of the fl ight as only 

one step in the U.S. ten-year program for space exploration. 

With regret that I cannot encourage your proposal, and with best wishes,

 I am Sincerely yours,

[Signed]

James E. Webb

Administrator
Exploring the Unknown 207

Blind copy:

Mr. Lucius D. Battle, Director

Executive Secretariat

Department of State

Washington 25, D.C.

A

Webb:hhm

Cc: AD- Dryden

 A- Phillips

Document I-38

Document Title: MR-4 Technical Debriefi ng Team, Memorandum for Associate 

Director, NASA, “MR-4 Postfl ight Debriefi ng of Virgil I. Grissom,” 21 July 1961, 

with attached, “Debriefi ng.”

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear Lake, 

Texas.

The second fl ight of the Mercury program, astronaut Gus Grissom’s suborbital mission on 

21 July1961, proved somewhat less successful than Alan Shepard’s because of the loss of the 

capsule in the ocean. On Grissom’s mission, an explosively actuated side hatch was used to 

blow open seventy 1/4-inch titanium bolts that secured the hatch to the doorsill. During the 

water recovery effort a premature explosion of the side hatch allowed the capsule to sink in 

15,000 feet of water. Grissom vacated the spacecraft immediately after the hatch blew off and 

was retrieved after being in the water for about four minutes. Much of the debriefi ng for the 

mission, as shown in this memorandum, relates to this important mishap. How this incident 

took place has been a mystery ever since, with numerous theories abounding. Some thought 

Grissom panicked and prematurely hit the control to blow the hatch, either accidentally or on 

purpose to escape the capsule sooner. Others, especially test pilots who knew a steely-nerved 

Grissom, have publicly doubted that explanation. Some thought that seawater might have 

gotten into the system and somehow shorted it out. There is no defi nitive explanation, and 

recovery of his capsule from the Atlantic Ocean in 1999 did not yield any fi nal answer to 

what happened during Grissom’s fl ight.

NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center

Langely Field, Virginia

[7-21-61]

MEMORANDUM for Associate Director

Subject: MR-4 postfl ight debriefi ng of Virgil I. Grissom

1. The enclosures to this memorandum constitute Captain Grissom’s 

complete debriefi ng of MR-4. The fi rst enclosure is a general outline of 

the three sessions of the MR-4 debriefi ng. The second enclosure is an 

index of enclosures four, fi ve and six which are Grissom’s comments 
208 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

relative to capsule engineering, operational procedures, and pilot 

performance. In these enclosures each answer by Captain Grissom is 

preceded by the question proposed except for enclosure four. The 

debriefi ng questionnaire used as a guide by the astronaut for this portion 

of the debriefi ng is included as enclosure three.

2. The basic concept of the debriefi ng was to allow the pilot to freely discuss 

the fl ight on board the recovery ship before entering into the direct 

question and answer sessions held at Grand Bahama Island and Cape 

Canaveral. An index was prepared which, it is hoped, will help direct the 

various systems’ specialists to the information pertaining to their areas 

of interest.

3. To take full advantage of the information gained form the MR-4 pilot 

debriefi ng, it is suggested that a copy of this material be distributed to 

each branch of the Manned Spacecraft Center. It is requested that all 

comments on the debriefi ng be forwarded back to the Training Offi ce.

MR-4 Technical Debriefi ng Team

[Signed]

Sigurd A. Sjoberg

Flight Operations Coordination

[Signed]

Robert B. Voas

Training Offi ce

[Signed]

Helmut A. Kuehnel

Spacecraft Operations Branch

Enc: Debriefi ng

RGZ:srl

Copies to: All MSC Branches

[Debriefi ng: Only Paragraphs 11-13 provided]

11. Recovery – On landing, the capsule went pretty well under the water. Out the 

window, I could see nothing but water and it was apparent to me that I was laying 

pretty well over on my left side and little bit head down. I reached the rescue aids 

switch and I heard the reserve chute jettison and I could see the canister in the 

water through the periscope. Then, the capsule righted itself rather rapidly and it 

was apparent to me that I was in real good shape, and I reported this. Then I got 

ready to egress. I disconnected the helmet from the suit and put the neck dam up. 

The neck dam maybe had been rolled up too long, because it didn’t unroll well. 

It never did unroll fully. I was a little concerned about this in the water because 

I was afraid I was shipping a lot of water through it. In fact, the suit was quite wet 

inside, so I think I was. At this point, I thought I was in good shape. So, I decided 
Exploring the Unknown 209

to record all the switch positions just like we had planned. I took the survival knife 

out of the door and put it into the raft. All switches were left just the way they were 

at impact, with the exception of the rescue aids and I recorded these by marking 

them down on the switch chart in the map case and then put it back in the map 

case. I told Hunt Club they were clear to come in and pick me up whenever they 

could. Then, I told them as soon as they had me hooked and were ready, I would 

disconnect my helmet take it off, power down the capsule, blow the hatch, and 

come out. They said, “Roger,” and so, in the meantime, I took the pins off both 

the top and the bottom of the hatch to make sure the wires wouldn’t be in the 

way, and then took the cover off the detonator. 

12. I was just waiting for their call when all at once, the hatch went. I had the 

cap off and the safety pin out, but I don’t think that I hit the button. The capsule 

was rocking around a little but there weren’t any loose items in the capsule, so I 

don’t see how I could have hit it, but possibly I did. I had my helmet unbuttoned 

and it wasn’t a loud report. There wasn’t any doubt in my mind as to what had 

happened. I looked out and saw nothing but blue sky and water starting to ship 

into the capsule. My fi rst thought was to get out, and I did. As I got out, I saw the 

chopper was having trouble hooking onto the capsule. He was frantically fi shing 

for the recovery loop. The recovery compartment was just out of the water at this 

time and I swam over to help him get his hook through the loop. I made sure I 

wasn’t tangled anyplace in the capsule before swimming toward the capsule. Just as 

I reached the capsule, he hooked it and started lifting the capsule clear. He hauled 

the capsule away from me a little bit and didn’t drop the horsecollar down. I was 

fl oating, shipping water all the time, swallowing some, and I thought one of the 

other helicopters would come in and get me. I guess I wasn’t in the water very long 

but it seemed like an eternity to me. Then, when they did bring the other copter 

in, they had a rough time getting the horsecollar to me. They got in within about 

20 feet and couldn’t seem to get it any closer. When I got the horsecollar, I had 

a hard time getting it on, but I fi nally got into it. By this time, I was getting a little 

tired. Swimming in the suit is diffi cult, even though it does help keep you somewhat 

afl oat. A few waves were breaking over my head and I was swallowing some water. 

They pulled me up inside and then told me they had lost the capsule.

13. Before I end this debriefi ng, I want to say that I’ll ever be grateful to Wally 

[Astronaut Walter Schirra] for the work he did on the neck dam. If I hadn’t had 

the neck dam up, I think I would have drowned before anyone could have gotten 

to me. I just can’t get over the fact that the neck dam is what saved me today.

Document I-39

Document Title: Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Space Task Group, NASA, to 

Marshall, NASA, (attention: Dr. Wernher von Braun), “Termination of Mercury 

Redstone Program,” 23 August 1961.

Source: National Archives and Record Administration, Fort Worth, Texas.
210 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

A typical approach to fl ight research involves the slow and systematic advancement of the 

various parameters of the research project until the team completes the task at hand. As an 

example, Chuck Yeager in 1947 did not just kick the tires of his airplane and then fl y the 

X-1 beyond the space of sound. He and several other research pilots worked with a team of 

aerospace engineers for months methodically advancing the X-1’s fl ight regime until they 

were ready to make a supersonic fl ight. The Space Task Group, all of whom had enjoyed early 

experience in fl ight test, took the same approach with Project Mercury. After several missions 

without astronauts aboard, they then fl ew two suborbital missions with Alan Shepard and 

Gus Grissom on 5 May and 21 July 1961. They were quite prepared, and had planned 

for, a third suborbital mission but, as this memorandum makes clear, it would have been 

redundant of what had already been accomplished and was unnecessary to the systematic 

progression of the Mercury program. Accordingly, Space Task Group Director Robert Gilruth 

announced to his counterpart at the Marshall Space Flight Center, Wernher von Braun, 

that NASA Headquarters had approved cancellation of the third suborbital mission, so that 

NASA could move on to the orbital part of the research program. Because of this decision, 

Mercury would not need any additional Redstone rockets from the von Braun team, since 

orbital missions would be launched atop Atlas boosters.

Langley Field, Va.

August 23, 1961

From Space Task Group

To Marshall

Attention: Dr. Wernher von Braun

Subject: Termination of Mercury-Redstone Program

1. Approval has been received from NASA Headquarters to cancel the previously 

scheduled third manned suborbital fl ight and to terminate the MercuryRedstone program. The objectives of this program have been achieved.

2. In the near future, personnel from the Space Task Group will visit 

Marshall to discuss disposition of the remaining boosters and Ground 

Support Equipment incurred in those activities.

3. I wish to take this opportunity again to thank you and your staff for the fi ne 

team effort displayed in accomplishing the Mercury-Redstone program.

[Signed]

Robert R. Gilruth

Director

Copy to: NASA Hq- Attn: Mr G. M. Low, DM
Exploring the Unknown 211

Document I-40

Document Title: Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Programs, NASA, 

Memorandum for Administrator, “Use of a Television System in Manned MercuryAtlas Orbital Flights,” 6 September 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

NASA offi cials recognized the general public’s keen interest in the human spacefl ight missions 

that took place during Project Mercury. They also recognized the propaganda value of these 

fl ights for the U.S. during the cold war rivalry with the Soviet Union. At the same time, they 

were engineers who made virtually all of their decisions on the basis of technical data. As this 

memorandum demonstrates, Edward R. Murrow, the most respected journalist in the U.S. 

and the new Director of the U.S. Information Agency, had requested a television hook-up from 

space for orbital Mercury missions. Murrow’s request refl ected a desire to show the world that 

the U.S. was second to none technologically, something many non-aligned peoples questioned 

at the time. Reviewing the necessary technical components of such a broadcast capability, 

NASA’s Director of Space Flight Programs Abe Silverstein concluded that reconfi guring the 

Mercury capsule’s power, communications, and weight structures at that time would be 

detrimental to the overall objectives of the program. When the Gemini program fl ew in 1965 

to1966 it did incorporate television, and the broadcasts from the Moon during the Apollo 

program became legendary. 

In reply refer to:

DM (RJW:vr)

SEP 6 1961

MEMORANDUM for Administrator

Subject: Use of a Television System in Manned Mercury-Atlas Orbital Flights

References: (a) Memo frm AA/Romatowski to D/Silverstein

 Dtd 9/5/61, same subject

(b) Ltr frm USIA (Murrow) to A/Webb, dtd 8/29/61

1. In accordance with the request made in reference (a), I have prepared the 

following comments to be used as a basis for a reply to reference (b).

2. The use of a television system in the Mercury capsule has been studied 

throughout the history of the project. Initially, the weights involved were 

prohibitive; now, light-weight television systems are considered feasible. 

As a result, within the last few months the question of a television system 

for the Mercury capsule has again been raised.

3. Studies of present television systems indicate that a complete system 

(camera and transmitter) for the Mercury capsule would weigh less than 

twenty-fi ve pounds. The corresponding power and antenna requirements, 
212 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

plus the heat exchanger, however, increase the total capsule weight 

beyond acceptable limits.

Furthermore, the necessary redesign of the antenna and heat exchanger 

systems will require considerable testing and development before reliability and confi dence is increased to that required for manned fl ight. In 

addition, the inclusion of a television system in the capsule communication link will raise R.F. compatibility problems which in the past required 

months of tests and developments to solve. For example, ground tests 

indicate that extraneous R.F. signals or even incompatible systems can 

cause an inadvertent abort or improper ground command during fl ight. 

[2]

4. There is no doubt that at this time a change in the communication system 

of this magnitude will compromise the Mercury schedule, the reliability of 

the entire system, and the safety of the pilot. The use of television in our 

manned fl ight program must await future fl ight projects when adequate 

booster capability will be available to carry the increased payload and 

when an integrated television-communication system can be designed, 

developed and suitably tested.

[Signed]

Abe Silverstein 

Director of Space Flight Programs

Document I-41

Document Title: Dr. Robert B. Voas, Training Offi cer, NASA, Memorandum 

for Astronauts, “Statements for Foreign Countries During Orbital Flights,” 7 

November 1961. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

The importance of the Mercury program to the larger cold war rivalry with the Soviet Union is 

demonstrated by this memorandum concerning the possibility of radio transmissions relating 

news about the missions to various foreign nations. One of the key aspects of the early space 

race involved persuading non-aligned peoples in the cold war of the superiority of the U.S. 

and its way of life over that offered by the Soviet Union’s communism. Directly speaking 

to some of these peoples from space might help sway their opinions. At the same time, the 

desire to appear genuine, unscripted as to remarks, and non-propagandistic motivated this 

discussion of commentary by the astronauts. In the end, the Mercury Seven performed their 

roles quite well, making interesting remarks via radio that were heard around the world.

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center 

Langley Air Force Base, Virginia

November 7, 1961
Exploring the Unknown 213

MEMORANDUM: For Astronauts

Subject: Statements for foreign countries during orbital fl ights

1. The undersigned has attempted to get guidance within the NASA 

organization on the policy to be pursued in making statements of 

possible political signifi cance from the Mercury capsule. In pursuing this 

question, he was referred to Mr. Goodwin of NASA Headquarters. Mr. 

Goodwin made the following suggestions. These he apparently discussed 

with Mr. Lloyd and the Administrator and they have their approval.

a. It is essential that any statements made by the Astronauts appear to 

be spontaneous, personal and unrehearsed. He felt that there was a 

general agreement that statements made by the Russian Cosmonauts 

were not effective and backfi red. There was a general feeling that they 

were being used inappropriately for propaganda. He agreed strongly 

with our own feeling that any political statement would look out of 

place. Mr. Goodwin also thought that statements in a foreign language 

could be dangerous, because unless there was a good basis to believe 

they were spontaneous, they would appear to be contrived. Thus, if 

the Astronaut spoke in Hindustani during the fl ight, the inevitable 

question could be raised in the press conference following the fl ight, 

“How did the Astronaut come to know Hindustani?” Unless he could 

show that it was a course given in the high school or college which he 

attended, it would be obvious that this statement had been politically 

inspired. The one point at which a foreign language might effectively 

be used would be over the Mexican station. Here, a few words of 

Spanish, such as, “Saludos Amigos,” might be quite appropriate and 

since simple Spanish phrases are known by many Americans, it would 

not appear contrived. 

2. While Mr. Goodwin did not feel that either a political statement as such, 

or statements in foreign languages, would be useful, he did feel that 

descriptions by the Astronaut in English of the terrain over which he 

was passing and personal statements of how he felt and reacted to the 

situation would be highly desirable and effective if released to foreign 

personnel. The primary requirement here on the Astronaut would be 

to be familiar enough with the political boundaries, to be able to relate 

his observation of the ground to the countries over which he is passing. 

This way, he could report, for example, “I see it is a sunny day in Nigeria,” 

or “I can still see Zanzibar, but it looks like rain is on the way.” To these 

observations related directly to the country should be added any personal 

observations such as, “I feel fi ne; weightlessness doesn’t bother me a 

bit; it’s just like fl ying in an aircraft, etc.” In all such statements, care 

must be taken not to make them appear to be contrived, maudlin or too 

effusive. Rather, they should be genuine, personal and with immediate 

impact. Mr. Goodwin points out that the ideas and words expressed are 

more important to communication than using the actual language of the 

country. If the experience which the Astronaut is having can be expressed 

in personal, simple, meaningful terms, when translated, this will be far 
214 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

more effective than a few words in a foreign language which, in the long 

run, might appear contrived.

3. Mr. Marvin Robinson of Mr. Lloyd’s offi ce is preparing a set of very short 

statements which might be made over each of the range stations. These 

statements are designed to strengthen the position of the nation in 

the use of these facilities. These statements will be forwarded through 

channels and can be considered by the Astronauts for use during the 

fl ight. The best use of such statements might be to have the Astronaut 

extract the general meaning, but to make the statement in his own 

words and in his own way at the proper time.

4. In summary, it appears desirable for the Astronaut

a. To learn to recognize the political boundaries of the countries over 

which he passes in terms of the geographical features which will be 

visible to him from orbit, and

b. To take any time available to him during the fl ight to describe his view 

of the earth and his personal feelings in simple, direct, terms.

Dr. Robert B. Voas

Training Offi cer

RBV.ncl

Document I-42

Document Title: Telegram, NASA—Manned Spacecraft Center, Port Canaveral, 

Florida, to James A. Webb and others, NASA, Washington, DC, “MA-6 Postlaunch 

Memorandum,” 21 February 1962.

Source: Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The Mercury Atlas 6 fl ight carrying John Glenn was the fi rst astronaut-carrying orbital 

fl ight of the Mercury spacecraft and thus a milestone for the American space program. Despite 

the dramatic achievement of Glenn’s fl ight, the engineers conducting the program were 

primarily interested in evaluating the performance of the vehicle and using that information 

for upcoming fl ights. This is an initial telegram from the launch site to NASA Administrator 

James Webb immediately after the launch reported on the performance of the Atlas launch 

vehicle and Mercury spacecraft.

[Handwritten note: “MA-6 Postlaunch Memo”] [DECLASSIFIED]
Exploring the Unknown 215

FROM: NASA – MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER 

PORT CANAVERAL, FLA

TO: NASA HEADQUARTERS

WASHINGTON DC

ATTN: MR JAMES A WEBB, A

 NASA HEADQUARTERS

WASHINGTON DC

ATTN: MR D BRAINERD HOLMES

 DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

NASA – MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER

LANGLEY AFB, VA

ATTN: MR ROBERT R GILRUTH, DIRECTOR

 INFO

HQ SPACE SYSTEMS DIV

LOS ANGELES CAL

ATTN: LT COL R H BRUNDIN, SSVM

 ZEN

NASA LOD

GCMSFC

TITUSVILLE FLA

 PMFO 24 CONFIDENTIAL.

 SUBJECT: MA-6 POSTLAUNCH MEMORANDUM.

 1.0 GENERALTHE MA-6 VEHICLE, SCHEDULED FOR LAUNCH AT 07:30 EST,

FEB. 20, 1962, WAS LAUNCHED AT 09:48 EST. THE THREE-ORBIT

[signed]

Walter C Williams

Associate Director

[2]

MISSION WITH ASTRONAUT JOHN GLENN ABOARD THE CAPSULE 

WAS ACCOMPLISHED AS PLANNED, AND ALL TEST OBJECTIVES WERE 

ACCOMPLISHED. MALFUNCTIONS WERE INDICATED FROM CAPSULE 

INSTUMENTATION IN THE INVERTER COLD-PLATES, IN THE AUTOMATIC 
216 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

CONTROL SYSTEM, AND IN THE LANDING BAG DEPLOYMENT SYSTEM. 

CONFIRMATION OF THE EXISTENCE AND NATURE OF THESE INDICATED 

MALFUNCTIONS WILL REQUIRE A THOROUGH EVALUATION OF DATA. 

THE LANDING BAG PROBLEM RESULTED IN A DECISION TO REENTER 

WITHOUT JETTISONING THE RETROPACK. THE LANDING OCCURRED 

WITHIN VISUAL RANGE OF THE DESTROYER NOA STATIONED 

APPROXIMATELY 45 NAUTICAL MILES UP RANGE OF THE CENTER 

OF THE THIRD ORBIT LANDING AREA. LANDING OCCURRED AT 

APPROXIMATELY 1943Z AND THE SHIP WAS ALONGSIDE FOR RETRIEVAL 

AT APPROXIMATELY 1959Z. MERCURY NETWORK OPERATION WAS 

HIGHLY SATISFACTORY FOR THE MISSION. THE ONLY MAJOR PROBLEM 

OCCURRED AT APPROXIMATELY T-12 MINUTES AS A RESULT OF POWER 

SOURCE FAILURE AT THE BERMUDA COMPUTER.

2.0 MAJOR TEST OBJECTIVES.-

(A) EVALUATE THE PERFORMANCE OF A MAN-SPACECRAFT 

SYSTEM IN THREE-ORBIT MISSION.

(B) EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF SPACE FLIGHT ON THE 

ASTRONAUT.

(C) OBTAIN THE ASTRONAUT’S OPINIONS ON THE OPERATIONAL 

SUITABILITY OF THE SPACECRAFT AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS 

FOR MANNED SPACE FLIGHT.

3.0 LAUNCH OPERATIONS 

THE 390 MINUTE COMBINED COUNT BEGAN AT 23:30 EST, [3] FEB. 

19, 1962. A TOTAL HOLD TIME OF 227 MINUTES WAS USED DURING THE 

COUNT. THE INDIVIDUAL HOLDS WERE AS FOLLOWS:
Exploring the Unknown 217

04:00 EST – T-120 90 MINUTES PLANNED HOLD.

05:30 EST – T-120 55 MINUTES TO CHANGE GE 

RATE BEACON.

07:25 EST – T-60 40 MINUTES TO REMOVE AND REPLACE A 

CAPSULE HATCH BOLT.

08:20 EST – T-45 15 MINUTES TO TOP OFF THE FUEL TANK 

AND MOVE THE SERVICE TOWER.

08:58 EST – T-22 25 MINUTES TO COMLETE LOX TANKING. 

A MAIN LOX PUMP FOILED AND TANKING 

WAS ACCOMPLISHED WITH THE TOPPING 

PUMP.

09:39 EST – T-6:30 2 MINUTES TO VERIFY MERCURY COMPUTER IN BERMUDA.

4.0 WEATHER. – 

WEATHER IN THE LAUNCH AREA WAS INITIALLY UNSATISFACTORY 

FOR REQUIRED CAMERA COVERAGE BECAUSE OF LOW OVERCAST. BY 

APPROXIMATELY 09:00 EST, A CLEARING TREND WAS EVIDENT AND 

BY LAUNCH TIME CONDITIONS WERE ENTIRELY STATISFACTORY AS 

FOLLOWS:

CLOUDS – 2/10 ALTO CUMULUS

WIND – 18 KNOTS FROM 360 DEGREES WITH GUSTS TO 25 KNOTS

VISIBILITY – 10 MILES

TEMPERATURE – 70 DEG. F. 

WEATHER AND SEA CONDITIONS IN ALL ATLANTIC RECOVERY 

AREAS WERE REPORTED SATISFACTORY PRIOR TO LAUNCH. THE 

CONDITIONS REPORTED BY THE RANDOLF IN THE THIRD ORBIT LAND 

AREA JUST PRIOR TO CAPSULE LANDING AREA AS FOLLOWS: [4]

CLOUDS – 2/10

WINDS – 14 KNOTS FROM 119 DEGREES
218 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

WAVE HEIGHT – 2 FT

5.0 TRAJECTORY AND EVENTS.-

(A) FLIGHT-PATH 

CONDITIONS AT SECO

PLANNED ACTUAL

INERTIAL VELOCITY, FT/SEC 25,715 25,709

INERTIAL FLIGHT-PATH 

ANGLE, DEGREES

0 -.05

ALTITUDE, NAUTICAL MILES 

(PERIGEE)

87 86.7 N.M.

ALTITUDE, NAUTICAL MILES 

(APOGEE)

144 141.0 N.M.

(B) EVENTS PLANNED 

TIME

ACTUAL TIME

BOOSTER ENGINE CUTOFF 00:02:11.3 00:02:11

ESCAPE TOWER JETTISON 00:02:34.1 00:02:33

(B) EVENTS PLANNED 

TIME

ACTUAL TIME

SUSTAINER ENGINE CUTOFF 

(SECO)

00:05:03.8 00:05:04

CAPSULE SEPARATION 00:05:04.8 00:05:05

CAPSULE SEPARATION 00:05:04.8 00:05:05

CAPSULE TURNAROUND 

COMPLETED

00:05:35.0 APPEARED 

NORMAL

START OF RETROFIRE 04:32:58 04:33:08

RETROPACK JETTISON 04:33:58 NOT AVAILABLE

START OF REENTRY (.05G) 04:43:53 NOT AVAILABLE

DROGUE CHUTE DEPLOYED 

(21,000 FT)

04:50:00 04:49:17
Exploring the Unknown 219

MAIN CHUTE DEPLOYED 

(10,000 FT)

04:50:36 NOT AVAILABLE 

LANDING 04:55:22 NOT AVAILABLE

[5]

6.0 BOOSTER PERFORMANCE. –

VERNIER, SUSTAINER, BOOSTER IGNITION AND TRANSITION 

TO MAISTAGE WERE NORMAL. LIFT-OFF WAS CLEAN AND ALL EVENTS 

OCCURRED AS PLANNED. THERE WAS NO ABNORMAL DAMAGE TO 

THE STAND.

7.0 CAPSULE SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE.-

PERFORMANCE OF THE CAPSULE SYSTEMS WAS SATISFACTORY 

WITH THE FOLLOWING EXCEPTIONS:

(A) BOTH INVERTERS (150 AND 250 UA) REACHED TEMPERATURES 

ABOVE 200 DEG. F., PROBABLY AS A RESULT OF INVERTER COLD-PLATE 

MALFUNCTION, OR FREEZING OF WATER IN THE LINES SUPPLYING THE 

COLD PLATES.

(B) THE AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM AFTER 1 ORBIT WAS 

NOT ABLE TO MAINTAIN THE FINE YAW CONTROL (ORBIT MODE) 

BUT THE WIDE TOLERANCE PORTION OF THE SYSTEM FUNCTIONED 

SATISFACTORILY (ORIENTATION MODE). THE FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEM 

HAD A MINOR MALFUNCTION LATE IN THE FLIGHT CAUSING LOSS OF 

CONTROL OF ONE OF THE ONE-POUND THRUSTERS. THE HORIZON 

SCANNER SYSTEM APPEARED TO HAVE PROBLEMS PROVIDING THE 

PROPER GYRO REFERENCE ON THE DARK SIDE OF THE EARTH DURING 

THE SECOND AND THIRD ORBIT.
220 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

(C) AN INTERMITTENT INDICATION THAT THE LANDING BAG 

WAS DEPLOYED WAS EVIDENT FROM CAPSULE INSTUMENTATION, AND 

THE STATUS OF THE LANDING BAG COULD NOT BE CONFIRMED. THIS 

PROBLEM RESULTED IN A DECISION TO REENTER WITHOUT JETTISONING 

THE RETROROCKET PACKAGE. EXTENSIVE EVALUATION OF CAPSULE [6] 

SYSTEMS DATA WILL BE REQUIRED TO CONFIRM THE EXISTENCE AND 

ESTABLISH THE NATURE OF THE INDICATED MALFUNCTIONS. 

8.0 ASTRONAUT PERFORMANCE 

ASTRONAUT JOHN GLENN PERFORMED WELL AND REPORTED 

FEELING WELL THOUGHOUT THE MISSION. NORMAL VALUES OF HEART 

RATE, RESPIRATION RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE WERE REPORTED 

BY THE [7] MONITORING STATIONS FOR MOST OF THE FLIGHT. ALL 

PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSORS OPERATED PROPERLY AND DATA WERE OF 

GOOD QUALITY.

9.0 THE MONITORING OF THE FLIGHT FROM TELEMETRY AND AIR/

GROUND 

VOICE INFORMATION WAS EXCELLENT, PROVIDING THE MERCURY 

CONTROL CENTER WITH ALL THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO GIVE 

THE PILOT TECHNICAL ADVICE AND ASSISTANCE. DURING ALL PHASES 

OF THE FLIGHT THE FLOW OF DATA TO AND FROM THE NETWORK 

SITES AND THE CONTROL CENTER WAS RAPID AND ADEQUATE, SO THAT 

BOTH GROUND PERSONNEL AND FLIGHT CREW WERE CONTINUALLY 

IN AGREEMENT AS TO STATUS OF TRAJECTORY, CAPSULE, SYSTEMS, 

AND PILOT. OF PARTICULAR SIGNIFICANCE IN PROVIDING REAL TIME 

INFORMATION TO THE CONTROL CENTER WAS THE RELAYING OF AIR/
Exploring the Unknown 221

GROUND VOICE FROM ALL SITES WHICH HAVE POINT-TO-POINT VOICE. 

THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WERE WELL COORDINATED WITH THE 

PILOT, AND THIS DEFINITELY AIDED IN THE ULTIMATE SUCCESSFUL 

COMPLETION OF THE MISSION. [8]

10.0 NETWORK PERFORMANCE.-

NETWORK PERFORMANCE WAS HIGHLY SATISFACTORY FOR 

THIS MISSION. THE COMPUTER CONTROLLED NETWORK TESTS 

WERE CONDUCTED DURING THE COUNTDOWN AND CONFIRMED 

NETWORK READINESS WITH THE EXCEPTION OF RADAR DIFFICULTIES 

DETECTED AT CAPE CANAVERAL AND BERMUDA. THESE DIFFICULTIES 

WERE CORRECTED PRIOR TO LAUNCH. A TWO-MINUTE HOLD IN THE 

COUNTDOWN WAS REQUIRED AT T-2 MINUTES AS A RESULT OF POWER 

SOURCE FAILURE AT THE BERMUDA COMPUTER AT APPROXIMATELY T12 MINUTES. DURING LAUNCH AND RADAR HANDOVER WITH BERMUDA, 

AN UNIDENTIFIED C-BAND RADAR ATTEMPTED CAPSULE TRACK. THIS 

CAUSED INTERFERENCE WITH THE BERMUDA ACQUISITION PHASE 

BUT ACQUISITION WAS ACHIEVED ANYWAY. TELETYPE AND VOICE 

COMMUNICATIONS WITH NETWORK SITES, AND RELAY OF AIR-TOGROUND COMMUNICATIONS TO MERCURY CONTROL CENTER WERE 

EXCELLENT. EXCELLENT PERFORMANCE WAS ALSO OBTAINED FROM 

TRACKING SUBSYSTEMS INCLUDING RADAR, ACQUISITION, TELEMETRY, 

COMMAND CONTROL, AND AIR/GROUND VOICE.

11.0 RECOVERY.- 

RECOVERY FORCES WERE POSITIONED TO PROVIDE A RECOVERY 

CAPABILITY IN THE END OF ORBIT LANDING AREAS, THE ATLANTIC 
222 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

ABORT LANDING AREAS, AND IN CONTINGENCY RECOVERY AREAS ALONG 

THE ORBIT GROUND TRACK. RECOVERY READINESS WAS SATISFACTORY 

IN ALL RESPECTS AT LAUNCH. [9]

THE LANDING OCCURRED WITHIN VISUAL RANGE OF THE 

DESTROYER NOA, STATIONED APPROXIMATELY 45 NAUTICAL MILES 

UPRANGE OF THE CENTER OF THE THIRD ORBIT LANDING AREA. 

THE NOA SIGHTED THE PARACHUTE DURING CAPSULE DESCENT AT A 

RANGE OF ABOUT 5 MILES AND ESTABLISHED COMMUNICATIONS WITH 

THE ASTRONAUT. THE SHIP REPORTED THAT LANDING OCCURRED AT 

APPROXIMATELY 1943Z AND THE SHIP WAS ALONGSIDE FOR RETRIEVAL 

AT APPROXIMATELY 1959Z. THE ASTRONAUT REMAINED IN THE 

CAPSULE DURING PICKUP AND THE CAPSULE WAS ABOARD AT ABOUT 

2004Z. THE ASTRONAUT THEN LEFT THE CAPSULE THROUGH THE SIDE 

HATCH AFTER FIRST ATTEMPTING A TOP EGRESS WITHOUT SUCCESS. 

FOLLOWING INITIAL DEBRIEFING ON THE NOA THE ASTRONAUT WAS 

TRANSFERRED BY HELICOPTER TO THE AIRCRAFT CARRIER RANDOLF 

FOR FURTHER TRANSFER TO GRAND TURK. HE ARRIVED AT GRAND TURK 

AT ABOUT 0145Z. WALTER C. WILLIAMS, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR.

SCP-4

RGA.jhr

CCK

COPY TO: NASA Hq – Attn.: Mr. G. M. Low, MS

Goddard SFC – Attn: Dr. H. J. Goett

J. C. Jackson
Exploring the Unknown 223

Flight Operations Div

Data Coordination

Mercury Project Offi ce (6)

Prefl ight Operations Div

Mercury Atlas Offi ce

E. H. Buller

Document I-43

Document Title: R. B. Voas, NASA, Memorandum for Those Concerned, “MA-6 

Pilot’s Debriefi ng,” 22 February 1962, with attached, John Glenn, NASA, “Brief 

Summary of MA-6 Orbital Flight,” 20 February 1962. 

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

Mercury Atlas-6’s fl ight carrying John Glenn on a three orbit mission around Earth proved 

enormously successful for the U.S. despite several technical problems. In this debriefi ng, 

Glenn describes what took place while in Earth orbit. He describes the problem with his lowrate attitude thrusters and his manual correction of the problem, as well as his capsule’s 

reentry with its retrorocket pack attached in case the heatshield had come loose during the 

mission. This debriefi ng, analysis of the capsule, and review of the telemetry and other data 

from this mission led to more rigorous testing of the capsules and procedures used on the three 

following Mercury orbital fl ights.

PRELIMINARY 

[2-22-62]

MEMORANDUM for Those Concerned

Subject: MA-6 Pilot’s Debriefi ng

The enclosure to this memorandum is an edited transcript of the pilot’s 

debriefi ng aboard the destroyer Noa and at Grand Turk on February 20, 21, and 

22. This transcript is released in a PRELIMINARY form in order to aid in the 

writing of the postlaunch report. A more fi nished, edited, and index text of the 

postfl ight debriefi ng similar to the documents on the pilot’s debriefi ngs for the 

MR-3 and 4 fl ights will be issued at a later date. Request for clarifi cation of any of 

this material should be sent to the Training Offi ce.

The format of the enclosure is as follows:

1. Astronaut’s brief narrative account of the fl ight.

2. Specifi c questions keyed to a chronological review of the fl ight.

a. Prelaunch
224 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

b. Launch and powered fl ight

c. Zero G phase

d. Reentry

e. Landing

f. Recovery

3. Miscellaneous questions covering the pilot’s evaluation of 

capsule systems.

4. Description by John Glenn of the special astronomical, 

meteorological and terrestrial observations.

5. Discussion of the predominant sensations during launch and 

powered fl ight.

6. Miscellaneous discussion of fl ight activities by the astronaut. 

(This section was taken from recordings of several hours of 

discussion with personnel at Grand Turk. Time has not permitted 

organizing this material under appropriate headings.

[Signed]

R.B. Voas

[2]

Brief Summary of MA-6 Orbital Flight*

By John H. Glenn, Jr

[*Based on recorded debriefi ng onboard the destroyer Noa shortly after the MA6 mission on February 10, 1962.]

There are many things that are so impressive, it’s almost impossible to try 

and describe the sensations that I had during the fl ight. I think the thing that 

stands out more particularly than anything else right at the moment is the fi reball 

during the reentry. I left the shutters open specifi cally so I could watch it. It got 

a brilliant orange color; it was never too blinding. The retropack was still aboard 

and shortly after reentry began, it started to break up in big chunks. One of the 

straps came off and came around across the window. There were large fl aming 

pieces of the retropack – I assume that’s what they were – that broke off and came 

tumbling around the sides of the capsule. I could see them going on back behind 

me then making little smoke trails. I could also see a long trail of what probably 

was ablation material ending in a small bright spot similar to that in the pictures 

out of the window taken during the MA-5 fl ight. I saw the same spot back there 
Exploring the Unknown 225

and I could see it move back and forth as the capsule oscillated slightly. Yes, I 

think the reentry was probably the most impressive part of the fl ight.

Starting back with highlights of the fl ight: Insertion was normal this 

morning except for the delays that were occasioned by hatch-bolt trouble and by 

the microphone fi tting breaking off in my helmet. The weather cleared up nicely 

and after only moderate delays, we got off.

Lift-off was just about as I had expected. There was some vibration. 

Coming up off the pad, the roll programming was very noticeable as the spacecraft 

swung around to the proper azimuth. There also was no doubt about when the 

pitch programming started. There was some vibration at lift-off from the pad. It 

smoothed out just moderately; never did get to very smooth fl ight until we were 

through the high q area. At this time – I would guess a minute and fi fteen to 

twenty seconds – it was very noticeable. After this, it really smoothed out and by 

a minute and a half, or about the time cabin pressure sealed off, it was smooth as 

could be.

The staging was normal, though I had expected a more sharp cutoff. It 

felt as though the g ramped down for maybe half a second. For some reason, it 

was not as abrupt as I had anticipated it might be. The accelerometers read one 

and a quarter g’s when I received a confi rmation on staging from the Capsule 

Communicator. I had been waiting for this message at that point because I was 

set to go to tower jettison as we had planned, in case the booster had not staged. 

At this time, I also saw a wisp of smoke and I thought perhaps the tower had 

jettisoned early. The tower really had not jettisoned at that time and did jettison 

on schedule at 2+34. As the booster and capsule pitched over and the tower 

jettisoned, I had a fi rst glimpse of the horizon; it was a beautiful sight, looking 

eastward across the Atlantic. 

[2]

Toward the last part of the insertion, the vibration began building up again. 

This I hadn’t quite expected; it wasn’t too rough but it was noticeable. Cutoff was 

very good; the capsule acted just as it was supposed to. The ASCS damped and 

turned the spacecraft around. As we were completing the turnaround, I glanced 

out of the window and the booster was right there in front of me. It looked as 

though it wasn’t more than a hundred yards away. The small end of the booster 

was pointing toward the northeast and I saw it a number of times from then on 

for about the next seven or eight minutes as it slowly went below my altitude and 

moved farther way. That was very impressive.

I think I was really surprised at the ease with which the controls check 

went. It was almost just like making the controls check on the Procedures Trainer 

that we’ve done so many times. The control check went off like clockwork; there 

was no problem at all. Everything damped when it should damp and control was 

very easy. Zero-g was noticeable at SECO. I had a very slight sensation of tumbling 

forward head-over-heels. It was very slight; not as pronounced an effect as we 

experience on the centrifuge. During turnaround, I had no sensation of angular 

acceleration. I acclimated to weightlessness in just a matter of seconds; it was very 

surprising. I was reaching for switches and doing things and having no problem. 
226 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

I didn’t at any time notice any tendency to overshoot a switch. It seemed it’s just 

natural to acclimate to this new condition. It was very comfortable. Under the 

weightless condition, the head seemed to be a little farther out of the couch which 

made it a little easier to see the window, though I could not get up quite as near 

to the window as I thought I might.

The rest of the fi rst orbit went pretty much as planned, with reports to 

the stations coming up on schedule. I was a little behind at a couple of points but 

most of the things were going right according to schedule, including remaining on 

the automatic control system for optimum radar and communications tracking. 

Sunset from this altitude is tremendous. I had never seen anything like this and it 

was truly a beautiful, beautiful sight. The speed at which the sun goes down is very 

remarkable, of course. The brilliant orange and blue layers spread out probably 

45-60 degrees each side of the sun tapering very slowly toward the horizon. I could 

not pick up any appreciable Zodiacal light. I looked for it closely; I think perhaps 

I was not enough night adapted to see it. Sunrise, I picked up in the periscope. 

At every sunrise, I saw little specks, brilliant specks, fl oating around outside the 

capsule. I have no idea what they were. On the third orbit, I turned around at 

sunrise so that I could face into the sun and see if they were still heading in the 

same direction and they were. But I noticed them every sunrise and tried to get 

pictures of them. 

[3]

Just as I came over Mexico at the end of the fi rst orbit, I had my fi rst 

indication of the ASCS problem that was to stick with me for the rest of the fl ight. 

It started out with the yaw rate going off at about one and one-half degrees per 

second to the right. The capsule would not stay in orbit mode, but would go out 

of limits. When it reached about 20 degrees instead of the 30 degrees I expected, 

it would kick back into orientation mode and swing back with the rate going 

over into the left yaw to correct back into its normal orbit attitude. Sometimes, it 

would cross-couple into pitch and roll and we’d go through a general disruption 

of orbit mode until it settled down into orbit attitude. Then yaw would again 

start a slow drift to the right and the ASCS would kick out again into orientation 

mode. I took over manually at that point and from then on, through the rest of 

the fl ight, this was my main concern. I tried to pick up the fl ight plan again at 

a few points and I accomplished a few more things on it, but I’m afraid most of 

the fl ight time beyond that point was taken up with checking the various modes 

of the ASCS. I did have full control in fl y-by-wire and later on during the fl ight, 

the yaw problem switched from left to right. It acted exactly the same, except it 

would drift off to the left instead of the right. It appeared also that any time I 

was on manual control and would be drifting away from the regular orbit attitude 

for any appreciable period of time that the attitude indications would then off 

when I came back to orbit attitude. I called out some of these and I remember 

that at one time, roll was off 30 degrees, yaw was off 35 degrees, and pitch was off 

76 degrees. These were considerable errors and I have no explanation for them 

at this time. I could control fl y-by-wire and manual very adequately. It was not 

diffi cult at all. Fly-by-wire was by far the most accurate means of control, even 

though I didn’t have accurate control in yaw at all times.
Exploring the Unknown 227

Retrorockets were fi red right on schedule just off California and it was 

surprising coming out of the Zero-g fi eld that retrorockets fi ring felt as though 

I were accelerating in the other direction back toward Hawaii. However, after 

retrofi re was completed when I could glance out the window again, it was easy to 

tell, of course, which way I was going, even though my sensations during retrofi re 

on automatic control. Apparently, the solid-on period for slaving just prior to 

retrofi re brought the gyros back up to orbit attitude, because they corrected very 

nicely during that period. The spacecraft was just about in orbit attitude as I 

could see it from the window and through the periscope just prior to retrofi re. 

So, I feel that we were right in attitude. I left it on ASCS and backed up manually 

and worked right along with the ASCS during retrofi re. I think the retroattitude 

held almost exactly on and I would guess that we were never more than 3 degrees 

off in any axis at any time during retrofi re.

[4]

Following retrofi re, a decision was made to have me reenter with the 

retropackage still on because of the uncertainty as to whether the landing bag had 

been extended. I don’t know all the reasons yet for that particular decision, but 

I assume that it had been pretty well thought out and it obviously was. I punched 

up .05g manually at a little after the time it was given to me. I was actually in a 

small g-fi eld at the time I pushed up .05g and it went green and I began to get 

noise, or what sounded like small things brushing against the capsule. I began to 

get this very shortly after .05g and this noise kept increasing. Well before we got 

into the real heavy fi reball area, one strap swung around and hung down over the 

window. There was some smoke. I don’t know whether the bolt fi red at the center 

of the pack or what happened. The capsule kept on its course. I didn’t get too 

far off the reentry attitude. I went to manual control for reentry after the retros 

fi red and had no trouble controlling reentry attitude through the high-g area. 

Communications blackout started a little bit before the fi reball. The fi reball was 

very intense. I left the shutters open the whole time and observed it and it got to 

be a very bright orange color. There were large, fl aming pieces of what I assume 

was the retropackage breaking off and going back behind the capsule. This was of 

some concern, because I wasn’t sure of what it was. I had visions of them possibly 

being chunks of heat shield breaking off, but it turned out it was not that.

The oscillations that built up after peak-g were more than I could control 

with the manual system. I was damping okay and it just plain overpowered me and I 

could not do anymore about it. I switched to Aux. Damp as soon as I could raise my 

arm up after the g-pulse to help damp and this did help some. However, even on 

Aux. Damp, the capsule was swinging back and forth very rapidly and the oscillations 

were divergent as we descended to about 35,000 feet. At this point, I elected to try 

to put the drogue out manually, even though it was high, because I was afraid we 

were going to get over to such an attitude that the capsule might actually be going 

small end down during part of the fl ight if the oscillations kept going the way they 

were. And just as I was reaching up to pull out the drogue on manual, it came out 

by itself. The drogue did straighten the capsule out in good shape. I believe the 

altitude was somewhere between 30,000 and 35,000 at that point. 

I came on down; the snorkels, I believe, came out at about 16,000 or 

17,000. The periscope came out. There was so much smoke and dirt on the 
228 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

windshield that it was somewhat diffi cult to see. Every time I came around to the 

sun – for I had established my roll rate on manual – it was virtually impossible to 

see anything out through the window.

The capsule was very stable when the antenna section jettisoned. I could 

see the whole recovery system just lined up in one big line as it came out. It 

unreeled and blossomed normally; all the panels and visors looked good. I was 

going through my landing check off list when the Capsule Communicator called 

to remind me to deploy the landing bag. I fl ipped the switch to auto immediately 

and the green light came on and I felt the bag release. I was able to see the water 

coming towards me in the periscope. I was able to estimate very closely when I 

would hit the water. The impact bag was a heavier shock than I had expected, but 

it did not bother me.

Communications with the recovery ship Noa were very good. The Noa 

had me in sight before impact and estimated 20 minutes to recovery which turned 

out to be about right. When the destroyer came alongside, they hooked on 

with the Shepard’s hook and cut the HF antenna. During the capsule pickup, I 

received one good solid bump on the side of the ship as it rolled. Once on deck 

I took the left hand panel loose and started to disconnect the suit hose in order 

to hook up the hose extension prior to egressing through the upper hatch. By 

this time I was really hot- pouring sweat. The capsule was very hot after reentry 

and I really noticed the increase in humidity after the snorkels opened. I decided 

that the best thing at that point was to come out the side rather than through the 

top. I am sure I could have come out the top if I had had to, but I did not see any 

reason to keep working to come out the top. So I called the ship and asked them 

to clear the area outside the hatch. When I received word that the area was clear, I 

removed the capsule pin and hit the plunger with the back of my hand. It sprung 

back and cut my knuckles slightly though the glove. The noise of the hatch report 

was good and loud but not uncomfortable.

In summary, my condition is excellent. I am in good shape; no problems 

at all. The ASCS problems were the biggest I encountered on the fl ight. 

Weightlessness was no problem. I think the fact that I could take over and show 

that a pilot can control the capsule manually, using different control modes, 

satisfi ed me most. The greatest dissatisfaction I think I feel was the fact that I did 

not get to accomplish all the other things that I wanted to do. The ASCS problem 

overrode everything else. 

Document I-44

Document Title: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 

Memorandum for Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

“Astronaut Activities,” 31 May 1962. 

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.
Exploring the Unknown 229

In 1962 the Space Task Group moved from the Langley Research Center in Hampton, 

Virginia, to found the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston, Texas. This change 

placed the human spacefl ight program of NASA on a more formal and permanent footing. 

Also in 1962, NASA selected its second class of astronauts who would be involved in the 

Gemini and Apollo programs. With these changes came the institutionalization of a structure 

for managing the astronauts, the creation of policies regarding what they could and could 

not do as a part of their outside activities, and a formalization of crew assignments and 

other duties. This memorandum discusses the management structure for the astronauts. In 

September1962, MSC Director Robert Gilruth selected Deke Slayton, one of the Mercury Seven, 

to coordinate astronaut activities. The effort became even more structured in November 1963 

when Slayton assumed the position of Director of Flight Crew Operations. In that capacity, 

he became responsible for directing the activities of the astronaut offi ce, the aircraft operations 

offi ce, the fl ight crew integration division, the crew training and simulation division, and 

the crew procedures division. Working directly with Gilruth, Slayton closely managed the 

astronauts and oversaw their activities.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON 25, DC

May 31, 1962

MEMORANDUM

To: Robert R. Gilruth, Director, MSC

From: Associate Administrator

Subject: Astronaut Activities

With our recent announcement concerning additional astronaut 

selection, it seems timely to restate my understanding of your responsibilities for 

astronaut activities and to suggest some guidelines for your consideration.

1. Current and future NASA astronauts are employees of the Manned 

Spacecraft Center and, therefore, are under your direction. In executing 

this responsibility, it is a sound procedure to have a key member of your 

operations group as astronaut supervisor. This individual should be held 

responsible for day-to-day direction of astronaut activities in the same 

fashion as any other NASA line supervisor accounts for the activities of 

personnel reporting to him. This responsibility includes supervision of 

non-project activities covered in the paragraphs following.

2. In connection with astronaut personal appearances, I know you understand 

that Mr. Webb, Dr. Dryden, and I are under constant demands to make 

these individuals available. As in the past, we will continue to restrict such 

appearances to occasions that have a minimum effect on the program 

assignments of the astronauts and which, in addition, advance the overall 
230 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

objectives of the National program for space exploration. As you know, 

Mr. Webb has assigned the responsibility for planning and approving 

astronaut appearances to Dr. Cox. I believe it is essential that a close tie 

is maintained between your offi ce and that of Dr. Cox’s on these matters. 

I believe the most satisfactory organizational arrangement to implement 

such activities is to have one of Dr. Cox’s staff work continuously with an 

individual in Houston in order to best schedule such appearances. 

3. As is the case with other employees of your Center, you are responsible for 

controlling the extra-program activities of the astronauts, particularly in 

such areas as newspaper and journal articles and press appearances. Unlike 

those of other personnel, however, the [2] press relations of the astronauts 

present a special circumstance because of the status they have assumed 

as public fi gures. As in the case of public appearances, Headquarters is 

under constant pressure for articles, messages, endorsement of causes, 

etc., by the astronauts. It is necessary, therefore, that activities of this sort 

by the astronauts also be closely coordinated with Dr. Cox, and that major 

activities be specifi cally approved by him. This approval, obviously, would 

not apply to day-today press contacts which are related directly to their 

mission, but rather to signifi cant interviews, articles, or statements which 

might relate to or refl ect on national policy.

Consequently, I wish you would discuss this matter further with Dr. Cox 

in order that we may agree upon an individual for this assignment and upon his 

position in your organization. With this position designated, I believe we will 

have an effective relationship between the astronaut supervisor, and Dr. Cox’s 

offi ce in Headquarters.

We have learned a great deal in the last year about the technical and 

non-technical problems which face us in manned space fl ight projects. We are 

in full agreement that, as Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, it is your 

responsibility to direct NASA astronauts in order to maximize their individual and 

combined contribution to our programs. As in the past, Mr. Webb, Dr. Dryden, Dr. 

Cox, and I will be happy to discuss any particular question with you and provide 

whatever guidance you feel is needed. 

[Signed]

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 

Associate Administrator

Document I-45

Document Title: W. J. North, Senior Editor, E. M. Fields, Dr. S. C. White, and V. 

I. Grissom, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Manned Spacecraft 

Center, “MA-7/18 Voice Communications and Pilot’s Debriefi ng,” 8 June 1962.
Exploring the Unknown 231

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

On 24 May 1962 Scott Carpenter fl ew Mercury Atlas-7 on a three-orbit fl ight that paralleled 

the John Glenn mission of the previous February. During Carpenter’s second orbit he took 

manual control of the spacecraft and made changes to the capsule’s orientation by movements 

of his head and arms. He also over-used his attitude control jets and ran short of fuel. This 

and a mis-timed reentry burn resulted in his spacecraft overshooting the planned landing 

point by 250 miles. This caused major delays in the water recovery of Carpenter and his 

Aurora 7 capsule and a nationwide concern for the astronaut’s safety. Many people criticized 

Carpenter’s performance on this fl ight. Chris Kraft, senior fl ight controller and later director 

of the Manned Spacecraft Center, blamed Carpenter for the poor reentry and worked to ensure 

that he never fl ew in space again. Others were more charitable, concluding that monitoring 

fuel consumption should be done by Mission Control. This debriefi ng presents Carpenter’s 

assessment of what had taken place. It was only the beginning of several reviews of less 

than stellar in-fl ight performance that embarrassed the astronaut and eventually led to his 

departure from NASA in 1965.

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

[Only Section 3 of report provided]

[3-1]

3.0 SHIPBOARD DEBRIEFING

3.1 Introduction

The following is an essentially unedited transcript of the self-debriefi ng 

of Astronaut Carpenter which he conducted shortly after arriving onboard the 

recovery aircraft carrier, Intrepid. This shipboard debriefi ng consists of the pilot’s 

general impressions of the fl ight from lift-off to the beginning of the retrosequence. 

From that point through normal egress of the pilot from the spacecraft, the pilot 

describes his activities in considerable detail.

3.2 Shipboard Debriefi ng

I would like to give a good debriefi ng at this point while the events of the 

fl ight are still fresh in my mind. I will be able to cover only the high-points. I can 

not really do the fl ight justice until I review the voice tape to refresh my memory.

As a whole, I was surprised that the sensations at lift-off, and throughout 

the launch phase, were as slight as they were. In retrospect, it was a very, very short 

period. As a matter of fact, the whole fl ight was very short. It was the shortest fi ve 

hours of my life.

My general impression of the fl ight right now is that I am happy to be back. 

I feel that I brought back some new information. I hope that the pictures turn 

out because they are photographs of truly beautiful sights. I think that the MIT 
232 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

fi lm was properly exposed. I hope it brings back some worthwhile information. 

I realize now that a number of the MIT pictures were taken while the spacecraft 

was in a 90o

 roll attitude and the fi lter in the camera was not oriented properly. So 

there are a few pictures that may be of no value.

I feel badly about having squandered my fuel and I feel badly about the 

error in impact. I know that there was an error in pitch and I think there was an 

error in yaw in the gyro attitude presentation from somewhere in the second orbit 

on. Because the control fuel supply was low, I did not want to evaluate the ASCS 

problem until just prior to retrofi re when I thought it would probably clear up. I 

thought for some time that the problem in pitch might have been just a scanner 

error. Now, as I look back at it, it seems to me that that was wishful thinking, 

[3-2] because I aligned the gyros correctly and the spacecraft was holding orbit 

attitude when I fi rst selected ASCS. Later, however, when I would recheck attitude 

the spacecraft would be pitched way down, about 20°. So ASCS was holding orbit 

attitude in yaw and roll but pitch attitude was not right. It did not agree with the 

window and it did not agree with the periscope. I say 20° down when I think of the 

periscope, but when I think about what I saw in the window when the ASCS was 

holding retroattitude and indicating 34°, I would say that it might be something 

like 30° down. I noticed the same problem on the second orbit, or maybe it was 

the very beginning of the third orbit. I also noticed this prior to retrofi re.

I think that one reason that I got behind at retrofi re was because, just at 

dawn on the third orbit, I discovered the source of the fi refl ies. I felt that I had 

time to get that taken care of and prepare for retrofi re properly, but time slipped 

away. It really raced during this period, as it did through the whole fl ight. I really 

needed that time over Hawaii. The Hawaii Cap Com was trying very hard to get 

me to do the preretrograde checklist. I had previously been busy with the fi refl ies. 

Then was busy trying to get aligned in attitude so that I could evaluate ASCS. I got 

behind. I had to stow things haphazardly. I think everything was stowed, but not 

in the planned places. Food crumbling gave me a bad problem because I couldn’t 

use that bag for the camera. As it was, I had to carry the camera with me and 

almost dumped it in the water.

At retrofi re I still had the problem in pitch attitude. I did not have any 

confi dence in ASCS just prior to retrofi re. So I told the California Cap Com that 

the ASCS was bad and that I was committing to a fl y-by-wire retrofi re. By this time, 

I had gone through part of the preretro checklist. It called for the manual fuel 

handle to be out as a backup for the ASCS. I selected the fl y-by-wire control system 

and did not go off of the manual system so that attitude control during retrofi re 

was accomplished on both the fl y-by-wire and manual control systems.

I feel that attitude control during retrofi re was good. My reference 

was divided between the periscope, the window, and the attitude indicators. At 

retroattitude as, indicated by reference to the window and the periscope, the 

pitch attitude indicator read -10 degrees. I tried to hold this attitude on the 

instruments throughout retrofi re but I cross-checked attitude in the window 

and the periscopes. I have commented many times that you can not divide your 

[3-3] attention between one attitude reference system and another, and do a good 

job in retrofi re on the trainer. But that was the way I controlled attitude during 
Exploring the Unknown 233

retrofi ts on this fl ight. I did not notice any gross errors in attitude that persisted 

throughout retrofi re. There was some wandering, but I feel that it was balanced 

out pretty well.

The initiation of retrofi re was just a little bit late, although retrosequence 

came on time. I got the countdown from the California Cap Com. I waited one 

more second, which was 99:59:59 and did not get retrofi re. I punched the manual 

retrofi re button and one or two seconds after that I felt the fi rst retrorocket fi re.

I expected a big boot from the retrorocket. But the deceleration was just 

a very gentle nudge. The sound of the rockets fi ring was just audible. Retrorocket 

Two fi red on time, Retrorocket Three fi red roughly on time. Each rocket gave 

me a sensation, not of being pushed back toward Hawaii as reported by John 

Glenn, but of being slowed down in three increments. So that by the time the 

retroacceleration was over, I felt that there was just enough deceleration to bring 

the spacecraft to a stop. I felt that, if I looked down, I would see that the obvious 

motion that I had seen through the window and the periscope before retrofi re 

had stopped. But, of course, it had not.

I put three ‘arm’ switches on at this time. Retropack jettison occurred 

on time and the periscope came in on time. At this time I noticed my appalling 

fuel state, and realized that I had controlled retrofi re on manual and fl y-by-wire. I 

went to rate command at this time, and tried manual and rate command, and got 

no response. The fuel gauge was reading about 6 percent, but it was empty. This 

left me with 15 percent on the automatic system to last out the ten minutes to .05g 

and to control reentry.

If the California Cap Com had not mentioned the retroattitude bypass 

switch, I think I would have forgotten it, and retrofi re would have been delayed 

considerably longer. He also mentioned an Aux Damp reentry which I think I 

would have chosen in any case, but it was a good suggestion to have. He was worth 

his weight in gold for just those two items.

The period prior to the .05g was a harried one, because I did not know 

whether the fuel was going to hold out. The periscope [3-4] was retracted. The 

attitude indicators were useless. The only attitude reference I had was the window. 

I did not have much fuel to squander at this point holding attitude. I did use it, 

gingerly, trying to keep the horizon in the window so that I would have a correct 

attitude reference. I stayed on fl y-by-wire until .05g. At .05g I think I still had about 

15 percent reading on the autofuel gage.

I began to get the hissing outside the spacecraft that John Glenn 

mentioned. I feel that the spacecraft would have reentered properly without any 

attitude control. It was aligned within 3 or 4 degrees in pitch and yaw at the start 

of the reentry period. My feeling is that the gradual increase of aerodynamic 

damping during the reentry is suffi cient to align the spacecraft properly.

Very shortly after .05g I began to pick up the oscillations on the pitch 

and yaw rate needles. At this time I think roll rate was zero, or possibly one or 

two degrees. The spacecraft oscillated back and forth about zero, just the way the 
234 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

trainer would do at a -.1 (-.1 damping coeffi cient set into the trailer computer) 

reentry. From this I decided that the spacecraft was in a good reentry attitude and 

I selected Aux Damp.

I watched the rate indicator and the window during this period because I 

was beginning to see the reentry glow. I was beginning to see a few fl aming pieces 

falling off the spacecraft, although the window did not light up as John Glenn 

reported. It was just a noticeable increase in illumination. I did not see a fi ery glow 

prior to peak g as John Glenn did.

I noticed one thing during the heat pulse that I had not expected. I was 

looking for the orange glow. I also saw a long rectangular strap of some kind 

going off in the distance. It was at this time that I noticed a light green glow 

that seemed to be coming from the cylindrical section of the spacecraft. It made 

me feel that the trim angle was not right, and that some of the surface of the 

recovery compartment might be ablating. I think it must have been the berylium 

[sic] vaporizing. The fact that the rates were oscillating evenly strengthened my 

conviction that the reentry was at a good trim angle. The green glow was really 

brighter than the orange glow around the window. [3-5]

I heard Cape Cap Com up to the blackout. He told me that black-out was 

expected momentarily. I listened at fi rst for his command transmission, but it did 

not get through. So I just talked the rest of the way down.

Acceleration peaked at about 6.7g. At this time, oscillations in rate were 

nearly imperceptible. Aux Damp was doing very, very well. The period of peak g 

was much longer than I had expected. I noticed that I had to breathe a little more 

forcefully in order to say normal sentences.

The accelerometer read 2.5 to 3g when the spacecraft passed through a 

hundred thousand feet. At around 80 or 70 thousand feet, we may have run out 

of automatic fuel. I do not remember looking at the fuel gage but the rates began 

to oscillate pretty badly, although the rate needles were still on scale.

I put in a roll rate earlier and after we got down around 70 or 80 thousand 

feet, I took the roll rate out. So I did have fuel at that point. I took the roll rate out 

at a point where the oscillations carried the sun back and forth across the window. 

My best indication of the amplitude of the oscillation was to watch the sun cross 

the window, and try to determine the angle through which the spacecraft was 

oscillating. I remember calling off about 40 or 50 degrees. This was around 60,000 

feet. At about 50,000 feet, the amplitude of the oscillations increased. I could 

feel the deceleration as we would go to one side in yaw or pitch. I would feel the 

spacecraft sort of stop, and then the rate would build up in the other direction. 

I felt that I had a pretty good indication of the variation in attitude from this 

change in acceleration. I switched the drogue fuse switch on at about 45 thousand 

feet. At about 40 thousand feet, I began to feel that the spacecraft oscillations 

were going past 90 degrees. I would feel a deceleration as the spacecraft would go 

past the vertical. I knew from the amplitudes that I had previously extrapolated, 

that the spacecraft attitude had reached at least 90 degrees. Then the spacecraft 

would apparently slip past 90 degrees. I am convinced that the attitudes were 
Exploring the Unknown 235

diverging, and that there were times when the spacecraft was 30 or 40 degrees 

small end down. This I remember occurring two or three times. Each time it was 

worse. I reported that the oscillations were getting too bad and said, “I’m going 

to have to chance the drogue now.” I did deploy the drogue parachute manually 

at around 25,000 feet. [3-6]

Although I did not make a concerted effort to deploy the drogue parachute 

when the spacecraft was properly aligned in attitude, I think that it did come out 

when the spacecraft was in normal attitude, because there was no marked snap 

on deployment. There was a sudden shock, but I do not think that it dragged the 

spacecraft around from bad yaw or pitch angle. The spacecraft moved maybe 10 

or 20 degrees. I could see the drogue pulsing and vibrating. It was visible against 

a cloudy sky. I saw no blue sky at this time. All was gray. The drogue was pulsing 

and shaking much more than I had expected. I watched the parachute for a while 

along with some other material that came out at this time.

After the drogue parachute was deployed, I operated the snorkel manually. 

The rate handle did come up but I reached over and pushed it up, too. I did not 

notice any more cooling at this time. I also did not notice the suit fan cutting 

down so I assume it continued to run.

I got the main fuse switch at 15,000 feet and waited for the main parachute 

to deploy. It did not, and I manually operated the main parachute deploy switch 

at about 9,500 feet. It was just a little below 10,000 feet. It came out and streamed. 

It was reefed for a little while. Boy! There is a lot of stress on that parachute! You 

can see how it is being tried. The parachute unreefed and it was beautiful. I could 

see no damage whatsoever.

Rate of descent was right on 30 feet per second. Incidentally, prior to 

retrofi re the rate of descent indicator was reading about six or seven feet per 

second. I was convinced that the main para chute was good and selected the auto 

position on landing bag switch and the bag went out immediately. I went through 

the post reentry, post-10K, and post landing checklists and got everything pretty 

well taken care of.

The impact was much less severe than I had expected. It was more 

noticeable by the noise than by the g-load. There was also a loud knock at impact. I 

thought “We have a recontact problem of some kind.” I was somewhat dismayed to 

see water splashed on the face of the tape recorder box immediately after impact. 

My fears that there might be a leak in the spacecraft were somewhat confi rmed by 

the fact that the spacecraft never did right itself on the water. It continued to stay 

in a 60 degree attitude on the water. [3-7] The direction of list was about halfway 

between pitchdown and yaw left. That is the attitude it maintained on the water.

I got everything disconnected and waited for the spacecraft to right itself. 

We do not have a window in the egress trainer, but the level of the water on the 

window seemed to be higher than I had expected. The list did not change.
236 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

I knew that I was way off track. I had heard the Cape Cap Com transmitting 

blind that there would be an hour before recovery. I decided to get out at that 

time and went about the business of egressing from the spacecraft.

Egress is a tough job. The space is tight and egress is hard. But everything 

worked properly. The small pressure bulkhead stuck a little bit. Pip pins and 

initiators came out very well. I easily pushed out the canister with my bare head. 

I had the raft and the camera with me. I disconnected the hose after I had the 

canister nearly out.

I forgot to seal the suit and I did not put the neck dam up. I was aware 

at this time that the neck dam was not up. It should have been put up right after 

impact, but I had forgotten it. I think one of the reasons I did not was that it was 

so hot. However, it wasn’t nearly as hot as I expected it to be. I think after impact 

I read 105 on the cabin temperature gage. I was much hotter in orbit than I was 

after impact. I did not notice the humidity. I felt fi ne.

I climbed out. I had the raft attached to me. I placed the camera up on 

top of the recovery compartment so that I could get it in the raft with me if the 

capsule sank. I did not want to take it with me while I infl ated the raft.

I slid out of the spacecraft while holding on to the neck. I pulled the raft 

out after me and infl ated it, while still holding on, to the spacecraft. The sea state 

was very good. Later on the swells may have increased to eight or nine feet. But 

at impact the swells were only fi ve or six feet. I got in the raft upside down. It was 

attached to the spacecraft.

The rest of the debriefi ng I can do later. This is the only part I really need 

to talk about now. The rest will come back in much clearer detail when I get the 

voice tapes.

Document I-46

Document Title: Richard L. Callaghan, NASA, Memorandum for Mr. James E. 

Webb, “Meeting with President Kennedy on Astronaut Affairs,” 30 August 1962.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

From the beginning of NASA’s human spacefl ight effort the activities of the astronauts outside 

of their offi cial duties had been a source of concern and contention. The public, of course, 

relished as much information as could be obtained about the Mercury Seven and NASA had 

facilitated the sale of their personal stories to Life magazine as a means of both satisfying that 

thirst and as a form of insurance for the astronauts should any lose their lives in spacefl ight. 

This decision faced numerous criticisms, however, and NASA had to explain and fi nd more 

equitable approaches to the issue in later years. Moreover, companies sought endorsements 

and some entrepreneurs offered the astronauts gifts such as homes at no expense so they could 

use the fact that the astronauts lived in their housing developments as selling points for other 
Exploring the Unknown 237

buyers. It proved a prickly issue for NASA, much of it the result of the celebrity status of the 

Mercury Seven. As this memorandum demonstrates, concern for these issues rose all the way to 

the Oval Offi ce and prompted comments by President John F. Kennedy. NASA worked to refi ne 

its policies in this regard, but never found a fully satisfactory solution that balanced the rights 

and privileges of the astronauts with government regulations on private activities.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON 25, DC

August 30, 1962

MEMORANDUM For Mr. James E. Webb

Subject: Meeting with President Kennedy on Astronaut Affairs

On August 23, I called Pierre Salinger about 5:30 p.m. to advise him of 

the discussion Mr. Lingle, Mr. Johnson and I had with Alfred Friendly. It occurred 

to me that such a call might serve to remind him of our interest in having the 

reaction of the White House that Mr. Lingle and I sought in our meeting with 

Salinger nearly two weeks ago. Salinger commented that since meeting with 

Lingle and me, he had had a long talk with the President and others in the White 

House about a revised policy relating to the affairs of the astronauts. He stated 

that “the President tends to agree with you (NASA) and Bundy (McGeorge) agrees 

with me.” He expressed no particular interest in the reaction of Mr. Friendly but 

indicated that he would try and set up a meeting in a few days to get together with 

us again. Within a half hour, he called back and said “bring Mr. Webb and Bill 

Lloyd down tomorrow morning at 10:30 and we’ll meet with the President and 

settle this once and for all.” I told him that you were out of town but that I would 

attempt to bring Mr. Lingle and Mr. Lloyd. This was satisfactory to him.

I checked with Dr. Seamans to determine whether he wished to go to the 

White House but he felt that Mr. Lingle could handle the problem satisfactorily. 

We attempted to contact you Friday morning but you were somewhat ahead of 

your itinerary and were apparently enroute [sic] from Norton to Medford. Lingle, 

Johnson, Lloyd and I discussed the proposed meeting with Dr. Seamans prior to 

going to the White House.

The White House meeting lasted some 30 minutes. The President at the 

outset stated generally that he felt the astronauts should be permitted to continue 

to receive some money for writings of a personal nature inasmuch as they did 

seem to be burdened with expenses they would not incur were they not in the 

public eye. He felt there should be stricter control of their investments. He cited 

the proffer of the homes in Houston as an example of the type of situation that 

should be avoided in the future. Salinger was rather restrained in presenting his 

own views and seemed satisfi ed to take his cue from the President. Mr. Lingle 

prefaced his remarks by expressing the hope that no fi rm decision would be made 

at this particular meeting as to the [2] specifi cs of the policy inasmuch as no 

member of the NASA group at the meeting was prepared to delineate in a positive 

way your views. It was made clear to the assembled group that you wished to have 
238 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

the policy refl ect White House desires and that you intended to make it clear to 

the astronauts that any policy decisions would embrace White House attitudes. 

The President showed no disposition to criticize NASA’s existing policy. 

Such observations as were made by Salinger, Bundy, and Ted Sorensen ran to 

a need for tightening up in the implementation of our policy rather than to a 

need for changing the policy in any drastic measure. It was the consensus that 

the refi nement of NASA’s policy should be achieved through discussions with the 

Department of Defense and that NASA policy should serve as a model to which a 

Department of Defense policy would conform. The development of such a policy 

by the Department of Defense seemed to be left within Salinger’s hands.

Without detailing the discussion further, the following portrays my 

impression of the conclusions reached at the meeting with the President.

1. The President leaves to your discretion the preparation of such refi nements 

in NASA’s proposed policy revisions as are necessary to:

a. Permit the continued sale by the astronauts of their personal 

stories, whether through a LIFE-type contract or otherwise.

b. Extend the prohibition against commercial endorsements.

c. Provide reasonable supervision of the astronauts’ investments 

(although this need not be a specifi cally stated part of the policy, 

the astronauts are to understand that such supervision is inherent 

in the policy).

d. Serve generally as a model of administration policy.

2. Within the framework of its policy NASA should attempt to:

a. Make available to all news media at debriefi ngs and press 

conferences a more comprehensive presentation of the offi cial 

aspects of space missions in which the astronauts participate.

b. Afford to the press additional access to NASA personnel (including 

the astronauts), NASA installations, and NASA facilities to the 

extent that such access does not impede the agency’s programs 

or activities.

c. Edit more stringently the material made available by the 

astronauts for publication.

d. Restrict extravagant claims by publishers who attempt to 

overemphasize the exclusive nature of material received from 

the astronauts for publication.

[Signed]

Richard L. Callaghan
Exploring the Unknown 239

Document I-47

Document Title: Dr. Walter C. Williams, Deputy Director, NASA Manned 

Spacecraft Center, NASA, “Project Review,” 3 October 1963.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

The Mercury program offi cially ended with the fl ight of Faith 7, Gordon Cooper’s orbital 

mission on 15 and 16 May 1963. Within days of that fl ight those working on the Mercury 

began assessing their efforts and developing lessons-learned for the future. This review 

culminated in a large meeting in Houston on 3 to 4 October 1963, where the leading fi gures 

of the program discussed the Mercury project and its accomplishments. This document 

presents the perspective of Walt Williams, Robert Gilruth’s assistant for space operations at 

the Manned Spacecraft Center.

MERCURY PROJECT SUMMARY CONFERENCE

MUSIC HALL, HOUSTON, TEXAS

October 3 and 4, 1963

PROJECT REVIEW

Address by Dr. Walter C. Williams, Deputy Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft 

Center

[Note: This review also included a slide presentation. The slides are not provided.]

I think that, perhaps, in reviewing a program such as this, the fi rst step to 

take is to look at where we started and, principally, what were the objectives and 

what were our guidelines, and I think you’ll fi nd that this group that started fi ve 

years ago, under Dr. Gilruth, stayed quite closely to these.

[Slide 1]

Let’s look at the objectives fi rst (fi rst slide, please). I’m not sure this is 

exactly the same slide that was used fi ve years ago, but I’m certain that the words 

are. Objectives were to place a manned spacecraft in orbital fl ight around the 

earth, to investigate man’s performance capabilities and his ability to function in 

space, and, obviously, recover the man and spacecraft safely. And we hope, as we 

move along in these next two days, to show how these objectives were reached.

[Slide 2]

Some of the guidelines in establishing this project are shown on the next 

slide. We knew, or the team knew, that to do this program at any reasonable length 

of time, wherever possible, existing technology and off-the-shelf equipment would 
240 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

have to be used, wherever practical, and I think, although it was expected to fi nd 

much equipment on the shelf, I think many of our problems were really fi nding 

which shelf this equipment was on, because, in almost every area, because of the 

design constraints, some new development had to be undertaken to meet the new 

requirements that [2] a manned spacecraft would place on a system. Obviously, 

we wanted to use as simple an approach because this, indeed, would give the 

most reliable approach. The simplicity, again, is a relative term. Because of the 

question about man’s ability to perform, it was required that this spacecraft be 

capable of fully automatic fl ight as well as a fl ight were the man participated as 

part of the system. Well, when you automate the system and, indeed, then provide 

redundancy in the automation, you come out with a rather complex system. The 

existing launch vehicle would be employed; yes, we felt that we should use a 

launch vehicle that was well along in its development as a weapons system for this 

job, and we had some interesting experiences along the way in developing and 

working with the Space Systems Division in converting from a weapons systems to 

a man-mated booster and, of course as always, we felt this should be a progressive 

and logical test program and we will discuss that progression.

We were able, or the team at that time was able, to give some detailed 

requirements for the spacecraft, in a general sense, and these are shown in the 

next slide.

[Slide 3]

We knew that the state-of-art of the large rockets, the reliable launch 

escape system was required. We did feel, even though there was a question mark 

about the pilot’s performance, that he should be able to manually control the 

spacecraft attitude, and I think it’s well-known how much this paid off during the 

life of the program. Obviously, it had to have a reliable retrorocket system, but it 

was also a question that this spacecraft [3] should be deorbited by retrorockets, 

that it just wasn’t a short life-time orbit; that the spacecraft would truly be in space 

fl ight. The zero-lift shape for reentry was chosen as the least diffi cult and still meet 

the mission objectives that we had in mind, and obviously, we had to provide a 

water-landing capability because, even though we would have good—take on the 

task of providing land capability for the end of successful missions, the vehicle still 

had to be amphibious in order to cover the abort cases.

Well this – this was about the way the program got started fi ve years ago. 

Concepts were available; in fact, considerable research-and-development work 

had been done on these concepts, but there lay ahead the job of translating these 

concepts into real hardware, into systems that could be used in manned fl ight. 

There was the detailed mission planning that was yet to be done. There was the 

defi ning and implementing the world network. There were many of these things. 

Developing the recovery techniques. All of this was still ahead.

[Slide 4]

Scheduling, I think, is about the best way to describe the progress of the 

fl ights and of the program since these are, indeed, tangible milestones. And, 

although there were many schedules, and you could call them success schedules, 
Exploring the Unknown 241

or the like, this is the actual schedule as the fl ying occurred. I realize there’s a lot 

of detail here, but I’d like to talk about this overall schedule fi rst. In accomplishing 

this, in the period of about 45 months of activity, some 25 fl ights were made 

which was an activity of a major fl ight in something less than every 2 months. 

[Slide 5] [4] To do this, at various states, three launch vehicles were used and 

two launch sites. The Little Joe was a research-and-development booster used for 

the development, testing primarily the escape system; these tests were at Wallops 

Island. The Redstone booster was used for the ballistic fl ights to help qualify the 

spacecraft systems and the crew for orbital fl ight. And, of course, the Atlas was 

used for orbital fl ights. It is interesting to note that one of the fi rst major fl ights 

was the BJ-1 up there, which was the Big Joe, which qualifi ed the heat-protection 

system and verifi ed that this concept was proper. Dr. Gilruth talked about the 

team getting right to work and I can talk a little about this one because I had 

nothing to do with it. I think this was an amazing job done in something less than 

a year from project go-ahead. This was a major activity and it involved a ballistic 

reentry of a full-scale Mercury like spacecraft.

[Slide 6]

And, so, the fi rst year or so we were concerned with these development 

fl ights and it was about the end of 1960 really that the heavy activity in qualifying 

the actual hardware for the manned orbital fl ights began and I’d like to look 

at an expanded scale there and it’s on this next slide, on the right side, please. 

This, I think, was the peak of our highest activity in Mercury. We began with our – 

really, we should start with the Mercuy-Redstone 1 which was our fi rst full-boosted 

fl ight of our production spacecraft. We had problems; we fi red the escape tower 

when it was a premature cutoff, but we won’t go into this today. But, then, the 

program moved along rather rapidly on the ballistic program between December 

and May when Al Shepard made his fl ight and followed by Grissom’s [5] fl ight 

that summer. Meanwhile, the Atlas was also moving along; we had a failure back 

in July, that Dr. Dryden referred to, which cost us about six months in our Atlas 

program and it was not until the following February, after suitable modifi cations 

had been made to both the spacecraft adapter and the launch vehicle, that we 

were able to resume the Atlas fl ights. The fi rst of these qualifi ed our production 

spacecraft for the reentry heating case. That was followed by another Atlas 

failure, MA-3, which was an electronic failure, but, by then, we had the team really 

working together; we solved these problems and made our fi rst orbital fl ight of a 

Mercury spacecraft in September and within four or fi ve months of that, we had 

John Glenn’s fl ight following the fl ight of Enos in orbital fl ight. This, to me – to 

anyone planning schedules – The fl ight program for this time should look at this 

one, because there were periods here of major activities, at least once a month, 

and in a research-and-development program, I feel that this is about the limits 

of human tolerance. Everybody was working terribly hard on this period; it was a 

rough one. 

Now, this is about all of the detail (will you take those slides off)—detail 

of the program that I can go into at this time (hold that one).

[Slide 7]
242 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

I would like to talk now a little, because we will describe all of this in much 

more detail – I would like to talk about how we managed this program, because I 

think this was one of the important things we learned. As you know, this program 

started on – go-ahead was given on October 7, 1958 and a small organization, the 

Space Task Group, was set up to handle [6] it. The overall management, of course, 

was the responsibility of NASA Headquarters, but the project management rested 

in Space Task Group. And of course, it was recognized from the beginning that 

this had to be a joint effort of many organizations and of many people, because 

it was an extremely complex program and it would be probably involve more 

elements of Government and industry than any similar development program 

that had been undertaken. So, the task was that of establishing an overall plan 

that would best fi t the program and accomplish the objectives at the earliest date, 

pulling all of these varied groups together, and the scheme that we used to pull 

people together and pull organizations together is best shown in this next slide, 

where we might look at this at three levels: At the policy level, which was the 

overall management of level where general policy decisions were reached and 

carried out as to how the two organizations would work together; the next level 

down which was the approval review and direction level; and then, a third level 

of implementation where we used a system of working teams, with the specialists 

and design people from each of the various units concerned with any particular 

problem, and these were action committees and decisions could be reached at 

their meetings, with formal documentation to follow at a later date, and teams 

were set up as required wherever there were interfaces to be solved and common 

problems involving more than one organization. And I might add, and I think 

this is very important, teams were set up as they were needed; they were dissolved 

when they were no longer needed. We did not have committees for the sake of 

committees. 

[7] [Slide 8]

And, I think a matter—To put some names and numbers into a chart 

such as this, I’d like to show the next slide which shows an arrangement we 

used in the launch vehicles. The manner whereby NASA could get Atlas launch 

vehicles for the space program was reached in an agreement at the level of NASA 

Headquarters and the Department of Defense, and this was spelled out in a 

working agreement. Then, it became the task of NASA Space Task Group and 

the then Air Force Ballistic Missiles Division to translate this policy into a launch 

vehicle we could use and then we brought together at the working level members 

of Space Task Group, members of the Ballistic Missiles Division, as well as their 

contractors and our contractors, and out of this evolved the details of things, 

such as the automatic abort system, the structural interface, the launch complex 

modifi cations, the launch countdown, that were required. Now, another bit of 

management arrangement that was established that also worked very well, and 

this fell primarily in the operational support area and in the network areas, was 

the fact that NASA, as such, had very little resources to carry out the program 

of this nature. For example, for recovery, we didn’t have a navy. It’s this type of 

resource I am addressing myself to. We did not have a range; so, in order to 

effectively provide this support from the Department of Defense, and arrangement 

was made whereby a Department of Defense Representative for Project Mercury 

Support was appointed and he was the NASA, the single point contact within the 
Exploring the Unknown 243

Department of Defense framework for all Department of Defense support. Also, 

NASA provided such [8] a single point of contact, so that these two could meet; 

there was a logical place for the requirements to focus, a logical place for them to 

go, and logical place for them to be implemented. And rather than many parts of 

NASA trying to work with many parts of the Department of Defense, we had this 

single point, and I think, and I don’t think, I know, in the operating end of it at 

least, this contributed greatly to the success.

[Slide 9]

I’d like to show how this worked; for example, in the case of our network 

and that’s on the next slide. Again, we had this type of thing; we had our DOD 

representative, NASA single point of contact and this is for the establishment of 

the network. At this level, we reached agreement of what parts of the national 

ranges would be used which would be modifi ed, where new stations had to be 

implemented and who would operate new stations, how would we work on the 

existing ranges. At the direction level, we had our Space Task Group and an 

element of the Langley Research Center which handled the Western Electric 

contract on the network that provided the detailed implementation, working 

directly with the Mercury Support Planning Offi ce and the National ranges. And 

here, again, we had to break out working teams and these involved not only the 

obvious units shown there, but for example, our spacecraft contractor had to work 

with this people so that they would be compatible with the range. And, I think that 

it was arrangements like this that allowed us to move on as we did and I must say 

that it was also, as Bob Gilruth pointed out, the dedication of a large number of 

people that allowed these arrangements to work extremely well. 

[9] Now, in these types of systems and at this point in time which was 

the development phase, we used this arrangement of working teams. As we 

moved into the operating phase, however, we had to go to a more functional 

type organization, with direct lines of command, and here again, having this 

single point within DOD helped considerably. I’ll not show the entire operating 

organization, but I’d like to show an element of it in this next slide to give some 

idea of how organizations were intermingled in this line of command. This is 

essentially the blockhouse organization and our total operating complex. [Slide 

10] The operations director was a NASA man; however, reporting to him was 

the launch director from the Air Force’s Space Systems Division. In turn, there 

was a launch vehicle test conductor who was a General Dynamics/Astronautics 

and in turn, had his associate contractors, reporting to him and, meanwhile, 

the spacecraft test conductor was a NASA man who, in turn, had his contractors 

reporting to him. And, I think any part of this organization you would fi nd similar 

intermingling – intermingling of the Services as well, intermingling of the Civil 

servants, military personnel, and contractor personnel, but I think that the 

important thing is that it did work; there were direct-line responsibilities and I 

think we learned a lot out of that.

Now, I think it’s interesting to talk a little about the resources we used. 

(May I have the next slide, please?) [Slide 11] Manpower reached a total, and 

this, of course, has to be estimates, even though we’ve got rather small numbers 

shown, of about 2,000,000 people. The direct NASA effort, [10] Space Task 
244 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Group, never reached a peak of over 650 people on the program and I would say 

this was reached probably at the time of the Glenn fl ight [Slide 12]. Supporting 

NASA work was another 700 people. Obviously a large element was the industrial 

support of prime, subcontractors, and vendors and we had, of course, many 

people from the Department of Defense, the largest portion of this 18,000 being 

the Navy’s recovery forces. And I think it’s interesting in looking at a map, which 

spots only the major contractors and the Government agencies and universities 

involved, without going into the subs and vendors, and as you can see, fairly well 

covered the country, even at this level. 

I think, perhaps, to, we should talk a little about the program cost and 

I’d like to have the next slide [Slide 13]. These fi gures, I might point out, are 

different from those that are in the chronology that is part of the handout for this 

conference. The chronology fi gures were not complete and left out some of the 

essential elements. These fi gures and this total of $384,000,000 is the best that we 

can come up with for now; it’s our estimate of determinations of contracts and 

it’s not a fully audited fi gure, but it’s the best we have at this time and I think this 

represents a reasonably correct fi gure. I think the only thing of real interest here 

is that the two largest items of this was the development of the spacecraft itself 

and its operation and the implementation of the world network. These items, like 

this network, are things that normally aren’t thought of as the cost of a program 

– one will concentrate mostly on the [11] fl ight hardware, but, as can be seen, 

this, indeed, was a large part of the total cost of Mercury. However, I may add 

that, although we’re charging all of it to Mercury here, it is an investment in 

our National capability; it will be used in Gemini, it will be used in Apollo. The 

operations fi gure is primarily the cost of the recovery forces.

Now, this, in a nutshell, is about what Mercury consisted of. We will try to 

fi ll in detail in the next two days. I think we ought to, before I close though, just 

summarize what it appears to me we learned in Mercury. One, of course – we did, 

indeed, accomplish our objectives and we found that man does have a place in 

space, man can function as part of the spacecraft system or the total fl ight system 

and can be effective. I think we learned some very—Very obviously, we learned a lot 

about spacecraft technology and how a spacecraft should be built, what its systems 

should be, how they should perform, where the critical redundancies are that are 

required. I think we learned something about man-rating boosters, how to take 

a weapons system development and turn it into a manned transportation system. 

I think, in this area, we found primarily, in a nutshell, that this was a matter of 

providing a malfunction detection system or an abort system, and, also, we found 

very careful attention to detail as far as quality control was concerned. I think that 

some of the less obvious things we learned – we learned how to plan these missions 

and this take a lot of detail work, because it’s not only planning how it goes, but 

how it doesn’t go, and the abort cases and the emergency cases always took a lot 

more effort than the planned missions. These are things that must be done [12]. 

We learned what is important in training crews for missions of this type. When the 

crew-training program was laid down, the program had to cover the entire gamut 

because we weren’t quite sure exactly what these people needed to carry out the 

missions. I think we have a much better focus on this now. We learned how to 

control these fl ights in real time. This was a new concept on a worldwide basis. 

I think we learned, and when I say we, I’m talking of this as a National asset, not 
Exploring the Unknown 245

NASA alone, we learned how to operate the world network in real time and keep 

it up. And I think we learned a lot in how to manage development programs of 

this kind and to manage operations of this kind.

I thank you very much.

*Oral presentation transcribed by occ; typed by rhd.

Document I-48

Document Title: Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., “A Review of Knowledge Acquired 

from the First Manned Satellite Program,” No date, 1963

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. joined the NACA in 1944 and became a member of the Space Task 

Group upon its inauguration in 1958 and a close associate of STG Director Robert Gilruth. He 

served as Senior Flight Director for all of the Mercury missions. Because of his unique perspective 

on Mercury, his review of the program is especially valuable as an historical document. 

NASA FACT SHEET #206

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER

HOUSTON 1, TEXAS

A REVIEW OF KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED FROM THE FIRST MANNED SATELLITE PROGRAM

By

Christopher C. Kraft, Jr.

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

SYNOPSIS

With the completion of the Mercury program, science has gained 

considerable new knowledge about space. In more than 52 hours of manned 

fl ight, the information brought back has changed many ideas about space fl ight. 

Design problems occupied the fi rst and major portion of the Mercury program. 

The heat shield, the shape of the Mercury spacecraft, the spacecraft systems, 

and the recovery devices were developed. Flight operations procedures were 

organized and developed and a training program both ground and fl ight crew 

was followed. Scientifi c experiments were planned with Man in the loop. These 

included photography, extra spacecraft experiments, and observation or selfperforming types of experiments.
246 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

But the real knowledge of Mercury lies in the change of the basic 

philosophy of the program. At the beginning, the capabilities of Man were not 

known, so the systems had to be designed to function automatically. But with the 

addition of Man to the loop, this philosophy changed 180 degrees since primary 

success of the mission depended on Man backing up automatic equipment that 

could fail.

[2]

INTRODUCTION

As the fi rst manned space fl ight project of the United States, Project 

Mercury in its various aspects have [sic] been discussed in great detail by almost 

all members of the project. The purpose of my discussion today will not be to 

repeat the technical details of Project Mercury, but to outline and discuss some 

of the signifi cant contributions the program has made to the area of space 

technology.

It is important to note that 52 hours of manned orbital fl ight, and less 

than fi ve hours of unmanned orbital fl ight by the Mercury spacecraft have 

produced a large book of new knowledge. The hours spent on the ground 

development and training, the preparations for fl ights, and the ballistic fl ights 

cannot be calculated, but it contributed heavily to the knowledge we ultimately 

gained in space fl ight.

The three basic aims of Project Mercury were accomplished less than 

fi ve years ago from the start of the program. The fi rst U.S. manned space fl ight 

program was designed to (1) put man into Earth orbit (2) observe his reactions 

to the space environment and (3) bring him back to Earth safely at a point where 

he could be readily recovered. All of these objectives have been accomplished, 

and some have produced more information than we expected to receive from 

conducting the experiment.

The whole Mercury project may be considered an experiment, in a 

certain sense. We were testing the ability of a man and machine to perform in a 

controlled but not completely known environment.

The control, of course, came from the launch vehicle used and the 

spacecraft systems included in the vehicle. Although we knew the general 

conditions of space at Atlas insertion altitudes, we did not know how the specifi c 

environment would affect the spacecraft and the man. Such conditions as vacuum, 

weightlessness, heat, cold, and radiation were question marks on the number 

scale. There were also many extraneous unknowns which would not affect the 

immediate mission but would have to be considered in future fl ights. Such 

things as visibility of objects, the airglow layer, observation of ground lights and 

landmarks, and atmospheric drug effects were important for future reference.

The program had to start with a series of design experiments. We had 

little criteria for the space vehicle. If we could fi nd that a certain type of heat 

shield could make a successful reentry and a certain shape of spacecraft, we 

would have the basis for further design of systems. 
Exploring the Unknown 247

A series of fl ight tests and wind tunnel tests were conducted to get the 

answers to some of the basic questions. First, would the ablation [3] principle 

work in our application? Could we conduct heat away from the spacecraft body 

by melting the fi berglass and resin material? How thick would the shield have to 

be for our particular conditions? What temperatures would be encountered and 

for what time period would they exist? Early wind tunnel test proved in theory 

that the saucer shaped shield would protect the rest of the spacecraft from heat 

damage. The fl ight test on the heat shield must prove the theory. In February 

1961, we made a ballistic fl ight in which the spacecraft reentered at a sharper 

angle than programmed and the heat shield was subjected to great than normal 

heating. The test proved the heat shield material to be more than adequate.

The Mercury spacecraft did not start with the familiar bell shape. It went 

through a series of design changes and wind tunnel tests before the optimum 

shape was chosen. The blunt shape had proven best for the nose cone reentry. Its 

only drawback was the lack of stability. We next tried the cone-shaped spacecraft, 

but wind tunnel testing proved that heating on the afterbody would be too 

severe, although the craft was very stable in reentry. After two more trial shapes, 

the blunt bottom cylinder on cone shape came into being. It was a complete cycle 

from the early concepts of manned space-craft, but it was only the fi rst of a series 

of changes in our way of thinking of the fl ight program and its elements.

A second part of design philosophy thinking came in connection with 

the use of aircraft equipment in a spacecraft. We had stated at the start of the 

program that Mercury would use as much as possible the existing technology 

and off-the-shelf items in the design of the manned spacecraft. But in many cases 

off-the-shelf equipment would just not do the job. Systems in space are exposed 

to conditions that do not exist for aircraft within the envelope of the atmosphere. 

Near absolute vacuum, weightlessness and extremes of temperatures makes 

equipment react differently than it does in aircraft. We had to test equipment 

in advance in the environment in which it was going to be used. It produced 

an altered concept in constructing and testing a spacecraft. Although aircraft 

philosophy could be adapted, in many cases, aircraft parts could not perform in 

a spacecraft.

The third part of the design philosophy, and perhaps the most important 

one in regard to future systems is the automatic systems contained in the 

Mercury spacecraft. When the project started, we had no defi nitive information 

on how Man would react in the spacecraft system. To insure that we returned the 

spacecraft to Earth as planned, the critical functions would have to be automatic. 

The control system would keep the spacecraft stabilized at precisely thirty-four 

degrees above the horizontal. The retrorockets would be fi red by an automatic 

sequence under a grogramed [sic] or ground command. The drogue and main 

parachutes would deploy when a barostat inside the spacecraft indicated that the 

correct altitudes had been reached. The Mercury vehicle was a highly automatic 

system and the man essentially was riding along as a passenger, an observer. At 

all costs, we had to make sure that the systems worked.

[4] But we have been able to take advantage of Man’s capability in space. 

It started from the fi rst manned orbital fl ights. When some of the thrusters 

became inoperative on John Glenn’s fl ight, he was able to assume manual control 
248 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

of the spacecraft in order to fl y the full three orbits planned in the mission. 

When a signal on the ground indicated the heat shield had deployed, Glenn 

bypassed certain parts of the retrosequence manually and retained the retropack 

after it had fi red. In this way, he insured that the heat shield would stay in place 

during reentry and the spacecraft would not be destroyed by excessive heating. 

When oscillations built up during reentry, Glenn utilized his manual capability to 

provide damping using both the manual and fl y-by-wire thrusters. The pilot’s role 

in manned space fl ight was assuming a more important aspect.

Carpenter’s fl ight again emphasized the ability of the pilot to control 

the spacecraft through the critical reentry period. Excess fuel was used in both of 

these orbital fl ights. Schirra’s task was to determine if Man in the machine could 

conserve fuel for a long fl ight by turning off all systems in drifting fl ight. It was 

a task that could not be accomplished by a piece of automatic equipment in the 

confi ned area of the Mercury spacecraft. Schirra also was able to exercise another 

type of pilot control. It was the fi ne control necessary to adjust pressure suit air 

temperature to produce a workable environment. When we fl ew the mechanical 

man in MA-4, we did not have the capability of making fi ne suit temperature 

adjustments or to realize the problems we might encounter in the suit design. 

Man could analyze and correct suit temperature, thus pointing out necessary 

design parameters to follow in future programs.

The MA-4 and MA-5 fl ights were probably the most diffi cult of the 

orbital missions. They had to be fl own using only one automatic control system. 

We had no man along with the ability to override or correct malfunctions in the 

systems. One of the fl ights ended prematurely due to malfunctions that we could 

not correct from the ground. In both cases, a man could have assumed manual 

control and continued the fl ight for the full number of orbits. It is no hypothesis 

or theory; it has been borne out by facts. With this design criteria in mind, the 

Cooper fl ight was a fi tting climax to the Mercury program. Not only did it yield 

new information for other spacecraft program, but it demonstrated that Man had 

a unique capability to rescue a mission that would not have been successfully 

completed with the automatic equipment provided. 

Man serves many purposes in the orbiting spacecraft. Not only is he an 

observer, he provides and redundancy not obtainable by other means, he can 

conduct scientifi c experiments, and he can discover phenomenon not seen by 

automatic equipment.

But most important is the redundancy, the ability of another system to [5] 

take over the mission if the primary system fails. Duplicate systems are designed to 

prevent bottlenecks in the operation of the systems. The single point failure caused 

the false heat shield signal in Glenn’s fl ight. After the mission was successfully 

completed, we conducted an intense design review to see if there were any more 

of these single points in the spacecraft that needed redundancy of design for 

safe operation. We found many areas where the failure of one component could 

trigger a whole series of unfavorable reactions. This type of problem had been 

brought about by the design philosophy originally conceived because of the lack 

of knowledge of Man’s capability in a space environment.
Exploring the Unknown 249

The Mercury program taught us not to stack the components on top of 

each other. It forces limited access, and the failure of one component during 

checkout makes it necessary to pull out other functioning systems to replace the 

malfunctioning part. For instance, in the MA-6 fl ight the short life carbon dioxide 

absorber in the environmental control system had to be replaced since checkout 

took longer than had been planned. This replacement required eight major 

equipment removals and four revalidations of unrelated subsystems for a total 

delay of 12 hours. All of these problems of course resulted from weight and space 

constraints brought about by payload limitations.

For the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, the equipment will be modular 

and replaceable, allowing the substitution of alternate parts without tearing out 

whole subsystems.

We depend quite a bit on the automatic systems for retrosequence but 

man has proven that he can and does play an important role in the reentry 

process. The only manned fl ight in which the automatic system for reentry was 

used completely was at the end of Walter Schirra’s six orbits. In all other fl ights, 

the astronaut took over and performed at least one part of the reentry manually 

because of some malfunction which had occurred during the fl ight.

As we move into the Gemini and Apollo programs, a maneuvering 

capability has been built into the spacecraft to allow changes in fl ight path both 

while in orbit and during reentry into the atmosphere.

The translation engines provided will allow modifi cations to the orbit for 

rendezvous with other vehicles in orbit. Also, by use of an offset center of gravity, 

the spacecrafts will have and L/D capability not provided in the Mercury vehicle. 

This will allow the onboard computers to select a particular landing point at any 

time during the fl ight and after retrofi re or atmospheric reentry the vehicle can 

be maneuvered within a given footprint to reach this desired landing area. The 

astronauts will provide the necessary back-up to these complex systems and can at 

any time assume manual control of the system so that a proper and safe landing 

can be assured.

[6] Our experience with the Mercury network changed our thinking 

about the operation of this worldwide tracking system for manned fl ights. In the 

initial design of the network, we did not have voice communication to all the 

remote sites. 

But we soon found that in order to establish our real time requirement 

for evaluating unusual situations, we needed the voice link. When we started the 

program, the determination of the orbital ephemeris was a process that could take 

several orbits to establish. We could not tolerate such a condition in a manned 

fl ight so we set up a worldwide network which would maintain contact with the 

astronaut approximately 40 minutes out of every hour. But continuous voice 

contact with the astronaut has proven unnecessary and in many cases undesirable. 

While we retain the capability to contact an astronaut quickly, we have tried to 

reduce the frequency of communications with the spacecraft.
250 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

In designing and modifying a spacecraft, it is also possible to learn 

something more than tangible changes or hardware design. We learned about 

the reliability requirement and the very important need to check details carefully. 

It is a requirement that cannot be designed into a system on the drawing board. 

It actually consists in developing a conscientious contractor team that will take 

care to follow procedures and deliver a reliable product. Then it takes a careful 

recheck by the government team to insure that reliability has actually been built 

into the product. The smallest mistake in a man rated system can bring totally 

unexpected results. The unexpected is the rule in the unknown, and if Man is 

going to live in the region beyond our atmosphere, he is going to live under rules 

or not at all. We have been aware of these new rules from the start of the satellite 

program, but they have not been brought to our attention so vividly as they have 

in the manned fl ight program.

If an unmanned satellite malfunctions we cannot get it back for 

examination. We can only speculate on the causes and try to redesign it to 

eliminate the source of the supposed trouble. It is necessarily a slow process of 

elimination. Here again, if a manned craft malfunctions, it can be returned to 

the ground by the proper action of the pilot. We knew what had failed in Gordon 

Cooper’s fl ight, but we did not know why the system had failed until we got the 

spacecraft back for investigations and tests. Knowing why something occurred will 

give us the tools to improve spacecraft of the future.

AEROMEDICAL EXPERIMENTS

While we can redesign the equipment to accomplish the mission, we 

cannot redesign the man who must perform in space. Aeromedical experiments 

for new knowledge about space must simply answer one question. Can Man adapt 

to an [7] environment which violates most of the laws under which his body 

normally operates? The answer to the question at the end of the Mercury program 

seems to be an unqualifi ed yes, at least for the period of one to two days. 

The crushing acceleration of launch was the fi rst concern. We knew he 

would be pressed into his couch by a force equal to many times the weight of his 

own body. It was not defi nitely known whether he would be able to perform any 

piloting functions under these high “g” forces. The centrifuge program was started 

and the astronauts tested under this stress proved that Man was not as fragile 

or helpless as we might have supposed. In addition to being able to withstand 

heavy acceleration, a method was developed of straining against the force and 

performing necessary pilot control maneuvers.

Weightlessness was a real aeromedical unknown and it was something that 

the astronauts could not really encounter on the ground. The ability to eat and 

drink without gravity was one serious question we had to answer. In the weightless 

condition, once the food is placed in the mouth, normal digestive processes take 

over without being affected by the lack of gravity.

The next problem was the effect of weightlessness on the cardiovascular 

system, that is the heart and blood vessel system throughout the body. All types of 

reactions were possible in theory. In actual fl ight, a small and temporary amount 

of pooling of blood in the veins of the legs has occurred, but it is not serious nor 
Exploring the Unknown 251

does it appear to affect the performance of the pilot. For all pilots weightlessness 

has been a pleasant experience. All the senses such as sight and hearing perform 

normally during space fl ight. There has been no hallucination, no blackout or 

any other medical phenomena which might have an effect on Man in space. We 

even experimented with drifting fl ight and whether the astronaut would become 

disoriented when he could not distinguish up from down or have the horizon of 

Earth for a reference. But each time the answer seemed to be that a man could 

adapt as long as his basic needs for breathing oxygen and pressure were supplied.

Perhaps the greatest contributions to the program have come in the 

area of development of aeromedical equipment. Blood pressure measuring 

systems were developed that would automatically take readings and transmit 

them by telemetry to the ground. The biosensors were designed to pick up other 

information such as pulse rate and respiration rate. There were numerous small 

changes that were made to these systems to increase the accuracy of the data that 

we got back from the man in space. The in-fl ight studies of the test pilot’s reaction 

are probably the most complete medical records we have tried to keep on an 

individual. Their value has been to demonstrate that man functions normally in 

the space environment.

Related to the aeromedical studies in the environmental equipment that 

provides life support for the astronaut. We started with the basic Navy pressure suit 

for aircraft fl ying and modifi ed it for performance in the spacecraft. We found it 

was desirable to eliminate as many pressure points as possible and have tailored 

the suits on an individual basis for each [8] astronaut. There are two areas in 

life support which presented new problems to be overcome. First, there was the 

problem of circulation of air. In the absence of gravity, the normal rules of air 

circulation are cancelled, and the carbon dioxide breathed out by the astronaut 

would suffocate him. The air in the cabin would also have to be forced through 

the air conditioning system to keep the cabin area from overheating.

Secondly, there is the problem of the air supply itself and its possible effect 

on the spacecraft pilot. For conserving weight, a single gas system was desirable. 

But it was not known if breathing pure oxygen over long periods of time could 

have harmful effects. The Mercury fl ights and other research in a pure oxygen 

environment have proven that no injury to the body’s system has been produced 

by using a one gas system.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS

Man’s role as a scientifi c observer and experimenter in space was another 

unknown in the program. Much of it was based on the ability of man to exist in 

space. It had to fi rst be determined that he would be able to function normally 

and then the scientifi c benefi ts of the program could be explored. Man as an 

observer has proven his capabilities from the fi rst orbital fl ight. The brightness, 

coloring, and height of the airglow layer was [sic] established. It was something a 

camera could not record nor could an unmanned satellite perform this mission. 

Man in space has the ability to observe the unknown and to try to defi ne it by 

experiment. The particles discovered at sunrise by John Glenn were determined by 
252 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Scott Capenter, to be coming from the spacecraft, and this analysis was confi rmed 

by Schirra and Cooper.

We can send unmanned instrumented vehicles into space which can learn 

much about the space environment and the makeup of the planets. However, 

the use of Man to aid in making the scientifi c observations will be invaluable. 

The old problem of what and how to instrument for the unknown can benefi t 

greatly from Man’s capability to pick and chose the time and types of experiments 

to be performed. We have learned much from the Mercury program through 

this quality of choice and we will continue to learn if man continues to be an 

important part of the system.

If we have learned more about space itself, we have also learned about 

Man’s capabilities in space. Many experiments have been conducted which have 

yielded valuable information for future programs. Aside from aeromedical 

experiments, Man has been able to distinguish color in space, to spot object at 

varying distances from the spacecraft, to observe high intensity lights on the 

ground, and to track objects near him. These observations provide valuable 

information in determining the feasibility of the rendezvous and navigation in 

Gemini and Apollo.

[9] Pictures taken with infrared fi lters have aided the Weather Bureau 

in determining the type of cameras to use in their weather satellites. Special 

pictures have also been taken for scientifi c studies such as geological formations, 

zodiacal light, and refraction of light through the atmosphere.

CONCLUSION

The manned space fl ight program has changed quite a few concepts 

about space, added greatly to our knowledge of the universe around us, and 

demonstrated that Man has a proper role in exploring it. There are many 

unknowns that lie ahead, but we are reassured because we are confi dent in 

overcoming them by using Man’s capabilities to the fullest.

When we started the manned space program fi ve years ago, there was a 

great deal of doubt about Man’s usefulness in space. We have now come to a point 

which is exactly one hundred eighty degrees around the circle from that opinion. 

We now depend on Man in the loop to back up the automatic systems rather than 

using automatic systems alone to insure that the mission is accomplished. 

We do not want to ignore the automatic aspects of space fl ight altogether. 

There must be a careful blending of Man and machine in future spacecraft 

which provides the formula for further success. By experience, we have arrived at 

what we think is a proper mixture of that formula. Man is the deciding element; 

but we cannot ignore the usefulness of the automatic systems. As long as Man 

is able to alter the decision of the machine, we will have a spacecraft that can 

perform under any known condition, and that can probe into the unknown for 

new knowledge. 

--END--
Exploring the Unknown 253

Document I-49

Document Title: Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, “Project Development Plan 

for Rendezvous Development Utilizing the Mark II Two Man Spacecraft,” 8 

December 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The development plan for the Mercury Mark II spacecraft underwent a number of 

modifi cations throughout 1961. The plan was extensively revised up until 27 October 1961. 

A key question was the selection of a booster to launch the spacecraft; NASA’s preference was 

a modifi ed Titan II ICBM. The Air Force wanted to develop a Titan III, but NASA was 

wary of this plan, fearing that the development would take too long. The Air Force countered 

that NASA’s requirements for modifi cations to the Titan II would lead to what was almost 

a new booster. These issues were solved by November and it was decided by 5 December that 

NASA would get the Titan II boosters it desired. On 6 December, Robert Seamans approved 

the project development plan and identifi ed the development of rendezvous techniques as the 

project’s primary objective. Brainerd Holmes asked for $75.8 million from current Fiscal Year 

1962 funds to start the project and Seamans approved that request on 7 December. The fi nal 

plan was approved the next day.

PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PLAN

FOR

RENDEZVOUS DEVELOPMENT

UTILIZING THE

MARK II TWO MAN SPACECRAFT

Manned Spacecraft Center

Langley Air Force Base, Virginia

December 8, 1961

CLASSIFIED DOCUMENT – TITLE UNCLASSIFIED [DECLASSIFIED]

This material contains information affecting the national defense of the United 

States within the meaning of the espionage laws, Title 18,U.S.C., Secs. 793 and 

794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to unauthorized 

person is prohibited by law.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
254 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Part I PROJECT SUMMARY

Part II JUSTIFICATION 

Part III HISTORY AND RELATED WORK

Part IV TECHNICAL PLAN

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 MISSION OBJECTIVES

2.1 Long Duration Flights

2.2 Rendezvous

2.3 Controlled Land Landing

2.3.1 Dispersion Control

2.3.2 Landing Impact

2.4 Training

2.5 Program Philosophy

3.0 SPACECRAFT

3.1 Basic Spacecraft

3.1.1 Basic Spacecraft Weights

3.1.2 Adaptability for Advanced Missions

3.2 Effect of Mission Duration 

3.2.1 Life Systems

3.2.2 Attitude Control System

3.2.3 Electrical Power Supply System

3.2.4 Spacecraft Weights for Longer Missions

3.3 Rendezvous Missions 

3.3.1 Mission Concept

3.3.2 Special Equipment 

3.3.3 Spacecraft Weights

3.4 Touchdown Control

3.4.1 Maneuvering Requirements and Capability

3.4.2 Special Equipment 

3.4.3 Weights

3.4.4 Land Impact Attenuation 

[2]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.0 BOOSTER

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Description

4.2.1 Stage I

4.2.2 Stage II

4.3 Special Modifi cations

4.3.1 Performance Modifi cations
Exploring the Unknown 255

4.3.2 Modifi cations for Reliability

4.3.3 Abort Sensing System

4.4 Reliability

4.5 Performance

4.5.1 Circular Orbit Capability 

4.5.2 Elliptical Orbit Capability

5.0 TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN

5.1 Spacecraft 

5.2 Booster 

5.3 Flight Test Plan 

5.3.1 Qualifi cation Test

5.3.2 Eighteen Orbit Test 

5.3.3 Long Duration Tests

5.3.4 Rendezvous Tests

5.4 Master Schedule

Part V MANAGEMENT PLAN

1.0 PROJECT CONCEPTS

2.0 ASSIGNMENT OF RESPONSIBILITIES

Part VI PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS

Part VII RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS

1.0 MANPOWER ASSIGNMENTS 

2.0 PROJECT SUPPORT

3.0 PROJECT OFFICE

Part VIII COORDINATED OPERATIONS PLAN

Part IX PROJECT RESULTS

[3]

PART I – PROJECT SUMMARY

This project development plan presents a program of manned space 

fl ight during the 1963 – 1965 time period. The program provides a versatile system 

which may be used for extending the time of fl ight in space and for development 

of rendezvous techniques, but may be adapted to the requirements of a multitude 

of other space missions at a later date. A two man version of the Mercury spacecraft 

would be used in conjunction with a modifi ed Titan II booster. The Atlas-Agena B 

combination would be used to place the Agena B into orbit as the target vehicle in 
256 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

the rendezvous experiments. This use of existing or modifi ed versions of existing 

hardware minimizes the necessity for new hardware development.

The proposed plan is based on extensive usage of Mercury technology 

and components for the spacecraft. Therefore, it is proposed to negotiate a solesource cost-plus-fi xed-fee contract with McDonnell Aircraft Corporation for the 

Mark II Mercury spacecraft.

The launch vehicle procurement will involve a continuation of present 

arrangements with the Air Force and General Dynamics-Astronautics for the Atlas 

launch vehicles, and the establishment of similar arrangements with the Martin 

Company for the Modifi ed Titan II launch vehicles, and with the Lockheed 

Aircraft Corporation for the Agena stages.

A Project Offi ce will be established to plan, direct and supervise the 

program. The manpower requirements for this offi ce are expected to reach 179 

by the end of Fiscal Year 1962.

The estimated cost of the proposed program will total about 530 million 

dollars.

PART II – JUSTIFICATION 

Upon completion of Project Mercury the next step in the overall plan of 

manned space exploration is to gain experience in long duration and rendezvous 

missions. It is believed that the program presented here would produce such 

information and that it would compliment other programs now underway while 

not interfering with their prosecution.

PART III – HISTORY AND RELATED WORK

The plans for Project Mercury originally recognized the value to be 

obtained from 18-orbit missions. However, such missions were later deleted from 

the Mercury schedule due to systems and network limitations. Early in 1961 it was 

believed that Project Mercury had progressed to the point where 18-orbit missions 

might be considered once again. At this time, McDonnell was asked to study how 

such missions could be accomplished with only a minimum of modifi cations 

to the spacecraft being required. This study showed that the 18-orbit mission 

represents the maximum growth potential of the present Mercury capsule with 

reasonable modifi cations. Therefore, McDonnell was asked to study means 

of providing a more extensively modifi ed spacecraft with an extended mission 

capability, including multiman occupancy and improved systems accessibility. The 

Martin Company was asked to provide information as to how the Titan II might 

be adapted to serve as the launch vehicle for these extended missions. Both the 

McDonnell and Martin studies have progressed to the point that capabilities for 

performing the missions have been shown. On the basis of these favorable reports 

the program plan presented here has been developed.

[5]
Exploring the Unknown 257

PART IV – TECHNICAL PLAN

(Description and Approach)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Project Mercury is an initial step in a long range program of manned 

exploration of space. The initial objectives of Project Mercury have already 

been accomplished; therefore, it now becomes appropriate to consider the 

steps that should be taken to insure immediate continuation of manned 

space fl ights following the successful conclusion of this project. Therefore, 

a follow-on project, after Project Mercury, is proposed which will provide 

a continuing source of development information. In the execution of the 

proposed project, maximum use will be made of vehicle and equipment 

development which has already been accomplished for other programs.

2.0 MISSION OBJECTIVES

The present Mercury spacecraft cannot be readily adapted to other than 

simple orbital missions of up to about one day duration, with a corresponding 

limitation on the objectives of the mission. The proposed project will allow 

the accomplishment of a much wider range of objectives.

2.1 Long Duration Flights Experience will be gained in extending the 

duration of fl ights beyond the 18 orbit capability of the present 

Mercury spacecraft. It is recognized that for the longer missions 

a multiman crew is essential so that the work load may be shared, 

both in time and volume. There are many areas which require 

investigations so that the multiman crew may be provided with a 

suitable environment during the prolonged missions. This project 

will contribute to the development of the fl ight and ground 

operational techniques and equipment required for space fl ights of 

extended periods. These fl ights will also determine the physiological 

and psychological reactions and the performance capabilities of 

the new crew while being subjected to extended periods in a space 

environment.

2.2 Rendezvous The rendezvous and docking maneuver in space 

may be compared to aerial refueling in that it makes possible 

the resupply of a vehicle in space and thus extends its mission 

capabilities. This maneuver makes it possible to put a much larger 

“effective” payload in space with a given booster. Since most space 

projects are “booster limited” at present, the development of 

techniques for getting the most out of available boosters should 

undoubtedly be treated as of highest priority. As the frequency 

of manned orbital fl ights increases, there will be instances when 

orbital rescue, personnel transfer, and spacecraft repair will be 

highly desirable. To accomplish these missions develop[6]ment of 

orbital rendezvous techniques is mandatory. Among the problem 

areas which are involved in effecting a successful rendezvous and 

docking maneuver are the following:
258 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2.2.1 Launch Window The second vehicle involved in the 

rendezvous must be launched very close to a prescribed 

time if the operation is to be economical in terms of 

waiting time and propulsion requirements. This requires 

a major simplifi cation of the countdown procedure and 

high reliability of equipment.

2.2.2 Navigation Means must be developed for maneuvers 

in space, using information supplied by the navigation 

system.

2.2.3 Guidance and Control Guidance and control techniques 

must be developed for maneuvers in space, using 

information supplied by the navigation system.

2.2.4 Docking Rendezvous is not effective until the docking 

maneuver is accomplished. The space environment 

makes this operation quite a bit different from the 

same type of operation within the earth’s atmosphere 

and hence considerable work in developing suitable 

techniques is to be expected.

2.3 Controlled Land Landings Experience has shown that the 

magnitude of the effort required to deploy adequate naval forces 

for the recovery of the Mercury spacecraft at sea is such that any 

means for avoiding, or at least minimizing, this effort would be 

highly desirable. The sea has proved to be a more inhospitable 

environment for recovery than was originally envisioned. If space 

fl ights are to be accomplished on anything like a routine basis, 

spacecraft must be designed to alight on land at specifi ed locations. 

This requires that the landing dispersion be reduced to a very low 

fi gure, and a satisfactory method of touchdown developed.

2.3.1 Dispersion Control To effect control of the landing 

area, it is fundamental that an impact prediction be 

made available to the pilot and a means provided for 

controlling the spacecraft so the desired impact point 

can be reached.

2.3.2 Landing Impact The attenuation of the impact loads 

which might result from a land landing of the Mercury 

spacecraft has presented a very considerable problem. 

Although it is estimated that in many cases the landing 

accelerations would be within tolerable limits, the random 

nature of the landing process has made it impossible 

to consider a suffi cient variety of conditions that could 

be encountered so as to have adequate assurance [7] 

of success. In order to guarantee safety in landing, the 

impact must be made at a relatively low velocity and in a 

selected area.
Exploring the Unknown 259

2.4 Training Although much can be accomplished by ground simulation 

training, there does not seem to be any real substitute for actual 

experience in space. Thus, a by-product of this project would be to 

provide a means of increasing the number of astronauts who have 

had actual experience in space. A two-manned spacecraft will be an 

excellent vehicle for this purpose.

2.5 Project Philosophy In general, the philosophy used in the conception 

of this project is to make maximum use of available hardware, 

basically developed for other programs, modifi ed to meet the needs 

of this project. In this way, requirements for hardware development 

and qualifi cation are minimized and timely implementation of the 

project is assured.

Another fundamental concept is that in the design of the spacecraft, 

all systems will be modularized and made independent of each other 

as much as possible. In this way, an evolutionary process of product 

improvement and mission adaptation may be implemented with a 

minimum of time and effort. Thus, it will be possible to use equipment 

of varying degrees of sophistication as it becomes available and as the 

mission requirements are tightened. It is important that a minimum 

of lead time can be obtained by making use of the latest hardware 

developments. This concept will make possible the attainment of 

mission and permits reasonable compromises to be made in the face 

of diffi culties rather than excessive delays that otherwise might be 

required to meet the full objectives.

This project will provide a versatile spacecraft/booster combination 

which will be capable of performing a variety of missions. It will be 

a fi tting vehicle for conducting further experiments rather than be 

the object of experiments. For instance, the rendezvous techniques 

developed for the spacecraft might allow its use as a vehicle for 

resupply or inspection of orbiting laboratories or space stations, 

orbital rescue, personnel transfer, and spacecraft repair.

[Parts V-VIII not included]

PART IX-PROJECT RESULTS

The results to be realized from successful accomplishment of the MK II 

program include the following:

1. Operational Techniques Rendezvous and docking techniques will 

become operational, making possible the assembly of vehicles in 

orbit for extended exploration of space. Techniques for reduction of 

landing dispersion, through the use of reentry lift and the paraglider 

landing concept, will be developed and optimized. The relative 

roles of onboard and ground-based intelligence and optimum manmachine relationships will be established.
260 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. Long Duration Flight Performance Man’s reactions and ability 

to perform during long duration space fl ight will be determined. 

Hardware for sustaining man’s physical well-being during such 

extended missions will be developed.

3. Training A group of pilots will be trained in the techniques required for 

rendezvous, reentry and controlled land landings. Ground operational 

forces will acquire experience in the launch, tracking and recovery 

procedures necessary for long duration and rendezvous missions.

[8] [Interior Arrangement Component Diagram]
Exploring the Unknown 261

[9] [Estimated Weight Statement (In Orbit) Two Man MK II Spacecraft Levels]

[10] [Events Required to Complete A Rendezvous Mission Diagram with Docking]
262 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

[11] [Paraglider Landing System Diagram]

[12] [MK I I Launch Program Schematic Diagram]
Exploring the Unknown 263

[13] [Reentry Maneuvering Envelope Diagram]

[14] [MK I I Mercury Spacecraft Two Man Rendezvous Development Diagram and Cost Schedule Orbital Development statistics]
264 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-50

Document Title: Al Nagy, NASA, to George Low, NASA, 11 December 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-51

Document Title: D. Brainerd Holmes, Director of Manned Space Flight Programs, 

NASA, Memorandum for Associate Administrator, NASA, “Naming Mercury-Mark 

II Project,” 16 December 1961.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

In December 1961 NASA offi cials began considering what to call the new program planned 

to follow Mercury. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., NASA’s Associate Administrator, wanted to run 

a competition to name the proposed Mercury Mark II, and offered a token reward of a bottle 

of good Scotch whiskey to the person suggesting the name fi nally accepted. In addition to 

others who recommended the name, Alex P. Nagy, an engineer in NASA’s Offi ce of Manned 

Space Flight, proposed “Gemini,” a reference to classical mythology and quite appropriate for 

the two-astronaut spacecraft. NASA Headquarters offi cials selected Gemini from a host of 
Exploring the Unknown 265

other names submitted, including “Diana,” “Valiant,” and “Orpheus,” from the Offi ce of 

Manned Spacefl ight. On 3 January 1962, NASA announced the Mercury Mark II project 

had been renamed “Gemini.”

Document I-50

AP:lgs

December 11, 1961

George:

For the orbital fl ight development effort, I propose the name “PROJECT 

GEMINI.”

This name, “the Twins” seems to carry out the thought nicely, of a two-man 

crew, a rendezvous mission, and its relation to Mercury. Even the astronomical 

symbol (II) fi ts the former Mark II designation.

[Signed: Al]

Al Nagy

Document I-51

In reply refer to:

MS

December 16, 1961

The Offi ce of Manned Space Flight recommends the following names for 

the project currently referred to as Mercury-Mark II:

Diana [handwritten: Huntress]

Valiant

Gemini 

Orpheus

These are not listed in any order of preference

[handwritten: George M. Low

 for] D. Brainerd Holmes

 Director of

 Manned Space Flight Programs
266 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-52

Document Title: Flight Crew Operations Division, NASA, “Gemini Familiarization 

Package,” 3 August 1962.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

The Project Gemini Familiarization Manual was a document published by the McDonnell 

Aircraft Company as a training aid for Gemini astronauts. The fi rst section dealt with 

a mission description, while a second section related to Major Structural Assemblies. The 

remaining sections described the Cabin Interior Arrangement, the Sequence System, the 

Electrical Power System, the Environmental Control System, the Cooling System, the Guidance 

and Control System, the Communication System, and the Instrumentation System. This 

“Gemini Familiarization Package” served as a brief summary of the more extensive manual. 

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

GEMINI FAMILIARIZATION PACKAGE

Prepared by the Flight Crew Operations Division

Crew Engineering

August 3, 1962

(This material contains information affecting the National Defense of the 

United States, within the meaning of the Espionage Laws, Title 18 US. C., Sections 798 and 794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to an 

unauthorized person is prohibited by law)

[1]

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this familiarization package is to provide documentation 

describing the operation, system designs, and crew station arrangement 

of the two man Gemini spacecraft. These notes are complementary to the 

contractor furnished pilot’s manual which deals primarily with the details 

of each display and control inside the spacecraft cockpit.

To best appreciate the signifi cance of displays, controls, and manual operational procedures, one should have a thorough knowledge of the mission profi le and system functions which are described in detail in the 

body of this document. First, however, the Gemini program objectives will 

be listed for reference and a summary description given of the guidelines 

used to divide crew tasks.

1.1 Program Objectives

(a) Accomplish 14 day earth orbital fl ights.

(b) Demonstrate rendezvous and docking in earth orbit.
Exploring the Unknown 267

(c) Provide for controlled land landing as primary recovery 

mode.

(d) Develop simplifi ed countdown techniques to aid rendezvous 

missions (lessens criticality of launch window).

(e) Determine man’s capabilities in space during extended 

missions.

1.1 Crew Tasks

The crew is used as a required integral part of Gemini. The Manned 

Spacecraft Center philosophy calling for increased crew usage and 

onboard command and control wherever logical is implemented in 

this program.

The Pilot-Commander has primary control of spacecraft operation 

during all phases of fl ight.

The Co-Pilot/Systems Engineer provides control backup to the pilot 

and manages operation of spacecraft and Agena systems. 

[2]

1.2 Comparison of Mercury and Gemini

While there is similarity between Mercury and Gemini, there are 

several signifi cant differences in operations and systems design. In 

summary, the major differences are as follows:

b. Manual Abort

All aborts will be initiated onboard by the pilot-commander 

who has launch vehicle system displays on the left hand console, and at least one backup indication of each malfunction 

situation; (visual, physical, audio, or redundant display).

c. Maneuvering Capability

Translation capability is provided in Gemini before docking 

by the OAMS (Orbit Attitude and Maneuver System) and 

after docking by Agena. Both these systems use similar 

hypogolic propellants.

d. Cryogenics

Super-critically stored hydrogen and oxygen are used in the 

environmental control system and for the fuel cells.
268 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

e. Range Control

Modest lift capability is provided during reentry by offsetting 

the spacecraft center of gravity.

Lift is controlled by rolling the spacecraft about the reentry 

vector. Greater reentry range and an increased heat load 

result from this feature which allows point return.

f. Paraglider

An infl atable paraglider and conventional landing gear 

provide for subsonic fl ight control and horizontal landing.

[3]

g. Extra-vehicular Operations

The Gemini hatch is designed to permit the crew to leave 

the spacecraft while in orbit. Specifi c experiments and extravehicular suit provisions have not been defi ned. 

Document I-53

Document Title: Charles W. Mathews, Manager, Gemini Program, “Program Plan 

for Gemini Extravehicular Operation,” 31 January 1964.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

As the Mark II spacecraft was being designed and redesigned, one of the changes involved 

the addition of a large mechanical hatch that, in addition to facilitating entry and exit 

to the spacecraft and allowing the use of ejection seats, would also permit an astronaut to 

leave the spacecraft in orbit. But the idea was only discussed sporadically for the next few 

years, since it was not necessary for the Apollo program and it was planned that any extravehicular activity (EVA) experiments would be done late in the program. In January 1964, 

this preliminary plan for EVA operations was developed, but it was not enthusiastically 

received within NASA. At a press conference in July 1964, Gemini Deputy Manager 

Kenneth Kleinknecht had suggested that a limited EVA was possible during Gemini IV, but 

this remark had gone unnoticed. James McDivitt and Edward White, the primary crew for 

Gemini IV (called GT-4 in this document), and their backups Frank Borman and James 

Lovell, Jr., lobbied hard for the inclusion of the EVA mission in the Gemini IV fl ight and 

ultimately swayed opinions at NASA. An EVA on the Gemini IV mission was approved 

on 25 May 1965. The fact that the Soviet Union had carried out the fi rst-ever EVA on 18 

March 1965 was clearly a factor in that approval, but the intent to do EVAs during Project 

Gemini had been part of the program plan from the start.
Exploring the Unknown 269

PROGRAM PLAN

FOR

GEMINI EXTRAVEHICULAR OPERATION

January 31, 1964

Approved: ________[signed]_______

Charles W. Mathews 

Manager, Gemini Program

[2]

I. PURPOSE

This program plan has been prepared by the Gemini Program Offi ce to document 

the Objectives of Gemini extravehicular operation and to outline the program 

for achieving these objectives. It is intended for use as the basis for overall 

program control and coordination to ensure proper implementation of program 

requirements. The plan will be kept current by the Gemini Program Offi ce and 

revisions will be issued as additional information is developed.

II. OBJECTIVES OF GEMINI EXTRAVEHICULAR OPERATION

A. General. The general objectives to the accomplished are as follows:

1. Evaluate man’s capability to perform useful tasks in a space 

environment.

2. Employ extravehicular operation to augment the basic capability 

of the Gemini spacecraft.

3. Provide the capability to evaluate advanced extravehicular 

equipment in support of manned spacefl ight and other national 

space programs.

B. Phase One. The objectives to be accomplished on the initial 

extravehicular missions are:

1. Demonstrate feasibility of extravehicular operation.

2. Establish confi dence in Gemini systems for extravehicular 

operation.

[2]

3. Conduct preliminary evaluation of man’s ability to perform in 

free space.

C. Phase Two. After completion of Phase One, the following objectives 

are to be accomplished:

1. Conduct detailed evaluation of man’s ability to perform in free 

space.
270 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. Retrieve experimental data packages and equipment from the 

adapter section and from the Agena.

3. Conduct preliminary evaluation of advanced extravehicular 

equipment, including long term life support systems and 

maneuvering devices.

D. Phase Three. After completion of Phase Two, the following objectives 

are to be accomplished:

1. Evaluate equipment and man’s capabilities to operate 

independent of the spacecraft.

2. Perform such advanced extravehicular experiments as are 

approved in the future.

III. IMPLEMENTATION

A. Mission Planning.

1. Mission planning is to be based on a step-by-step progression 

from the simplest to the more ambitious extravehicular tasks. 

For planning purposes the following mission scheduling shall 

be used:

a. Phase One: GT-4 through GT-6

b. Phase Two: GT-7 through GT-9

c. Phase Three: GT-10 and up

[4]

2. Detailed fl ight activities planning is being done by the Flight 

Crew Support Division. Activities for a given mission will be 

determined on the basis of overall mission requirements and 

capabilities.

B. Task Assignments.

1. Crew Systems Division 

a. Equipment development and procurement

b. Establishment of ground test program

2. Flight Crew Support Division

a. Flight activities planning

b. Astronaut training

3. Center Medical Operations Offi ce 

Monitor progress of program to insure fulfi llment of medical 

requirements.

4. Flight Operations Directorate

 Monitor progress of program to insure fulfi llment of fl ight 

operations requirements.
Exploring the Unknown 271

5. Gemini Program Offi ce

 Overall program direction

IV. EXTRAVEHICULAR EQUIPMENT

A. Portable Life Support System (PLSS).

1. Phase One. The Crew Systems Division (CSD) is developing a PLSS 

based on the Mercury 7500 psi oxygen bottle. This PLSS is being 

designed to provide open loop oxygen fl ow at 5 cfm for a total of 

45 minutes. After allowing suitable [5] reserves and time for egress 

and ingress, this system will be limited to a maximum of 10 minutes 

outside the spacecraft.

2. Phase Two. In order to accomplish the Phase Two objectives, a PLSS 

which will provide 30 minutes useful time outside the spacecraft is 

required. Further study is needed to determine the type of system 

which will met this requirement. Development of the Phase Two 

PLSS is to be carried out by CSD.

2[sic] Phase Three. It is anticipated that the Phase Two PLSS will be used for 

egress and ingress during Phase Three operations. More advanced 

equipment to be used for longer duration periods outside would be 

stowed in the equipment adapter. This advanced equipment will be 

defi ned at a later date.

B. Pressure Suit.

1. A modifi ed version of the Gemini Pressure suit will be used for 

extravehicular operation. The single wall pressure vessel concept 

will be retained. The following modifi cations will be incorporated:

a. An overvisor for glare, ultraviolet, and thermal protection.

b. Gloves modifi ed to incorporate thermal protection.

c. Redundant pressure sealing closure.

2. Development of the Gemini extravehicular suit is to be carried out 

by CSD.

[5]

C. Thermal Protection.

1. Phase One. The only thermal protection required for Phase 

One operations consists of local protection against the extreme 

temperatures of the spacecraft exterior. The gloves, boots, and 

knees are the primary areas affected.

2. Phase Two and Three. Present studies indicate that a thermal 

overgarment will be required for extravehicular missions of 30 

minutes or more outside the spacecraft. Development of the 

thermal garment is to be carried out by CSD.

D. Meteoroid Protection.

1. Meteoroid protection will be required to provide a probability of 

.999 of no puncture of the pressure suit. On the basis of the present 
272 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

MSC standard meteoroid environment, the following weight of soft 

goods padding will be required in a protective garment:

a. Phase One (10 minutes) - 2 lb.

b. Phase Two (30 minutes) – 3.5 lb.

c. Phase Three (1 hour) – 4.75 lb.

2. Development of a meteoroid protective garment is to be carried out 

by CSD.

E. Tether.

1. A tether incorporating a safety line and communications leads is 

being developed by CSD. Initial planning has been based on no 

biomedical instrumentation during the extravehicular operation. 

More recently CSD and Medical Operations have [6] specifi ed 

minimum desired parameters to be monitored. Provisions for 

monitoring these parameters will be incorporated in the tether, if 

possible. The length of the tether is to be suffi cient to allow ingress 

to the equipment adapter section.

F. Maneuvering Unit.

1. The Air Force has proposed an extravehicular unit (MMU) for use 

on later Gemini missions under Gemini/DOD Experiment 14C. If 

this experiment is approved, it is anticipated that the MMU would 

be used in the latter part of Phase Two and in Phase Three. The 

MMU would contain propulsion, control, communications, and life 

support systems. It would be furnished by the Air Force under an 

independent contract.

V. SPACECRAFT MODIFICATIONS

A. Spacecraft modifi cations will be incorporated to enable the 

astronaut to move about the exterior of the spacecraft and into the 

equipment adapter. These modifi cations are as follows:

1. Exterior handholds spaced approximately two feet apart from the 

cockpit to the adapter section interior. The handle confi guration 

will be based on confi guration studies by CSD as well as aerodynamic 

considerations. 

2. Protective cover for the rough edge at the aft end of the adapter 

section. The astronaut must be able to proceed past this rough edge 

without the hazard of damage to the pressure suit or the tether.

Document I-54

Document Title: Edward Z. Gray, Director, Advanced Manned Missions Program, 

Offi ce of Manned Space Flight, NASA, to Director, Gemini Program, NASA, 

“Gemini Lunar Mission Studies,” 30 April 1964.
Exploring the Unknown 273

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-55

Document Title: Eldon W. Hall, Director, Gemini Systems Engineering, NASA, 

to Deputy Director, Gemini Program, NASA, “Circumlunar Missions,” 29 

June 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-56

Document Title: James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, to Olin E. Teague, 

Chairman, Subcommittee on NASA Oversight, Committee on Science and 

Astronautics, House of Representatives, 10 September 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

In the spring of 1964 it appeared to many senior offi cials at NASA that the Apollo program 

was stalling and might not be able to make its deadline of a lunar landing by the end of 

the decade. The last Mercury fl ight had taken place in May 1963, and Gemini was not 

scheduled to fl y for several months. The Saturn rocket project was having diffi culties, and 

the Apollo spacecraft development effort was lagging behind schedule. Accordingly, Wernher 

von Braun suggested to a reporter for Missiles and Rockets that in a contingency he 

thought Gemini might be reconfi gurable for a fl ight around the Moon. This story, appearing 

on 18 May 1964, quoted von Braun as saying that Gemini could undertake a circumlunar 

fl ight “to salvage this country’s prestige if the manned lunar goal proves impossible.” Von 

Braun had voiced something that had been bubbling within NASA for some time, and 

thereafter pressure mounted to formalize and make public efforts to evaluate the possibility 

of a Gemini circumlunar fl ight. Throughout the summer of 1964, as these documents 

show, NASA undertook internal studies. They were only internal, for on 8 June, NASA 

Deputy Associate Administrator Robert C. Seamans told NASA Associate Administrator for 

Manned Spacefl ight George Mueller that “any circumlunar mission studies relating to the 

use of Gemini will be confi ned to in-house study efforts.” In reality, NASA leaders had bet 

the future of their Agency on the success of Apollo. They intended to make Apollo succeed 

and any serious effort to reconfi gure Gemini as a “quick and dirty” lunar program would 

detract from that objective. The studies were at best halfhearted. In his 10 September 1965 

memorandum to Representative Olin Teague (D-Texas), NASA Administrator James E. 

Webb said it well,: “Our main objective now is to see that our basic current responsibilities 

are met effectively . . . the Apollo system now being developed can meet our requirements for 

knowledge and capability better than the adoption of other courses of action.”
274 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-54

MT-1:JRS:saj

April 30, 1964

MG/Director, Gemini Program

MT/Director, Advanced Manned Missions Program

Gemini Lunar Mission Studies

As you are aware, we have been asked by Dr. Mueller to study the feasibility of 

using Gemini in a lunar mission and to develop suitable contingency plans to be 

available by mid-1966, should such a mission be feasible and should it be required. 

Mr. Taylor’s offi ce (MT-1), with the assistance of John Hammersmith from your 

offi ce, has completed a preliminary review of the feasibility of using Gemini in a 

lunar mission, based on the work that has been done by your offi ce, MSFC, MSC, 

and McDonnell Aircraft Corporation. This review has concluded that, although 

all of the studies are relatively shallow, there are several combinations of hardware 

which could be used to provide a Gemini lunar mission capability. Enclosure 1 

[not included] contains the review results.

I believe that a study should be initiated to more thoroughly investigate the Gemini 

circumlunar mode, utilizing the Saturn IB with a Centaur as the injection stage, 

in either a direct ascent or an earth orbit rendezvous trajectory. These modes are 

summarized in Columns 1 and 3 of the Enclosure.

In addition, I think we should study the Gemini Lunar Orbit mode, as represented 

in Column 7 of the Enclosure. The purpose of such a study would be to more 

accurately determine the capability of each confi guration, the key technical 

problems, relative costs, development schedules and key decisions points to provide 

a basis for possible contingency- type decisions in the 1965-66 time period.

As indicated during our telephone conversation on April 22, I believe these 

studies should be conducted by McDonnell Aircraft Corporation through existing 

contracts. These studies should be monitored by MSC, either under your or my 

jurisdiction. If required, I can make funds available for this study, which I believe 

will require approximately fi ve (5) man-years of effort. We will be available to 

work with you in this study to whatever extent you desire.

Edward Z. Gray

Director, Advanced Manned 

Missions Program,

Offi ce of Manned Space Flight
Exploring the Unknown 275

Document I-55

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MEMORANDUM

DATE: June 29, 1965

TO: MG/Deputy Director, Gemini Program

FROM: MGS/Director, Gemini Systems Engineering

SUBEJCT: Circumlunar Missions

1. On Thursday, June 24, I attended a meeting at MSC in which 

representatives of Martin-Denver and MAC (including Messrs. 

McDonnell, Burke, and Yardley) presented a proposal for a 

circumlunar fl ight using the Gemini spacecraft and the Titan IIIC 

booster. In attendance at the meeting was Dr. Gilruth, Messrs. Low, 

Mathews, Kleinknecht, Evans, and Guild of MSC and myself.

2. In this proposal the Gemini spacecraft modifi ed for circumlunar 

fl ight is launched into earth orbit with a GLV. The Titan IIIC launches 

a stripped down transtage that provides the propulsion for injection 

to circumlunar velocities after rendezvous with the spacecraft. 

The general arrangement and fl ight hardware are summarized in 

enclosure (1) (Figure 2.1-1 of Attachment C). [not included]

3. The principal changes to the Titan IIIC involve using a double 

transtage. The fi rst provides propulsion during launch into earth 

orbit and contains the attitude control and an equipment module for 

use during rendezvous with the spacecraft. A Gemini Target Docking 

Adapter is mounted on top of the second transtage.

4. A signifi cant number of changes are proposed for the spacecraft. 

Weight saving items are summarized in enclosure (2) and enclosure 

(3) (page 1-8 and Table 1.2-1 of Attachment C). The most signifi cant 

changes to the spacecraft are summarized as follows:

a. Addition of a Unifi ed S-Band System.

b. Additional OAMS tankage and TCA’s substituted for the 

retrograde rockets.

c. Additional heat protection using coated columbium and 

ablation shingles.

d. Shortening of the R&R section by 20 inches.

e. Use of three fuel cell sections.

f. “Blow-down” RCS and independent pressurization of fuel 

and oxidizer.
276 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

[2]

5. Three fl ights are recommended:

a. Heat Protection Qualifi cation (Titan IIC – one transtage on 

ballistic trajectory);

b. Spacecraft Qualifi cation (manned, GLV in earth orbit);

c. Manned Circumlunar Orbit.

6. The Martin schedule, enclosure (4) (last page of Attachment A) [not 

included], indicates completion by April 1967. The MAC schedule 

(not available) is even earlier using two refurbished spacecraft and a 

go-ahead by July 1.

7. No money estimates were presented by Martin or MAC; however, 

some preliminary estimates by GPO indicated $350M.

8. I think the proposal is feasible, but not within the time and effort 

indicated. The equipment and mission are too marginal to absorb 

changes and additions that will be required without extensive 

redesign and testing.

9. I personally would prefer to see us advance our earth orbital capability. 

With the same or fewer modifi cations to the spacecraft advocated 

in this proposal and additional Agena payloads, we could attain a 

signifi cant lead in the design and operation of earth-orbital space 

stations. Gemini is ideally suited to the preliminary determination 

of problems and to the initial development of techniques and 

procedures leading to advanced manned earth-orbital missions. The 

time and money spent in additions or extensions of this type to an 

earth-orbital Gemini would be more than repaid in time and money 

saved in later, more expensive, and complicated programs.

[Signed]

Eldon W. Hall

Enclosures: 4 as stated [Not included]

Attachments:

A) “Confi guration, Weight Summary, Performance, Transtage #2 

Performance, EOR Operations, Mission Profi le, and Related 

Schedules,” by Martin-Denver (Unclassifi ed)

B) “Rendezvous Concept for Circumlunar Flyby in 1967,” by MartinDenver, P-65-91, June 1965 (Proprietary)

C) “Gemini Large Earth Orbit (U),” by McDonnell, B743, Vol. I 

– Technical, June 19, 1965 (Confi dential)
Exploring the Unknown 277

Document I-56

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON DC 20546

September 10, 1965

OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR

Honorable Olin E. Teague

Chairman, Subcommittee on NASA Oversight

Committee on Science and Astronautics

House of Representatives

Washington, DC 20515

Dear Mr. Chairman:

With reference to your request for my views on the possibility of a circumlunar 

fl ight, using a Gemini system, prior to the Apollo lunar landing, you will note 

that the enclosed statement, which was submitted to the Senate Committee on 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences on August 23, indicates that in the process of 

accomplishing the lunar exploration mission with Apollo, our program will give 

us experienced crews, operating know-how, and the ground and space equipment 

to undertake quite a number of other scientifi c and technological developments. 

The point is also made that our on-going and approved missions will require, 

for the next several years, the peak performance of the scientifi c, engineering, 

industrial and facilities complex that we have been expanding since 1961.

As indicated to the Senate Committee, we are not ready to recommend major 

new projects on the order of Gemini or Apollo. Our main objective now is to 

see that our basic current responsibilities are met effectively. I also feel that the 

Apollo system now being developed can meet our requirements for knowledge 

and capability better than the adoption of other courses of action.

The insertion in our program of a circumlunar fl ight, using the Gemini system, 

would require major resources. We are now proceeding with many complex, 

developmental tests, and operational efforts with too thin a margin or resources. 

Therefore, if additional funds were available, I believe it would be in the national 

interest to use these in the Apollo program. 

As you will remember, I testifi ed in 1961 that the USSR would most likely have the 

capability and therefore accomplish ahead of us each major milestone in space up 

to the lunar landing and exploration with manned vehicles. We have clearly stated 

over the past few years that they will do a lunar fl y-by with men before we can 

accomplish this with the Apollo system. However, there is certainly no assurance 

that we could do this in advance of them with a modifi ed Gemini system. Further, 

our main reliance for operating [2] at lunar distances and developing a thoroughgoing capability that can achieve preeminence in space, and hold it, is the large 

Saturn V/Apollo system. The fact that this has been under contract for several 
278 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

years; that full duration test runs have been made on each stage of the Saturn V 

booster; that we now have an eight-day Gemini fl ight behind us and will shortly 

have information from a 14-day fl ight; and the fact that the Apollo ground test 

equipment has largely been fabricated and the fl ight line equipment will shortly 

be constructed and delivered means that we have a growing competence that we 

and the world can see is considerably beyond anything the Russians have shown 

us, including Proton One. Therefore, I do not believe a decision not to make the 

substantial investment that would be required by a modifi ed Gemini lunar fl y-by 

will change the posture which our program has had for a number of years. 

Sincerely yours,

[Signed]

James E. Webb

Administrator

Document I-57

Document Title: William C. Schneider, Deputy Director, Gemini Program, NASA, 

for Deputy Director, Apollo Program, “Gemini Support of Apollo,” 25 June 1964 

(signed for Schneider by LeRoy Day).

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-58

Document Title: Eldon Hall, Director, Gemini Systems Engineering, NASA, 

Memorandum for Deputy Director, Gemini Program, NASA, “List of Missions,” 

17 July 1964 (signed for Hall by John Hammersmith).

Source: NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington D.C.

From the very beginning of the Gemini program, it had four major objectives that would 

support the Apollo effort to reach the Moon by the end of the decade. These included: 

(1) long duration spacefl ight of up to two weeks in duration to demonstrate the human 

capability to survive such an extended stay in space; (2) rendezvous and docking with 

another orbiting vehicle; (3) engaging in extra-vehicular activity (EVA) or spacewalks; and 

(4) developing methods for entering the atmosphere and landing at pre-selected points on 

land. All of these were skills viewed as necessary for later Apollo missions, and all except the 

last were accomplished. These two memoranda outline the evolution of efforts on the Gemini 

missions aimed at satisfying these requirements. The fi rst, signed for Gemini Deputy Director 

William Schneider by LeRoy E. Day, longtime engineer at NASA, shows a steady progress of 

achievements in support of the Apollo program, each more complex than the last. The second, 

signed for Gemini Director of Systems Engineering by Eldon W. Hall, another longtime 

NASA engineer, offers a shopping list of Gemini “desires” that never came to fruition, such 
Exploring the Unknown 279

as propellant transfer in orbit and on-orbit assembly and repair. These initiatives were to 

be part of additional Gemini missions that were never approved. Both memos refl ect what 

S[ch]neider and Hall were thinking about a year in advance of the fi rst Gemini mission and 

about the many possibilities for the program.

Document I-57

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

June 25, 1964

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MEMORANDUM

TO: MA/Deputy Director, Apollo Program

FROM: MG/Deputy Director, Gemini Program

SUBJECT: GEMINI SUPPORT OF APOLLO

As you know, one of the primary missions of Gemini is to provide support 

to Apollo, by developing orbital rendezvous techniques and obtaining data on 

the effects of long duration weightless fl ight. We have developed a set of missions 

which support these objectives. The missions and schedules are outlined below.

Enclosure 1 [not included] shows the launch schedule of Gemini and 

its relationship to Apollo launch schedules. Enclosure 2 [not included], Gemini 

Flight Mission Assignments, contains a summary of the Gemini missions.

Flights 4, 5, and 7 will provide experience in long duration orbital fl ight. 

A typical mission profi le for these long duration fl ights is shown in Enclosure 

3 [not included]. Many measurements and experiments will be performed to 

assess the effects of orbital weightless fl ight on man and machine for periods up 

to 14 days – more than adequate for the Apollo lunar expedition. Among the 

medical experiments, for example; M-1, Cardiovascular Refl ex, will determine 

the feasibility of using infl atable cuffs to prevent cardiovascular deterioration – 

evidence of which was noted in Project Mercury fl ights MA-8 and MA-9. Among the 

engineering experiments, MSC-1, Electrostatic Charge will determine the buildup 

of electrostatic charge on spacecraft due to the fi ring of the rocket engines –a 

potential hazard due to the possibility of electrical discharge between rendezvous 

vehicles. These experiments and other are described in the Manned Space Flight 

document, Description of Gemini Experiments, Flights GT-3 through GT-7, April 

13, 1964. In addition to these experiments, we also plan to conduct extravehicular 

activity to evaluate man’s performance outside the spacecraft.

With Flight No. 6, we will establish the feasibility of rendezvous and 

provide experience for the visual manual docking mode, which is common to 

both Gemini and Apollo. This fl ight is outlined in Enclosure 4. The fl ight plan 

shown is one of the several proposed to date for this fl ight; however, the docking 

procedures shown in the addendum to the enclosure are typical.
280 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

[2]

Whereas radar computer guidance will be the primary onboard mode 

for the terminal rendezvous phase of Flight No. 6; the radar optical and optical 

guidance modes will be primary for Flights 8 and 9 respectively. The Gemini radar 

optical and optical guidance modes are very similar to the LEM Manual Alternate 

guidance modes outlined in Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation Report 

No. LED-540-3, Back-up Guidance Requirements, July 9, 1963. The basic feature 

of the terminal homing phase in these rendezvous maneuvers is that the LEM and 

Gemini essentially fl y a collision course to their respective rendezvous target. This 

characteristic is achieved by keeping the inertial rate of the Line of Sight (LOS) to 

the target below a given threshold value. Following the LOS rate reduction, range 

rate with respect to the target is measured and thrust applied along the LOS 

direction until range rate is reduced to a pre-determined value appropriate to the 

range at which thrust was initiated. This procedure is repeated several times from 

the initial range of 20 NM down to the docking phase. A mission profi le for Flight 

No. 8, employing radar optical guidance, is shown in Enclosure 5[not included]. 

The mission profi le for Flight No. 9 will be basically the same; however, the optical 

sight will be used in place of the radar. 

When viewed against the malfunctions encountered with the Automatic 

Stabilization Control System in Project Mercury, it is diffi cult to over-emphasize 

the vital importance of simulating and testing the manual alternate modes 

provided to accomplish critical maneuvers such as rendezvous. The success of 

Project Mercury was due in large part to its manual modes. Since the Gemini 

manual modes require the greatest degree of astronaut participation, they will 

also provide the greatest degree of astronaut training.

In NASA Project Apollo Working Paper No. 1083, Study of Earth Orbit 

Simulation of Lunar Orbit Rendezvous, July 24, 1963, it is concluded that it would 

be desirable to perform an earth orbit simulation of lunar orbit rendezvous since 

this will provide a realistic assessment of the guidance techniques and demonstrate 

the ability to perform the critical lunar orbit rendezvous maneuver. Enclosures 6 and 

7[not included], taken from Working Paper No. 1083, show the close comparisons 

of earth orbit and lunar orbit rendezvous trajectories and closing times.

By Flights 10 and 11, or earlier, we plan to fl ight test the feasibility of the 

LEM lunar orbit direct rendezvous mode in earth orbit if possible. In this mode, 

the catch up or parking orbits are essentially by-passed and terminal rendezvous is 

initiated near fi rst apogee as shown in Enclosure 8. In order to insure its successful 

completion, the astronauts should be ready to take over manual control of the 

spacecraft at any time should the automatic system falter. This will require a high 

degree of training and profi ciency on the part of the astronauts. While it is true 

that Gemini does not employ the same guidance hardware as Apollo; Gemini may 

be in a unique position, based on present plans, to fl ight test direct rendezvous 

in earth orbit. In addition, in terms of schedules, Gemini is in a relatively good 

position to infl uence Apollo [3] rendezvous techniques with fl ight test results. 

Gemini’s fi rst rendezvous fl ight takes place approximately two years prior to 

the fi rst manned Apollo fl ight and its fi rst direct rendezvous fl ight takes place 

approximately two years prior to the fi rst lunar rendezvous fl ight.
Exploring the Unknown 281

For Flight No. 12, we plan to simulate LEM abort maneuvers; either 

abort from an equiperiod transfer orbit as shown in Enclosure 7 or abort from a 

Hohmann transfer orbit as shown in Enclosure 9[not included].

In conclusion, we believe that Gemini missions as presently planned will 

make a very signifi cant contribution to Project Apollo. However, in order to insure 

the most effective Gemini Program, we would appreciate your comments on our 

mission plans as outlines herein especially with regard to the Apollo support areas 

of Flights 8 through 12.

L.E Day

[handwritten: for] William Schneider

Deputy Director, Gemini Program

Enclosure: 9 as stated [not included]

Copy to:

MSC-DD/Low

MSC-GPO/Mathews

M/Mueller

MGO/Edwards

MGS/Hall

MGS/HUFF

MGT/DAY

Document I-58

[FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY]

July 17, 1964

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MEMORANDUM

TO: MG/Deputy Director, Gemini Program

FROM: MGS/Director, Gemini Systems Engineering

SUBJECT: List of missions

The following is a quick list of missions (or important experiments), which 

would be accomplished with a follow-on Gemini program. Certain items may 

require up-rated GLV launch capability or up-rating of spacecraft performance.

Also enclosed is an equally quick vehicle layout of some of these 

suggestions. Improved quality will follow.

1. Land landing demonstration.
282 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

2. Propellant transfer.

3. Extended duration research (medical, physical, environmental).

4. Apollo rendezvous simulations.

5. Apollo DSIF check out.

6. Rendezvous with empty Apollo Command Module.

7. Rendezvous with LEM.

8. Apollo chaser.

9. Minimum space station.

10. Extended duration at low g’s (G-can).

11. MOL-rendezvous – joint Air Force mission.

12. Space assembly and repair.

13. Satellite rendezvous – OAO – photographic adaptor.

14. Satellite recovery (like OSO).

15. Satellite chaser (no velocity match).

16. Space escape, personnel reentry (dummy tests).

17. Spacecraft assembly and checkout for orbital launch of unmanned 

mission.

18. Gemini deep space guidance and navigation.

19. Gemini circumlunar.

20. Gemini lunar orbit.

21. 3-seat rescue craft.

22. Control of upper stage reentry to reduce hazards.

23. 1-man Gemini and telescope.

[Signed: John L. Hammersmith]

[for] Eldon W. Hall
Exploring the Unknown 283

Document I-59

Document Title: E. C. Welsh, National Aeronautics and Space Council, 

Executive Offi ce of the President, Memorandum for the President, “Space 

Rescue,” 21 May 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-60

Document Title: Bill Moyers, Special Assistant to the President, The White House, 

Memorandum for James Webb, Administrator, NASA, and Robert McNamara, 

Secretary of Defense, 29 May 1965, with attached: Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Special 

Assistant to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for Mr. 

Valenti/Mr. Busby, Special Assistants to the President, 29 May 1965, with attached: 

Cyrus Vance, Offi ce of the Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for Mr. Bill Moyers, 

The White House, “Comments on Need for Space Rescue,” 29 May 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-61

Document Title: James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Memorandum to the 

President, “Space Rescue,” 2 June 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

The safety of the astronauts in orbit has long been a critical concern. In 1941, science fi ction 

author Harry Walton wrote about a rescue vehicle—calling it a “lifeship”—in his novel Moon 

of Exile. In 1946, science fi ction scion Arthur C. Clarke published a version of a space rescue 

mission in his fi rst short story, titled “Rescue Party,” in which aliens on a survey of the solar 

system try to evacuate humanity from Earth in the face of the Sun exploding. Such dramatic 

space rescue stories sparked serious concern among advocates as the Space Age dawned. In the 

1950s Wernher Von Braun advocated the building of a space station in Earth orbit, and with it 

individual protective return capsules for its crew. In his scenario a parachute with steel-wire mesh 

reinforcements and solid rocket booster brings the crewmember to Earth, and a radar beacon would 

signal the landing location. But when NASA began its human spacefl ight programs in earnest in 

1958, none of them had the capacity for a rescue of a stranded astronaut in Earth orbit. Concern 

that this was the case led to the following exchange of correspondence on the subject. In the end, 

NASA decided to build as much reliability as possible into the system and accept the risk, which 

its offi cials believed was minimal. The fi rst true space rescue capability developed by NASA for its 
284 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

astronauts was for the Skylab program, 1973 to 1974. If a crew had to return to Earth from the 

orbital workshop, an Apollo capsule was available to return the crew.

Document I-59

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE COUNCIL

WASHINGTON

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY

MAY 21, 1965

MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT

Subject: Space Rescue.

The space rescue issue involves the development of a capability to send up a 

spacecraft to save the life or lives of astronauts whose equipment has failed while 

in space.

I have discussed the question of developing such a capability with Jim Webb and 

he feels that it is too early to attempt to develop a practicable competence for 

such a purpose. In any event, it is something which should be studied, and the 

President should know that it is being studied and should be prepared to respond 

as to why we do not have such a capability should a tragedy in space occur.

An unsolicited space rescue proposal has been prepared by the Martin Company. 

Mr. Earl Cocke, former National Commander of the American Legion and now a 

consultant to the Martin Company, is representing that Company in attempting 

to sell their space rescue proposal. He has indicated that he plans to outline his 

proposal to the President and has left a brief summary and a detailed presentation 

with the President’s offi ce. Such documents have, in turn, been transmitted to me.

In brief, the Martin Company proposes a National Orbital Rescue Service to 

begin promptly and in a multi-phased manner. This would call for the building of 

a space rescue capability over the next ten years at an estimated cost of about $50 

million per year. That fi gure would include a provisional system which could be 

gotten ready in a relatively short period and also a permanent system.

I hold no particular brief for the Martin proposal but, in view of Mr. 

Cocke’s assertions, I thought it advisable that the President know about it. If a 

study is desired, it would be appreciated to be so advised.

[Signed]

E.C.Welsh
Exploring the Unknown 285

Document I-60

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

May 25, 1965

TO: Honorable Robert McNamara

Secretary of Defense

Honorable James Webb

Administrator, NASA

FROM: Bill Moyers [Signed]

The President asked if he could have your recommendations on the 

attached memorandum.

Attachment 

[SECRET] [DECLASSIFIED]

OFFICE OF SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

WASHINGTON DC 20301

May 29, 1965

MEMORANDUM FOR Mr. Valenti/Mr. Busby

Special Assistants to the President

Bill Moyers asked me to get the Secretary’s comments to the President by the end 

of this week so that they would be available to the President before the Gemini 

shot. I am, therefore, sending this out to you by pouch.

[Signed]

Joseph A. Califano, Jr.

The Special Assistant to the 

Secretary and Deputy

Secretary of Defense

Attach. 

[SECRET]

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

WASHINGTON
286 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

May 29, 1965

MEMORANDUM FOR MR. BILL MOYERS, SPECIAL ASSISTANT TO 

THE PRESIDENT, THE WHITE HOUSE

SUBJECT: Comments on Need for Space Rescue

With regard to Dr. Welsh’s memorandum of 21 May 1965, we are familiar 

with several proposals by industry for developing separate space rescue systems. 

Our view of this subject is the following:

1. If we go ahead with MOL, we will provide crew safety features beyond 

those possible in the earlier manned spacefl ight programs. For 

example, the primary mission being performed in the laboratory 

vehicle will always be backed up by the return capsule as a lifeboat. 

In the unlikely event that the laboratory has a major failure, the 

crew can move to the return capsule, separate from the laboratory, 

and then wait up to six hours in orbit before selecting a preferred 

deorbit and landing sequence. In addition, we will employ the 

same practices that have been employed in Gemini and Apollo 

concerning design redundancies, extensive qualifi cation testing of 

parts, and full attention to astronaut abort modes for every phase of 

the fl ight.

2. It would appear that any genuine rescue service separate from the 

basic fl ight hardware would be useful only if it could be sustained 

on hold for quick launch throughout the manned program; could 

be capable of rendezvous and docking under uncertain conditions; 

and could be assured of higher reliability than the orbiting vehicle 

requiring help. These essential techniques are among the most 

important objectives of the Gemini, Apollo, and MOL programs. 

Until they are demonstrated, a separate program for space rescue 

could not proceed with reasonable and genuine objectives.

3. It is possible we may strand an astronaut in orbit some day. It is very 

likely that astronauts will be killed, though stranding them is one 

of the less likely ways. The nation must expect such a loss of life in 

the space program. There have been several deaths already in our 

rocket development. We would be untruthful if we were to present 

any different image to our citizens.

4. As the manned space program evolves to a capability and rate of 

operation which might warrant a separate rescue arrangement, I 

expect the Department of Defense to play a large role in the regular 

operation, and correspondingly to participate in any operations to 

rescue from stranded spacecraft, should a decision be made that 

they are justifi ed. For the time being, we consider space rescue 

similar to commercial aircraft or commercial ocean traffi c rescue. In 

these cases every realistic precaution is taken to reduce probabilities 

of catastrophic failure, and to insure that effective rescue forces are 
Exploring the Unknown 287

available to retrieve passengers should a major failure occur. The 

extensive ship and aircraft rescue forces which we deploy globally 

for each manned fl ight now typifi es this practice.

I would point out that [text redacted in document] rescue can 

take place only to about 400 feet. As a result, a disabling accident 

in the rather small part of the ocean where the bottom is between 

400 [text redacted in document] feet deep would result in a similar 

“stranding.”

I see no advantage for a specifi c study of the space rescue question at 

this time. However, I wish to assure you that the matter of crew safety 

will remain paramount in our manned military space program. In 

view of the higher public attention to manned spacefl ight, I would 

note that we will continue to provide this program signifi cantly more 

crew safety precautions that we have in our similarly dangerous 

aircraft testing programs.

[Signed Cyrus Vance]

Document I-61

June 2, 1965

MEMORANDUM TO THE PRESIDENT

Subject: Space Rescue

With reference to Dr. Welsh’s memorandum of May 21, 1965 on the subject of 

space rescue, our concern for the safety of United States astronauts means that 

we take steps to reduce risks by every conceivable means. We maintain intense 

efforts in the fi elds of reliability, crew training, equipment check-out, design 

redundancy, safety margins, and the use of short systems. We have also given 

careful consideration to the practicability of space rescue within the current or 

immediately predictable state-of-the-art.

It is obvious that we could not have provided a space rescue system in the Mercury 

Project, which was devoted to demonstrating the feasibility of manned space 

fl ight itself.

In the case of Gemini, the equipments and operational techniques essential to 

space rescue are being developed as part of the Gemini Program. A considerable 

number of the Gemini experiments are devoted to rendezvous, docking, manned 

extravehicular activities, tether dynamics, and the use of tools and repair of 

equipment in space – techniques which must be mastered before a practical 

space rescue system can be developed. However, in Gemini, we are building on 

all of the measures for safety that have come from our extensive experience in 

test fl ying and such advanced systems as the X-15 – the measures which have 
288 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

also been instrumental in achieving our perfect record of astronaut safety thus 

far. The redundancy designed into the retro-system for return from orbit is 

optimized for crew safety. The orbital parameters of the next Gemini mission are 

planned so that the orbit will decay to reentry within 24 hours after the planned 

termination of the fl ight, should all other provisions for initiating the de-orbiting 

landing sequence fail.

We are actively continuing our studies of all aspects of space rescue. The Mission 

Analysts Division of our Offi ce of Advanced Research and Technology has evaluated 

the Martin Company’s proposal for the development of a space rescue capability 

over a ten-year [2] period. It is our judgment that the knowledge needed to begin 

the design of such a space rescue system is not yet available, but will come from 

our present developmental and fl ight program.

You may be assured, Mr. President, that we shall continue to give fi rst priority to 

considerations of astronaut safety.

[Signed]

James E. Webb

Administrator

Cc: AD/Dr. Dryden

AA/Dr. Seamans, M/Dr. Mueller, W/Adm. Boone

Document I-62

Document Title: Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, 

Memorandum to Mr. Marvin Watson, The White House, 24 May 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-63

Document Title: Marvin Watson, The White House, Memorandum for the 

President, 24 May 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

As the Gemini program evolved in 1965, questions about the propriety of lauding the 

program as a “space spectacular” emerged. NASA, the White House, the media, and the 

public had treated the various Mercury fl ights as singular events worthy of intense reporting. 

Each Mercury launch was exhaustively covered on all three television networks and the 
Exploring the Unknown 289

astronauts, NASA operational activities, and recovery received considerable exposure. Each 

astronaut also enjoyed media hype at the time of their mission. But was such involved 

reporting appropriate for the Gemini program? Julian Scheer, NASA’s Director of Public 

Affairs, did not think so. He advocated a more routine approach to operations, aimed at 

making spacefl ight appear more normal than unusual. While NASA continued to enjoy 

signifi cant media attention during Gemini, attention to later missions was somewhat less 

pronounced than for their Mercury counterparts.

Document I-62

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON DC 20546

OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR

May 24, 1965

MEMORANDUM to Mr. Marvin Watson

The White House

This is in response to your questions about astronaut activities.

During the Mercury program and on into the fi rst manned Gemini fl ight, space 

fl ight was new to this nation and we found a new group of heroes created by 

the American people. Each fl ight was a “fi rst” of some kind, we were behind the 

Russians and our fl ight program was smaller and more understandable. Both US 

and Russian space fl yers’ names became well known.

As a result, New York City always wanted a ticker tape parade and the White 

House showed, on behalf of the American people, its appreciation of the work 

the astronauts had done.

We are now entering a new phase of our program. We expect to have gained 

2,000 or more hours of space fl ight between now and the end of the decade when 

we expect to reach our goal of placing two men on the moon. Each fl ight, of 

course, will have new and different elements, but, generally speaking, these are 

long duration fl ights of two men (Gemini) and earth orbital Apollo fl ights.

The image that is, perhaps, best for this nation is that of a nation with this capability, 

a nation that goes about its work in an orderly and well-planned manner. We 

will fl y these fl ights as best we can and put these fl yers right back into the fl ight 

schedule for a future mission.

[2]

We feel that any build-up of personalities resulting from these fl ights should be 

spontaneous, based not on the fact that the astronauts fl ew, but what they accomplished 

in fl ight or diffi culties they overcame or obvious skills they demonstrated.
290 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Each fl ight is not going to be spectacular, each astronaut is not going to deserve a 

medal or award or special recognition. We are at the point, we feel, where we have 

to very carefully look at each fl ight and consider it as part of an ongoing program 

which will be oft-repeated in the months to come.

Therefore, we prefer to have a mechanism built into our Public Affairs program 

which will enable us to react quickly to given situations and to allow us the 

fl exibility to choose the course that appears best at the time of the completion of 

a successful mission.

We would expect that you would be interested in this kind of fl exibility, too, and 

would want to consider these things against a day-by-day backdrop.

We would not, of course, move forward on any plans without the most careful 

consultation with the White House, especially those which may have political 

implications.

On the upcoming fl ight, Gemini 4, we must consider that Astronauts Grissom 

and Young were received at the White House less than ten weeks from this launch 

date (June 3) and participated in New York and Chicago parades. Similar events 

90 days later, unless the fl ight departs radically from the fl ight plan, may be too 

much saturation and repetition. 

Therefore, in summary, it is our recommendation that we plan no events in advance 

of the Gemini 4 fl ight but be prepared to move rapidly in case there is interest 

there. We will, however, discourage other activity, such as ticker-tape parades, 

and will have under consideration a visit by the astronauts to the University of 

Michigan campus in late June or early July. Both graduated from the University.

[Signed]

Julian Scheer

Assistant Administrator

For Public Affairs

Document I-63

EXECUTIVE MEMORANDUM

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

MAY 25, 1965

Tuesday, 2:15 PM

Mr. President:

Information in the attached memorandum was agreed to by Director James Webb.
Exploring the Unknown 291

NASA suggests that since there will now be frequent space fl ights, you should 

reconsider the policy of White House receptions and ceremonies for the 

astronauts.

The next fl ight is scheduled for June 3 and will last four days. There will be some 

six days debriefi ng in Houston, Texas, which will mean approximately ten days 

from blast-off until they would be at the White House.

Since both of these astronauts are graduates of the University of Michigan and 

that the University has asked that both come to the University, Director Webb 

suggested that you consider not having the White House or Capitol ceremonies 

and allow it to be handled in this manner.

Do you want a White House ceremony?

Yes__________ No__________

Director Webb also states that the Vice President has become most interested in 

this program and he would like some guidance from you as to what part the Vice 

President should play. Do you want the Vice President to receive a lot of credit?

Yes__________ No__________

If you said ‘No’ on the White House ceremony, Director Webb suggests that since 

the astronauts will be in Houston for debriefi ng, and if you are in Texas, you 

might want to have them come to the Ranch.

Yes__________ No__________

Marvin

Document I-64

Document Title: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, to The 

Administrator, “Extra Vehicular Activity for Gemini IV,” 24 May 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-65

Document Title: L. W. Vogel, Executive Offi cer, Memorandum for the Record, 

“Top Management Meeting on Gemini 4 Extra-Vehicular Activity,” 8 June 1965.
292 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

In November 1964 an initial ground simulation for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) was 

performed by the Gemini III crew in an altitude chamber. But Gemini III was too short for 

EVA operations and ground controllers and engineers looked to the Gemini IV mission. 

Manned Space Center Director Robert Gilruth approved altitude chamber tests for the 

Gemini IV crew on 12 March 1965. But Alexey Leonov made the fi rst spacewalk a week 

later, spurring a faster schedule for Gemini EVA tests. However, response at Headquarters 

was still lukewarm, largely due to concerns about the safety of such a new activity. On 14 

May 1965, Gilruth arranged for an EVA demonstration for Associate Administrator Robert 

Seamans. Seamans agreed that it was safe to move the fi rst EVA from the Gemini VI mission 

to Gemini IV and discussed the matter with Administrator Webb and Hugh Dryden. Webb 

generally agreed to the proposal, but Dryden was strongly against it. In response to a request 

from Webb, Seamans drew up a brief making the case for the Gemini IV EVA and delivered 

it to Webb on 24 May. Webb gave it to Dryden who returned it to Seamans the next day 

with the words “is recommended” underlined and the handwritten notation “Approved after 

discussing w. Dryden, J. E. Webb, 5-25-65.”

Document I-64

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 20546

May 24, 1965

MEMORANDUM

To: The Administrator

From: Associate Administrator

Subject: Extra Vehicular Activity for Gemini IV

The Project Approval Document for Gemini, date December 16, 1964, 

states the following objectives: Development of earth orbital rendezvous techniques, 

long duration fl ights of up to two weeks, extra vehicular activity, controlled reentry, and astronaut operational space fl ight experience as a prerequisite for the 

Apollo program. Consequently, extra vehicular activity has been recognized as a 

primary objective of the Gemini program.

Against Extra Vehicular Activity during Gemini IV

The primary objective of Gemini IV is to extend astronaut and spacecraft 

time in orbit to four days. Extra vehicular activity reduces by a small but fi nite 

amount the chance of success and consequently should not be included.

For Extra Vehicular Activity during Gemini IV
Exploring the Unknown 293

Risk is involved in all manned space missions and consequently we must 

achieve maximum signifi cant return from each fl ight, assuming that additional 

fl ight operations do not unduly reduce the chance of achieving our primary goals.

Conclusion

The hardware for extra vehicular activity is fl ight qualifi ed and the 

astronauts are trained for this operation. Since extra vehicular activity is a primary 

goal for the Gemini program, it is recommended that this activity should be 

included in Gemini IV. The fl ight plan is being carefully planned toward this end 

and if a decision is reached to proceed a thorough review will be made of the 

public information releases in order to provide a full understanding

[2] of the care exercised in preparation for this mission and the safeguards 

available to the astronauts.

[signed]

Robert C. Seamans, Jr.

Document I-65

MEMORANDUM FOR THE RECORD

SUBJECT: Top Management Meeting on Gemini 4 Extra-Vehicular Activity

On May 24, Mr. Webb, Dr. Dryden and Dr. Seamans met with Dr. Mueller and 

Dr. Gilruth in connection with extra-vehicular activities on the Gemini 4 fl ight 

scheduled to take place on June 3.

Concern was expressed about changing the pattern of the fl ight. Making changes 

at the last minute always injected the possibility of some thing being overlooked 

and not properly considered. Also, if the Gemini 4 fl ight had to be cut short 

for any reason, opening the hatch would be blamed. Extra-vehicular activity in 

Gemini 4 was too obvious a reaction to the Soviet spectacular in this regard.

On the other hand, it was pointed out that suit development to permit extra-vehicular 

activity was part of the Gemini 4 program all along. Extra-vehicular activity had 

been originally planned for Gemini 4. One of the basic objectives of extra-vehicular 

activity was to be able to evaluate the possible utilization of man in space to carry 

out experiments, repair and adjust scientifi c satellites, and anything else that would 

require man to be outside of the spacecraft. The large antenna program was noted 

as one experiment which would require extra-vehicular activities by man.

It was then stated that there was no questioning of the propriety of having extravehicular activity in the Gemini program, but what was being questioned was it 

being performed on the second manned fl ight in the program. Since it was not 

essential to the basic mission of the Gemini 4 fl ight, which was to check out the 

reliability of the spacecraft and its systems for a 4-day period, our space posture 

might suffer if the 4-day period did not materialize.
294 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

The counter argument continued with comment about the great concern for the 

welfare of the astronauts and the fact that in the Gemini 3 fl ight we had a complete 

check on all systems. We have confi dence in the space craft and the astronauts have 

trained for extra-vehicular activity and-, if nothing than for morale purposes, they 

shouldn’t do anything less than what they can do and have been trained to do. 

Extensive tests had been conducted under zero-gravity conditions in a K-135. The 

astronauts practiced getting in and out of the spacecraft under zero-gravity conditions a suffi cient number of times so as to build up about an hour of experience. 

Also, it was pointed out that if we don’t accomplish extra vehicular activity (EVA) 

in Gemini 4 then we must do it on Gemini 5. It is a logical extension of the Gemini 

program to do EVA on Gemini 4. If

[2]

EVA is successful on GT-4, we will not do it on Gemini 5. If a deci sion were made 

today not to have EVA on GT-4, then we could do it on GT-5. However, it would be 

more of a compromise of the program to do EVA on GT-5 than on GT-4 because 

of the many other things programmed for GT-5.

The question was raised as to what risk we would be taking on a possible short 

Gemini 4 fl ight because of EVA and not fi nding out as much as we should fi nd 

out about weightlessness as a problem. Weightlessness can be a problem, even 

in G-4, and we presumably will be concentrating on this problem in G-5. To this 

question it was noted that Dr. Berry said that there were no reservations about 

weightlessness being a problem over a 4-day period. There is no indication that 

4 days of weightlessness will hurt man; therefore, this is not a great problem to 

be considered in the Gemini 4 fl ight. However, in connection with the Gemini 5 

fl ight of 7 days there possibly are some reservations, primarily because no one has 

been in space for that period of time. Some medical experts feel that there will 

be a risk, others do not. Probably a problem just as pressing as the weightlessness 

problem, is the problem of confi nement for 7 days or longer periods.

The question was raised again as to the element of risk to complete the 4-day 

Gemini fl ight because of EVA. The reply was that the added risk was simply having 

to depressurize the spacecraft, open the hatch, seal the hatch, and repressurize 

the spacecraft. These procedures, involving various systems and sub-systems, of 

course add a degree of risk because of a possible failure. But these procedures 

have been done hundreds of times with no failure. Nevertheless, there is always a 

risk that something will not work, but this is a small risk.

It was noted that one cannot justify EVA in Gemini 4 just because the Russians 

did it, and one cannot justify EVA in Gemini 4 just because you want to get fi lm 

out of the Agena rendezvous vehicle on a later Gemini fl ight. In rebuttal, it was 

commented that the main reason for EVA in the Gemini program is to further 

develop the role of man in space. The sophistication of equipment that we put into 

space is getting ahead of the sophistication of experiments we can do. Experiment 

sophistication can be increased through the use of man in space, but the use of 

man in space must be checked out by EVA. The determination as to whether man 

in space by extra-vehicular activity can repair things, can calibrate satellites, etc. 

should be looked upon as a signifi cant step forward and not as a stunt.
Exploring the Unknown 295

A strong comment was made that it is no more hazardous to do EVA in Gemini 

4 than in later fl ights. The training for EVA on Gemini 4 was adequate and the 

only question that was holding up EVA on Gemini 4 was qualifi cation of space suit 

equipment. This equipment is now fully qualifi ed.

[3] On the other hand, the thought was raised that most of our thinking to date 

is that man’s primary role in space is within the confi nes of a spacecraft.. We are 

trying more to qualify the spacecraft in Gemini 4 than we are EVA. However, it was 

noted that EVA is also important to the Apollo program.

It was acknowledged that everything that had been said was correct, but it still 

remained a fact that the consequences of failure on Gemini 4 would be more 

adverse than the consequences of failure on Gemini 5 or 6. There would be no 

reservation about EVA on Gemini 4 if it was absolutely necessary to accomplish the 

basic missions of the fl ight. It is essential to learn more about spacecraft systems 

over a 4-day period, and therefore we have an obligation to the Government to be 

sure that we qualify the spacecraft.

It was explained that EVA was planned for the second orbit of Gemini 4 which does 

create some risk for completing a 4-day fl ight as opposed to having EVA on one of 

the latter orbits. However, there is some concern about the ability of an astronaut to 

undertake EVA after 4 days of fl ight. The trade-off in risks involved in not knowing 

the condition of the astronauts after some time in orbit as to what could go wrong 

with the mechanical systems involved in EVA argued for EVA on an early orbit.

It was again noted that it was more important to check out the space craft for 4 days 

so that it would be possible to extrapolate the guarantee of spacecraft operation 

for 7 days.

To a comment that in the eyes of the public Gemini 4 would be a success with 

EVA, a statement was made that Gemini 4 with EVA might not neces sarily be 

considered a success in the eyes of the decision makers. As a guide to risk taking, 

it was suggested that if there was a 90% chance to have a Gemini 4 fl ight for 4 days 

and that with EVA this chance would be only 89%, then we should risk 1% less 

chance for a 4-day fl ight for what can be gained from EVA. However, if a chance 

for a 4-day fl ight would be only 80% with EVA, then this additional 10% possibility 

for not having a 4-day fl ight would not be an adequate trade-off to be gained by 

EVA and we should not undertake it on Gemini 4.

It was noted that there was no comparison between the risk between the fi rst 

Mercury fl ight and the Gemini 4 fl ight. It was recalled how the Air Force had 

admonished against the fi rst Mercury fl ight, but NASA top management decided 

to go ahead because this fl ight was absolutely essen tial to the program. If we 

take into consideration the risks still inherent in using the rocket as a means of 

propulsion, then every time we use this means of propulsion we should fi nd out 

everything that can be found out on the fl ight.

[4] It was noted that we should not be too concerned about the public reaction in 

determining what is the best course of action. The decision as to whether or not 

there would be EVA on Gemini 4 should be made in the light of what is best for 

the program and should not be infl uenced by possible public reaction.
296 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

After the foregoing discussion, the concern was still raised that the importance of 

Gemini 4 was to check out the reliability of the space craft for 4 days and project 

this reliability for 7 days. EVA there fore might jeopardize getting everything we 

should get from Gemini 4. If Gemini 4 does not go for 4 days, then we are in a 

very diffi cult position for 7 days on Gemini 5 and presumably we could not go for 

7 days on Gemini 5. The real question is whether or not EVA is important enough 

in view of the risk, no matter how slight, of jeopardizing a 4-day Gemini 4 fl ight 

and jeopardizing a 7-day Gemini 5 fl ight.

Then it was pointed out that if you look at the entire program, EVA is more 

logical for Gemini 4. If Gemini 4 lasts 3 days then we should not be concerned 

about spacecraft reliability for 7 days. The basic problems are really to check-out 

confi nement and weightlessness. There fore, Gemini 5 is more important than 

Gemini 4 and if there is any chance of reducing total fl ight time due to EVA, EVA 

then logically should be accomplished on Gemini 4 rather than on Gemini 5. Every 

guarantee was given to top management that if EVA were approved for Gemini 4, 

very fi rm and adequate instructions would be given covering the procedure.

Mr. Webb, Dr. Dryden and Dr. Seamans then gave careful consideration to the 

discussions they had with Dr. Mueller and Dr. Gilruth. In their opinion it was 

important, whatever the decision, that there be an adequate explanation to the 

public to avoid any unnecessary misunderstanding and to minimize any adverse 

reactions. There was a strong feeling to ratify EVA for Gemini 4 in order to get 

the maximum out of the fl ight. There was unanimity in that EVA eventually would 

be carried out, but there was some reservation as to whether or not it was the best 

judgment to have EVA on Gemini 4 as a risk beyond that which has to be taken. It 

was concluded that Dr. Seamans would discuss the matter further with Dr. Mueller 

and Dr. Gilruth, in view of the discussions which took place, and that if he did not 

care to press for EVA on Gemini 4, such EVA would not be undertaken. However, 

if the fi nal discussion led Dr. Seamans to press for EVA in Gemini 4, then it would 

be unanimously approved for the fl ight.

NOTE: Following the meeting, a memorandum from Dr. Seamans to Mr. Webb, 

dated May 24, 1965, recommending EVA for the Gemini 4 fl ight was 

approved by Mr. Webb and Dr. Dryden.

[signed]

L.W. Vogel

Executive Offi cer

Document I-66

Document Title: James E. Webb, Administrator, NASA, Cabinet Report for the 

President, “Signifi cance of GT-3, GT-4 Accomplishments,” 17 June 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.
Exploring the Unknown 297

The fi rst two piloted missions of the Gemini program occurred on 23 March 1965 (GT-3) 

and 3 to 7 June 1965 (GT-4). Both were quite successful. The fi rst mission was a checkout 

of the Gemini launch system and orbital spacecraft that demonstrated its fl ight-worthiness. 

In this mission the crew proved their mischievousness by smuggling a corned beef sandwich 

aboard. Both Gus Grissom and John Young enjoyed a few bites, but they were reprimanded 

for their hijinks by project managers because of the fear that crumbs from the bread might 

fl oat into the spacecraft’s systems and damage electronics. It was a lighthearted episode that 

pointed out the serious nature of the enterprise. There is, not surprisingly, no mention of 

this incident in this report of the mission by NASA Administrator James E. Webb. What is 

truly signifi cant about GT-4, however, received considerable treatment here. Edward White’s 

36-minute extra-vehicular activity (EVA) of spacewalk on the fi rst day of the mission proved 

successful and a source of pride for the U.S.

June 17, 1965

CABINET REPORT FOR THE PRESIDENT

FROM : Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration

SUBJECT: Signifi cance of GT-3, GT-4 Accomplishments

On March 22, the fi rst manned Gemini mission, GT-3, served to fl ight 

qualify the crew-spacecraft combination as well as checkout the operational 

procedures. During the course of the four-orbit mission, the two-man crew 

maneuvered their craft in orbit preparing the way for the rendezvous missions to 

follow. GT-3 also initiated the use of the Gemini spacecraft as an orbiting laboratory. 

Astronauts Grissom and Young also executed the fi rst manned, controlled, lifting 

reentry.

With the success of GT-3, NASA moved forward the time-table for the 

Gemini program and decided to conduct extra vehicular activity (EVA) on 

the next mission. GT-4 was launched on June 3, more than 3 weeks earlier 

than our target date. GT-4 successfully achieved one of the major objectives 

of Gemini—to demonstrate that two men can carry out extended space fl ight 

while performing an extensive series of scientifi c and operational experiments 

during the mission. 

During the third revolution, Astronaut White executed the fi rst of a series 

of EVA that will be continued on later Gemini and Apollo fl ights. This successful 

experiment of EVA shows that man can maneuver in space for inspection, repair, 

crew transfer and rescue. All these can have both peaceful as well as military 

space applications. Tests of GT-4 rendezvous equipment have given important 

data which is being applied to the remaining eight Gemini missions.

The use of MCC-Houston for control of the GT-4 mission was a major 

milestone. This new facility worked perfectly and its use is essential in future 

Gemini and Apollo rendezvous fl ights. All 11 experiments and all operational 

checks were accomplished despite signifi cant changes to the scheduling and time 

phasing. This ability for the ground crews to work with a well-disciplined space 
298 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

crew indicates a growing capacity to make changes in plans while operations are 

being conducted and, therefore, realize the most from each fl ight.

[2]

The excellent condition of the crew throughout the entire mission, 

including their recovery at sea, indicates the effectiveness of the working 

environment and life support system of the spacecraft. The crew was quite active 

and this apparently helped keep them in good condition. Medical monitoring 

during the fl ight and post-fl ight examination revealed no requirement for a 

period of rehabilitation or “decompression.”

This second fl ight of the Gemini spacecraft indicates its excellent handling 

characteristics and provides strong assurance that more extended missions can be 

now undertaken. The computer which failed was not critical to the mission and 

the minor mechanical diffi culties encountered were not serious.

It is signifi cant that the fi rst operational fl ight of Gemini, GT-4, has 

provided signifi cant experience in each of the major mission areas of Gemini: long 

duration fl ight, rendezvous and docking, extra vehicular activity, and the conduct 

of experiments. The success of the GT-3 and GT-4 missions has proven the design 

and confi rmed the results of the ground tests, has increased our confi dence in 

the reliability of the overall Gemini systems, and has enabled NASA to advance 

the Gemini Program such that rendezvous and docking are now scheduled during 

the Calendar Year 1965.

James E. Webb

Document I-67

Document Title: NASA Program Gemini Working Paper No. 5038, “GT-4 Flight 

Crew Debriefi ng Transcript,” No date, but soon after the June 1965 Gemini IV 

mission.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

The fi rst multi-day mission of the Gemini program took place during the fl ight of Gemini 

IV, 3 to 7 June 1965. Since this was the fi rst of the Gemini program’s longer missions, it 

created a new set of challenges both for the astronauts and those in Mission Control. For 

example, Mission Control divided into a three-shift operation with fl ight directors for each 

shift. Chris Kraft acted as both Mission Director for the entire fl ight and Flight Director for 

the fi rst shift, while Gene Kranz took charge of the second shift and John Hodge the third. 

Gemini IV proved a successful mission for many reason, not the least of which was its 36-

minute spacewalk by Ed White on the fi rst day of the fl ight. This transcript provides a vivid 

fi rst-hand account of the initial U.S. extra-vehicular activity.
Exploring the Unknown 299

 [CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

NASA Program Gemini Working Paper No. 5038

GT-4 FLIGHT CREW DEBRIEFING TRANSCRIPT

[No date included; declassifi ed Mar 15, 1973 under Group 4 (declassifi ed after 

12 years)]

[only pp. 4-19 through 4-66 provided]

[4-19]

4.2 Extravehicular Activity

White 

And this was the time I went after the gun.

McDivitt

Okay. At that time we reverted from station-keeping, which we were both 

attempting to do, to EVA preparation, which we both had to do. That’s when Ed 

went after the gun, and we started our preparation. We weren’t really far behind 

at this time. All we had to do was get the gun out and get the man euvering unit. 

The cameras were already out. You had the Zeiss too, didn’t you?

White

Yes. The Zeiss came out with the Hasselblad, from the same package as the movie 

camera. And the storage certainly was a lot easier. What do you think?

McDivitt

That’s right.

White

Particularly getting it out of that center thing. You can just zip them out of there 

with no problem at all.

McDivitt

So, at about 1:30 we started to assemble the gm. If you look at the checklist, you 

see that we probably got the gun [4-20] assembled in nothing fl at.

White

It’s no problem to assemble the gun.

McDivitt

We started our egress preparations essentially on time. As a matter of fact, I think 

we even got started a little earlier.
300 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

Then, we weren’t worrying about anything else.

McDivitt

Then, we weren’t worrying about staying with the booster. We probably started it 

about 1:35 or 1:40. Over the States we started our egress preparation. We went 

to our other check list.

White

You were over Ascension, calling off the checklist.

McDivitt

I started reading the checklist off to Ed and we went through it. He unstowed 

everything. Why don’t you tell them what you did there, Ed? I just read the 

checklist off to you, and you went ahead and did it.

White

Okay. I had to get back into the right-hand box, and I un stowed the items there. 

The fi rst time I went back in there, I took the fi rst items out, and I did not unstow 

the full box, I remember I told you, “It’s all coming out, Jim. I’m going to bring 

them all out on the lanyard.” Remember?

McDivitt

Right.

White

We’d take them off piece by piece if we need it. At that time I pulled the whole 

lanyard out and the cockpit was full of little bags. I was quite happy that they had 

prevailed upon me to put a lanyard, on all this equipment. I had thought at one 

time that it would be more desirable not to put a lan yard on. We’d been working 

a lot in our simulations without the lanyard and it seemed pretty easy. But looking 

at it now, I highly recommend that everybody keep that stuff on a lanyard.

McDivitt

We would have really had a mess if we’d had all those things fl oating around. It 

was bad enough as it was.

White

Yes, eight or ten of those little bags, and I was glad they were all tied on to one 

string. I could control them in that manner. They were quite simple to unsnap. 

I thought the snap attachment made it pretty easy to unstow and selectively pick 

out the items that I wanted. I unstowed the pouches that I needed, and then we 

got ready to take the long umbilical out. I had a little diffi culty. It took me about 

three tries to get it out. It’s fairly big package to come through a small hole. It 

was a good thing that we had taken the Velcro off of the batch, because there no 

tendency for anything to hang up as we removed it. On the third try I got it out. 

[4-21]
Exploring the Unknown 301

McDivitt

I thought you did an extremely good job getting the bag out. You got it out a lot 

quicker than I’d ever seen you do it in the Crew Procedures Trainer in Houston 

or in the simulator at the Cape.

White

You didn’t know it. It took me three tries.

McDivitt

Well, maybe it did, but it sure looked like it came out a lot easier. I thought you 

got it out in a big hurry. I didn’t notice that it took you three tries. I saw you start, 

and then just a short time later, it was out.

White

Well, it did come out pretty easy, and I think the storage was satisfactory, but I’d 

certainly recommend that nothing be on the outside to keep it from coming out. 

It’s a real tough –

McDivitt

Yes, we need the velcro off of there. We’re pretty well sure of that.

White

The rest of the equipment - the “Y” connectors, the bag that contained the 

“Y” connectors, and the attachments for the chest pack I handed to you. I think 

you were keeping track of most of those things until the time I needed them.

McDivitt

Yes, I was.

White

The storage of the ventilation module from the fl oor came off pretty easily. That’s 

when I started going ahead and putting it all on. You read the checklist off to me. 

I had gone ahead and done a few things anyhow. As you read them off, I checked 

them off to be sure that I had done them all. I think we had everything out without 

much problem at all. I think it took us longer actually to put it all together.

McDivitt

That’s right. It did. We started going through the checklist here and putting the 

things on, and we started getting more and more rushed. We were supposed to 

start the Egress Preparation Checklist at about 1:44. We probably started it at 

about 1:35 or so. We started it about 10 minutes early, roughly, maybe 5 to 10 

minutes early. We were supposed to be ready to start the depressurization at 2:30 

over Carnarvon.

[4-22]

White

I think I could have gone through and hooked everything all up, but I felt that we 

should go through fairly close to the procedure we had set up on the checklist.
302 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

McDivitt

That’s right.

White

I think this slowed us down.

McDivitt

Well, we set the procedure up so that when we fi nished with it, it would be right. 

I think this helter-skelter thing that we were being forced into was for the birds. 

So as we got farther along, it became apparent to me that the thing to do would 

be to stop.

White

Right.

McDivitt

Go ahead with the assembly of the stuff. Why don’t you comment on that?

White

I’ve commented in my Self-Debriefi ng about the equipment and the assembly 

of it. I thought there was no diffi culty at all in connecting the “Y” connectors, 

the hoses, and the chest pack. I thought the connection of the chest pack to my 

har ness was a good one. With the velcro I could move it in and out whenever I 

wanted to so that I could make my connections on the inlet side of the ECS hoses. 

It went along pretty smoothly, as a matter of fact. I think as we progressed along 

in it though, we felt that we had everything done. I didn’t really feel that we had 

everything done in a thorough manner. And I think you had that same feeling.

McDivitt

That’s right. When we got to Kano or Tananarive - I think it was Tananarive - I 

called whoever I was talking to and said that we were running late and I thought 

that we would probably not do the EVA on this particular rev. I knew that we had 

another rev on which we could do it. It looked to me like we had all the stuff 

hooked up, but we hadn’t really had a chance to check it. I also noticed, Ed, that 

you were get ting awfully hot. You were starting to perspire a lot. I didn’t like the 

way you looked to start this whole thing off. So I told them over Tananarive -- I 

believe it was Tananarive – that we would go ahead and continue on, and I would 

let them know whether or not we were going to depressurize at the next station. 

We went on ahead and it looked to me like you were all hooked up and about 

ready to go except for one thing.

White

We forgot the thermal gloves. I did not have my thermal gloves on.

[4-23]

McDivitt

You did not have the thermal gloves on, which is sort of insignifi cant, but we 

hadn’t really had a chance to check over the equipment to make sure that it was 

in the right spot.
Exploring the Unknown 303

White

Well, we talked and you said, “What do you think?” We talked it over and I had the 

same feeling. I thought it sure would be smart if we had about 20 minutes to just 

sit here real still before we went out.

McDivitt

I think we were in a situation where it would probably have gone all right. We had 

completed about 80 percent of what we really should have had done as far as the 

checking went, and I just didn’t feel that we were in the right shape. Ed didn’t 

think we were, and besides, I could see Ed. He couldn’t see himself. Ed looked 

awfully hot, and he looked like he was getting a little pooped out from playing 

around with that big suit. I thought that the best thing for his sake, and I knew he 

wouldn’t admit it, was to let him rest up for another orbit.

White

I agree that was the best judgment.

McDivitt

So, when we got to Carnarvon - I guess it was Carnarvon I called them and said we 

were not going to come out on that orbit.

White

It was Carnarvon. It was just before we depressurized.

McDivitt

So, we postponed it until the next orbit. As a matter of fact, after that we just sat 

there. We didn’t do a thing for about 10 minutes. I let Ed cool off a little bit. We 

were on two-fan operation at the time. We just sat there and we were cooled off. 

We went around for about 20 minutes then.

White

Okay. Then as we went back around, I asked you to go through the checklist 

again, and we went through item by item this time.

McDivitt

That’s right. I might add that we went right back to the beginning checklist, the 

Egress Preparation Checklist. We started at the top one, and we did every step on 

it again. We verifi ed every step to make sure we hadn’t left anything out.

White

We actually went in and checked this time. Another thing we hadn’t really positively 

checked was the position of all the locks on all of the hose inlets and outlets. This 

time we [4-24] actually checked all those locked. All of them were locked in, but 

it was a good thing to do, I believe. 

McDivitt

You want to make sure. We did do our Suit Integrity Check before we started all 

this stuff.
304 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

That’s right. We started before we actually went to the unstowing of the stuff from 

the right-hand aft food box. We went to the Suit Integrity Check.

McDivitt

Well, I don’t know where it is, but we did it when we were supposed to do it.

McDivitt

We did the Suit Integrity check before we started the Egress Preparation Checklist. 

That’s when we did it, over the States.

White

I think we did that just about the time you decided to give up on the booster. We 

did the Suit Integrity Check. Both suits checked out all right, It went up to 8.5 and 

it leaked down to about 8.3 or something like that.

McDivitt

Same thing with mine. It went up to 8.5 and leaked down just a little bit. Not 

enough to be concerned about.

White

No. Oh, one thing that we did do on that extra orbit that we went around -- I 

disconnected the repress system and we went back on the -

McDivitt

Oh, yes. We never even got on the repress system, did we?

White

Yes, I believe we were, but then we turned it off. We were all ready to depressurize, 

and then we went back on the spacecraft ECS system, full, and went through and 

reverifi ed the whole checklist again. The only things that I would say we hadn’t done 

to my satisfaction the fi rst time was to check the inlet and outlet positions of the locks, 

and I didn’t have my thermal gloves on. It turned out I didn’t need them.

McDivitt

Also, during this period of time I alined [sic] the platform, which was completely 

misalined. It was probably alined [sic] within a couple degrees, but as we went 

around in Orbit Rate it got farther and farther out of tolerance. So, I managed to 

aline [sic] the platform. Here again, I might comment on the fact that our initial 

fl ight plan was so optimistic that it was almost unbelievable. The both of us worked 

full time on doing nothing except preparing for EVA, and we didn’t quite get the job 

done. I can’t believe that we could have possibly fl own formation with the booster 

and taken pictures of it and all the [4-25] other things that we had scheduled, and 

still prepared for this thing and even come close to completing it.

White

Well, the way we would have had to do it, would have been without a checklist. I 

would have had to just go ahead and hook everything up. I think we could have 

done it satisfactorily in this manner, but it wouldn’t have been the way we would 

have wanted it.
Exploring the Unknown 305

McDivitt

Yes, that’s right. I don’t think that’s the way it should be done. It was just too 

bad that we had a time limit on it, but when we did get rid of the booster, or the 

booster no longer became a part of the fl ight plan, then the time limit vanished. 

We found out that we really needed that extra orbit, or probably could have used 

another 20 minutes.

White

Yes. We went back. And I remember as we came over Carnarvon, we had about 

a 15 minute chat back and forth - kind of a rest period. We were all hooked 

up at that time, and that’s the time we went on the repress fl ow, ready for the 

depressuriza tion. I think they gave us a GO then for our EVA.

McDivitt

That’s right. We depressurized the cabin and got down to 2 psi to check our blood 

pressure. We tried to put our blood pressure plugs in the blood pressure plug port 

and found out that we didn’t have any blood pressure plugs on either suit. This 

was quite a surprise - an unpleasant one, I might add. Well, we decided that from 

our past experience and our know ledge of the suit that, even if we did spring a 

leak in the blood pressure cuff, the size hole that we had in the suit would not be 

catastrophic, and we decided to go ahead with the EVA.

White

It was within the capability of the system we were using.

McDivitt

At Carnarvon we not only got the go-ahead to start the depressurization, we also 

got the go-ahead to open up the hatch, the go-ahead that we weren’t supposed to 

get until Hawaii. So, we went ahead and did that.

White

Yes. I’m kind of curious of the whole time. We were out nearly an orbit, I think. We 

didn’t get it closed back again till we got back around to Carnarvon.

McDivitt

We were in a whole orbit depressurized.

White

Yes, I don’t think people quite realize that.

[4-26]

McDivitt

We’ll remind them. As we got to the hatch opening thing, we had our fi rst 

diffi culties with the hatch. The gain gear, I guess you want to call it -- actually I call 

it the ratchet--didn’t want to engage into the UNLOCK position. We fooled with 

it a few times and it fi nally engaged in the UNLOCK position, and Ed was able to 

go ahead and start.
306 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

The fi rst indication of trouble was when I unstowed the handle to open the 

hatch. The handle freely moved up and down with no tension on it at all. I knew 

right away where the trouble was. It was up in that little spring on the gain pawl. 

So, I went up and manipulated it back and forth in hopes that I could break 

the lubrication loose in the spring to get it to work. We must have spent several 

minutes with the hatch. I thought perhaps it might have been stuck in the manner 

that the hatch got stuck in the Wet Mock, where it just was stuck. You could ratchet 

it open, but the hatch itself wouldn’t open. It was pretty apparent the trouble was 

in the gain pawl. I jimmied it back and forth, and then I decided to go ahead and 

try the technique of actuating it in sequence with the hatch handle. If you actually 

replaced the operation of the spring with mechanically moving the gain pawl up 

and down, you can do the same work that the spring does.

McDivitt

Your fi ngers sort of take the place of the spring and rive this little pawl home.

White

This is the fi rst time we actually tried this in a suit. It requires you to press up with 

your left arm to get at the gain pawl, and at the same time to hold yourself down. 

And I think later on this was a source of some of our problems which I brought 

out now so that we can fi nd out later on. I felt it start to engage and start to ratchet 

the lugs out. Jim also verifi ed that they were coming open. I backed them off, and 

I remember Jim saying “Ooop! Not so fast!” and at that time it popped. The hatch 

actually popped open, jumped open about 3 or 4 inches.

McDivitt

I was expecting the hatch to come open with a bang. Although we had the cabin to 

vent and it had bled on down to where there was nothing indicated on the Cabin 

Pressure Gage, we still really had the repress valve on. He was bleeding right into 

the spacecraft. We never got down to a vacuum and, even though we had a cabin 

pressure of only a tenth of a psi, we spread it over the entire area of that hatch, 

and that puts a pretty good size force on it. I had a real tight hold on [4-27] the 

hatch closing device, and when it popped open I was able to snub it.

White

It didn’t really open with much force, did it?

McDivitt

Well, it did. It opened with a fair amount. It popped and I couldn’t stop it the fi rst 

inch or so. Then, of course, as soon as it opened, that much pressure bled off. I just 

sort of snubbed the thing to keep it from fl ying all the way open. Now if I hadn’t 

been holding onto it, I don’t think it would have gone open more than 2 or 3 feet.

White

This is another point too. There’s more force on the hatch actuator than I thought. 

I didn’t just fl ip the door open with my hand. I had to actually forcibly push it 

open, sim ilar to the force with which I opened the hatch lying on my back under 

1-g. That’s about the force that I had to on the hatch to open it.
Exploring the Unknown 307

McDivitt

This extra force that we are talking about is due to the 0-rings they put in the 

pyros that are used for jettisoning the hatch. This is something that they put in 

just before the fl ight -- something that we’d gone out to the spacecraft to feel. We 

knew just about what the force was, but it was pretty high.

White

Okay. At this time I had certain things that I had to accom plish. I had to mount 

the camera on the back of the adapter and mount the umbilical guard on the edge 

of the door. I elected, as I had planned, to go ahead and mount the camera fi rst 

and then the umbilical guard. I mounted the camera and it went on without too 

much diffi culty. The three little lugs on the bottom are a good mounting scheme. 

I think I would make a little easier engaging device for working out in a hard suit. 

I had familiarity with it, and it did lock up there all right. The umbilical guard for 

the umbilical on the side of the door took me a little longer to mount. Back to 

opening the hatch -- I had the thermal gloves on when we were opening the hatch, 

and because of the fi ne work I had to do with the little gain and the drive lugs up 

there. I had to remove the thermal gloves so that I could actually actuate those 

small levers. I couldn’t do them with any precision with my gloved hand. So, I took 

the thermal gloves off at this time, and I handed them to Jim. When I got back 

out, I didn’t notice any temperature extremes. I felt quite confi dent that there 

wouldn’t be any heat, since we just came out of the dark side, so I decided to do 

the actual work in putting this equipment on with my plain pressure suit gloves. 

[4-28] I had much more feel with them. Let me get back now to the umbilical 

guard on the door. It went on pretty well. It took me a little longer and it took 

me four or fi ve tries to get the little pin into the hole that actually snubbed the 

guard down on the door. I did something then that I hadn’t planned to do. The 

bag fl oated up and out of the spacecraft and now it was above the point where 

the hose was going through the umbilical guard. I had planned to keep it down 

inside. I left it there for two reasons: (1) I fi gured it was there already and I would 

have had to take the umbilical cord off again and scooted it back down, and (2) 

I also felt that Jim might have had a better view if it wasn’t sitting right in front 

of him on the hose coming up from the repress valve. I elected to go ahead and 

leave the bag there. I then re ported to Jim that I had everything all mounted and 

was ready to go. I had planned to take a short series of pic tures. Since we had 

gotten out early, I had a little extra time at this time, so I went ahead and turned 

the outside EVA camera on. I took a short sequence of pictures that actually gives 

the egress up out of the seat, I kind of went back down and came out again so 

they would get an actual picture of it, and then I turned the camera off again. I 

mounted the camera and I turned it on while it was on the mount. I took a short 

sequence when I asked Jim to hand me my left thermal glove, which he did. I 

put the thermal glove on while the camera was running. I turned back around. I 

wanted to be sure the camera was off, so I took it off the mount, and I turned the 

camera off and actually visually took a look to see if the switch was off.

McDivitt

Did you knock it off one time? I thought you said the camera fell off.
308 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

By golly, I did. So I must have mounted it four times. That’s right. I knocked it off 

one time during this time when I was out there. I got the picture of the egress, 

and then I asked you to hand me the gun. At this time the camera wasn’t running. 

I had the glove on my left hand, and I went ahead and took the gun and made 

sure that it was ready to go. I had the camera on at that time and the valve was on. 

I checked the valve to be sure it was on and I was essentially ready to go. I don’t 

know how long this took, but it took me longer than I thought. We had had early 

egress and it wasn’t too much before I got the GO that I was ready to leave the 

spacecraft.

[4-29]

McDivitt

I’m not sure whether we got that GO from Hawaii or Guaymas. I sort of suspect 

that we got that GO from Hawaii, not Guaymas as we had originally planned.

White 

Well, it sure seemed short from the time I was mounting all that stuff out there to 

the time you told me to go.

McDivitt

That’s right. I’m sure we were talking to Hawaii, and they said you’re clear to 

proceed with EVA.

White 

And that’s when I went. I bet we went out at Hawaii.

McDivitt

I think we went out at Hawaii.

White

I delayed from the time you gave just a minute, long enough to actuate the camera 

on the outside. This was kind of in teresting. When I actuated that camera, I had 

my gun tied to my arm with the tether. It fl oated freely to my right. I turned back 

around and turned the switch ON on the camera, and listened and made sure the 

thing was running. I knew it was running, and put it down. I think you’ll see this 

on the fi lm. I wanted to be sure it was running when I mounted it back there. I 

actually took it off and turned it on, and I remember it jiggling up and down when 

I was trying to stick it on there. It ought to be a funny looking fi lm. And it might 

even show the gun fl oating beside me as I was mounting it. That’s when you said, 

“Slow down. You’re getting awfully hot.” I was working pretty hard to get that on. 

I mounted the camera again, and this is where I tried to actually man euver right 

out of the spacecraft. I knew right away as soon as I got up -- I felt even before 

-- that the technique of holding on to the bar in the spacecraft and sticking a 

fi nger in the RCS thruster wasn’t going to work. I mentioned that to Jim before 

-- that I didn’t think I would be able to do it.
Exploring the Unknown 309

McDivitt

I think you and I both knew how you were going to do, and everybody else was 

planning for us how we were going to do it, but without any real experience in it. 

People who didn’t know a lot about it were planning this sequence, and it wasn’t 

the way it should have been.

White

I couldn’t have done that. I didn’t have three hands. I couldn’t hold the gun and 

put a fi nger in the RCS nozzle, and hold the handle at the same time. I thought it 

would be more desirable anyhow to actually depart the spacecraft with no velocity, 

other than that imparted by the gun. This is ex actly what I did. I thought that I was 

free of the spacecraft, and I fi red the gun. I realized that my legs were still [4-30] 

dragging a little bit on the side of the seat, so I pulled myself out until I could see 

that my feet were actually out of the spacecraft. I think you called me and said I 

was out of the spacecraft.

McDivitt

I called and told you that you were clear. That’s right.

White

And that’s when I started fi ring the gun and actually pro pelled myself under the 

infl uence of the gun. I don’t believe I gave any input into the spacecraft when I 

left that time, did I?

McDivitt

No, you left as clean as a whistle.

White

Later on, I gave you some pretty big ones.

McDivitt

You were really bouncing around then.

White

Now at the time, I left entirely under the infl uence of the gun, and it carried me 

right straight out, a little higher than I wanted to go. I wanted to maneuver over to 

your side, but I maneuvered out of the spacecraft and forward and per haps a little 

higher than I wanted to be. When I got out to what I estimate as probably one-half 

or two-thirds the way out on the tether, I was out past the nose of the spacecraft. 

I started a yaw to the left with the gun and that’s when I reported that the gun 

really worked quite well. I believe that I stopped that yaw, and I started translating 

back to ward the spacecraft. It was either on this translation or the one following 

this that I got into a bit of a combination of pitch, roll, and yaw together. I felt 

that I could have corrected it, but I knew that it would have taken more fuel than 

I had wanted to expend with the gun, so I gave a little tug on the tether and came 

back in. This is the fi rst ex perience I had with tether dynamics and it brought 

me right back to where I did not want to be. It brought me right back on the top 

of the spacecraft, by the adapter section. Jim was calling me and said that I was 

out of his sight. I told him that I was all right, that I was up above the spacecraft, 

I looked down and I could see attitude thrusters fi ring, little white puffs out of 
310 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

each one. I wasn’t very close. They looked just like what Chamberlain’s report told 

us. It looked just like about a foot and a half or maybe 2 feet of plume from the 

spacecraft and certainly didn’t look ominous to me at all. In fact it looked kind of 

like the spacecraft was really alive and working down there. I knew Jim was doing 

his job holding attitude for me.

[4-31]

McDivitt

Let me comment on the attitude-holding right now. Initially we started out in 

blunt-end-forward, banked to the left about 30° or so. This happened to be the 

attitude we were in. We wanted to be blunt-end-forward for the sun, and they told 

me it didn’t make any difference what attitude that we were in when we opened up 

the hatch. We had originally planned on opening the hatch toward the ground. 

I was called by some station that said it didn’t make any difference what attitude 

I was in when I opened the hatch. We opened the hatch. We opened it in that 

particular attitude, and I held the atti tude for the fi rst portion of the time that Ed 

was out. When you had the gun you managed to stay reasonably well out in front. I 

held the spacecraft essentially stationary with re spect to the local horizontal. After 

you ran out of fuel in the gun you were on top of the spacecraft all of the time, I 

felt that unless you really had to have the thing stabilized, to maintain your sense 

of balance or whatever you want to call it, I wouldn’t fi re the thrusters. 

White 

You asked that already when I was out.

McDivitt

Yes. I asked you if you needed it and you said no. So, then I felt it would be better 

not to fi re the thrusters, because you were drifting back up over the cockpit. I could 

see that you were going up over us. I couldn’t see back behind me, but I could see 

by the motions that you had when you went by me that you were going to continue 

on. I felt that it would be a lot safer if we just let the spacecraft drift unless it got 

into very high rates. I fi red the jets a couple of times just to knock off the rates. I 

let it start drifting when you got on the tether so that you wouldn’t get back there 

on top of one of those thrusters when I fi red them. From about the time you ran 

out of fuel until you got back in I didn’t do much attitude controlling. I did some. 

Everytime [sic] the rates got up pretty high, I’d knock them off. You were able to 

maneuver around the spacecraft when the spacecraft itself had rates of say +/-2 

degrees/second in a couple of the axes at the same time. Here again before the 

fl ight we discussed the axis system. Ed selected the spacecraft as his axis system. It 

didn’t appear that he was having a bit of trouble with it. He was maneuvering with 

respect to it, regardless of what the earth, sun, moon, and stars were doing. It was 

pretty obvious to me that was exactly what he was doing.

White

Well, when I came back the fi rst time to the spacecraft with the gun --I had used 

the tether to bring me back -- I did go back up on the adapter area. This is the fi rst 

time it had happened. I said, “All right. I’m coming back out again.”

[4-32]
Exploring the Unknown 311

This is one of the most impressive uses of the gun that I had. I started back out 

with that gun, and I decided that I would fi re a pretty good burst too. I started 

back out with that gun, and I literally fl ew with the gun right down along the edge 

of the spacecraft, right out to the front of the nose, and out past the end of the 

nose. I then actually stopped myself with the gun. That was easier than I thought. 

I must have been fairly fortunate, because I must have fi red it right through my 

CG. I stopped out there and, if my memory serves me right, this is where I tried a 

couple of yaw man euvers. I tried a couple of yaw and a couple of pitch man euvers, 

and then I started fi ring the gun to come back in. I think this was the time that the 

gun ran out. And I was actually able to stop myself with it out there that second 

time too. The longest fi ring time that I put on the gun was the one that I used to 

start over the doors up by the adapter section. I started back out then. I probably 

fi red it for 1 second burst or something like that. I used small burst all the time. 

You could put a little burst in and the re sponse was tremendous. You could start 

a slow yaw or a slow pitch. It seemed to be a rather effi cient way to operate. I 

would have liked to have had a 3-foot bottle out there -- the bigger the better. It 

was quite easy to control. I feel that with the gun there would be no diffi culty in 

maneuvering back to the aft end of the spacecraft, and this was exactly what I 

did later on. Just on the tether. I got all the way back. So, I ran out of air with the 

gun, and I reported this to Jim. I didn’t attempt to take any pictures while I was 

actually maneuvering with the gun. The technique that I used with the gun was 

the technique that we developed on the air-bearing platform. I kept my left hand 

out to the side, and the gun as close to my center of gravity as I could. I think that 

the training I had on the air-bearing tables was very representa tive, especially in 

yaw and pitch. I felt quite confi dent with the gun in yaw and pitch, but I felt a little 

less con fi dent in roll. I felt that I would have to use too much of my fuel. I felt 

that it would be a little more diffi cult to control and I didn’t want to use my fuel 

to take out my roll combination with the yaw. We divided our plan so that I would 

have a part of it on the maneuver and a part of it on the tether. I don’t know how 

far along we were when the gun ran out.

McDivitt

Right on schedule when the gun ran out. We planned 4 minutes for the gun 

portion of it. We were just about on schedule.

White

I bet we used a little more than 4, because I think we came out earlier than we 

thought.

[4-33]

McDivitt

No, I started the event timer to time it.

White

Well, this is where my control diffi culty began. As soon as my gun ran out I wasn’t 

able to control myself the way I could with the gun. With that gun, I could decide 

to go to a part of a spacecraft and very confi dently go. I think right now that I 

wish that I had given Jim the gun and taken the camera off. Now I was working on 

taking some pictures and working on the tether dynamics. I immediately realized 
312 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

what was wrong. I realized that our tether was mounted on a plane oblique to 

the angle in which I wanted to translate, I remember from our air-bearing work 

that everytime you got at an angle from the perpendicular where your tether was 

mounted, it gave you a nice arching trajectory back in the opposite direction. 

You’re actually like a weight on the end of a string. If you push out in one direction 

and you’re at an angle from the perpendicular, when you reach the end of a tether, 

it neatly sends you in a long arc back in the oppo site direction. Each time this arc 

carried me right back to the top of the adapter, to the top of the spacecraft, in 

fact, toward the adapter section. One time I was so close to the thrusters back 

there that I called Jim. I said, “Don’t fi re any more”, because I was right on the 

thrusters. I was even closer than that foot and a half which I noted to be the length 

of the thruster plumes, and I didn’t want to sit on a fi ring thruster.

White

We were discussing the EVA and I was saying that I spent approximately 70 percent 

of my time, it seemed, trying to get out of the area back above the spacecraft in 

the adapter area.

McDivitt

Yes, you intended to go toward the position that was directly over the cockpit. You 

always arced past it because you were coming from the front.

White

This was exactly right because that’s exactly where my tether was connected. Chris 

had been very emphatic that he wanted me to stay out of this area, and I had 

agreed to stay out of there, I tell you, I was doing my level best to keep out, but the 

tether dynamics just put me back there all the time.

McDivitt

Let me interject something here. When we were talking about the control modes 

and how we were going to control the spacecraft, we decided on the Pulse Mode 

rather than the Horizon Scan Mode, or anything like that. The Horizon Scan 

Mode would leave me free to use both hands to take pictures of you, and that way 

I wouldn’t have had to control the spacecraft. But since it was an automatic mode 

and it fi red whenever it felt [4-34] like fi ring, it didn’t give us any fl exibility, and this 

is why I felt that the best mode to be in was Pulse, in case you did get back there.

White

That’s exactly what happened.

McDivitt

I didn’t have to worry about the thruster going off in your face. I didn’t want the 

thrusters to fi re, and they didn’t fi re because I didn’t touch them. It was a wise 

choice.

White

I think this was good. When you look at it from a picture-taking viewpoint, it gave 

a wider spectrum of pictures. You got different views of the earth and the horizon. 

I’m glad we weren’t held to a specifi c mode.
Exploring the Unknown 313

McDivitt

I think that the picture we did take or the attitude that we started out, which is 

shown in the newspaper, is just about right.

McDivitt

I guess we banked over to the right, I don’t know.

White

That must have been just as I came out.

McDivitt

I don’t remember, but it had enough of the ground in the background so that it 

was certainly worthwhile.

White

On one of my passes back to the adapter area I got so far back that I was about 

3 or 4 feet from the adapter separation plane, perpendicular to it. It was rather 

jagged. There did appear to be some sharp edges, but it really didn’t look very 

imposing to me. I took a picture of it. That’s one picture I believe was good and 

should come out.

McDivitt

The trouble is it was probably set on infi nity and you were up about 5 feet.

White

No, I set the camera to about 15 feet or so. It might be a little fuzzy because it was 

too close.

White 

No, I didn’t see the far side of the adapter. It didn’t go all the way around. I think 

I could have pushed off and gotten back that far.

McDivitt

No. Better to stay away from it.

White

Well, I felt that if I got going I could have swung all the way around and had my 

umbilical right on the edge, without anything to hold on to or any gun to control 

myself. This [4-35] didn’t seem like it was at all safe, and I had told Chris that I 

wouldn’t go behind the craft. So I didn’t go back there.

McDivitt

That must have been just about the time I told you to come back in.

White

No, I would estimate this was about two-thirds of the way, and about this time I 

was after pictures. I knew that was a part of the fl ight plan that I had, in my mind, 

fulfi lled satisfactorily. So I tried to get some pictures, and this is where I really 

imparted some velocities, trying to get away from the spacecraft into a position so 

I could take a picture. I went out to the end of my tether cord quite a few times 
314 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

doing this. I seemed like every time I would be completely 180 degrees to the 

spacecraft. I’d have beautiful views of the ground but I couldn’t see the spacecraft. 

It was a defi nite mistake to mount the camera on the gun. That made it very 

diffi cult to use the camera. I had to point not only the camera but the gun with 

the long thrusters mounted out on the little arms. I’d want to take a picture of 

an object like the spacecraft, and there were too many loose items to get tangled 

up in and block the camera. I know my tie-down strap was fl oating loose. I had 

left that out intentionally so that I could get it later on any time I had to pull my 

helmet down. Occasionally when I got in close to the spacecraft, the bag and 

strings associated with the bag were tangling up around the vicinity of the gun and 

the camera. And it seemed like the umbilical was right in front of the camera all 

the time. So, I think the pictures will verify that I was fl icking my right arm quite a 

bit in the later part of the fl ight, trying to clear things out from in front of it to get 

a picture. Whenever I was in a position to get a picture it seemed like I was facing 

away from the spacecraft. I took a couple of shots in desperation, and I think I 

might have gotten a piece of the spacecraft. But I never got the picture that I was 

after, I wanted to get a picture of Jim sitting in that spacecraft, through the open 

hatch, with the whole spacecraft. I know that I didn’t get that. In fact, as time went 

on I realized that I wasn’t going to get much of a picture. I was trying everything 

I knew to get out there and get stabilized so that I could turn around and get a 

good picture. I just couldn’t do this. This was at the time when I was looking a 

little into the tether dynamics, and I actually kicked off from the spacecraft pretty 

hard. I remember Jim saying, “Hey, you’re imparting 2 degrees/second rotational 

velocity to the spacecraft when you depart.” I was pushing the spacecraft [4-36] 

quite vigorously. I wanted to push off at an angle of about 30 or 40 degrees to 

the surface of the spacecraft. And any time I pushed off from the surface of the 

spacecraft, my main velocity was perpendicular to the surface. It shot me straight 

out perpendicular to where the tether was attached. Again, this wasn’t in the 

position that Jim could take a picture of me, and it wasn’t too good a position for 

myself. I usually ended up facing away from the spacecraft.

McDivitt

Let me interject something here. In desperation I took the Hasselblad camera 

and stuck it over out through Ed’s open hatch, and asked him if he could see the 

camera and if he could tell me which way to point it. He couldn’t see the camera 

so he never really did tell me which way to point it.

White

No. This was the time that you said, “Hey, get in front of my window.” It just so 

happened that I was right up close to the spacecraft and that’s when I came over. 

Do you remember me coming over and actually looking about a foot from your 

window, Jim?

McDivitt

Yes.

White

Looking right at you.
Exploring the Unknown 315

McDivitt

Yes, I think that was the time the movie camera wasn’t going and I was fooling 

around with it, trying to make sure that it was running.

White

Oh, that would have been a very interesting picture.

McDivitt

I’m not sure it was going, Ed, because, as you know, we had so much trouble 

making the left-hand one run. We had that trouble throughout the remainder 

of the fl ight. You pushed a switch over and it seemed to run sometimes, but 

sometimes it wouldn’t. I kept worrying about whether or not it was running so I 

would grab a hold of it to see if I could feel it clicking over. I switched the ON-OFF 

switch on a couple of times to make sure I could tell the change in the feel of 

it. I’m afraid this time is one of the times that I didn’t have the camera going, 

because I was trying to make sure that it was going. I’m not positive. I hope I got 

the picture, but I’m not sure about it.

White

That was the time that I came right in, and I couldn’t have been more than a foot 

from your window, looking in, I could actually see you sitting there.

[4-37]

McDivitt 

That’s probably when you put a mark on my window.

White

I think the way I did that – I could actually see you in there and I pushed away with 

my hands a little bit. I think this was the time that either my arm or my shoulder 

contracted the upper part of your window, and you called me a “dirty dog” because 

I had messed your window up. You know, as you look back in retrospect, I wish 

you’d handed me a kleenex and I wish I’d cleaned up the outside of those two 

windows. I think we could have done it.

McDivitt

Yes. We’d have never gotten to the Kleenex at that time, but I think we might have 

done something about it. 

White

I think I might have, but we might have smeared them so irreparably that it might 

have –

McDivitt

That’s right. When you looked at that window of mine from the inside while the 

sun was shining, it looked like it was a black paint smear, such as if you’d take a 

piece of white linoleum and a black rubber soled shoe and made a mark on the 

linoleum. It had that kind of consistency. It was absolutely opaque. Just as black 

as it could be. 
316 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

Yes, I could tell. When I hit it I could see from the outside that it turned white.

McDivitt

It turned black from the inside.

White

From the outside it was white.

McDivitt

From the inside it was black. When I got the thing turned around a different way 

with the sun on it, it was perfectly clear as if you had taken the coating off, and what 

I was seeing was through a perfectly clear surface. So, I don’t know really whether 

the thing was black, that you placed something on the window that would make it 

black, or whether you’d taken something off that was very white, very thin.

White

I smeared the fi lm that was on your window. I’m quite confi dent that is what 

happened.

McDivitt

I looked at our spacecraft windows after they got it onboard and I could still see that 

little hunk of window. It looks to me like what you did was remove a layer off the 

window, rather than put something on it. You took something off the window, rather 

than put something on it. You took something off it. Except I can’t possibly imagine 

why it was so black and opaque with the sun shining on it at certain angles. 

[4-38]

White

I’d like to comment on the ease of operation outside on a tether. If you’ve ever 

tried to hang on the outside of a water tower, or about an 8-foot diameter tree, 

you can visualize the problem I had out there. The decision to leave the hatch 

open was probably one of the very best that we made. I had nothing outside the 

spacecraft to stabilize myself on. There just isn’t anything to hold onto. I think Jim 

will remember one time when I tried to hook my fi ngers in the RCS thrusters. I 

think Jim could see because –

McDivitt

I could see.

White 

I was right out in front of Jim’s window. This gave me really nothing particularly 

to hold onto. It didn’t stabilize me at all. I had nothing really to hold onto, and so 

if you have ever tried to grasp an 8-foot diameter tree and shinny up at, you know 

the kind of feeling that I had outside there. There just wasn’t any-thing for me 

to hold onto. One thing though that I’ll say very emphatically -- there wasn’t any 

tendency to recontact the spacecraft in anything but very gentle con tacts. I made 

some quite interesting contacts. I made one that I recall on the bottomside of the 

right door in which I had kind of rolled around. I actually contacted the bottom 
Exploring the Unknown 317

of the spacecraft with my back and the back of my head. I was faced away from the 

spacecraft, and I just drifted right up against it and just very lightly contacted it. 

I rebounded off. As long as the pushoffs are slow, there just isn’t any tendency to 

get in an uncontrollable attitude.

McDivitt

It seemed Ed did hit it pretty hard at one time. I thinly that was after he pushed 

off violently; he went out and it seemed, he came back and bashed it pretty hard. 

I remember a pretty solid thump. It seemed it was over the right-hand hatch or 

just right behind -- .

White

I know a couple of times I kicked off with my feet, and I think I know the time 

you are talking about. I came in with my foot. It wasn’t so much the contact with 

myself --.

McDivitt

What did you do? Contact and push off?

White 

I contacted and pushed with my foot.

McDivitt 

I heard a big thump and I think I called you at this time to take it easy.

White 

I believe that was on the front end of the R and R Section on my side where you 

couldn’t see me.

[4-39]

McDivitt

It was a position that I couldn’t see.

White

One of the pictures that I saw last night in the movies, I think, was made at that 

time. I was coming in fairly rapidly and I wanted to get back out, so I kicked off 

again with my foot fairly hard. It was a very good kick. I felt that I certainly could 

have controlled myself without the gun out there if I had just some type of very 

insignifi cant hand-holds or something that I could have held onto. I believe that 

I could have gone on back to the adapters with a minimum of several hand-holds 

to go back there, going from one to the other. I was actually looking for some type 

of hand-holds out there. I remember that the only one that I saw was the stub 

antenna on the nose of the spacecraft. I could see the ceramic covering over it, I 

believe it was ceramic, or some kind of covering over it. 

McDivitt

Yes, it’s white.
318 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

I felt that this wasn’t quite the thing to grab onto; this was at the time when I wanted 

to get out at about 10 or 12 feet directly in front of the spacecraft. I certainly 

had the urge to hang onto the antenna and push myself out. But I didn’t and 

there really wasn’t anything to hold onto. You really need something to stabilize 

yourself. I worked around the open hatch.

McDivitt

Let me ask you a question. How about putting the hand-hold inside the nose 

cone? A fairing is up there for launch, just the fairing. We could mount a handhold right inside.

White

I think we could have really made some money if we had had an attachment for 

the tether out there right on the nose of the spacecraft.

McDivitt

Strung the tether out there and then attached there?

White

Right. Have a second attach point and put it right out there. It would give you 

something to hold onto out there.

McDivitt

Yes.

White

There wasn’t anything to hold onto on the R and R Section.

McDivitt

I know it.

White 

It had smooth corner and the only thing I could have grabbed was the antenna, 

and I didn’t want to grasp that. We thought [4-40] one time of holding on out 

there and thrusting, but --.

McDivitt 

There isn’t anything to hold onto. I think you probably could have gotten a hold 

on the antenna and held onto it without hurting it. I examined it pretty closely 

before the launch, and it looked pretty sturdy.

White

I thought this was something we needed and I didn’t want to fool with it.

McDivitt

As it turned out we fi nally needed that antenna because that was the antenna that 

we used the whole fl ight – that stub antenna in the nose.
Exploring the Unknown 319

White

Yes.

McDivitt

When we opened up the spacecraft the hatch came open with a bang. The air that 

we had inside was obviously of greater pressure than that outside, and we had a 

great outfl ow of things including a piece of foam that we had used to pack our 

maneuvering gun in its box. It was the fi rst thing that we put in orbit. But then 

throughout the time that Ed was out, he wanted the door wide open. It was pretty 

obvious that the fl ow was from the spacecraft to the outside because part way 

through his maneuvers his glove fl oated out and fl oated away from the spacecraft 

with a reasonably good relative velocity. The entire time he was out, even after we 

had the hatch open for 20 to 25 minutes, we were still getting par ticles fl oating 

out through the hatch. It was the fl ow. The streamlines were very obvious. It was 

from inside the space craft to the outside. I guess the spacecraft was out-gassing 

at a suffi cient rate to cause a reasonably large pressure differential from inside to 

outside, and it was certainly relieving itself. I noticed this even as we were trying to 

get the hatch closed. There was still a fl ow from inside to outside.

White

Okay. I think that pretty well covers most of the things that we actually did while 

I was out there.

McDivitt

Now, as for getting back in -- .

White

Yes, let’s go all the way back through and come back in. The time really did go 

fast! I had watches with me, but I didn’t look at them.

McDivitt

I was watching the time. I noticed my watch around 4 minutes, 6 minutes, and 8 

minutes. And then you got involved in [4-41] fl oating around as we were trying to 

get that last picture.

White

The time really fl ew!

McDivitt

You kept getting behind me all the time and I became distracted from the time 

we were on VOX, completely blocking out the ground. Our VOX must have been 

triggered constantly, because whenever we were on it they couldn’t transmit to us.

White

That’s where the time got away from me.

McDivitt

That’s right, and it was 15 minutes and 40 seconds when I looked at my clock. So, 

I thought that I had better go to the ground. I said to the ground, “Do you have 
320 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

any message for us?” because I knew it was time to get back in. And they just said, 

“Yes. Get back in!”

White

Right. I remember hearing Gus say, “Yes, get him back in.”

McDivitt

This is what all the fuss was about. They might have been transmitting to us to get 

back in but we were on VOX and couldn’t hear a thing.

White

I did a few things after this time that I wasn’t doing to deliberately stay out. But 

I was deliberately trying to do one last thing. I was trying to get that last picture. 

And this was one of a couple of times that I kicked off the spacecraft really hard, 

to get out to the end of the tether. And I wasn’t successful in getting the position 

so that I could get a picture. I felt this was the one part of the mission that I 

hadn’t completed. Everything else was successful and I wanted very badly to get 

that picture from outside. I spent a moment or so doing this. This was also the 

period of time in which I called down to Jim and said, “I’m actually walking on 

top of the spacecraft.” I took the tether held onto it, and used it as a device to pull 

me down to the space craft. I walked from about where the angle starts to break 

between the nose section and the cabin section. I walked from there probably 

about two-thirds of the way up the cabin, and it was really quite strenuous. Could 

you see me walking along, Jim?

McDivitt

No, I couldn’t see but I could feel the thumping on the outside.

White

That’s when I got to laughing so hard. This was when Jim was saying to come in.

[4-42]

McDivitt

Yes, I think this is when I got a little stern and said, “Get in here!”

White

When I was walking on the top and was laughing, Jim probably didn’t think I 

thought he was serious. But it was a very funny sensation. Now as far as delaying, 

there were certain things that I had to do before I came in. And there wasn’t 

anything in the world that was going to hurry me up in doing them. We had just 

agreed that we’d do things in a slow manner and this is the way we’d do it.

McDivitt

Let me talk about the time here. It is implied in the papers that Ed didn’t really 

want to come back in, and didn’t. I think one of the things is that we didn’t hear. 

We didn’t have any transmissions from the ground after he stepped outside until 

I went off VOX at 15:40. They said, “Come back in!”, and I told him to come back 

in. I think that he probably delayed about a minute or 2 minutes.
Exploring the Unknown 321

White

I think so, trying to get the pictures.

McDivitt

And at that time I got a little irritated and hollered at Ed, too. Then he started 

back in.

White

But when I came back I had things to do.

McDivitt

Yes. I know it. That’s what I’m trying to say to get this thing in its proper 

perspective.

White 

Yes.

McDivitt

We were 3 minutes 40 seconds late getting started back in because we just lost 

track of the time. I couldn’t see Ed any longer. I was trying to keep track of what 

he was doing without being able to see, and I lost track of time. Then I think he 

delayed probably a minute or a minute and a half before he started back in.

White

That’s right.

McDivitt

So, those are the two delays. We’d agreed on that he’d start back in after 12 

minutes, From then on all the time was spent just trying to get back in.

White

I had certain things to do. I had to disassemble the camera that was on the 

spacecraft. I did this very slowly. I had to disconnect the electrical connection to it 

and hand the camera back in to Jim. Then I had to go out and disconnect [4-43] 

the umbilical, and this really went pretty well. The little tether that I had them put 

on the ring, a pull ring, to disconnect the pin worked pretty well. I disconnected 

the umbilical and discarded the umbilical cord.

McDivitt

That was the last thing Ed put into orbit.

White

Right. I put that in orbit. Earlier, it was really quite a sensation to see the glove 

fl oating off. I asked Jim a few minutes before about the glove, or Jim had asked 

me, “Hey, do you want this other glove?” About a minute later, I saw it go fl oating 

out of the hatch.

McDivitt

All I can say, Ed, was about a half hour later I was sure thankful that we had gotten 

rid of something. We had so much other junk that we didn’t want. 
322 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

I saw the glove come fl oating out of the right-hand hatch, and it was a perfectly clear 

picture of the glove as it fl oated out. It fl oated out over my right shoulder and out 

– it looked like it was on a defi nite trajectory going somewhere. I don’t know where 

it was going. It fl oated very smartly out of the spacecraft and out into space.

McDivitt

I think this had a lot to do with that out-gassing. There was a defi nite stream --.

White

Yes. It was following the streamline right out of the spacecraft.

McDivitt

It went out perpendicular to the spacecraft, whichever direction that is.

White

Back to getting back in the spacecraft - I had the one thermal glove on the one 

hand, my left hand. I always wanted my right hand to be free to operate that 

gun and the camera. The way the camera was mounted on there, I had to use 

both hands - one hand to actually stabilize it with the gun and the other hand to 

reach over. Again, I think dynamics played a little bit of a role there. Everytime I 

brought my hand in from a position out on my left, it tended to turn me a little 

bit, which is exactly what we found happened on the air-bearing tables. I think 

that the camera should have been velcroed to my body somewhere and used 

independently of the gun.

McDivitt

Yes. I got the same impression. I got the impression that what you really should 

have done was --.

White

Dropped the gun.

McDivitt

Unhooked the camera out there fl oating around and just thrown the gun away. I 

don’t think you ever should have tried to bring it back.

White

Well, what I should have done was fold the gun and handed it to you.

McDivitt

That would have taken longer. It would have taken precious seconds out of the 

very few that we had anyway. I think you should have just unhooked it and thrown 

the gun away.

White

This was probably the thing that I was most irritated with not completing. I didn’t 

feel the pictures were satisfactory with the camera outside. But I think the reason 

was that my camera was not in a position so I could use it adequately. But coming 
Exploring the Unknown 323

back in was the last thing. As a matter of fact, before I dismounted the movie 

camera and dismounted the umbilical, I folded the gun.

White

I took the lanyard off with the camera on it, and handed Jim the gun and the camera.

McDivitt

And I stuck it down between my legs.

White

That was the fi rst thing I handed in. Then I handed in the 16-mm camera, and 

then I threw away the umbilical. This was where the fun started. I found it was a 

lot more diffi cult coming back in that I had remembered in the zero-g training. 

It seemed like I was contacting both sides of the hatch at the same time, much 

fi rmer than I had in the zero-g airplane.

McDivitt

You mean you were hitting the hatch on one side and the hatch opening on the 

other side.

White

Coming back in, I was contacting the side of the spacecraft on both sides.

McDivitt

Yes, that’s right.

McDivitt

You weren’t really hitting the hatch on both sides; you were hitting the hatch 

opening on both sides.

White

Yes. I was coming down through there. I felt a much fi rmer attachment wedging 

in there than I’d remembered from the zero-g training. I think this might be 

associated with the extra 7/10 or 8/10 pound of pressurization on the suit. I just 

might have been a little fatter. I did notice that the suit was a little harder. I felt this 

type of suit during my pre-work, so this wasn’t a [4-45] surprise to me at all. But I 

did feel like I was a little fatter getting in and wedged a little tighter. 

McDivitt

I really don’t think Ed was any fatter. I think that link the suit holds the suit to 

whatever volume it’s going to go to. And I don’t think a couple psi are going --.

White

Well, I felt like I was hitting a little more as I came in.

McDivitt

Yes. I think what happened was he was stiffer, and he wasn’t bending his legs and 

his arms any.
324 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

You mean with the harder suit I was stiffer?

McDivitt

Harder. And your arms were stiffer and you weren’t bending them around as 

much. It looked a lot more rigid.

White

This might have been.

McDivitt

Not semi-rigid – Ed was rigid.

White

All right. This might have been.

McDivitt

And that looked to me like it might have been the problem. 

White

This might have been part of the recontact on the side of the spacecraft that I 

noticed. But as I came back in, I noticed that I had to work a little harder, and I 

hoped the tape was running because I think we had a very good commentary. We 

were both talking very clearly back and forth to each other during this time, and 

I was telling Jim that I was going to come in slow because it was a little tougher 

than I had thought. We were talking back and forth about being slow and taking 

it easy.

McDivitt

I actually helped push Ed down in there. I don’t know whether he felt it or not 

in that suit.

White

No, I couldn’t.

McDivitt

I reached over and I steered his legs down in, and I sort of got him settled in the 

seat a little better than what he was getting himself.

[4-46]

White

Yes. Right. I was kind of free wheeling my feet up there.

McDivitt

Yes. It looked to me like Ed was holding on to the top of the open part of the 

hatch and just swiveling around that part. It looked like he didn’t have enough 

mobility and strength in his arms to actually twist his body down against the force 

of the suit into the seat.
Exploring the Unknown 325

White

After awhile, I reached my left arm underneath, the same technique we had used 

in the zero-g training, and actually I had my hands all over the circuit breakers.

McDivitt

Yes. Ed was a real hazard to the switches.

White

Yes, and I pulled myself down in and that’s when I really started coming in – when 

I got hold of the underneath side of the circuit breaker panel and pulled myself 

in. That’s when my fi rst real progress was made toward actually getting down in.

McDivitt

Because, while I could steer Ed from where I was, really didn’t have the strength 

to pull him in.

McDivitt

It was 90 degrees to the way that he really wanted to be pulling. I could steer. I did 

do a little bit of pushing, but not a heck of a lot. I wasn’t really contributing much 

to the effort there except --.

White

You were guiding me down into the footwells.

McDivitt

Yes. That was about it.

White

But once I got my hands up underneath the instrument panel, I was back pretty 

well in familiar grounds – the work that we’d done fi ve dozen times in the zero-g 

airplane, and I knew the technique pretty well.

McDivitt

Ten thousand times! White does check pretty well.

White

I really did it a lot. Maybe the suit was stiffer, or maybe I was fatter, but I wasn’t 

going in quite as easy as I had before – getting into the initial position to pull 

myself down into the seat. So it took me a little longer. If you recall, I had to go 

back out again one time. I got back down and started to wedge myself down, and 

I got two fat cramps at the bottom of my thighs in both legs, where the muscles 

started to ball up a little. 

[4-47]

McDivitt

Oh? Did you get in your thighs or calves?
326 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

Both of the muscles in the back of my thighs balled up in a ball, and I thought, 

“Well, I have to go back out and let them straighten up.” So I straightened my 

legs out.

McDivitt

We had that problem before in the zero-g airplane.

White

This is the time Jim said, “Hey while you’re up, why don’t you throw the visor out?” 

I hesitated a minute because I thought, “Well, you son-of-a-buck, you might have 

problems here. You might have to be spending an orbit or so trying to get in.”

McDivitt

No, as a matter of fact, I don’t think that is when you did throw it out. I think you 

threw it out when you came back down and you started to close the hatch. You 

were having trouble. It wouldn’t close, and you said, “I’m going to have to take 

this visor off so that I can see these things.” And I said, “Listen, if we get this thing 

closed we’re not going to open it again. Throw the visor away.”

White

That’s right. That was when I got the cramps, went back up again, and then I came 

back down again, and said, “Hey, I can’t see them. I’m going to have to take the 

visor off.”

McDivitt

No, it was a little bit later than that. You had already started to try to close it, and 

you were having diffi culty closing it.

White

Okay. Let’s get the sequence out. We came down in. I got up to straighten my legs 

a little but, went back up, then I came back down --.

McDivitt

--with all your equipment on --.

White

I hadn’t held the handle yet, had I?

McDivitt

No. You hadn’t done a thing with it.

White

So I got back down into position --.

McDivitt

--with all your equipment on and pulled the hatch down.

White

The hatch was down far enough to close at this time.
Exploring the Unknown 327

McDivitt

I thought it was.

[4-48]

White

I did too. I felt it was down far enough. I can tell by looking right straight down 

at the edge--.

McDivitt

Yes. I can tell by looking up underneath the right-hand side to see where the dogs 

are.

White

Okay. So I thought the hatch was down far enough to close at that time. I reached 

up and got the handle, but I don’t know what I said to you.

McDivitt

You didn’t say anything. I don’t know whether you said anything to me or not, but 

you didn’t have to say anything to me. I saw you move that handle, and I saw how 

easy it was going, and I saw that the dogs weren’t moving.

White

I think I said something. I don’t remember what I said. But I said something, and 

you knew right away what had happened.

McDivitt

You didn’t say a word. I was watching the dogs and that lever, and I knew what the 

trouble was.

White

Right. So I guess that’s when I said, “I’m going to have to take the visor off because 

I can’t see.” And then we went back up and Jim said, “Well, we’re not going to 

open the hatch again. Why don’t you throw the visor out.” I hesitated for a minute 

to throw it out because I thought that we might have a problem.

McDivitt

Actually, we had a little more diffi culty than we had expected. We fooled around 

for a minute or 2 or maybe even 3 or 4 with the handle. It was pretty apparent 

to us that we weren’t going to get the hatch closed with normal, straight-forward 

techniques, and that we were going to have to start going to other things. While 

we say that we came down and moved the handle once or twice, it was over about 

a 3 or 4-minute period, at least. 

White

The normal method of closing the hatch is for me to come down and wedge 

myself down, hold onto the little canvas handle up there, and actually apply a 

downward force on the hatch to help close it. Then with my right hand I use the 

hatch handle to ratchet the hatch down. This is normally our technique to ratchet 

the hatch down. This is normally our technique we would always use, and never in 
328 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

the past has Jim had to help me with the hatch-closing device. This wasn’t the case 

this time. As soon as I had gotten up there to operate the gain lever, I couldn’t 

operate the canvas handle anymore. I couldn’t apply any torque or pull there 

because --. 

[4-49]

McDivitt

Not only that, but you were actually pushing yourself up off the seat. And I’m not 

sure that even the fi rst time that we had the hatch closed far enough. It looked 

like it was closed far enough. As a matter of fact, later on when we got it down to 

that position it looked like it was closed fi ne. It really wasn’t closed far enough 

because you never did get those dogs out until we - .

White

No, the dogs came out, Jim, the fi rst time I got torque on it. Those dogs started 

out, then it closed.

McDivitt

Did they? Okay.

White

Yes. I think we had it down far enough.

McDivitt

It looked to me like we did, and I couldn’t understand why they weren’t coming 

out. I knew that the ratchet wasn’t en gaged, but I got the impression that it was 

from watching your hand when you came down one time. You had the ratchet 

engaged and the little tit pin that sticks in the door that doesn’t allow things to 

come closed wasn’t there.

White

No, the ratchet wasn’t engaged. There was nothing on the handle at all, It was 

free, completely free. The situation hadn’t changed at all. Another thing I’d 

like to point out now, too, was the chest pack was in the way of bringing the 

handle down to a full-crank position. And I wanted defi nitely to do this because 

you can interrupt the sequence of the dogs if you don’t fully stroke the handle 

each time.

White

We went back up so that I could actually see and observe the levers. This was 

the time Jim said to throw the visor out because we probably wouldn’t open the 

hatch again, once we get it closed. And this seemed like very good sound advice 

to me. The only thing I was a little questionable about was that at this time I had 

the inkling in my mind that we might spend quite a bit of time getting this hatch 

closed, and I might want the visor when I was back out again. But I thought the 

judgment to throw the visor out was best, and I threw it out -- opened the door 

about a foot and a half and threw the visor out. The next time we came back 

down, I was still having the little bit of problem with the cramps, but not nearly 

the problem I was having with the gain lever.
Exploring the Unknown 329

McDivitt

One superseded the other.

White 

That’s right. One problem became of much higher magnitude than the other. So 

this was the time that we started working.

[4-50]

I knew what I had to do. I knew I had to work the gain lever in sequence with the 

handle again, just like we had when we opened it. We both had an inkling that this 

was going to happen when we opened it the fi rst time. But this posed the problem 

of when I reached up with my left arm to work the gain lever. It takes a great deal 

of force. This isn’t the direction that the suit is designed to reach in. And it takes 

a great deal of force to lift your arms up in the vicinity of your helmet to operate 

something there. In so doing it pulled me back up out of the seat. And I think this 

is the time that Jim noticed that I was up higher than I had ever been before, and 

he actually felt that my helmet was up against the hatch. I tend to agree that I was 

up in that position.

McDivitt

Yes. I actually pulled Ed down in the seat by pulling on the --.

White

I think so.

McDivitt

I did it in steps. I’d pull down and Ed would come down. Then I’d pull some 

more, he’d come down some more.

White

I was actually pushing up with my left hand, and my helmet was wedged right up 

against the hatch. I had a little bit of area in which they actually see the dogs that 

I was working with up there.

McDivitt

You could see them though?

White

Yes, I could see them. At least I could see what positions they were in. I could see the 

little lever operating under the spring -- where I was actually operating the spring 

on the gain lever. This is where I think we got some very good teamwork, because 

it was necessary that Jim pull down in con junction with the time that I pulled down 

on the closing handle and operated the gain lever. I just hope that the tape worked 

because I can remember I was in there. Jim was talking to me, and then when it 

came to the point when we really had to make the big pull I felt a little torque on 

the handle. I knew that we had it at that time if we could only get the hatch down 

close enough so that the dogs would engage. And I can remember giving the old -- I 

think I was yelling HEAVE! HEAVE! Is that what I was yelling?
330 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

McDivitt

I think so.

[4-51]

White

And it was perfect timing, because I could see Jim or I could see the hatch come 

down each time that I was yelling HEAVE! I think it was probably the most--.

McDivitt

The most interesting moment of the fl ight.

White

Yes. It was the most interesting moment of the fl ight, but I think it was probably 

the most, if you want to say, dramatic. I don’t know the right word. But it was 

probably the most dramatic moment of my life – about those 30 seconds we spent 

right there. The dogs started latching. I could feel them going in, and then I 

could feel them come over dead-center. Jim called out that the dogs were in.

McDivitt

I knew that once we got them moving we’d be all right.

White

Yes, once they started coming in. As long as we got those dogs to engage, with the 

little lever that permitted them to come out and lock, I knew that we had it hacked.

McDivitt

Yes. So did I. Even if we would have had to reenter with the hatch in that position, 

we’d have been all right. I don’t think that the heat leaks were that tremendous.

White

I knew we could continue and dog it on in all the way. It seems like whenever 

you know you’re right on something, you want to be darn sure that they fi x it. 

This was going through my mind then. And I remember that I felt I was right 

in that the bar and the attachment on that bar and lanyard were not strong 

enough. I remembered that, and I knew how hard you were pulling on that thing. 

I think, if nothing else, they ought to be sure. Howe many times did we break that 

attachment at the bar?

McDivitt

We broke the attachment about three or four times on the zero-g airplane. Every 

time they kept telling us it wasn’t made out of the right kind of stuff, and the stuff 

we were going to have in the spacecraft would be the right material. Well, it didn’t 

break in the spacecraft, just coincidently, or maybe because we both had doubts 

about the strength of that particular piece. The same thing crossed through my 

mind. I was thinking that the success or failure of this hatch closure depends on 

whether this hatch closing device stays hooked onto that spacecraft and doesn’t 

break off. 
Exploring the Unknown 331

White

We would have been fl at out of luck!

[4-52]

McDivitt

We would have been in deep trouble! I’m not sure we wouldn’t have been able to 

get the hatch closed, because we had put that canvas strap on there and I might 

have been able to pull you down that way. But I had about all the pull I had in me 

on that last –

White

I know you did.

McDivitt

--on that last thing and I had a lot of mechanical advantage over it. When we went 

to that canvas strap we would have had to go with no mechanical advantage – as a 

matter of fact, a mechanical disadvantage.

White

This is one thing that didn’t fail, but I recommend that it be made stronger.

McDivitt

Stronger anyway!

White

I think so.

McDivitt

For nothing else than a psychological purpose.

White

Right. I’d like to take the spacecraft now and see if I could break it, because I had 

the feeling that I never had been confi dent that the attachment nor the bar nor 

the lanyard were strong enough.

McDivitt

When I say I was really pulling as strong as I could, I really had some pull left in 

me, but I guess what I should have said is that I was pulling about as hard as I 

dared pull at the time. I guess I could have pulled another few pounds, but I hated 

to apply more than was needed on there because of the lack of confi dence in the 

strength of it.

White

Everything I had was in it over there. I was pulling down with my legs as hard as I 

could and operating. I was pulling on the handle. I remember one time you said, 

“Hey don’t pull on that handle so hard! You’re going to break it!” 

McDivitt

I was cautioning you to take it easy, which you don’t usually have to do.
332 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

This was when we were yelling HEAVE! I was heaving on the handle as I was 

pulling it down each time. It felt like to me that the handle was giving. But I didn’t 

give a darn! If it broke, it was going to break. So one of the points we learned out 

of this was we’d like to see the bar and lanyard strengthened. 

[4-53]

White

Let me say one thing about the decision to go ahead and open the latch. If we 

hadn’t done so much work together with this hatch and run through just about 

every problem that we could possibly have had, I would have decided to leave the 

hatch closed and skip with EVA when we fi rst started having trouble with it. We 

had encountered just every conceivable problem that we could possibly have with 

the hatch. If it failed we’d know exactly what it was.

McDivitt

That’s right. I personally had disassembled this cylinder and piston and spring 

combination up at McDonnell prior to the altitude chamber, so I knew exactly what 

it was made of. I am sure the problem was that the dry lubrication coagulated, or 

whatever a dry lube does, and was causing the piston to stick. I knew how we could 

do this thing. Carl Stone and I had dismantled it and put it back together, cleaned 

it out, put it back together, relubricated it, put it back together, and it operated 

fi ne. I fi gured out how to make the thing work with it not working properly by 

using you fi nger as the spring.

White

That’s the exact technique we had used.

McDivitt

If we hadn’t had the training together that we had, and had not encountered all these 

problems before, I know darn well I would have decided not to open the hatch.

White

Maybe we sound overdramatic about the effort we made getting me back in, and 

I’ll honestly say it’s one of the biggest efforts I ever made in my life, but I don’t 

think we were all done then.

McDivitt

There were a lot of things we could do.

White

We could have gone around several orbits working on closing the hatch. That 

wasn’t the last time we were going to get a chance to close it. So there were things 

left if we under stood, and other procedures we could have used to go ahead and 

close it. When we got it closed back in, I was completely soaked wasn’t I?

McDivitt

Yes. You were really bushed.
Exploring the Unknown 333

White

Sweat was just pouring down. In fact, I could hardly see. It was in my eyes.

McDivitt

So I told you, “Just sit there and I’ll get a repress. Don’t even move for 30 minutes.” 

I just left the repress valve where it was. I closed the vent valve, and we had a lot 

of instructions from the ground to close the water seal and a whole bunch of 

other things that didn’t make any sense to me. I knew that the spacecraft was 

repressurizing. I watched. There wasn’t anything else that we had to do right then, 

and we were both bushed, especially Ed. He was perspiring so that I could hardly 

see him inside the face plate. So, I just said, “You sit there and I’ll sit here and 

we’ll just coast around. When we get the thing repressurized, we’ll start doing 

something.” That was exactly what we did. I did fi nally extend the HF antenna 

and try to call somebody on HF and let them know that we were back in safely and 

that thing was repressurizing. I didn’t get any response until we got to Carnarvon, 

which was about 3 minutes later. I called and told them that we were repressurizing 

and had the hatch closed.

White

You know, that was some pretty good gage reading that we saw when we got the 

fi rst 1⁄2 psi.

McDivitt

The fi rst 1⁄2 psi. Ha! Ha!

White

That was a really big one. Since we’ve described the whole operation, we’d like 

to go back now and specifi cally point out the pieces of equipment that we used 

and our opinions of them, a few features that came out loud and clear to use in 

operation, general conclusions on EVA as an operation, and what we have to do 

to make it an operational procedure. So the fi rst thing I’ll do is go down through 

the equipment. As an overall comment on the equipment, I would say I felt very 

confi dent the equipment would do the job. And without question the equipment 

performed as it was advertised. It performed just exactly as it had been designed. 

There wasn’t one thing on them as far as the VCM, the umbilical, the gloves, the 

gun, and the visor that didn’t perform just exactly as it had been designed. There 

wasn’t one thing on them as far as the VCM, the umbilical, the gloves, the gun, 

and the visor that didn’t perform just exactly as it had been designed. I’ll take 

them all one piece at a time, and discuss them a little. I’ll start right with the visor. 

The visor was a rather controversial piece of equipment from the beginning. And 

I, for one, doubted a little bit the necessity for quite the protection that we were 

providing, although I had helped right from the beginning in the design with 

some of our ideas on the visor. It turned out, though and I commented on this 

during the time that I was out, that I was very happy to have the visor. I was able to 

look directly into the sunlight. I did so in installing the camera on the back of the 

adapter. I felt that the vision out of the visor was about as it would be on a normal 

sunny day [4-55]. This is because it is so bright up there in space. I felt as if my 

vision was what I would consider normal. I was looking at the different parts of the 

spacecraft and down at the ground, and the view that I received at this time was 

what I would expect on a normal sunny day. I was certainly glad to have the visor 
334 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

and I left it down throughout EVA. I think on a later fl ight we might recommend 

going ahead and lifting the visor and observing any changes we might see in visual 

acuity when looking down at the ground. The ground vision through the visor 

really didn’t seem to me to be degraded at all. Evidently just the intensity, and not 

what I was seeing, was cut down. 

McDivitt

Let me comment a little bit on that visor. I didn’t have a visor, and the bright 

sunlight that was in the cockpit didn’t seem to bother me. I imagine that the visor 

turned out just like a pair of sunglasses. You go outside on a normal day and wear 

a pair of sunglasses. If you don’t have them, you’re squinting. But if you start out 

without them you tend to get accustomed to it. I think I was accustomed to what 

light there was coming through the spacecraft, admittedly much less than that 

outside. Ed was accustomed to the sun visor and it turned out just like two people 

with and without sunglasses. They both could have adapted. I didn’t look into the 

bright sun straight ahead.

White

Well, the fi rst time I looked into the bright sun, the fi rst thought I had was, “Boy! 

Am I glad I’ve got this visor on!”

McDivitt

I know you mentioned it on the radio.

McDonnell

-- because I was looking straight into the sun. I had to look into it to attach the 

camera onto the adapter section. I don’t normally wear sunglasses. As you know, 

Jim, I have never worn sunglasses very much, and I didn’t notice it from then 

on, throughout the time I was out. I had no impulse whatever to lift my visor. 

My vision was as clear as I could have expected it to be without the visor. There 

are a few design points in the visor that we could make better and I’ll briefl y go 

into them right now. When you are seated in the spacecraft one visor slips up 

underneath the other and back along the back of your helmet, so that instead of 

resting on your helmet on the headrest you’re resting the visor on the headrest. 

You certainly don’t want to do that. The visor should be restrained in some 

manner from slipping up along the back of the helmet. Also, my visor was quite 

diffi cult for me to raise and lower. Once it was down it fi t quite snugly, for which 

I was happy. But it was diffi cult for me [4-56] to raise and lower. It was actually a 

two-handed operation, which is one of the reasons why I didn’t raise it outside, 

although I had no impulse to raise it when I was outside. I think that we might be 

able to design them to be raised up and down more easily. 

McDivitt

Let me make a comment on that visor. I never did see any need for the little 

lexion visor.

White

That’s exactly the point I was going to get to next. I think that one single visor 

made as close to the helmet liner as possible, providing the maximum amount of 

headroom and a min imum amount of interference, is what we actually need. I 
Exploring the Unknown 335

don’t believe we need the lexion outer visor. As they pointed out to us, it doesn’t 

really protect, because it bows in and it doesn’t really give you the protection that 

it should be affording. I would recommend one visor, one sun visor only. It’ll be 

simpler to operate.

McDivitt

I think so too.

White

Okay. The Ventilation Control Module, I can say without quali fi cation, worked 

exactly as it was planned to work. There was not one complaint that I had with it. 

It provided me with the proper fl ow. The fl ow was less than with the normal ECS 

suit system, but it was adequate to keep me cool and ventilated, except for two 

times during the fl ight. Those times were when I attached the camera right before 

departing the spacecraft and reentering the spacecraft. But I think it performed 

with out fault.

White

The umbilical was another item that I thought performed its part of the fl ight 

quite well. I had no complaints about it. I did tend to get it tangled up with the 

bag and the strings that were attached to the bag during EVA.

White

I am very thankful that we decided to design the gloves in the manner in which 

we did, the two-piece glove that was easily donned or doffed under pressurized 

conditions. As it turned out, I took them on and off twice while pressurized. I 

was quite happy that we had them designed in this manner. As it turned out, the 

heat on the side of the spacecraft, or the cold on the side of the spacecraft when 

we came out of the dark side, were not noticeable to the touch at all. I didn’t use 

a right-hand thermal glove at any time during the fl ight. I took it off when I was 

opening the hatch and, as I pointed out earlier, it fl oated off during the EVA 

opera tion. I didn’t have opportunity to use it again if I had [4-57] wanted to. 

Coming back in we had diffi culty closing the hatch, and I, at this time, removed 

my left-hand glove and used the plain pressure suit gloves for this operation. The 

pressure suit gloves were comfortable. In fact, there were no sensations of either 

hot or cold through my gloves. 

White

The gun, I think, was an outstanding point in the fl ight, a highlight of the fl ight. 

It worked just as we had felt it would work and it was, I felt, simple to operate. The 

train ing that I had on the air-bearing platform provided me ade quate orientation 

in the use of the space gun. I think that now that we have a little more time to 

prepare ourselves for the next time we use this gun, training with it on zero-g 

fl ights would be appropriate. I don’t believe we will have any trouble using it in 

the zero-g aircraft.

White

One mistake that we made on our EVA equipment was the mounting of the Contarex 

camera. This camera should have been attached by velcro to me, so that I could use 

it independently of the gun. It would have been easier for me to use, and I would 
336 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

have had a much higher probability of getting satisfactory pictures with it. It was a 

case of lumping too much together - putting the gun and camera together.

White

The attachment of the VCM to the harness was a good type of attachment. It was 

easy to disconnect the two velcro attach ments and move the chest pack in and out. 

I had to do this both when I opened the spacecraft hatch, so it would clear the 

hatch handle, and I had to move it out of the way when I closed the spacecraft and 

pumped the hatch handle.

White

Now we can get into some conclusions. While I was out, I de cided to put a piece 

of velcro strip on the side of the adap ter to see if later on we might use this as a 

method for attaching items on the outside of the spacecraft, if the velcro was still 

there and if it was in good shape. I think the velcro could be made into a very 

useful item for a type of tether. I think you might even be able to do something 

along the line of just having some female velcro on the gloves and pieces of the 

male velcro at points along the adapter. This might provide us at least some 

attachments so that we could maneuver ourselves back to the adapter section. 

This would be about the simplest kind of handle that we could use. I do believe 

that we need some type of handles on the outside of the spacecraft. Jim suggested 

one on the nose and in the cover on the R and R section up there. I think this is 

an area that we certainly have a possibility of using. I certainly would have found 

it useful. I would still be a little hesitant, though, of breaking the antenna. You 

would want to be sure that this wouldn’t be broken during EVA. I think the feeling 

I had out there, again, was like holding onto an 8-foot tree. There wasn’t anything 

to hold onto. You defi nitely need some kind of hand-holds. The decision to leave 

the hatch open was one of the best decisions that we made. It provided me with a 

center of operations for my work. I was able to stabilize myself by holding onto the 

hatch. It was also surprising to me how much force it took to open the hatch the 

fi rst time against the preload and the actuators, due to the seals. One other very 

good decision was to have me wear the heavy suit and Jim the light suit. I think this 

was one of the things that made our operation easier. It certainly made my getting 

back in the spacecraft and Jim’s assistance in closing the hatch much easier for 

him. Also, I was handing him things in and out. He was performing quite a bit of 

coordination in the operation with pieces of equipment that were going in and 

out of the spacecraft, and I believe that by being in that light suit he was able to 

do this much easier than if he had been in a heavy suit.

McDivitt

I might make a comment on that suit, too. When we opened up the hatch we 

were in a vacuum. I noticed that the temperature of the suit dropped slightly so 

that the suit was a little bit cooler inside. I was wondering if I was going to get too 

cold through the suit, but the rest of the time we were out the temperature never 

changed. I don’t remember looking at the suit inlet temperature, but the suit 

itself stayed reasonably warm. I had sun in the cockpit, and I had the cockpit open 

without the sun in it for a relatively long period of time, 4 or 5 minutes at a time. 

This didn’t seem to affect my temperature inside the suit.
Exploring the Unknown 337

White

I think you felt the temperature more than I did.

McDivitt

I felt the temperature go down, rather than up.

White

I felt that also while outside. I would say it was a very comfortable fi gure. I fi gure 

that I was probably at 68 degrees temperature out there inside the suit, which was 

cooler than I had been anytime during the fl ight. It wasn’t a cold feel ing, just a 

very natural comfortable temperature.

McDivitt

Suit inlet temperature was running about 55° during most of the fl ight. It got 

down around 52°, so it probably might have even been cooler than your 68°.

[4-59]

White

Well, it was cooler inside the suit when I was outside the spacecraft than at any 

other time during the fl ight. It wasn’t uncomfortably cool there at all.

White

I think that we can go on with some conclusions. Some conclusions that I had were:

1. I didn’t notice any extremely hot temperatures on the outside of 

the spacecraft. I also didn’t contact surfaces for any period of time to 

transfer much in the way of a heat load to any part of my suit including 

the gloves.

2. There’s a defi nite requirement for some type of handholds outside 

the spacecraft.

3. We should think a little more on where we want to operate during 

EVA and where to attach the tether. The tether was not attached at a 

point that would provide me the capa bility to operate in the area that I 

wanted to.

McDivitt

You couldn’t get to the nose. It provided great operation for directly above.

White

Straight above.

McDivitt

I just don’t know how you would get the thing out there. You would have to run it 

along the spacecraft, then attach it somewhere at the front.
338 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

It would preclude operations in other areas. You would either have to accept 

where we are going to operate or --.

McDivitt

You could have multiple attachment points around the space craft.

White

Of course, now, if you have a gun with a good air source, I wouldn’t particularly 

care where it was attached. I think you could go ahead and, maneuver to any 

point you want if you have a gun. Again, where you’re pushing off of surfaces, you 

tend to go perpendicular to the surface from which you push off. I found when 

I pushed as hard as I wanted to I’d still tend to go straight up above that hatch 

instead of out toward the front. I think this is a fairly obvious conclusion, but it 

proved out. Every time I pushed off I went straight up instead of at an angle to the 

surface where I wanted to go.

[4-60]

McDivitt

Something that you should bear in mind is that you were push ing off from the 

front, which tended to make the front go down as you went out.

White

Yes. Everything was working against getting where I wanted to go. Everything I did 

tended to put me up.

McDivitt

When you started you went in a straight line forward and tended to push the 

spacecraft down. I think, initially, where I was holding the attitude, you didn’t 

have that much trouble. Of course, you weren’t pushing as hard either, be cause 

you had the gun.

White

No, I wasn’t.

McDivitt

Later on, when we started free drifting, you were back behind me where I couldn’t 

see.

White

Did you feel me stomping around back on the adapter and hit ting the adapter?

McDivitt

Well, I felt you hitting things back behind me, and once you went behind the line that 

was directly overhead the space craft. I couldn’t see you through your open hatch.

White

I never really had a good contact with the adapter back there.
Exploring the Unknown 339

McDivitt

Just as well. We wouldn’t want to disturb those radiator tubes too much,

White

No. Well, now that we’re back, we’ll have some conclusions on the adapter area. 

I made it a point right from the begin ning to take a look at the thermal lines, 

the thermal paint on the adapter. It looked like it was in good shape. It was all 

there. There was discoloration around the attitude thrusters, particularly from 

the thrusting. The color of the thrusting is just like the RCS thrusting -- nice and 

clear plume. It looked like from outside, though, that I could see a lot more of 

the plume than I could when I was sitting inside the spacecraft looking out at the 

RCS thrusters fi ring. Again, the camera was not attached in an opportune manner 

to operate.

McDivitt

Which camera? The camera on the spacecraft?

White

I’m really after that camera on the gun. That one wasn’t attached good. The 

camera on the spacecraft was okay. It was a little diffi cult to attach because of the 

attachment [4-61] on the bottom of it. You can’t have it at any angle to make it 

engage. It has to be perfectly fl at with the mounting plate on the bottom. A big 

conclusion that I came to -- and I’ll see how you feel about this one, Jim -- I feel 

that storage in the back of the adapter section was certainly a very high priority for 

later missions. I feel that we can adequately store equipment in the adapter area, 

particularly larger pieces of equipment that we don’t have room for in the crew 

station or pieces we don’t have particular use for in the early part of the fl ight. 

If we can lick the problems in opening and closing of the hatch, we can store 

equipment in the back of the adapter section as a routine operation.

McDivitt

That’s right. I think the extravehicular activities have proved to other people what 

we already knew a long time ago that EVA is quite simple. I think the thing we’ve 

got to iron out is the hatch opening and closing. This is really our problem. I 

don’t think you or I will ever have any doubt about the extravehicular activity. 

That was, I thought, going to be pretty straightforward. It looked like to me it was 

pretty straightforward.

White

I felt that I could operate equipment out there. I could assemble equipment. I 

could put pins in, pull pins out, and screw things in. I did all these things during 

the fl ight. I turned the gun on, and I put in the pin to operate the umbilical 

guide. I attached the camera. I don’t think you could do these operations very 

effectively with big heavy gloves on. Although my gloves operated satisfactorily, I 

think that for assembly of items you want to have -- you ought to look into the 

glove area a little more thoroughly and try to get a piece of a glove with some type 

of a sur face that will give us some heat protection and gives us a high sensitivity of 

feel through it. The big conclusions, the fi nal conclusions, that I’d like to draw are 

that EVA can be made a normal routine operation if the following modifi cations 

are made to the spacecraft:
340 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

1.The highest priority is that the spring back there on the gain lug has 

convicted itself, and I don’t believe that that’s a good design. There 

should be some way that either the lubrication is made foolproof or the 

spring made stronger.

McDivitt

I think that we really want to say here is that the locking mechanism is inadequate 

as it is, completely inadequate. Until it is fi xed, I think we should take it easy.

[4-62]

White

That’s right. I think we almost had a bad experience with that gain thing. We knew 

about it ahead of time. We thought we had it fi xed, but it’s not fi xed. I think it 

convicted itself, and it’s guilty, and it has to be fi xed.

2. I recommend that at least the egress kit on the right of the crew compartment be removed to provide more room in the spacecraft. I see no 

reason for it being in there. I think it would be worth the effort and the 

additional money to pro vide the extra room in the spacecraft, So, my 

second recom mendation on EVA is to remove the egress kit, at least from 

the right-hand side, to provide more head room.

McDivit

Yes, that’s good. I might add that it’s a good thing that we had that egress kit modifi ed 

to the minimum height, because without that we would have been in deep trouble.

White 

That’s right.

White 

Yes. You and I had been telling each other that that was the biggest thing we did 

on our whole 9 months prior to the fl ight - to get that thing cut down. I think it 

sure paid for itself on our fl ight.

3. My third item is to make the bar and lanyard com pletely foolproof 

in strength. That was a device that pro vided us with the added force we 

needed to close the hatch, just as we sat there and said we might need 

during the SAR of the spacecraft in St. Louis. I think the attachments 

of the bar and the cable to the spacecraft should probably be at least 

doubled in strength, so there just isn’t any question in the pilots’ minds 

or the engineers’ minds. I guess the engineers were convinced that you 

didn’t have Jim and me con vinced that those two attachment points --.

McDivitt

We’ve seen it break too many times, I think.

White

We’ve broken the bar, and we’ve broken that attachment point. I had actually 

physically twisted the attachment right off the spacecraft up in the zero-g airplane. 
Exploring the Unknown 341

I certainly wouldn’t have put my full strength into it if I knew my life depended on 

that attachment. It should be made absolutely foolproof.

McDivitt

Well, that was the point I was trying to make earlier when I said I was pulling as 

hard as I could. Then I said that I really wasn’t pulling as hard as I was capable of.

White

You didn’t have confi dence in that attachment.

[4-63]

McDivitt 

I didn’t really think that I should pull on it any harder,

White

No. I think that should be the third recommendation and it should be corrected.

McDivitt

I think we could spare a couple of extra pounds of weight there, just for the pilots’ 

peace of mind.

White

That’s right. Take the time it takes to put a new attachment on there. They told us 

they didn’t want to do it because they’d have to rerig it. I think they’d better rerig 

it and take the time to put a good attachment on there.

4. The fi nal thing really doesn’t fi t in with the fi rst three recommendations, but I would sure like to have the opportunity to use that gun again 

with about a 10-times sup ply of oxygen in a great big canister. I think that 

maybe this is one of the items we could carry in the back of the adapter. 

We could use a small supply to provide the means to go back there to get 

a great big canister. Then we’d have a unit that we could actually do some 

maneuvering with.

McDivitt

That’s right. I think that, in essence, we proved the use fulness of a self-stabilized 

or a man-stabilized maneuvering unit --.

White 

Yes.

McDivitt

-- rather than one that is gyro-stabilized with automatic stability features. I think 

that although you didn’t burn up a lot of fuel, you certainly proved the feasibility 

of this type of maneuvering unit.

White

We had an awfully small amount. We just had the 6 feet/second.
342 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

White

We proved, in my mind, that I had the capability to go from Point A to Point B 

with that maneuvering unit.

McDivitt

Let me ask you this question, and be honest about it. Would you detach your 

tether and go without it? Don’t be too optimistic, because other people’s lives may 

depend on it,

White 

I think that we probably have not done enough investigation to do that at this 

time, but I feel we are progressing toward the point. We made the fi rst, say 50 

percent, of the step toward being able to detach the tether and go. I don’t be lieve 

that I would detach the tether and go with that 6-feet/second --.

[4-64]

McDivitt

Oh, no. I didn’t mean that. I mean with that type of unit.

White

If I had some more change of V in a unit like that I think that I would be willing 

to detach myself on the next fl ight, right now, from the spacecraft and go. That’s 

combined with two things, you see. You have two things working for you. You have 

the capability to maneuver yourself, and, if you should get out of control, the 

spacecraft still has the capability to come over and get close enough so that you 

could get yourself back in control and get in the spacecraft.

White

I think that 40 or 50 feet/second would be a minimum, I had 6 and I’d like to see, 

probably, a capability of about 10 times that. That may be a little --.

McDivitt

It’s diffi cult. I would think it would be diffi cult to fi x a number on it until you 

fi xed the job.

White

Yes.

McDivitt

If you wanted to go to something that was 10 feet away and come back, you’d 

probably get by with 20 feet/second.

White

If I wanted to get out of the spacecraft and go along to the back of the adapter and 

get in the adapter without being attached to the spacecraft, I’d only need two or 

three times the amount. I’d be happy to go with that.
Exploring the Unknown 343

McDivitt

There are some problems in the capability to aline one’s self onto an object. I 

think chasing the booster around points this out. You say you’d be willing to go 

away because the spacecraft can come and get you. Admittedly it can, but keep 

in mind the diffi culty we had with the booster. I don’t really anticipate us ever 

getting into the situation like that because you’d never get so far away that you’re 

in different orbits, like we were with the booster --.

White

What I visualize is a 25 to 50 foot operation where you’re going out to investigate 

either another spacecraft or another satellite up there, or making a transfer similar 

to the type of transfer that we visualize as a backup mode for Apollo. I think with 

the gun I had, if the LEM and the Command Module were there, I’d be satisfi ed to 

depart the Command Module and maneuver over to the LEM situated 10 to 20 feet 

away from the Command Module. I feel I could do that at the present time. I don’t 

think it would be a very smart thing at the present time to go maneuvering off 200 

to 300 feet away from the spacecraft with this type of device. I think this device is 

designed and has its greatest usefulness in close operation around the spacecraft.

[4-65]

McDivitt

That’s right. There is no need to maneuver off about 400 or 500 feet away, because 

if you want to go that far, use the spacecraft. This gun is for a close-working job.

White

I think it’s a valuable tool in this manner.

McDivitt

Okay. That’s the same conclusion I came to. We’d be willing to do it at close range.

White

I’d be willing to do it right now. I might not go tell some body else to go do it, but 

I’d be willing, with the training that I had with it, to transfer 15 or 20 feet without 

a tether. But I think we should spend some more time with the gun.

McDivitt

I think so too.

White

I also think it would be of value to go in the zero-g airplane with it.

McDivitt

Yes, I think so too.

White 

I think the work that we might do in the zero-g airplane doesn’t necessarily have 

to be done in full regalia, with all the pressure suits in a pressurized condition. I 

think we can go up there and learn a lot about the gun without pressure suits on, 

in a plain fl ying suit type operation -perhaps polish the training off with a little 
344 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

work in pres surized suits. If you work in the zero-g airplane with a pressurized suit, 

it’s pretty awkward.

White 

In pitch and yaw I felt I could maintain effectively zero rates. I don’t know how it 

looked to you, Jim, but it looked like I could establish a rate and take the rate out 

without too much trouble. The yaw is the lowest moment of them all. Pitch was 

very easy, just to pitch the thing up and down. I’m still a little suspicious of roll. 

That’s the area that I would like to look into a little more. I think that you could 

get yourself into a kind of balled up situation with pitch, roll, and yaw all coupled 

up. It might take a little bit of fuel to get yourself straightened back out again. But 

just in translating from Point A to Point B, you could care less if you rolled, as long 

as you kept pitch and yaw straight. And that’s why I say I think you can translate 

and correct pitch and yaw very successfully and effectively forget about roll, just as 

we do in our reentries or our retros.

[4-66]

White

The question is: Was there any problem with the gun of maintaining a fairly well 

stabilized attitude and still get my translation input? I did this actually three different 

times, and this was what I had done when I was coming back to the spacecraft the 

last time. I had to put in both pitch and yaw and had taken them out and I was 

coming back. I was going to fi re my last thrust toward the spacecraft. I got a little 

burst. I could feel a little burst and then it petered out. But you can put a translation 

in. I was also surprised that I was able to stop at the time I tried to stop it out there, 

about one-half or two-thirds of the way out on the end of the lanyard. It seemed 

to stop pretty well. It was either the gun or the lanyard dampening me. It didn’t 

dampen me in roll, so I then it was the gun that actually did it.

McDivitt

I think that this previous bunch of words just spoken covers a lot of detail of the 

fi rst three or four orbits of our fl ight, and it covers that fi rst phase of mission 

sequences that I fi rst mentioned. I think the next thing we should do is go through 

the interim orbits, about 50 or 55, or however many there were, where we set about 

to save up enough fuel to do something constructive, to check on our orbit to see 

what it was, to see how we were decaying, what our lifetime expectancy would be, 

and perform the experiments that we’d initially set out to do on our fl ight plan. 

Although it’s not going to be of much use to go through it in a chronological 

order, I suppose that is probably the best way. As I just fi nished saying, we’re not 

going to get an awful lot out of going through the fl ight plan sequentially, but 

we’ll do it quickly, and then we’ll come back and discuss each experiment or 

operation, check an entity in itself, and we’ll discuss the systems as an entity, too. 

We’ll do this, generally, in elapsed time.

McDivitt

Going back to the EVA for just one moment. I’d like to say that the use of the 

manual heaters on ECS Oxygen bottle was about two 5-minute periods separated 

by about 10 minutes. We really didn’t need an awful lot of manual heater when we 

were doing the extravehicular activity.
Exploring the Unknown 345

Document I-68

Document Title: “Summary of Telephone Conversations RE Gemini 7/6,” 25–27 

October 1965.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-69

Document Title: “Gemini Program Mission Report, Gemini VI-A,” January 1966.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Document I-70

Document Title: “Gemini VIII Technical Debriefi ng,” 21 March 1966.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear Lake, 

Texas.

The Gemini program consisted of a methodical series of steps intended to develop procedures 

and experience necessary for the Apollo program. These documents discuss three important 

Gemini missions. Gemini VI was the fi rst test of rendezvous in Earth orbit. The mission plan 

called for the spacecraft to maneuver to intercept an Agena target vehicle. When the Agena 

spacecraft failed, NASA quickly reconfi gured the Gemini VI mission plan to rendezvous with 

another Gemini mission, Gemini VII. The fl ight proved to be extremely successful and the 

results were an important validation of the rendezvous concept for Apollo. The Gemini VIII 

mission successfully docked with an Agena target vehicle but because of problems with the 

spacecraft control system, the crew was forced to undock after approximately 30 minutes and 

spent most of the rest of the shortened mission overcoming a failure of the attitude control 

system or the fl ight’s early return to Earth.

Document I-68

SUMMARY OF TELEPHONE CONVERSATIONS RE GEMINI 7/6

October 25, 1965

3:10 p.m.
346 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Dr. Mueller called Mr. Webb (from the Cape) to report on the accident, 

giving details of the Agena explosion. He said it would be ten days before the 

investigation would be completed. He said it did not affect our actual schedule; 

will probably move some of the fl ights forward. Press conference held; no need 

for further information to the press.

October 26, 1965

3:00 p.m. 

Mr. Webb called Dr. Mueller about a Herald Tribune article on the 

accident. He wanted to know if there were any feeling on the part of Lockheed that 

“this thing” was not ready to fl y. Dr. Mueller assured him there was no reservation 

on the part of either NASA, AF, or Lockheed.

October 27, 1965

5:25 p.m.

Mr. Webb called Dr. Mueller to inquire as to the possibility of scheduling 

a rendezvous in December, with a view to announcing that we are looking into the 

possibility of doing it. Mr. Webb said that a possible announcement might state that 

we re taking down the booster for the Gemini 6 and erecting the one for Gemini 

7 because of the experience we have gained in mating the Gemini 6 spacecraft 

to the booster, we may be able to re-erect Gemini 6 in time for a rendezvous with 

Gemini 7 during its 14-day mission. It would further state that in reporting this to 

the President, he has asked us to endeavor to do this rendezvous in December.

Mr. Webb said that Dr. Seamans was a little more conservative than 

he was, but Mr. Webb felt it would give the image that we have the 

resources to retrieve.

Dr. Mueller said they would have a much better view of the situation 

by Monday and could tell whether it was a 20-80 chance or a 80-20 

chance of succeeding. 

[2]

Dr. Seamans asked if it would place an undue burden on Chris 

Kraft, and Mueller said it would not as long as we tell them they 

don’t have to do it. 

6:__ p.m.

Mr. Webb called Mr. Joseph Laitin at the White House. He explained 

to Mr. Laitin that we were taking down the booster set up to fl y 

Gemini 6 in order to erect the one for Gemini 7. He said we were 

going to look very carefully over the next several days at whether 

or not it might be possible to launch Gemini 7 the latter part of 

November or early December, and if it gets off with no damage to 
Exploring the Unknown 347

the launching pad, to launch Gemini 6 before the 14-day trip is 

over. He said we, would not know for sure until next week whether 

or not this was possible.

Mr. Webb said he would like some judgment from Mr. Laitin and 

Mr. Moyers as to whether or not it would not be a good idea for 

the White House to put out a press release saying that NASA has 

informed the President that the Gemini 6 booster is not adequate 

enough to carry Gemini 7 into a 14-day orbit; that, therefore, the 

Gemini 6 booster is being taken off the pad and Gemini 7 is put on 

the pad for a launching as early as possible in December. Second, 

that we have told him that we have already done the work of mating 

Gemini 6 and the booster and both to the launching apparatus 

itself, and that there is a possibility that if Gemini 7 got of without 

damaging the launching pad, Gemini 6 could be launched and 

have a rendezvous between Gemini 6 and 7.

Mr. Webb said we couldn’t promise that we could do it, and the 

President mustn’t tell us to do it but to endeavor to do it. 
348 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-69

[1-1] [Illustrated by January 1966 NASA Gemini Program Mission Report Cover]

1.0 MISSION SUMMARY

The fi fth manned mission and fi rst rendezvous mission of the Gemini 

Program, designated Gemini VI-A, was launched from Complex 19, Cape Kennedy, 

Florida, at 8:37 a.m. e.s.t., on December 15,1965. The fl ight was successfully 

concluded with the recovery of the spacecraft and the fl ight crew at 23°22.5’ 

N. latitude 67°52.5’ W. longitude by the prime recovery ship (U.S.S. Wasp), 

approximately 1 hour and 6 minutes after landing. This rendezvous mission 

was launched from Complex 19 within 11 days after the launch of the Gemini 

VII space vehicle. The space craft was manned by Astronaut Walter M. Schirra, 

command pilot, and Astronaut Thomas P. Stafford, pilot. The crew completed the 
Exploring the Unknown 349

fl ight in excellent physical condition and demonstrated excellent control or the 

rendezvous and competent management of all aspects of the mission.

The primary objective of the Gemini VI-A mission was to rendezvous with 

spacecraft 7. The secondary objectives of the Gemini VI-A mission were to perform 

a closed loop rendezvous at M=4 (fourth darkness of the mission), conduct 

station keeping with spacecraft 7, evaluate the re -entry guidance capability of the 

spacecraft, conduct visibility tests of spacecraft 7 as a rendezvous target vehicle, 

conduct 3 experiments, and conduct systems tests. The primary objective and all 

secondary objectives of the mission were successfully accomplished except for one 

of the three experiments for which valid data were not received.

The Gemini launch vehicle performed satisfactorily in all respects. The 

countdown was nominal, resulting in a launch within one-half second of the 

scheduled time. First-stage fl ight was normal with all planned events occurring 

within allowable limits. The fi rst stage offset yaw steering technique was used for 

the fi rst time on this fl ight in an attempt to place spacecraft 6 in the same orbital 

plane as spacecraft 7. The technique results in a “dog-leg” trajectory, and it was 

used suc cessfully.

Staging was nominal; however, the crew reported that the fl ame front 

caused by staging enveloped the spacecraft in such a manner that it deposited a 

thin burned residue on the windows which affected the visibility through them. 

The pilot was able to verify this phenomenon as he had been observing a string of 

cumulus clouds prior to staging and also observed them after staging. He reported 

that the clearness and whiteness of these clouds was diminished after staging.

The second stage fl ight was normal and all but 7 ft/sec of the -660 ft/sec 

out-of-plane velocity achieved during fi rst stage operation was steered out during 

second stage fl ight. The spacecraft was in serted into an orbit having an 87.2 

nautical mile perigee and an

[1-2]

140 nautical mile apogee. The apogee was about 7 nautical miles below 

the planned altitude. The slant range to spacecraft 7 from spacecraft 6 at its 

insertion into orbit was a nominal 1067 nautical miles.

Nine maneuvers were performed by spacecraft 6 during the following 

5 hours 50 minutes to effect the rendezvous with spacecraft 7. These maneuvers 

were all performed using the spacecraft guidance system for attitude reference. 

Initial radar lock-on with spacecraft 7 occurred at a range of 248 nautical miles. 

Continuous lock-on started at a range of 235 nautical miles and no losses of lock 

occurred until the system was turned off at a range of 50 feet from spacecraft 7. 

The rendezvous phase of the mission was completed at 5:56:00 ground elapsed 

time when spacecraft 6 was 120 feet from spacecraft 7 and all relative motion 

between the two vehicles had been stopped.

Station keeping was performed at distances between 1 foot and 300 feet 

for about 3 1/2 orbits after which a 9 ft/sec separation man euver was performed. 
350 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

The relative motion of spacecraft 6 from the separation maneuver was stopped at 

a range of about 30 miles.

The spacecraft and its systems performed very satisfactorily throughout 

the mission, except for the delayed-time telemetry tape recorder which failed 

at 20 hours 55 minutes ground elapsed time be cause of a bearing seizure. This 

recorder malfunction resulted in the loss of all delayed-time telemetry data for 

the remainder of the mission.

The fl ight progressed nominally to its full duration. All check lists and 

stowage were completed in preparation for retrofi re and re entry and the reentry 

control system was activated. Retrofi re occurred exactly on time at 25:15:58 ground 

elapsed time for a landing in the West Atlantic landing area (primary). The reentry 

and landing were nominal, and the landing point achieved was less than 7 nautical 

miles from the planned landing point. The crew remained in the spacecraft until 

the spacecraft had been secured on the deck of the recovery ship.

[pp. 2-1 through 7-17 not included]

[7-18]

7.1.2.3 Rendezvous Phase. -

7.1.2.3.1 Radar acquisition of spacecraft 7: At approximately 3 hours 

g.e.t., the ground update for acquisition of spacecraft 7 was received as an attitude 

of or yaw and 5.50 pitch up. The ground con trollers also indicated that the initial 

computer readout of range (248 nautical miles) would occur at 3 hours 15 minutes 

g.e.t. The [7-19] radar was turned on in the standby position at approximately 

3 hours 5 minutes g.e.t. The analog meter indication cycled exactly as pre dicted, 

and the range and range rate indications oscillated until the set warmed up. The 

radar was then placed on “ON”.

The fi rst radar-range readout on the MDRU was 248.66 nautical miles, 

which is the maximum range readable. At this time, the radar lock-on light was 

fl ickering. The radar lock-on became steady at 246.22 nautical miles, At that time, 

a radar test was performed with the rendezvous mode of the computer to verify 

the interface and sequenc ing of the computer and the radar. This radar-computer 

test was not conclusive in that the specifi ed 130° angle of orbit travel to rendez vous 

(wt) was not inserted and the last wt that was loaded was 180°, which had been 

used for a prelaunch test. Subsequent to the NSR ma neuver and the fi nal switching 

to the rendezvous mode, the correct value of wt (130°) was loaded. The computer 

cycled properly, holding the range in the register for 100 seconds, and the IVI’s 

corresponded to the computer readout of total-velocity-change for rendezvous. 

The initial-velocity-change for target intercept was also noted, and the values were 

found to be decreasing as range decreased. The event timer was synchronized 

with the initiation of the NSR maneuver. Four min utes after initiation of the NSR

maneuver, the computer was switched to the rendezvous mode and continuously 

monitored by the pilot. A time synchronization revealed that the event timer was 

approximately 7 sec onds ahead of the computer time sequence (for 100-second 

intervals). The event timer was resynchronized with the computer-time and counted 
Exploring the Unknown 351

correctly throughout the remainder of the run. After the NSR maneuver, the range 

was approximately 169 nautical miles. The pilot did not re cord anything on the 

data sheet until the values began to match the nominal values at approximately 

136 nautical miles range. After that, the values were recorded and data points 

were frequently called to the ground. The computer solution for the total-velocitychange for rendez vous was very close to nominal. The target-centered coordinate 

plot (see fi g. 7.1.2-1) [not included] showed that the NSR maneuver had placed 

space craft 6 into the nominal trajectory and that the maximum deviation was 

approximately 0.25 mile high with no ellipticity. During this time, the elevation 

and azimuth pointers were oscillating approximately +1.5° from the electrical null. 

The period of the oscillation was approximately 4 seconds. As the range decreased 

to 97 miles, there was a noticeable reduction in the amplitude of the oscillation; 

however, the period re mained constant. It should be noted that both the azimuth 

and eleva tion readings crossed the null point simultaneously during these oscillations. At a range of 79 miles, all pointer oscillations ceased and remained steady 

throughout the remainder of the rendezvous operation [7-20] and down to a range 

of 20 feet. The radar data were continually being plotted and computations made 

as spacecraft 6 approached the point of terminal phase initiation.

7.1.2.3.2 Visual acquisition: Visual acquisition of spacecraft 7 occurred 

at 5 hours 4 minutes g.e.t., 54 miles slant-range from space craft 6 to spacecraft 

7. The target vehicle appeared as a bright star, 0.50 to the right of the boresight 

line on the optical sight. The tar get appeared brighter than the star Sirius, and 

during postfl ight com parisons, the fl ight crew believed it was probably brighter 

than the planet Venus. The target stayed in sight because of refl ected sunlight 

until 05:15:56 g.e.t., or for approximately 12 minutes. Spacecraft 7 was lost in 

darkness about 3 minutes prior to the transfer thrust, at a range of approximately 

30 miles. The crew, however, could have deter mined a backup solution during 

the programmed tracking period prior to transfer, and would have been able to 

perform the maneuver without vis ual contact.

7.1.2.3.3 Terminal phase: During the terminal phase, the crew used the 

data provided by the IGS (closed-loop) to perform all maneuvers. However, the 

pilot did make all backup computations for each maneuver in order to compare 

them with the results of the closed-loop solution. The target-centered coordinate 

plot revealed very quickly that the relative trajectory was near nominal and that 

the transfer thrust would be very close to the planned value of 32 ft/sec along 

the line of sight. For the backup procedure, the component normal to the line of 

sight was de termined from the time change of the total pitch angle. The ground 

solution, transmitted from Guaymas, indicated that the value was 31.5 ft/sec. 

The initial time transmitted to the fl ight crew for the initiation of the terminal 

phase was 05:16:54 g.e.t. A short time later this was refi ned to 05:18:54 g.e.t. The 

onboard computer solu tion gave a thrust time of 05:18:58 g.e.t., 4 seconds later 

than that computed on the ground.

 As the point of terminal phase initiate approached, it became evi dent that 

the exact- time to initiate the maneuver would be near the half way point between 

two of the computer solutions that are 100 seconds apart. At this point the crew 

discussed the situation and decided to take the second of these solutions, if it still 

met the basic criteria. This decision was made to insure that transfer would occur 
352 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

from a posi tion that would place spacecraft 6 forward and below spacecraft 7 at 

fi nal rendezvous, and that braking would occur slightly later than nom inal rather 

than earlier. This was the crew’s approach to being con servative with respect to 

the lighting conditions during the braking maneuver in that, being slightly later, 

it would insure that the target would be in daylight during the fi nal approach. A 

pitch angle to space craft 7 of 20.8 deg was selected for terminal phase initiate at a 

range of 41.06 nautical miles. At this time the START COMP button was pressed, 

[7-21] and the initial computer solution produced a value of 31 ft/sec forward, 7 

ft/sec up (this value later decreased to 4 ft/sec up at the time of thrust), and 1 ft/

sec right. The backup solution was computed to be 23 ft/sec forward and 2 ft/sec 

up, and a notation was made of this anomaly. The crew discussed the problem and 

decided that if a backup maneuver had been necessary they would have applied 

the nominal thrust of 32 ft/sec. This decision was reached because of the nominal 

tra jectories that were indicated, up to that point, on the onboard targetcentered 

coordinate plot. In case the radar or computer had failed, the thrusts that would 

have been applied were those necessary to achieve changes in velocity of 2 ft/sec 

up and 32 ft/sec forward.

After completion of the transfer thrust, the fuel remaining was 62 

percent. At this point, the time system was reset to zero based on the beginning 

of the fi rst computer time cycle that occurred 270 sec onds after depressing the 

START COMP button (nominally, this time co incides with the end of the transfer 

maneuver). The crew used this phase elapsed time (p.e.t.) as a time reference 

through fi nal rendezvous. The target was not in sight during the tight-tracking 

period from 3 to 5 minutes after the transfer maneuver. During the 3-to-5 minute 

tight -tracking period, the analog range rate was 160 ft/sec at 3 minutes 30 seconds 

p.e.t. Computations from the onboard computer showed

156 ft/sec. At 4 minutes 30 seconds p.e.t., range rate from the analog meter 

was 155 ft/sec, and the computer value was 152 ft/sec. These com parisons show the 

close agreement between the analog meter readout and the computer solution and 

provided the crew with high confi dence in the radar-computer interface.

At 5 hours 23 minutes g.e.t., during the 3-to-5 minute tight -tracking 

period, spacecraft 7 lights were barely visible and not suf fi cient for tracking. This 

time corresponds to a range of approximately 24 miles.

Subsequent to 5 minutes p.e.t., the spacecraft was pitched down to 

horizontal, using the direct attitude-control mode, to align the platform. It 

was decided that alignment would be conducted during the planned optional 

alignment period, from 5 minutes to 10 minutes p.e.t. This decision was based on 

the fact that 1.5 hours had elapsed since the last alignment. During this alignment 

period (with the platform in SEF, the control mode in pulse, and the fl ight director 

indicator dis playing platform and attitude), very little motion was detected in the 

pointers, indicating that the platform had been in good alignment. In addition, 

the optical sight and the visible horizon also indicated good alignment before 

starting the align period. This excellent performance of the platform provided 

the crew with further confi dence in the space craft 1GS system. At 10 minutes 20 

seconds p.e.t., direct control was selected and the spacecraft was pitched back 

up in order to track space craft 7. The radar lock-on light had not extinguished; 
Exploring the Unknown 353

therefore, lock- on was continuous during the alignment period. The radar was 

nulled on [7-22] the target, and the target lights appeared very dim in the sight at 

this time. The target lighting was evaluated as suffi cient for subsequent tracking 

and angular measurements.

At this time, an estimation was made, using the data entered on the targetcentered coordinate plot, that the fi rst midcourse correc tion would require slight 

forward and up velocities. The IVI’s indi cated 7 ft/sec forward, 7 ft/sec up, and 5 

ft/sec left at a p.e.t. of 11 minutes 40 seconds. This p.e.t. corresponds to 5:31:31 

g.e.t. After the midcourse correction thrust was applied, the IVI read zero in all 

axes. A second tight tracking of the target was required again between 15 minutes 

and 17 minutes p.e.t. It was not diffi cult to ob serve the docking light on the target 

spacecraft at this time. The acquisition lights did not show clearly, but they could 

have been tracked for backup solutions from approximately 12 minutes after the 

transfer maneuver through fi nal rendezvous.

During the second period of tight tracking, the range rate was noted 

from the analog meter at 15 minutes 30 seconds p.e.t. and indi cated 90 ft/sec. 

The computer data gave a range rate at this time of 91 ft/sec. At 16 minutes 

30 seconds p.e.t., the analog meter indicated a range rate of 85 ft/sec and the 

onboard computed range rate was also 85 ft/sec. At 17 minutes p.e.t. the range 

to the target was 7.7 nautical miles. After this data point was obtained, the desired 

velocity changes in guidance axes were zeroed in the computer, and tight track ing 

was maintained for a period of 3 minutes to determine the backup solution for 

a normal-to-the-line-of-sight correction. The command pi lot remarked that the 

spacecraft 7 docking light was as bright as the Agena. At 16 minutes p.e.t. (5:35:51 

g.e.t.) the pilot remarked that he could see the docking light even though he had 

a brightly lighted area in the cockpit.

The docking light on spacecraft 7 was displaced 0.50 to the right of the zero 

position in the optical sight, while using the radar null as the pointing command. 

Farther to the left, approximately 100, two bright stars, Castor and Pollux, were in 

sight. These stars provided excellent pitch, roll, and yaw reference. In addition, 

there were suf fi cient stars near and around the target to permit good tracking. It 

was also noted that the docking light obscured the acquisition lights because of 

its relatively greater brilliance. However, the spacecraft 6 crew requested that the 

spacecraft 7 docking light be left on.

The target-centered coordinate plot indicated that small up and forward 

corrections would be required for the second mid-course correc tion. The backup 

solution indicated 6 ft/sec up. No backup velocity correction along the line of 

sight could be obtained because the computer math fl ow locked out ranges at 

this time. At 23 minutes 40 seconds p.e.t., the computer solution gave a correction 

of 4 ft/sec forward, 3 ft/sec up, [7-23] and 6 ft/sec right. When this maneuver 

was completed, the IVI was zeroed and the computer switched to the catchup 

mode. The pilot then cleared MDRU addresses 25,26, and 27 (X, Y, and Z, desired 

velocity changes in guidance axes) and the IVI displayed all zeros.

From this point, the pilot continually called out the pitch angle to 

spacecraft 7 as it increased and the range decreased. The command pilot, at this 
354 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

point, acquired a very good star pattern to maintain a celestial line of sight. Very 

little motion was discerned during this period. The target-centered coordinate 

plot indicated a fl ight path that was forward of and nearly parallel to the nominal 

trajectory. At one point, the pilot stated that it appeared as if the target were go ing 

up; however, the command pilot decided not to make any changes at that time. 

At a range of 2 miles it again appeared from the pilot’s plot that the target was 

going up a small amount, but there was no apparent motion in relation to the star 

background. At 5 hours 46 min utes g.e.t., no relative motion was observable. The 

range rate was approximately 42 ft/sec, and at 05:48:11 g.e.t., the target appeared 

to start moving down a small amount but this relative motion was stopped. At 

this point, the START COMP button was pressed. This caused all subsequent 

changes in velocity to be displayed in cumu lative totals. At 05:49:06 g.e.t., both 

the command pilot and the pilot noted that the reentry control system (RCS) 

heater light came on at the telelight panel. This was at a range of 1 mile. This indicates that the panel was observable to the crew during this crit ical period. The 

total pitch angle, from 1.30 nautical miles into station keeping at 120 feet, was 

approximately 125°.

7.1.2.3.4 Braking maneuver: During the terminal phase a combina tion of 

radar display and optical tracking was utilized by the command pilot with the platform 

continually in orbital rate. The target held steady on the indicator throughout the 

terminal phase maneuver. At 05:49:41 g.e.t., the command pilot remarked that the 

docking light was quite bright, and the pilot noted the same thing.

At 0.74 mile range (05:49:58 g.e.t.), the pilot noted that the tar get 

appeared to be moving down. This comment was prompted as a result of seeing 

sunlight refl ected off frost particles leaving spacecraft 6 and confusing them with 

stars. Spacecraft 6 was approaching the BEF attitude (spacecraft 6 was 30° beyond 

the local vertical). The bal listic number of these particles was such that they 

trailed the space craft, tending to move upward toward the nose of the spacecraft. 

As the crew observed the frost particles, they appeared to go up in rela tion to 

this apparent star fi eld. There were stars still visible beyond these bright particles 

and these stars confi rmed that the target was not moving in relation to the stars. 

This illusion for the pilot developed from the lighting conditions in the right 

crew station. This side of the cockpit was lighted suffi ciently to permit the pilot to 

record data and work with the computer throughout this period. As a result, when 

[7-24] he made an out-the-window observation, he could not see the stars, and 

the particles appeared as stars to him. (This could have resulted in additional fuel 

expenditures if both the command pilot and the pilot had reacted identically.) 

At 0.48 mile range, the crew started decelerating spacecraft 6 from a closing 

range rate of approximately 42 ft/sec. Dur ing this period, there appeared to be 

no out-of-plane motion. As the braking continued, the velocity was reduced in a 

continuous thrust. The command pilot peered behind the black shield on the 

vernier scale until the pointer for range rate just appeared, having determined in 

the train ing simulator that this represented approximately 7 ft/sec. At this point, 

thrust was terminated and the range was approximately 1200 feet. The target had 

dropped slightly and a downward thrust was also added. At 800 feet range, 32 

minutes after the translation maneuver, the clos ing velocity was approximately 6 

ft/sec and the IVI’s were cleared. The cumulative velocity changes at this point 

read 27 ft/sec aft, 14 ft/sec left, and 7 ft/sec down.
Exploring the Unknown 355

The total distance encompassed during the braking maneuver was 0.24 

nautical miles (from 0.48 to 0.24 n. mi. from the target). When the range was 0.20 

nautical miles, the pilot called the range to space craft 7 in feet to the ground and 

to the command pilot.

At a range of approximately 700 feet, the sunlight illuminated spacecraft 

7 and the target was so bright that no stars were visible. The total impact of 

the brightness was as if a carbon arc lamp had been turned on immediately in 

front of spacecraft 6. The range decreased nominally, during which time both 

the pilot and command pilot contin ually commented on the brightness of the 

target. Because of the bright ness, the radar display and the fl ight director attitude 

indicator (FDAI) were then used for tracking. As spacecraft 6 approached a range 

of 300 feet from spacecraft 7, the pitch angle decreased to 90° and held that value. 

Spacecraft 6 then continued to approach from directly be low spacecraft 7.

At 240 feet, all rates in translation, except the closing velocity, had been 

reduced to zero. The closing velocity was being reduced by a series of small thrusts 

to approximately 2 ft /sec. Finally, at a range of 120 feet, all relative motion 

between the two spacecraft was stopped at approximately 36 minutes after the 

translation maneuver.

The fi nal braking maneuver was diffi cult because of (1) the bright ness 

of the refl ected sunlight from the target at a range of approxi mately 700 feet, 

and (2) the fact that the crew could no longer use stars as a reference. Also, the 

target spacecraft was changing pitch attitude in order to track spacecraft 6 and, 

as a visible object, could [7-25] not be used for attitude reference with relation to 

motion in a pitch maneuver of spacecraft 6.

A very low, relative translation rate remained near the end of the braking 

maneuver. Spacecraft 6 had moved from a pitch angle of 90° to a pitch angle of 

60° by the time the forward relative velocity was re duced to zero. The crew elected 

to continue this motion at a 120-foot radius, pitching down to the SEF attitude, 

and holding this position. At this point, spacecraft 6 was in the SEF position, with 

spacecraft 7 facing it in BEF, and all relative motion was stopped. The attitude 

control system was placed in SEF platform control mode, and all maneu vers were 

then performed with the maneuver controller.

The performance of the guidance and control system and radar sys tem 

during all phases of rendezvous was excellent and the use of radar for rendezvous 

was shown to be extremely valuable. Throughout the ren dezvous phase, the radar 

maintained positive lock-on and an accurate indication of range was available 

through the minimum readable value of 60 feet. The attitude indications were 

steady throughout the entire maneuver.

7.1.2.4 Station keeping.- From the crew’s analysis of the timing, spacecraft 

6 arrived in formation with spacecraft 7 about 23 seconds earlier than predicted 

prior to lift-off. In the SEF attitude, the distance between the spacecraft was 

closed to approximately 6 to 10 feet in order to observe spacecraft 7 in detail. 

Still photographs and mo tion pictures were taken and all exposure values were 

determined with the spot meter. The results of this photography indicate that a 
356 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

spot meter is a valuable aid in photographing objects in space. Initially, station 

keeping was accomplished in platform mode with minute thrust motions made 

with the maneuver controller. Shortly after the start of station keeping, the sun 

striking the command pilot’s window completely obscured his view of spacecraft 

7. The pilot gave voice positions of the target, and fi nally, control was passed to the 

pilot for approxi mately 1 minute until the spacecraft moved out of this sun angle. 

(This effect will continue to be a problem for station keeping.) The crew did not 

elect to do the in-plane fl y-around at this point because they wanted to determine 

the composition of the strap observed hanging from the adapter of spacecraft 7. 

Shortly thereafter, the Gemini VII crew in formed the Gemini VI-A crew that they 

also had a strap hanging from their adapter. This subsequently was determined to 

be part of the shaped charge holders. (See section 5.1.9.) [not included]

During the fi nal portion of the fi rst daylight period, station keeping was 

conducted in platform mode and fi nally in pulse mode when it was determined 

to be an easy task. Spacecraft 6 closed to about 1 foot, nose to nose with spacecraft 

7, and it was concluded that [7-26] docking would not present any problems. It 

was also noted during this period that one spacecraft could infl uence the horizon 

scanners of the other spacecraft.

During the fi rst night period, station keeping was maintained at ranges 

varying from 20 to 60 feet and the spacecraft were nose to nose. During the 

transition from daylight to night, the blurred horizon caused the scanner to lose 

track; therefore, orbit rate was selected prior to entering this period to avoid 

any transients that might occur during the period of scanner loss. Station was 

maintained by fi rst using the dock ing light and platform mode, then with the 

docking light and pulse mode, then without the docking light and using the 

illuminated windows of spacecraft 7 as a reference. During a subsequent night 

pass, an out -of-plane position was encountered where the crew could not see the 

win dow of spacecraft 7. The hand-held penlights were then utilized to illuminate 

spacecraft 7 at a range of approximately 30 or 40 feet. The crew determined 

that they had suffi cient lighting for station keeping. The most effi cient way to 

conduct station keeping was to maintain sta tion in horizon scan mode, letting the 

spacecraft drift in yaw. The recommended position for maintaining station is in 

the out-of-plane posi tion, rather than trying to maintain station above or below 

the space craft. This provides a visual aid in that the horizon relative to the target 

permits holding pitch and roll relatively steady in the horizon scan mode.

During the second daylight period, spacecraft 7 was scheduled to perform 

an experiment and conduct a small amount of station keeping. To provide a fi xed 

target for the D-4/D-7 experiment, spacecraft 6 was moved to a nose-to-nose 

position, 20 feet from spacecraft 7. The amount of fuel remaining in spacecraft 

7 did not permit more than about 2 to 3 minutes of station keeping, and both 

the command pilot and pilot ma neuvered o the nose of spacecraft 6 or this 

period. Subsequent to the station keeping performed by spacecraft 7, spacecraft 

6 again picked up the nose position and the command pilot initiated an in-plane 

fl y- around.
Exploring the Unknown 357

The in-plane fl y-around was conducted for 20 minutes starting at 7 hours 

42 minutes g.e.t. The pilot conducted an out-of-plane fl y- around for 11 minutes 

starting at 8 hours 10 minutes g.e.t.

The command pilot, during the in-plane fl y-around, allowed the range 

between the two spacecraft to increase to an estimated 300 feet. The relative 

position of spacecraft 6 at that time was above spacecraft 7, and slightly to the 

rear. This distance appeared to be excessive for proper station keeping and the 

range was quickly reduced to less than 100 feet. The radar system was not used 

during the station-keeping per iod. These ranges were determined both by visual 

observation in rela tion to the 10-foot diameter of the spacecraft as viewed through 

the [7-27] optical sight during the fl ight and by measurements after the fl ight of 

photographs taken with known optical systems.

It is recommended that station keeping not be conducted in-plane above 

or below the target. The ideal condition for station keeping is SEF or BEF in 

platform mode; however, station keeping can easily be conducted out-of-plane 

at ranges up to 60 or 80 feet without losing the perceptive cues that pilots have 

learned to recognize in formation fl y ing with aircraft.

The smallest distance between spacecraft 6 and spacecraft 7 during 

station keeping was approximately 1 foot, and both the command pilot and pilot 

fl ew at this distance with great ease. This, of course, greatly enhanced the crew’s 

confi dence in the control system for subsequent station-keeping operations. The 

control-system response can be described as perfect. The torque-to-inertia ratios 

of the attitude control system using the pulse mode, and thrust-to-inertia ratios of 

the translation system using minute inputs, were excellent for the station keeping 

per formed during this mission. Docking with a target vehicle could have’ been 

easily executed by applying a small burst of forward thrust from the l-foot range.

Document I-70

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

GEMINI VIII

TECHNICAL DEBRIEFING

March 21, 1966

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

MANNED SPACECRAFT CENTER

HOUSTON, TEXAS
358 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

PREFACE

This preliminary transcript was made from voice tape recordings of the 

Gemini VIII fl ight crew debriefi ng conducted by Captain Schirra immediately 

after crew recovery, March 18, 1966.

A subsequent debriefi ng was conducted at the Crew Quarters, Cape 

Kennedy, Florida, by Mr. J. Van Bockel on March 19-20, 1966.

Although all material contained in this transcript has been rough edited, 

the urgent need for the preliminary transcript by missions analysis personnel 

precluded a thorough editorial review prior to its publication.

Note: The section covering the problem area encountered after docking 

and referred to as the Gemini VIII Self-debriefi ng is contained within Section 4.0, 

Orbital Operation.

[pp. 2-54 not included]

[55]

GEMINI VIII SELF DEBRIEFING

Armstrong:

Okay. Approximately 7 hours 00 minutes in the fl ight plan, we were in 

confi guration to perform a Platform Parellelism Check and had just completed the yawing of the Agena-Spacecraft combination to spacecraft BEF 

position, 0-180-0. We were on the night side. We had docked at approximately 6:34, and that was just a couple of minutes into the night side, or 

thereabouts. In the Flight Plan – at the position where we were sending 

command 041 with the computer already set up with Addresses 25, 26, 

and 27 inserted. At the time, the Flight Plan was on the left-hand side and 

I was reading the commands to Dave, and, at the same time, was working 

on restoring the cabin into a better confi guration after just recently completing the Post-docking Checklist. Then Dave reported that there was 

some kind of divergence. How did you remember that, Dave?

Scott:

Well, we had just fi nished putting the commands in, and the next thing 

on the Flight Plan was to start the Agena recorder. I had just sent 041 

command to the Agena and written down the time at which the recorder 

started. I looked up and saw the Spacecraft-Agena [56 ] combination 

starting a roll. With no horizon, it wasn’t apparent until I happened to 

glance at the ball and I didn’t really feel it at fi rst. I called Neil and he 

suggested turning the ACS off. I turned it off as fast as I could and also in 

a short period of time turned off the Horizon Sensor and the Geo Rate to 

give spacecraft control to the combination.
Exploring the Unknown 359

Armstrong:

I would agree that I could not feel the angular acceleration either. We 

had the lights up in the cockpit and could not really see outside, since it 

was night and we had no horizon reference. My initial notice of the acceleration was an increase in rates and attitudes on the attitude ball.

Scott:

Yes. That was my same indication. With no horizon at all, and it was hard 

to tell unless you looked at the ball.

Armstrong:

Since we expected the SPC-loaded yaw maneuver to come sometime within the next 10 minutes and the spacecraft was essentially inactive with the 

OAMS Attitude Control Power off, it seemed as though the trouble was 

probably originating with the Agena Control System. So, I turned on the 

Attitude Control Power, went to RATE COMMAND (we had previously 

been in PULSE) and attempted [57] to stabilize the combination. It was 

my impression that after some period of time, perhaps less than a minute, 

we essentially had the combination stabilized. But, when we’d let go of 

the stick, we would again start to accelerate. 

Scott:

And, at some point in there when we had almost stabilized the combination, we sent a command to disable the SPC maneuver, too.

Armstrong:

That is correct. We were at the ....

I guess I read that command out of the book. 340 I think it was, or something - - S240.

Scott:

Whatever it was, and I checked it in on the card.

Armstrong:

Right. SPC Disable. Then, noting that the combination was still accelerating and desiring to stop the Agena Control System, we suggested trying to 

cycle the ACS on in case we could fi nd its Rate Command operative again 

and help stabilize the combination. We did not see any improvement 

and later cycled ACS back off. In the meantime, we had sent Power Relay 

Reset, which I think is 271.

Scott:

Right. Okay. I think the next thing we both commented on was being able 

to see the ACS thruster gas, or some gas coming out of there, out of the 

Agena. [58]

Armstrong:

This is correct. Since we were approaching a lit horizon, as we would rotate our line of vision through the horizon we could see the cones of ACS 
360 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

thrust coming out of the Agena pitch thrusters. And they appeared to be 

on full time to me, at the times I could see them.

Scott:

Yes, I agree. And it was about a 40-degree spread, about 25 feet long.

Armstrong:

That’s right. A wide cone that was illuminated by the sunlit horizon or 

air glow. Okay, we noted at that time that the gas pressures on the Agena 

were down to approximately 20 percent.

Scott:

Right.

Armstrong:

And we realized then that indeed the ACS was losing gas at a fast rate, either because of a leak or because of all thrusters fi ring simultaneously. We 

also had excessive OAMS propellant usage and I called out when we went 

through 30 percent OAMS propellant on the Propellant Quantity Indicator. At this time, we felt there was some possibility of a spacecraft control 

system problem at the same time, so we initiated procedures to check out 

the OAMS system and tried turning the Bias Power off. That did not stop 

the [59] accelerations. We turned the Motor Valves off and this did not 

have any apparent affect either. We turned the Attitude Control Power 

on and switched Bias Power drivers logic and, we think, switched the roll 

logic to the pitch thrusters.

None of these actions had any apparent affect, and we were simultaneously, 

whenever possible, trying to use the thrusters to reduce the rates. We never, 

however, were able to reduce the rates in any axis completely. It was obvious 

at this time that the only satisfactory way for diagnosing the control system 

was undocking the vehicle so that we could disengage possible Agena problems from possible spacecraft problems. To do so, we had to get the rates of 

the combination down to a value that was suitable for undocking with some 

assurance that we would not have a recontact problem. We, of course, had 

to have the OAMS on to reduce these rates and it took us quite a bit of time 

to get the rates down to a value that we both agreed would be satisfactory 

to try a release. Upon mutual agreement, Dave undocked with the use of 

the Undocking Switch and I used the forward-fi ring thrusters to back away 

from the Agena as quickly as possible, using about [60] a 5 second burst. 

We did not have excessive rates at separation. What would your analysis 

have been there, Dave?

Scott:

Yes, it looked like a clean separation to me with very low relative rates, 

and we backed straight off a good 4 or 5 feet before we started tumbling 

there and lost sight of the Agena. I might add that before we backed off I 

sent L-Band ON and UHF Enable to the Agena. 
Exploring the Unknown 361

Armstrong:

Shortly after backing off, we noticed that we were essentially losing control of the spacecraft in roll and yaw and we suspected that we were over 

the life-time of these attitude thrusters. The spacecraft was continuing, 

however, to accelerate, and we were obtaining rates in roll at least that 

approached 200 to 300 degrees per second, or perhaps more. 

Scott:

Yes, I would agree with that. It looked like even more to me, and it was by 

far more in roll than in yaw. The roll was the most predominate.

Armstrong:

We realized that physiological limits were being approached, and that we 

were going to have to do something immediately, in order to salvage the 

situation. So, we turned off all the OAMS thruster circuit breakers, closed 

the Attitude Control Power Switch, [61] closed the Motor Valves, armed 

the RCS, had no effect using the ACME, and went to DIRECT.

Scott:

I might add in there that the rates were high enough that both of us had 

trouble seeing the overhead panel due to the vertigo problems and the 

centrifugal force as we went around.

Armstrong:

The RCS DIRECT DIRECT was working satisfactorily and as soon as we 

determined that we were able to reduce the rates using this mode, we 

turned the A-Ring OFF and reduced the rates slowly with the B-Ring, 

putting in a pulse to reduce the rate, then waiting awhile, then putting in 

another pulse, and so on until the rates were essentially zero in all areas. 

At this time we carefully reactivated the OAMS, found some popped or 

inadvertently manually actuated circuit breakers, OAMS control and so 

forth. Upon reactivating the system we found that the Number 8 thruster 

was failed on, so we left that circuit breaker off. We had no other yaw 

thrusters with the exception of Number 8 but the pitch was apparently 

starting to come back in and we ensured that the roll logic was in pitch. 

We stayed in PULSE, controlling the spacecraft with pitch and roll pulses 

then to essentially a BEF attitude. [62]

Scott:

Do you want to add in there about the hand controller, in not getting 

anything?

Armstrong:

Yes. When I earlier referred to the fact that I’d lost control completely it 

appeared to us as though at that time we had no control out of the hand 

controller in any axis. I might reiterate that we reactivated the OAMS and 

found no roll or yaw control with the Number 8 circuit breaker off but 

pitch was slowly coming back then. It was somewhat ineffective at fi rst, 

but it was usable after awhile. Sometime later we saw the Agena, approxi-
362 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

mately a half to a mile below us for a short period of time in daylight. It 

did not have excessive pitch and yaw rates at this time, nor did it appear 

to be tumbling end over end. However we were too far away to determine 

whether there were any roll rates involved in the Agena. 

Scott:

Yes, I agree. It went by pretty fast. We did get to see it wasn’t tumbling, but 

it was hard to tell exactly what attitude or rates it had.

Armstrong:

Sometime later, when preparing for retrofi re, we were asked by the 

ground whether we had identifi ed the proper operation of the Reentry 

Rate Control System. So, in checking that system out, we found that we 

had [63] regained some yaw control at this time, and guessed at the time 

that those thrusters may have been cooling down to the point where we 

were once again getting thrust out of them. So, we used the OAMS then 

in all three axes to align the platform for retrofi re.

Scott:

You might add that the camera was on there during the undocking at 

some unknown setting.

Armstrong:

Roger, we did have the camera on during this time period – the 16 millimeter camera—but we, of course, could not take time to check the settings, and we could not identify at this time whether it was set for daylight 

or darkness, or for what confi guration. That fi lm may or may not come 

out. [64]

Scott:

One thing we might add on the stability of the combination – as far as 

bending we didn’t notice any oscillations on the docking or post-docking 

between the two vehicles after TDA Rigidized. Also during the rolling 

and yawing maneuvers, when we had the problems with the Agena and 

spacecraft, I don’t believe we noticed any oscillations or bending between 

the two vehicles. It seemed to be a pretty fi rm attachment. 

Armstrong:

I am certain that we put fairly sizeable bending loads on the combinations 

as a result of the inertial loads and also the thruster loads which were long 

time duration and in all sorts of combinations out of both the OAMS and 

the Agena ACS. There certainly was no evidence of any relative motion 

between the Agena and the spacecraft or any noticeable defl ections of 

any sort. After being informed by the ground that they were considering 

a 6-3 landing area, we realized that we had a reasonably short time to get 

reconfi gured from the stowage point of view to an entry confi guration. 

We immediately started to prepare for that possibility. This involved the 

restowage of the cameras fi rst. (Both our right and left boxes were not yet 

opened so they did not pose a problem).
Exploring the Unknown 363

Document I-71

Document Title: NASA, “Gemini Contingency Information Plan,” 11 May 1966.

Source: Folder 18674, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington DC.

Given the inherent riskiness of spacefl ight, NASA offi cials understood that the potential 

of loss of spacecraft and crew during fl ight existed. What should be done if this were to 

happen? The fi rst order, they found, was to impound all technical and other types of data 

relating to the mission to help reconstruct how and why a failure had occurred. A second 

action required obtaining statements from all individuals involved in the mission, which 

would probably be only preliminary to more detailed debriefi ngs to follow. The third step, and 

one that was virtually as important as these others, required the management of the fl ow 

of information to the public and other parties around the world. This plan, one of several 

prepared prior to 1966 and similar to but less elaborate than those still in use by NASA for 

more recent missions, seeks to ensure the appropriate release of details and the management 

of information to the media and others.

GEMINI CONTINGENCY INFORMATION PLAN

MAY 11, 1966

[i]

Although extremely unlikely, situations may occur which could result in 

aborting a manned mission.

Attached are suggested plans of action should a contingency occur.

Coordination by the Department of State with other governments, should it 

be necessary, is covered in a DOS airgram of March 9, 1965, to appropriate posts.

NASA will remain the prime source of public information throughout all 

contingency situations, with support from both the Department of Defense and 

the State Department.

[ii]

INDEX

Pad or Close in Abort Pg. 1

In-Flight Contingency Pg. 3

Contingency Situation in Pre-Designated Landing 

Zone (Other Than Area of Prime Recovery Vessel) Pg. 4
364 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Contingency Situation in Other Than Pre-Designated 

Landing Areas Pg. 5

Plan A Pg. 8

Draft Statements (Attachment 1) Pg. 10

[1]

PAD OR CLOSE-IN ABORT

Should an abort occur, the crew would be located and immediately 

transported to the Bioastronautics Support Unit (BOSU) at Cape Kennedy.

When the Mission Director or the Flight Surgeon (in Mission Control 

Center-Houston) is advised of the crew’s physical condition, he will immediately 

notify the Gemini Information Director.

Operating Plan

1. Applicable portions of Plan A will be initiated.

2. The White House, State Department, and Department of Defense 

Public Information Offi ces will be kept advised of the situation 

by means of a conference telephone call initiated by the NASA 

Headquarters Public Information Director or the Senior NASA Public 

Information Offi cer present.

3. Two Public Information Offi ce representatives will escort a newspool team from the Cape press site to BOSU. Upon arrival, one will 

establish immediate telephonic communications with the Public 

Information Director at the Mission Control Center-Cape or Houston, 

the other with the Gemini Information Director and the Director, 

Public Information.

4. As soon as feasible and with approval of the Assistant Administrator 

for Public Affairs or his designee, [2] announcement will be made of 

the time and site of a news conference which will include applicable 

personnel as recommended by the Gemini Information Director. 

[3]

IN-FLIGHT CONTINGENCY

1. The Gemini Information Director and the NASA Mission 

Commentator will be kept current on any in-fl ight contingency by 

means of monitoring applicable circuits and/or being advised of the 

situation by the Mission Director and/or the Flight Surgeon.
Exploring the Unknown 365

a. The White House, State Department, and Department of Defense 

will be kept advised of the situation by the NASA Headquarters 

Public Information Director or the Senior NASA Public 

Information Offi cer present.

b. The NASA Mission Commentator will issue periodic releasable 

statements advising the press of the situation.

2. When a probability of crew fatality or serious injury is indicated the 

portion of Plan A covering family notifi cation will be activated.

3. The Prime Recovery Zone Senior Public Information Offi cer will release 

information regarding crew condition to the news-pool team following 

coordination with the Gemini Information Director or his designee.

[4]

CONTINGENCY SITUATION IN PRE-DESIGNATED LANDING ZONES 

(OTHER THAN AREA OF PRIME RECOVERY VESSEL)

1. The NASA Mission Commentator will be kept current on crew and 

spacecraft status by monitoring applicable circuits and/or being 

advised of the situation by the Mission Director, the Flight Surgeon 

and/or the Recovery Zone Public Information Offi cer.

a. The White House, State Department, and Department of Defense 

will be kept advised of the situation through a conference call 

initiated by the NASA Headquarters Public Information Director 

or the Senior NASA Public Information Offi cer present.

b. Appropriate NASA offi cials will be alerted to the situation by the 

Gemini Information Director.

c. The NASA Mission Commentator will issue periodic and timely 

statements advising the press of the situation.

2. The Prime Recovery Zone Senior Public Information Offi cer will release 

information regarding crew condition to the news-pool team following 

coordination with the Gemini Information Director or his designee.

[5]

CONTINGENCY SITUATION IN OTHER THAN 

PRE-DESIGNATED LANDING AREAS

The purpose of this section is to provide guidance and direction for 

Department of Defense Public Information Offi cers and other Department of 

Defense and NASA personnel in the event the astronauts make a contingency 

landing anywhere except in the pre-designated landing areas.
366 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

While NASA will immediately dispatch public information representatives 

to such an area, it is recognized that, for a limited period of time, Department of 

Defense or NASA personnel may be the only representatives of this government 

at the scene.

According to the provisions of the “Overall Plan, Department of Defense 

for Project Gemini Operations,” dated November 7, 1963, Section IX, 4b, “when 

a contingency recovery operation has been initiated, acknowledgement may be 

made subject to the condition that NASA has made the initial announcement 

that reentry and landing operations have been initiated. Any other responses 

to news media will be based upon instructions forwarded through operational 

communications channels on the basis of particular circumstances involved. 

Contingency recovery communications channels are the appropriate operational 

communications channels for this purpose as long as those circuits are maintained 

in operational status.”

It is recommended that the above quoted provisions be applicable to any 

landing area except the planned landing areas.

In the absence of NASA Information Offi cers, Department of Defense 

personnel on the scene will initiate and maintain communication on a priority 

basis with the Public Information Offi cer for the Department of Defense Manager 

for Manned Space Flight Support Operations and will keep him informed of 

activities at the contingency landing site, including medical examinations and/

or other debriefi ng activities. He will serve as a point of contact for the Gemini 

Information Director and relay public information [6] to the Department of 

Defense personnel on the scene.

Following NASA’s announcement that the astronauts are being taken to 

a specifi c site, the Department of Defense Public Information Offi cer there may 

respond to news inquiries with approval of the Gemini Information Director.

Under no circumstances may he comment on the physical condition of 

the astronauts or the conditions which resulted in the termination of the fl ight, 

with the exception of certain cleared releases which have been forwarded through 

communications channels from the Mission Control Center.

In the event the astronauts’ arrival at any installation precedes that of NASA 

Public Information personnel, the Department of Defense Public Information 

Offi cer may confi rm the pilots have arrived on the base. With the concurrence of 

the Gemini Information Director, the Department of Defense Public Information 

Offi cer may authorize news media to photograph the arrival. 

Upon arrival of NASA Public Information representatives, the Department 

of Defense Public Information Offi cer will be relieved of public information 

responsibility in connection with the specifi c mission. He may, however, be 

requested to assist in accommodating local news media. 

As regards NASA personnel:
Exploring the Unknown 367

1. The Senior Recovery Zone Public Information Offi cer, after 

coordination with the Gemini Information Director, will issue periodic 

and timely statements advising the prime recovery news-pool team of 

the situation.

2. When a probability of fatality or serious injury is indicated, that 

portion of Plan A covering family notifi cation will be activated. [7]

3. The Gemini Information Director and the Director, Public 

Information, will be kept current on such information as crew 

condition, destination, and ETA of the recovery vessel.

4. Public Information personnel designated by the Assistant 

Administrator for Public Affairs will proceed to the recovery vessel 

debarkation point.

[8]

GEMINI CONTINGENCY INFORMATION PLAN

(PLAN A)

1. Notifi cation to pilots families by telephone

a. D.K. Slayton, Assistant Director for Flight Crew Operations 

(MSC), will notify command pilot’s family over an unlisted 

phone installed by the MSC Public Affairs Offi ce in the home. 

Dr. Robert R. Gilruth, Director (MSC) will speak to the command 

pilot’s wife following notifi cation by Mr. Slayton.

b. Capt. A.B. Shepard, Jr., Chief, Astronaut Offi ce (MSC), will notify 

the pilot’s family over an unlisted phone installed by the MSC 

Public Affairs Offi ce in the home. Dr. Gilruth will speak to the 

pilot’s wife after Capt. Shepard. 

2. Suggested Statements:

a. The NASA Headquarters Public Information Director will 

recommend to the White House that appropriate statements (as 

outlined in Attachment 1 herein) be issued.

b. The Gemini Information Director will recommend to appropriate 

NASA offi cials that applicable statements (as outlined in 

Attachment 1 herein) be issued.

c. The Department of Defense Manager for Manned Space Flight 

Support Operations or his representative(s) will recommend to 

the Department of Defense (Joint Chiefs of Staff) that applicable 

statements (as outlined in Attachment 1 herein) be issued.
368 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

3. Astronaut and fl ight-controller voice tapes bearing directly on the 

accident may be impounded pending an investigation of the accident. 

[9]

4. As soon as possible, the NASA Mission Commentator will confi rm 

the contingency situation and crew condition to news media 

representatives and will announce that a news conference will be 

held as expeditiously as circumstances permit. He will also announce 

the initiation of a special investigation board. 

a. The Prime Recovery Zone Senior Public Information Offi cer 

and all other NASA Public Information Offi ce personnel located 

at sites other than MSC will release information following 

coordination with the Gemini Information Director.

b. The NASA Mission Commentator may include the following 

items in the announcement of a special investigation:

i. The Mission Director has called a meeting with the following people for the purpose of establishing a special investigation board.

ii. When chosen, the board will conduct an investigation which 

will be of a technical, fact-fi nding nature. Its intent will be to:

1. Determine the sequence of events related to the 

contingency

2. Seek to isolate initial hardware malfunction to system 

component part level

3. Seek to determine the failure mechanism and physical 

cause of the failure

4. Reproduce the failure in a laboratory if feasible. 

[10]

DRAFT STATEMENTS

IN THE EVENT OF CREW FATALITY

(Attachment 1)

The President would contact the command pilot’s and/or pilot’s wife by 

telephone to express personal condolence.

President:

“I have conveyed to (______) and/or (______) and members of the 

(______) and/or (______) family (ies) my deepest sympathy.
Exploring the Unknown 369

“This nation—indeed, the world – owes (______) and/or (______) a great 

debt of gratitude. He/They gave his/their life/lives in the performance of one of the 

highest callings of this nation. He/They has/have also contributed immeasurably 

to the advancement of science and technology. I have been, and will continue to be, 

deeply impressed by his/their dedication to the nation’s space program – his/their 

insistence that the advancement of manned space fl ight was a pursuit of the highest 

order which must be carried out despite personal risks involved. 

“The United States of America will ever revere the spirit, dedication, and 

conviction of (______) and/or (______).”

Vice President:

“The death(s) of (______) and/or (______) in furthering a space fl ight 

program to which he/they has/have dedicated his/their many talents is a 

profound and personal loss to me. My heart goes out to Mrs. (______) and/or 

Mrs. (______) and her/their wonderful children.

“I propose that in his/their name(s) there be established a permanent 

scholarship for promising space science students to enhance the space exploration 

effort for which he/they gave his/their life/lives.”

[11]

NASA Administrator:

“I have extended my sympathy and that of all employees of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration to the (______) and/or (______) family/

families.

“The nation today feels a great sense of loss. That feeling is even greater 

among those of us who worked with that/those competitive young man/men who 

was/were so completely devoted to enlarging man’s capability in space fl ight.

“We in NASA know that his/their greatest desire(s) was/were that this 

nation press forward with manned space fl ight exploration, despite the outcome of 

any one fl ight. With renewed dedication and purpose, we intend to do just that.”

Secretary of Defense:

“We in the Department of Defense feel keenly the loss of this/these 

outstanding young offi cer(s). His/Their career(s) was/were extraordinary, 

bridging the jet age and the space age. His/Their work and dedication will forever 

serve as an inspiration to men who fl y.”

Secretary of the Air Force: Air Force provided.

Secretary of the Navy: Navy provided.

NASA/MSC Director:
370 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

“We of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center feel the loss of (______) 

and/or (______) very personally. The other astronauts, program people, and I 

have known and worked with (______) and/or (______) day-in and day-out.

“I have already expressed our feelings to Mrs. (______) and/or Mrs. (___

___) in a phone call that I prayed I would never have to make.”

[12]

Assistant Director for Flight Crew Operations:

“All of us on the astronaut team have lost good friends in wartime or in 

fl ight test work. It’s part of the business, and we know that better than anyone 

else. (______) and/or (______) was/were something very special – (an) excellent 

pilot(s), (a) tireless worker(s), (a) fi rst-rate engineer(s). He/They was/were (a) 

remarkable man/men.”

IN THE EVENT OF SERIOUS PILOT INJURY

All offi cial statements would note the hazardous nature of the work. 

NOTE: All NASA offi cials called upon to make public statements would 

assure themselves that their statements refl ect the on-going spirit of this nation’s 

manned space fl ight program.

Document I-72

Document Title: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, NASA, 

Memorandum for Associate Administrators, Assistant Associate Administrators, 

and Field Center Directors, NASA, “Gemini Program; Record of Accomplishments, 

Attached,” 17 January 1967, with attached: “Project Gemini Summary.”

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

 Document I-73

Document Title: “Gemini Summary Conference,” NASA SP-138, 1–2 February 1967.

Source: NASA Collection, University of Houston, Clear Lake Library, Clear 

Lake, Texas.

The lessons learned from the Gemini program proved critical to the long-term success of Apollo 

and the larger cause of human spacefl ight. The program succeeded in accomplishing what had 
Exploring the Unknown 371

been intended for it from the outset, and then some. It demonstrated the capability of Americans 

to undertake long duration space missions. It provided the opportunity to develop rendezvous 

and docking techniques that served NASA’s programs well into the future. It pioneered the 

ability to leave the spacecraft and perform work outside in an extra-vehicular activity (EVA). 

This knowledge is captured in summary form in these two important documents explaining the 

results of the Gemini program for both NASA engineers and the general public.

Document I-72

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON DC 20546

January 17, 1967

OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR

MEMORANDUM FOR Associate and Assistant Administrators

 Field Center Directors

FROM: AD/Deputy Administrator

Subject: Gemini Program; Record of Accomplishments, attached

The Gemini fl ight program, concluded on November 15, 1966, succeeded 

in accomplishing all of its pre-planned objectives some of them several times over. 

As can be expected in any complex developmental-fl ight program, some of the 

individual fl ight missions experience diffi culties. The successful demonstration 

that these diffi culties could be overcome in later missions is a tribute to the 

program organization, personnel directly involved, and to NASA.

A summary of achievements of the program as a whole, a mission by 

mission recap of fl ight performance in terms of the Agency’s pre-stated primary 

and secondary objectives for each mission, and, a table recapping the major fl ight 

systems and mission performance on each mission attempt, is appended on the 

attachment to this memo. This document has been reviewed and concurred 

in by the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight and Public Affairs as containing valid 

information to serve as an offi cial reference on Gemini accomplishments.

[Signed]

Robert C. Seamans, Jr.

Attachment 
372 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

PROJECT GEMINI SUMMARY

FOR INTERNAL NASA USE AND OFFICAL GUIDANCE

With the splashdown of Gemini 12 with astronauts Lovell and Aldrin aboard 

on November 15, 1966, the Gemini Project came to a successful conclusion. All 

Gemini Project objectives, including Extravehicular Activity and combined vehicle 

maneuvers, which were added after the project began, were fully accomplished 

many times over.

Rendezvous: Ten separate rendezvous were accomplished, using seven 

different techniques ranging from visual/manual control to ground/computer 

controlled rendezvous.

Docking: Nine dockings with four different Agenas were performed.

Docked Vehicle Maneuvers: Both Gemini X and Gemini XI demonstrated 

extensive maneuvers and a new altitude record was set on Gemini XI when the 

Agena Target carried astronauts Conrad and Gordon 851 miles above the earth.

Extra-vehicular Activity: EVA was conducted on fi ve separate Gemini Missions and 

during ten separate periods. Total EVA time during the Gemini Project was 12 hrs, 

22 min. of which a record time of 5 hours and 37 minutes of EVA was performed 

by Aldrin on Gemini XII.

Long Duration Flight: Gemini VII demonstrated man’s ability to stay in space 

continuously for up to 14 days; Gemini V for 8 days, and two other missions for 

4 days.

Controlled Reentry: Landing accuracies of a few miles from the aim point were 

demonstrated on every Gemini manned mission except Gemini V. 

Conduct Scientifi c and Technological Experiments: Every manned Gemini mission 

(Gemini III through XII) conducted many experiments. In total 43 experiments 

were conducted successfully. 

Prior to each Gemini mission, individual primary mission objectives were 

selected which, if accomplished, would provide full advancement of the project. 

Accomplishment of these primary objectives were mandatory for stating the 

mission to be successful. To retain the fl exibility to capitalize on success, secondary 

objectives were also assigned*-- as many as appeared feasible within the capability 

of the equipment and the time and experience of the astronauts.

[2]

Of the 14 Gemini mission attempts, 10 missions accomplished all of the primary 

mission objectives specifi ed before the launch. The four unsuccessful missions and 

the reasons why they could not accomplish all of their primary objectives follows:
Exploring the Unknown 373

UNSUCCESSFUL MISSIONS REASONS

GEMINI VI The Agena Target Vehicle exploded. 

The Gemini 6 spacecraft was successfully 

rendezvoused with the Gemini 7 

spacecraft later during the Gemini VI-A 

mission.

GEMINI VIII An Orbit Maneuvering Thruster 

malfunction which ruled out a stated 

primary objective: EVA.

GEMINI IX An Atlas booster failure drove the Agena 

into the Atlantic, and the Gemini 9 

spacecraft was not launched until later 

during the Gemini IX-A mission.

GEMINI IX-A The shroud did not come loose from 

the Augmented Target Docking Adapter, 

precluding docking – a specifi ed primary 

objective for the mission.

Gemini Launch Vehicles

The modifi ed Titan launch vehicle used as the Gemini Launch Vehicle was 100 

percent successful in the Gemini Project. Out of 12 launches, 12 successful vehicle 

performances were achieved.

Gemini Target Vehicles

Six Gemini Agena Targets were launched and four were successfully placed in 

orbit, rendezvoused and docked with. The Augmented Target Docking Adapter, 

launched as a back-up target for the Gemini 9 spacecraft to rendezvous and dock 

with, functioned properly; however, the shroud failed to separate, thereby making 

docking impossible.

* A listing of primary and secondary objectives accomplished by mission is attached 

[not included].
374 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Document I-73

GEMINI SUMMARY CONFERENCE

February 1-2, 1967

Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston, Texas

1. INTRODUCTION

By George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA

The Gemini Program is over. The papers in this report summarizing the 

program were prepared by some of the people who contributed to the overall 

success. In each case, the authors were actual participants and provide a cross 

section of what may be called the Gemini team. As is true in any undertaking of this 

magnitude, involving many diverse organizations and literally thousands of people, 

a vital element of the Gemini success may be traced to teamwork. In the purest 

defi nition of the word, wherein individual interests and opinions are subordinate to 

the unity and effi ciency of the group, the Gemini team has truly excelled.

Much has already been written concerning the Gemini achievements, 

and many of the achievements are presented again in greater depth within this 

report. By way of introduction, and to set the stage for the following papers, a few 

words are necessary to assess the achievements in the context of the goals of the 

national manned space-fl ight program. Only in this way is it possible to evaluate 

the signifi cance of the Gemini accomplishments.

The Gemini Program was undertaken for the purpose of advancing 

the United States manned space-fl ight capabilities during the period between 

Mercury and Apollo. Simply stated, the Gemini objectives were to conduct the 

development and test program necessary to (1) demonstrate the feasibility of long 

duration space fl ight for at least that period required to complete a lunar landing 

mission; (2) perfect the techniques and procedures for achieving rendezvous and 

docking of two spacecraft in orbit; (3) achieve precisely controlled reentry and 

landing capability; (4) establish capability in the extravehicular activity; and (5) 

achieve the less obvious, but no less signifi cant, fl ight and ground crew profi ciency 

in manned space fl ight. The very successful fl ight program of the United States has 

provided vivid demonstration of the achievements in each of these objective areas.

The long-duration fl ight objective of Gemini was achieved with the 

successful completion of Gemini VII in December 1965. The progressive buildup 

of fl ight duration from 4 days with Gemini IV, to 8 days with Gemini V and 14 days 

with Gemini VII, has removed all doubts, and there were many, of the capability 

of the fl ight crews and spacecraft to function satisfactorily for a period equal to 

that needed to reach the lunar surface and return. Further, this aspect of Gemini 

provides high confi dence in fl ight-crew ability to perform satisfactorily on much 

longer missions. The long-duration fl ights have also provided greater insight 
Exploring the Unknown 375

into, and appreciation of, the vital role played by the astronauts, the value of 

fl exibility in mission planning and execution, and the excellent capability of the 

manned space-fl ight control system. As originally conceived, the Gemini Program 

called for completion of the long-duration fl ights with Gemini VII, which was 

accomplished on schedule. 

One of the more dramatic achievements has been the successful development 

of a variety of techniques for the in-orbit rendezvous of two manned spacecraft. The 

preparation for this most complex facet of Gemini missions was more time consuming 

than any other. That it was performed with such perfection is a distinct tribute to the 

Gemini team that made it possible: the spacecraft and launch-vehicle developers and 

builders, the checkout and launch teams, the fl ight crews and their training support, 

and the mission-planning and mission-control people.

[2]

The ability to accomplish a rendezvous in space is fundamental to the 

success of Apollo, and rendezvous was a primary mission objective on each 

mission after Gemini VII. Ten rendezvous were completed and seven different 

rendezvous modes or techniques were employed. Nine different dockings of a 

spacecraft with a target vehicle were achieved. Eleven different astronauts gained 

rendezvous experience in this most important objective. Several of the rendezvous 

were designed to simulate some facet of an Apollo rendezvous requirement. 

The principal focus of the rendezvous activities was, however, designed to verify 

theoretical determinations over a wide spectrum. Gemini developed a broad 

base of knowledge and experience in orbital rendezvous and this base will pay 

generous dividends in years to come. 

A related accomplishment of singular importance to future manned 

space-fl ight programs was the experience gained in performing docked 

maneuvers using the target vehicle propulsion system. This is a striking example 

of Gemini pioneering activities – the assembly and maneuvering of two orbiting 

space vehicles.

The fi rst attempt at extravehicular activity during Gemini IV was believed 

successful, and although diffi culties were encountered with extravehicular activity 

during Gemini IX-A, X, and XI, the objective was achieved with resounding 

success on Gemini XII. This in itself is indicative of the Gemini Program in that 

lessons learned during the fl ight program were vigorously applied to subsequent 

missions. The extravehicular activity on Gemini XII was, indeed, the result of all 

that had been learned on the earlier missions.

The fi rst rendezvous and docking mission, although temporarily thwarted 

by the Gemini VI target-vehicle failure, was accomplished with great success during 

the Gemini VII/VI-A mission. This mission also demonstrated the operational 

profi ciency achieved by the program. The term “operational profi ciency” as applied to 

Gemini achievements means far more than just the acceleration of production rates 

and compressing of launch schedules. In addition and perhaps more importantly, 

operational profi ciency means the ability to respond to the unexpected, to prepare 

and execute alternate and contingency plans, and to maintain fl exibility while not 
376 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

slackening the drive toward the objective. Time and again Gemini responded to 

such a situation in a manner that can only be described as outstanding.

A few comments are in order on what the Gemini accomplishments 

mean in terms of value to other programs. There is almost no facet of Gemini 

that does not contribute in some way to the Apollo Program. Aside from the 

actual proof testing of such items as the manned space-fl ight control center, 

the manned space-fl ight communications net, the development and perfection 

of recovery techniques, the training of the astronauts, and many others which 

apply directly, the Gemini Program has provided a high level of confi dence in the 

ability to accomplish the Apollo Program objectives before the end of this decade. 

The Apollo task is much easier now, due to the outstanding performance and 

accomplishments of the Gemini team.

Similarly, the Apollo Applications Program has been inspired in large 

part by the Gemini experiments program, which has sparked the imagination 

of the scientifi c community. In addition to the contributions to Apollo hardware 

development which provide the basis for the Apollo Applications Program, 

it has been discovered, or rather proved, that man in space can serve many 

extremely useful and important functions. These functions have been referred 

to as technological fallout, but it is perhaps more accurate to identify them as 

accomplishments – that is, accomplishments deliberately sought and achieved by 

the combined hard labor of many thousands of people. Some of these people 

have reviewed their work in this report.

The Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program has been undertaken by 

the Department of Defense for the purpose of applying manned space-fl ight 

technology to national defense and is making signifi cant use of the Gemini 

[3] accomplishments. This may be considered as a partial repayment for the 

marvelous support that NASA has received and continues to receive from the 

DOD. The success of the NASA programs is in no small measure due to the direct 

participation of the DOD in all phases of the manned space-fl ight program. This 

support has been, and will continue to be, invaluable.

The combined Government/industry/university team that makes up the 

manned space-fl ight program totals about 240,000 people. In addition, thousands 

more are employed in NASA unmanned space efforts, and in programs of the 

Department of Defense, the Department of Commerce, the Atomic Energy 

Commission, and other agencies involved in total national space endeavors. These 

people, in acquiring new scientifi c knowledge, developing new techniques, and 

working on new problems with goals ever enlarged by the magnitude of their task, 

form the living, growing capability of this Nation for space exploration.

For the last quarter century, this Nation has been experiencing a 

technological revolution. Cooperative efforts on the part of the Government, the 

universities, the scientifi c community, and industry have been the prime movers. 

This cooperation has provided tremendous capability for technological research 

and development which is available now and which will continue to grow to 

meet national requirements of the future. The infl uence of this technological 

progress and prowess is, and has been, a deciding factor in keeping the peace. 
Exploring the Unknown 377

Preeminence in this fi eld is an important instrument in international relations 

and vitally infl uences this country’s dealings with other nations involving peace 

and freedom in the world. Political realities which can neither be wished away 

nor ignored make the capability to explore space a matter of strategic importance 

as well as a challenge to the scientifi c and engineering ingenuity of man. This 

Nation can no more afford to falter in space than it can in any earthly pursuit on 

which the security and future of the Nation and the world depend.

The space effort is really a research and development competition, 

a competition for technological preeminence which demands and creates the 

quest for excellence.

The Mercury program, which laid the groundwork for Gemini and the 

rest of this Nation’s manned space-fl ight activity, appears at this point relatively 

modest. However, Mercury accomplishments at the time were as signifi cant to 

national objectives as the Gemini accomplishments are today as those that are 

planned for Apollo in the years ahead.

That these programs have been, and will be, conducted in complete 

openness with an international, real-time audience makes them all the more 

effective. In this environment, the degree of perfection achieved is even more 

meaningful. Each person involved can take richly deserved pride in what has 

been accomplished. Using past experience as a foundation, the exploration of 

space must continue to advance. The American public will not permit otherwise, 

or better yet, history will not permit otherwise.

[pp. 4-328 not included]

[329]

22. GEMINI RESULTS AS RELATED TO THE APOLLO PROGRAM

By Willis B. Mitchell, Manager, Offi ce of Vehicles and Missions, Gemini Program 

Offi ce, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center; Owen E. Maynard, Chief, Mission 

Operations Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Offi ce, NASA Manned Spacecraft 

Center; and Donald D. Arabian, Offi ce of Vehicles and Missions, Gemini Program 

Offi ce, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

Introduction

The Gemini Program was conceived to provide a space system that could 

furnish answers to many of the problems in operating manned vehicles in space. 

It was designed to build upon the experience gained from Project Mercury, and 

to extend and expand this fund of experience in support of the manned lunar 

landing program and other future manned space-fl ight programs. The purpose 

of this paper is to relate some of the results of the Gemini Program to the Apollo 

Program, and to discuss some of the contributions which have been made.

The objectives of the Gemini Program applicable to Apollo are: (1) longduration fl ight, (2) rendezvous and docking, (3) post-docking maneuver capability, 
378 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

(4) controlled reentry and landing, (5) fl ight- and ground-crew profi ciency, and 

(6) extravehicular capability. The achievement of these objectives has provided 

operational experience and confi rmed much of the technology which will 

be utilized in future manned programs. These contributions will be discussed 

in three major areas: launch and fl ight operations, fl ight crew operations and 

training, and technological development of subsystems and components. While 

there is obvious interrelation among the three elements, the grouping affords 

emphasis and order to the discussion. 

Launch and Flight Operations

Gemini experience is being applied to Apollo launch and fl ight operations 

planning and concepts. Probably the most signifi cant is the development and 

understanding of the rendezvous and docking process. The Apollo Program 

depends heavily upon rendezvous for successful completion of the basic lunar 

mission. The Lunar Module, on returning from the surface of the Moon, must 

rendezvous and dock with the Command and Service Module. In addition, the 

fi rst Apollo mission involving a manned Lunar Module will require rendezvous 

and docking in Earth orbit by a Command and Service Module placed in orbit 

by a separate launch vehicle. During the Gemini Program, 10 rendezvous and 9 

docking operations were completed. The rendezvous operations were completed 

under a variety of conditions and applicable to the Apollo missions.

The Gemini VI-A and VII missions demonstrated the feasibility of 

rendezvous. During the Gemini IX-A mission, maneuvers performed during the 

second re-rendezvous demonstrated the feasibility of a rendezvous from above; 

this is of great importance if the Lunar Module should be required to abort a 

lunar-powered descent. During the Gemini X mission, the spacecraft computer 

was programmed to use star-horizon sightings for predicting the spacecraft orbit. 

These data, combined with target-vehicle ephemeris data, provided an onboard 

prediction of the rendezvous maneuvers required. The rendezvous was actually 

accomplished with ground-computed solution, but the data from the onboard 

prediction will be useful in developing space-navigation and orbit-determination 

techniques.

[330]

The passive ground-controlled rendezvous demonstrated on Gemini X 

and XI is important in developing backup procedures for equipment failures. 

The Gemini XI fi rst-orbit rendezvous was onboard controlled and provides an 

additional technique to Apollo planners. The Gemini XII mission resulted in a 

third-orbit rendezvous patterned after the lunar-orbit rendezvous sequence, and 

again illustrated that rendezvous can be reliably and repeatedly performed.

All of the Gemini rendezvous operations provided extensive experience 

in computing and conducting midcourse maneuvers. These maneuvers involved 

separate and combined corrections of orbit plane, altitude, and phasing similar 

to the corrections planned for the lunar rendezvous. Experience in maneuvering 

combined vehicles in space was also accumulated during the operations using 

the docked spacecraft/target-vehicle confi guration when the Primary Propulsion 
Exploring the Unknown 379

System of the target vehicle was used to propel the spacecraft to the high-apogee 

orbital altitudes. During the Gemini X mission, the Primary Propulsion System 

was used in combination with the Secondary Propulsion System to accomplish the 

dual-rendezvous operation with the passive Gemini VIII target vehicle. These uses 

of an auxiliary propulsion system add another important operational technique.

In summary, 10 rendezvous exercises were accomplished during the 

Gemini Program, including 3 re-rendezvous and 1 dual operation (fi g. 22-1) 

[not included]. Seven different rendezvous modes were utilized. These activities 

demonstrated the capabilities for computing rendezvous maneuvers in the 

ground-based computer complex; the use of the onboard radar-computer closedloop system; the use of manual computations made by the fl ight crew; and the use 

of optical techniques and star background during the terminal phase and also in 

the event of equipment failures. A variety of lighting conditions and background 

conditions during the terminal-phase maneuvers, and the use of auxiliary lighting 

devices, have been investigated. The rendezvous operations demonstrated that 

the [331] computation and execution of maneuvers for changing or adjusting 

orbits in space can be performed with considerable precision.

The nine docking operations during Gemini demonstrated that the 

process can be accomplished in a routine manner, and that the ground training 

simulation was adequate for this operation (fi g. 22-2)[not included]. The Gemini 

fl ight experience has established the proper lighting conditions for successful 

docking operations. Based on the data and experience derived from the Gemini 

rendezvous and docking operations, planning for the lunar orbit rendezvous can 

proceed with confi dence.

Extravehicular Activity

Extravehicular activity was another important objective of the Gemini 

Program. Although extensive use of extravehicular activity has not been planned for 

the Apollo Program, the Gemini extravehicular experience should provide valuable 

information in two areas. First, extravehicular activity will be used as a contingency 

method of crew transfer from Lunar Module to the Command Module in the event 

the normal transfer mode cannot be accomplished. Second, operations on the lunar 

surface will be accomplished in a vacuum environment using auxiliary life-support 

equipment and consequently will be similar to Gemini extravehicular operations. 

For these applications, the results from Gemini have been used to determine the 

type of equipment and the crew training required. The requirements for auxiliary 

equipment such as handholds, tether points, and handrails have been established. 

Controlled Landing

From the beginning of the Gemini Program, one of the objectives was to 

develop reentry fl ight-path and landing control. The spacecraft was designed with 

an offset center of gravity so that it would develop lift during the fl ight through 

the atmosphere. The spacecraft control system was used to orient the lift vector to 

provide maneuvering capability. A similar system concept is utilized by the Apollo 

spacecraft during reentry through the Earth atmosphere.
380 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

After initial development problems on the early Gemini fl ights, the 

control system worked very well in both the manual and the automatic control 

modes. Spacecraft landings were achieved varying from a few hundred yards to a 

few miles from the target point (fi g. 22-3)[not included]. The fi rst use of a blunt 

lifting body for reentry control serves to verify and to validate the Apollo-design 

concepts. The success of the Gemini guidance system in controlling reentry will 

support the Apollo design, even though the systems differ in detail.

Launch Operations

The prelaunch checkout and verifi cation concept which was originated 

during the Gemini Program is being used for Apollo. The testing and servicing 

tasks are very similar for both spacecraft, and the Gemini test-fl ow plan developed 

at the Kennedy Space Center is being applied. The entire mode of operation 

involving scheduling, daily operational techniques, operational procedures, 

procedures manuals, and documentation is similar to that used in the Gemini 

operation. Much of the launch-site operational support is common to both 

programs; this includes tracking radars and cameras, communications equipment, 

telemetry, critical power, and photography. The requirements for this equipment 

are the same in many cases, and the Gemini experience is directly applicable. The 

Apollo Program will use the same mission operations organization for the launch 

sequence that was established during Project Mercury and tested and refi ned 

during the Gemini Program.

[332]

Mission Control

The Gemini mission-control operations concepts evolved from Project 

Mercury. These concepts were applied during the Gemini Program and will be 

developed further during the Apollo missions, although the complexity of the 

operations will substantially increase as the time for the lunar mission nears. The 

worldwide network of tracking stations was established to gather data concerning 

the status of the Mercury spacecraft and pilots. The Mercury fl ights, however, 

involved control of a single vehicle with no maneuvering capability.

The Gemini Program involved multiple vehicles, rendezvous maneuvers, 

and long-duration fl ights, and required a more complex ground-control system 

capable of processing and reacting to vast amounts of real-time data. The new 

mission-control facility at the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, was designed 

to operate in conjunction with the Manned Space Flight Network for direction 

and control of Gemini and Apollo missions, as well as of future manned spacefl ight programs. Much of this network capability was expanded for Gemini 

and is now being used to support the Apollo missions. Gemini has contributed 

personnel training in fl ight control and in maintenance and operation of fl ightsupport systems. As the Gemini fl ights progressed and increased in complexity, 

the capabilities of the fl ight controllers increased, and resulted in a nucleus of 

qualifi ed control personnel.

[333]
Exploring the Unknown 381

The development of experience teams of mission-planning personnel has 

proved extremely useful in the preparation for future manned missions. Mission 

plans and fl ight-crew procedures have been developed and exercised to perform 

the precise in-fl ight maneuvers required for rendezvous of two vehicles in space, 

and to perform fl ights up to 14 days in duration. The techniques which were 

evolved during Gemini have resulted in fl ight plans that provide the maximum 

probability of achieving mission objectives with a minimum usage of consumables 

and optimum crew activity. The development of satisfactory work-rest cycles and 

the acceptance of simultaneous sleep periods are examples of learning which 

will be carried forward to the Apollo planning. The mission planning procedures 

developed for Gemini are applicable to future programs, and the personnel who 

devised and implemented the procedures are applying their experience to the 

Apollo fl ight-planning effort.

Flight-Crew Operations and Training

Crew Capability

The results of the Gemini Program in the area of fl ight-crew operations 

have been very rewarding in yielding knowledge concerning the Gemini longduration missions. The medical experiments conducted during these fl ights have 

demonstrated that man can function in space for the planned duration of the lunar 

landing mission. The primary question concerning the effect of long-duration 

weightlessness has been favorably answered. Adaptation to the peculiarities of 

the zero-g environment has been readily accomplished. The results signifi cantly 

increase the confi dence in the operational effi ciency of the fl ight crew for the 

lunar mission.

The Apollo spacecraft is designed for cooperative operation by two or 

more pilots. Each module may be operated by one individual for short periods; 

however, a successful mission requires a cooperative effort by the three-man crew. 

The multiple-crew concept of spacecraft operation was introduced for the fi rst 

time in the United States during the Gemini Program and cooperative procedures 

for multi-pilot operations were developed.

The Gemini Program has established that man can function normally 

and without ill effect outside the spacecraft during extravehicular operations.

Crew Equipment

Most of the Gemini technology regarding personal crew equipment is 

applicable to Apollo. The Block I Apollo space suit is basically the same as the 

Gemini space suit. The Block II Apollo space suit, although different in design, 

will have familiar Gemini items such as suit-design concepts, locking mechanisms 

for connectors, and polycarbonate visors and helmets. The Gemini spacesuit 

support facilities at the Manned Spacecraft Center and at the Kennedy Space 

Center, plus the ground-support equipment, will be fully utilized during Apollo.

A considerable amount of personal and postlanding survival equipment 

will be used for Apollo in the same confi guration as was used for Gemini. Some 
382 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

items have minor modifi cations for compatibility, others for improvements based 

upon knowledge resulting from fl ight experience. Specifi c examples include 

food packaging, water dispenser, medical kits, personal hygiene items, watches, 

sunglasses, penlights, cameras, and data books. 

Many of the concepts of crew equipment originated in Gemini experience 

with long-duration missions and recovery: food and waste management; 

cleanliness; housekeeping and general sanitation; and environmental conditions 

such as temperature, radiation, vibration, and acceleration. Although the Apollo 

approach may differ in many areas, the Gemini experience has been the guide.

Flight-Crew Training

The aspects of crew training important to future programs include 

prefl ight preparation of the crews for the mission and the reservoir of fl ight 

experience derived from the Gemini Program. Apollo will inherit the training 

technology developed for the Gemini fl ight crews. The technology began with 

Project Mercury, and was developed and refi ned during the training of the Gemini 

multi-man crews. There now exists an organization of highly skilled specialists 

with a thorough understanding of the training task. Adequate crew preparation 

can be assured in all areas, from the physical conditioning of the individual 

crewmembers to the complicated integrated mission simulation.

One highly developed aspect of fl ight-crew training is the use of simulators 

and simulation techniques. A signifi cant result of the Gemini rendezvous 

experience was the verifi cation of the ground simulation employed in fl ightcrew training. The incorporation of optical displays in the Gemini simulations 

was an important step in improving the training value of these devices. Using 

high-fi delity mission simulators to represent the spacecraft and to work with the 

ground control network and fl ight controllers was instrumental in training the 

pilots and ground crew as a functional team that could deal with problems and 

achieve a large percentage of the mission objectives.

The Gemini Program resulted in an accumulated total of 1940 man-hours 

of fl ight time distributed among 16 fl ight-crew members. This fl ight experience is 

readily adaptable to future programs since the Gemini pilots are fl ight qualifi ed 

for long-duration fl ights with rendezvous operations, and are familiar with many 

of the aspects of working in the close confi nes of the spacecraft. This experience 

is of great value to future training programs. The experience in preparing multiman crews for fl ight, in monitoring the crew during fl ight, and in examining and 

debriefi ng after fl ight will facilitate effective and effi cient procedures for Apollo. 

Technological Development of Systems and Components

Gemini and Apollo share common hardware items in some subsystems; 

in other subsystems, the similarity exists in concept and general design. The 

performance of Gemini systems, operating over a range of conditions, has provided 

fl ight-test data for the verifi cation of the design of related subsystems. These data 

are important since many elements of Apollo, especially systems interactions, 

cannot be completely simulated in ground testing. The Apollo Spacecraft Program 
Exploring the Unknown 383

Offi ce at the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, has reviewed and analyzed 

Gemini anomalous conditions to determine corrective measures applicable to 

Apollo. The Apollo Program Director has established additional procedures at 

NASA Headquarters to promote rapid dissemination and application of Gemini 

experience to Apollo equipment design.

The Gemini missions have provided background experience in many 

systems such as communications, guidance and navigation, fuel cells, and 

propulsion. In addition, a series of experiments was performed specifi cally for 

obtaining general support information applicable to the Apollo Program.

In the communications systems, common items include the recovery and 

fl ashing-light beacons; similar components are utilized in the high-frequency 

recovery antennas. Reentry and post landing batteries and the digital data uplink 

have the same design concepts. The major Apollo design parameters concerned 

with power requirements and range capability have been confi rmed. 

In the area of guidance and navigation, the use of an onboard computer 

has been demonstrated and the Gemini experience with rendezvous radar 

techniques has been a factor in the selection of this capability for the Lunar 

Module. The ability to perform in-plane and out-of-plane maneuvers and to 

determine new space references for successful reentry and landing has been 

confi rmed by Gemini fl ights. The control of a blunt lifting body during reentry 

will also support the Apollo concept.

In the electrical power supply, the use of the Gemini fuel cell has confi rmed 

the applicability [335] of the concept. The ability of the cryogenic reactant storage 

system to operate over a wide range of off-design conditions in fl ight has verifi ed 

the design, which is similar for Apollo. The performance of the Gemini system 

has provided a better understanding of the system parameters over an operating 

range considerably in excess of the range previously contemplated. The design of 

the cryogenic servicing system for Apollo was altered after the initial diffi culties 

experienced by early Gemini fl ights. Consequently, a fairly sophisticated system 

now exists which will eliminate the possibility of delays in servicing. The ability to 

estimate the power requirements for the Apollo spacecraft equipment is enhanced 

by the Gemini operational data.

In the propulsion area, the ullage control rockets of the Apollo-Saturn SIVB stage are the same confi guration as the thrusters used for the Gemini spacecraft 

Orbital Attitude and Maneuver System; the thrusters of the Apollo Command 

Module Reaction Control System are similar. Steps have been taken to eliminate 

the problems which occurred in the development of the Gemini thrusters, such 

as the cracking of the silicon-carbide throat inserts, the unsymmetrical erosion of 

the chamber liners, and the chamber burn-through. The tankage of the Reaction 

Control System is based upon the Gemini design, and employs the same materials 

for tanks and bladders. The propellant control valves were also reworked as a 

result of early problems in the Gemini system.

The Lunar Module ascent engine also benefi ted from the Gemini 

technology; the contractor for this engine also manufactured the engines for the 
384 First Steps into Space: Projects Mercury and Gemini

Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Following the in-fl ight failure of the target-vehicle 

engine during the Gemini VI mission, a test program verifi ed the inherent danger 

in fuel-lead starts in the space environment. Consequently, the Lunar Module 

ascent engine and the Gemini target-vehicle engine were changed so that the 

oxidizer would enter the engine before the fuel. The problem had been indicated 

during ascent-engine testing, but was not isolated until the required defi nitive 

data were furnished by Project Sure Fire on the target-vehicle engine. 

In addition to medical experiments, several other types of experiments were 

conducted during Gemini and have supplied information and data for use by the 

Apollo Program. The experiments included electrostatic charge, proton-electron 

spectrometer, lunar ultra-violet spectrometer, color-patch photography, landmark 

contrast measurements, radiation in spacecraft, reentry communications, manual 

navigation sightings, simple navigation, radiation and zero-g effects on blood, and 

micrometeorite collection. Although the direct effects of these experiments on 

Apollo systems are diffi cult to isolate, the general store of background data and 

available information has been increased. 

Concluding Remarks

The Gemini Program has made signifi cant contributions to future 

manned space-fl ight programs. Some of the more important contributions include 

fl ight-operations techniques and operational concepts, fl ight-crew operations 

and training, and technological development of components and systems. In 

the Gemini Program, the rendezvous and docking processes so necessary to the 

lunar mission were investigated; workable procedures were developed, and are 

available for operational use. The capability of man to function in the weightless 

environment of space was investigated for periods up to 14 days. Flight crews 

have been trained, and have demonstrated that they can perform complicated 

mechanical and mental tasks with precision while adapting to the spacecraft 

environment and physical constraints during long-duration missions.

Additionally, the development of Gemini hardware and techniques has 

advanced spacecraft-design practices and has demonstrated advanced systems 

which, in many cases, will substantiate approaches and concepts for future 

spacecraft.

[336]

Finally, probably the most signifi cant contributions of Gemini have been 

the training, personnel and organizations in the disciplines of management, 

operations, manufacturing, and engineering. The nucleus of experience has been 

disseminated throughout the many facets of Apollo and will benefi t all future 

manned space-fl ight programs.

[337]

23. CONCLUDING REMARKS

By George M. Low, Deputy Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
Exploring the Unknown 385

With the preceding paper, one of the most successful programs in our 

short history of space fl ight has ended. The Gemini achievements have been many, 

and have included long-duration fl ight, maneuvers in space, rendezvous, docking, 

use of large engines in space, extravehicular activity, and controlled reentry. The 

Gemini achievements have also included a host of medical, technological, and 

scientifi c experiments.

The papers have included discussions of many individual diffi culties that 

were experienced in preparation for many of the fl ight missions and in some of 

the fl ights. The successful demonstration that these diffi culties were overcome in 

later missions is a great tribute to the program, to the organization, and to the 

entire Gemini team.

A period of diffi culty exists today in the program that follows Gemini, the 

Apollo Program. Yet, perhaps one of the most important legacies from Gemini 

to the Apollo Program and to future programs is the demonstration that great 

successes can be achieved in spite of serious diffi culties along the way.

The Gemini Program is now offi cially completed.

Chapter Two 

Project Apollo: Americans


to the Moon


John M. Logsdon 

Project Apollo, the remarkable U.S. space effort that sent 12 astronauts to 

the surface of Earth’s Moon between July 1969 and December 1972, has been 

extensively chronicled and analyzed.1

 This essay will not attempt to add to this 

extensive body of literature. Its ambition is much more modest: to provide a 

coherent narrative within which to place the various documents included in this 

compendium. In this narrative, key decisions along the path to the Moon will be 

given particular attention. 

1. Roger Launius, in his essay “Interpreting the Moon Landings: Project Apollo and the 

Historians,” History and Technology, Vol. 22, No. 3 (September 2006): 225–55, has provided a comprehensive and thoughtful overview of many of the books written about Apollo. The bibliography 

accompanying this essay includes almost every book-length study of Apollo and also lists a number 

of articles and essays interpreting the feat. Among the books Launius singles out for particular 

attention are: John M. Logsdon, The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest 

(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970); Walter A. McDougall, . . . the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History 

of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Vernon Van Dyke, Pride and Power: the Rationale of the 

Space Program (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1964); W. Henry Lambright, Powering Apollo: 

James E. Webb of NASA (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Roger E. Bilstein, Stages 

to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles, NASA SP-4206 (Washington, 

DC: Government Printing Office, 1980); Edgar M. Cortright, Apollo Expeditions to the Moon, NASA 

SP-350 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975); Charles A. Murray and Catherine 

Bly Cox, Apollo: The Race to the Moon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989); Stephen B. Johnson, 

The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs (Baltimore: Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 2002); Norman Mailer, Of a Fire on the Moon (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970); 

Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut’s Journeys (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1974); 

Andrew Chaikin, A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts (New York: Viking, 1994); 

W. David Compton, Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions, 

NASA SP-4214 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1989); Don E. Wilhelms, To A Rocky 

Moon: A Geologist’s History of Lunar Exploration (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993); Donald 

A. Beattie, Taking Science to the Moon: Lunar Experiments and the Apollo Program (Baltimore: Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 2001); Howard McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination (Washington, 

DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997); Marina Benjamin, Rocket Dreams: How the Space Age Shaped 

Our Vision of a World Beyond (New York: Free Press, 2003); De Witt Douglas Kilgore, Astrofuturism: 

Science, Race, and Visions of Utopia in Space (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003); and 

Andrew Smith, Moondust: In Search of the Men Who Fell to Earth (New York: Fourth Estate, 2005). In 

addition to these accounts, a number of Apollo astronauts, NASA managers and fl ight operations 

personnel, and managers from the aerospace industry have published memoirs about their engagement with Apollo. Of particular interest is Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Aiming at Targets (Washington, DC: 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4106, 1996), and Project Apollo: 

The Tough Decisions, NASA, Monographs in Aerospace History No. 37, SP-2005-4537, 2005, and Glen 

E. Swanson, “Before This Decade is Out . . .: Personal Reflections on the Apollo Program (Washington, DC: 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4223, 1999). 
388 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Origins of Apollo 

When it began operations on 1 October 1958, NASA had already been tasked 

by the Eisenhower administration with the initial U.S. human space fl ight effort, 

soon to be designated Project Mercury. NASA also inherited a number of robotic 

missions that had been planned by various elements of the Department of Defense 

(DOD) and was given an agenda of desired missions by the Space Science Board 

of the National Academy of Sciences. NASA spent much of 1959 integrating these 

missions into a Long-Range Plan; to do so, it also recognized the need to identify 

its long-range goals for human space flight and the steps needed to achieve those 

goals. To undertake this task, in the spring of 1959 NASA created a Research 

Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight. This committee was chaired by 

Harry Goett, then of NASA’s Ames Research Center but soon to become the 

Director of the new Goddard Space Flight Center. The committee held its fi rst 

meeting on 25 and 26 May 1959. Its members included senior representatives 

from the NASA Field Centers and the Agency’s Washington Headquarters. 

At this meeting, Bruce Lundin from the Lewis Research Center argued that 

“the ultimate objective is manned interplanetary travel and our present goal 

should be for a manned lunar landing and return.” Engineer and spacecraft 

designer Maxime Faget of the Space Task Group of the Langley Research Center 

“endorsed selecting lunar exploration as the present goal of the committee 

although the end objective should be manned interplanetary travel.” George M. 

Low, then in charge of human space flight at NASA headquarters, suggested that 

the committee adopt the lunar landing mission as NASA’s present long-range 

objective with proper emphasis on intermediate steps “because this approach 

will be easier to sell.” Others at the meeting suggested a more modest objective, 

human flight around the Moon without a landing attempt, be adopted as NASA’s 

stated goal. (II-1) 

There was no agreement at this point, but by the committee’s next meeting 

in late June, after George Low had lobbied the group, the committee decided 

that indeed a lunar landing should be selected as the long-range goal for human 

space flight, with an orbiting space station and circumlunar flight as intermediate 

steps. The NASA Long-Range Plan, published in December 1959, thus identifi ed 

as objectives for the 1965 to 1967 time period the first launches “in a program 

leading to manned circumlunar flight and to [a] permanent near-earth space 

station.” The objective of “manned flight to the moon” was identified, but only in 

the “beyond 1970” period (Volume I, III-2). While Low and some of his associates 

would have preferred a faster-paced effort, at least NASA, after only 15 months 

of operation, was on record as intending to head to the Moon, if only they could 

get the White House and Congress to agree. 

In mid-1960, NASA’s thinking about the intermediate steps in human 

space flight had matured to the point that the space agency called together 

representatives of the emerging space industry to share that thinking. At a 

“NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference” held in Washington on 28 and 

29 July 1960, George Low told the audience “at this point it should be stated that 

official approval of this program has not been obtained. Rather, this presentation 
Exploring the Unknown 389

includes what we now believe to be a rational and reasonable approach to a longrange development pro gram leading to the manned exploration of outer space.” 

He added “our present planning calls for the development and construction of 

an advanced manned spacecraft with sufficient fl exibility to be capable of both 

circumlunar flight and useful Earth-orbital missions. In the long range, this 

spacecraft should lead toward manned landings on the moon and planets, and 

toward a permanent manned space station. This advanced manned space fl ight 

program has been named ‘Project Apollo.’” (II-2) 

The name Apollo had been suggested by Low’s boss, NASA’s Director for 

Space Flight Programs, Abe Silverstein, in early 1960. Silverstein had also chosen 

the name for Project Mercury, and he wanted to establish a tradition of naming 

NASA’s projects after Greek gods.2 

NASA, and particularly George Low, in the second half of 1960 continued 

to move forward in planning Apollo and the lunar landing mission that was 

its long-term goal. On 17 October, he informed Silverstein “it has become 

increasingly apparent that a preliminary program for manned lunar landings 

should be formulated. This is necessary in order to provide a proper justifi cation 

for Apollo, and to place Apollo schedules and technical plans on a fi rmer 

foundation.” To undertake this planning, Low formed a small working group of 

NASA Headquarters staff. (II-3) 

That NASA was planning advanced human spaceflight missions, including one 

to land people on the Moon, soon came to the attention of President Eisenhower 

and his advisors as NASA submitted a budget request that included funds for 

industry studies of the Apollo spacecraft. This request was not approved, and 

the president asked his science advisor, Harvard chemist George Kistiakowsky, to 

organize a study of NASA’s plans by the President’s Science Advisory Committee. 

To carry out such a study, Kistiakowsky established an “Ad Hoc Committee on 

Man-in-Space” chaired by Brown University professor Donald Hornig. The 

Hornig Committee issued its report on 16 December 1960. The report called 

Project Mercury a “somewhat marginal effort,” and noted “among the reasons 

for attempting the manned exploration of space are emotional compulsions and 

national aspirations. These are not subjects which can be discussed on technical 

grounds.” The Committee estimated the cost of Project Apollo at $8 billion, and 

suggested that a program to land humans on the Moon would cost an additional 

$26 to 38 billion. (Volume I, III-3) When President Eisenhower was briefed on the 

report, he found these projected costs well beyond what he thought reasonable. 

When a comparison was made to Queen Isabella’s willingness to fi nance the 

voyages of Christopher Columbus, Eisenhower replied that “he was not about to 

hock his jewels” to send men to the Moon.3 

George Low’s working group on a manned lunar landing presented its 

interim findings to a meeting of NASA’s Space Exploration Program Council in 

2. Charles A. Murray and Catherine Bly Cox, Apollo: The Race to the Moon (New York: Simon and 

Schuster, 1989), pp. 54–55. 

3. John M. Logsdon, The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest 

(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), pp. 34–35. 
390 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

early January 1961; the council decided that Low should continue his planning 

effort. However, outgoing NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan reminded Low 

that such a program would require presidential approval, and that approval had 

not been forthcoming. Indeed, as President Dwight D. Eisenhower left offi ce 

on 20 January 1961, the future of NASA’s program of human spacefl ight was 

extremely uncertain. There were no funds in the President’s final budget proposal 

to support Project Apollo, and it was known that the incoming President, John F. 

Kennedy, was receiving advice skeptical of the value of launching humans into 

space. There certainly was no sense that Kennedy would, within four months, 

decide to send Americans to the Moon. 

The Decision to Go to the Moon4 

As he entered the White House, President Kennedy was aware that he would 

be faced with decisions that would shape the future of U.S. space efforts. One 

of his top advisors during the period between the election and his taking offi ce, 

Harvard professor Richard Neustadt, told Kennedy in December 1960 that the 

United States had been in a race for dramatic space achievements, a race that 

the Soviet Union was winning because of their superior space launch capability. 

Neustadt asked “if we are behind and are likely to stay behind in the race for 

‘Sputnik-type firsts,’ should we get out of the race and divert the resources now 

tied up in it to other uses which have tangible military, scientific or welfare value?” 

Neustadt was skeptical of the value of the Saturn rockets,5 which he noted were 

needed “only in order to put a man on the moon” before Russia, but he did support 

the development of a very large rocket motor (the F-1). He asked Kennedy “in the 

longer run, what proportion of government resources, for what span of years, 

should go into developing the technology of space travel?” (Volume I, III-4) 

Kennedy also appointed during the transition an “Ad Hoc Committee on 

Space,” which was chaired by the man who would become his science advisor, MIT 

Professor Jerome Wiesner. This committee recognized that “manned exploration 

of space will certainly come to pass and we believe that the United States must play 

a vigorous role in this venture,” but that “because of our lag in the development of 

large boosters, it is very unlikely that we shall be first in placing a man into orbit.” 

However, the committee believed that too much emphasis had been placed on 

Project Mercury in comparison to its actual scientific and technological payoffs, 

and recommended that “we should stop advertising MERCURY as our major 

objective in space activities. . . . We should find effective means to make people 

appreciate the cultural, public service, and military importance of space activities 

other than [human] space travel.” (Volume I, III-5) 

4. Most of the account of this decision is taken from Logsdon, The Decision to Go to the Moon. 

This study of the Kennedy decision, published in 1970, remains the accepted version of the events 

leading to Kennedy’s 25 May 1961 announcement that “we should go to the moon.” 

5. At this point, Saturn was the name of the Wernher von Braun-led program to develop a 

larger booster than anything the United States was otherwise planning, but still far short in lifting 

power of what was ultimately developed as the Saturn V for the lunar landing program. 
Exploring the Unknown 391

In his Inaugural Address, delivered on a wintry Washington afternoon, 

President John F. Kennedy suggested to the leaders of the Soviet Union that 

“together let us explore the stars.”6

 In his initial thinking about space policy, 

Kennedy favored using space activities as a way of increasing the peaceful 

interactions between the United States and its Cold War adversary. Soon after he 

came to the White House, Kennedy directed his science advisor to undertake an 

intensive review to identify areas of potential U.S.-Soviet space cooperation, and 

that review continued for the first three months of the Kennedy administration, 

only to be overtaken by the need to respond to the Soviet launch of Yuri Gagarin 

on 12 April. Soviet-U.S. cooperation in space was a theme that Kennedy was to 

return to in subsequent years. 

A first order of business was to select someone to head NASA. After a number 

of candidates indicated that they were not interested in the position, on the 

advice of his Vice President, Lyndon B. Johnson, powerful Oklahoma Senator 

Robert Kerr, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space 

Sciences, and his science advisor Jerome Wiesner, Kennedy turned to James E. 

Webb on 31 January. The NASA position was one of the last top-level jobs to 

be filled by the new administration. Webb was from North Carolina, trained as 

a lawyer and veteran of both congressional staff and senior executive branch 

positions during the Truman administration, and had business experience 

working for one of Kerr’s companies in Oklahoma.7

 Webb agreed to take the 

NASA job, but only after meeting with the President, who told Webb that he 

wanted “someone who understands policy. This program involves great issues 

of national and international policy.” Webb got assurances from the President 

that respected scientist and manager Hugh Dryden would be allowed to stay 

on as NASA’s Deputy Administrator. Webb also decided to retain Associate 

Administrator Robert Seamans, who served as the Agency’s general manager. 

Seamans was a Republican, and Webb wanted to present NASA as not being 

influenced by partisan politics. Webb was sworn in as NASA Administrator on 

14 February.8 

John Kennedy’s closest advisor, Theodore Sorenson, was later to comment 

that “Webb was not what we would call a Kennedy-type individual. He was 

inclined to talk at great length, and the President preferred those who were 

more concise in their remarks. He was inclined to be rather vague, somewhat 

disorganized in his approach to a problem, and the President preferred those 

who were more precise.” However, according to Sorenson, “I don’t know that the 

President ever regretted his appointment of Webb, or wished that he had named 

someone else.” (II-43) 

Once Webb arrived at NASA, a first task was to review the Agency’s proposed 

budget for FY 1962 that had been prepared by the outgoing Eisenhower 

6. Public Papers of The Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1961 (Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office, 1962), p. 2. 

7. For a perceptive biography of James E. Webb, see W. Henry Lambright, Powering Apollo: James 

E. Webb of NASA (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995). 

8. W. Henry Lambright, Powering Apollo: James E. Webb of NASA (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins 

Press, 1995), pp. 82–87. 
392 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

administration. In doing so, Webb and his associates came to the conclusion that 

NASA’s planning had been too conservative, and that the milestones included in 

the Agency’s 10-year plan should be accelerated. One input into this conclusion 

was the 7 February final report of Low’s working group, which concluded that 

“the present state of knowledge is such that no invention or breakthrough is 

believed to be required to insure the overall feasibility of safe manned lunar 

flight,” that “manned landings on the moon . . . could be made in the 1968–1971 

time period,” and that it would be possible to carry out a lunar landing program 

for a total cost of $7 billion. (II-4) 

Based on this and other analyses, NASA requested a 30 percent increase 

in its FY 1962 budget over what had been proposed by President Eisenhower. 

The Bureau of the Budget reacted negatively to such a large increase, and on 

22 March 1961 Webb, Dryden, and Seamans met with President Kennedy and 

his staff to discuss how best to proceed. At that meeting, NASA noted that 

President Eisenhower had eliminated from the NASA budget all funds related to 

human flight after Project Mercury, including the Apollo spacecraft and heavier 

lift boosters and rocket motors. Webb told the President that “the Soviets have 

demonstrated how effective space exploration can be as a symbol of scientifi c 

progress and as an adjunct of foreign policy. . . . We cannot regain the prestige 

we have lost without improving our present inferior booster capability.” 

At this point Kennedy had not made up his own mind about the future of 

human space flight, and so he was unwilling to approve NASA’s request to restore 

funds for the Apollo spacecraft; the sense is that decisions on this issue would 

come during the preparation of the FY 1963 NASA budget at the end of 1961. 

Support for the importance of human spaceflight, as the President deliberated 

on its future, came from the Space Sciences Board of the National Academy 

of Sciences. The chairman of that board, Lloyd Berkner, was a longtime friend 

of James Webb, and on 31 March he sent Webb and Kennedy’s science advisor 

Jerome Wiesner a letter reporting that the board had agreed that “from a scientifi c 

standpoint, there seems little room for dissent that man’s participation in the 

exploration of the Moon and planets will be essential, if and when it becomes 

technologically feasible to include him.” (II-5) 

Kennedy and his advisors did agree that the United States, for a variety of reasons, 

needed to approve its space lift capabilities, and so he approved an additional $114 

million for launch vehicle development. There matters were planned to rest until 

NASA was successful in its initial flights of Project Mercury, planned for later in 

1961, and it came time to formulate the NASA budget for FY 1963. 

Events forced the President’s hand much earlier than he had anticipated. 

In the early morning hours of 12 April, word reached the White House that the 

Soviet Union had successfully orbited its first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, and that 

he had safely returned to Earth. The Soviet Union was quick to capitalize on the 

propaganda impact of the Gagarin fl ight; Nikita Khrushchev boasted, “Let the 

capitalist countries catch up with our country!” In the United States, both the 

public and Congress demanded a response to the Soviet achievement. 

President Kennedy called a meeting of his advisors for the late afternoon 

of 14 April to discuss what that response might be. Kennedy also agreed to an 
Exploring the Unknown 393

interview the same afternoon with Hugh Sidey, a top reporter for Life and Time 

magazines and someone on friendly terms with the President (as were many 

journalists). In preparation for that interview, Sidey prepared a set of questions 

and transmitted them to Presidential Press Secretary Pierre Salinger. Wiesner 

then prepared a background memorandum for the President’s use in responding 

to Sidey. (II-6, II-7) 

Rather than meet separately with Sidey, the President decided to let him 

join the meeting with Webb, Dryden and Kennedy’s top advisors; Sidey later 

described the meeting in a book about Kennedy. Dryden told the President that 

catching up with the Russians might require a crash program on the order of 

the Manhattan Project that developed the atomic bomb; such an effort might 

cost as much as $40 billion. After hearing the discussions of what might be done, 

according to Sidey, Kennedy’s response was “when we know more, I can decide 

if it’s worth it or not. If someone can just tell me how to catch up. . . . There’s 

nothing more important.”9 

While Kennedy considered his course of action, other events reinforced his 

need to get something positive in place. On the morning of 17 April, Central 

Intelligence Agency-trained Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba in an 

attempt to foment an uprising that would result in forcing Fidel Castro to give up 

his leadership position. During the following two days, Kennedy and his advisors 

decided not to offer U.S. military support to this failing invasion; as a result, the 

United States looked weak and vacillating to much of the rest of the world. 

Kennedy had decided in December to give his Vice President, Lyndon 

Johnson, lead responsibility for advising him on space as the Chairman of the 

existing National Aeronautics and Space Council. That council had been set up 

as part of the 1958 Space Act, with the President as Chair. Thus legislative action 

was needed to give the chairmanship to the Vice President. The President signed 

the legislation making this change on 20 April, and on that same day wrote a 

historic memorandum to the Vice President, asking him “as Chairman of the Space 

Council to be in charge of making an overall survey of where we stand in space.” In 

particular, Kennedy asked, “Do we have a chance of beating the Soviets by putting 

a laboratory in space, or by a trip around the Moon, or by a rocket to land on the 

Moon, or by a rocket to go to the Moon and back with a man? Is there any other 

space program which promises dramatic results in which we could win?” (II-8) 

Vice President Johnson quickly organized the review that the President 

requested. On 21 April, he received a first input from the Department of 

Defense, which suggested that “dramatic achievements in space . . . symbolize 

the technological power and organizing capability of a nation” and “major 

achievements in space contribute to national prestige.” (Volume I, III-7) NASA’s 

response came a day later; the space agency told the President that 

There is a chance for the U.S. to be the first to land a man on the Moon 

and return him to Earth if a determined national effort is made. . . . It 

9. Hugh Sidey, Kennedy, President (New York: Scribner, 1963), pp. 121–123. 
394 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

is doubtful that the Russians have a very great head start on the U.S. in 

the effort required for a manned lunar landing. Because of the distinct 

superiority of U.S. industrial capacity, engineering, and scientifi c knowhow, we believe that with the necessary national effort, the U.S. may be 

able to overcome the lead that the Russians might have up to now. 

NASA added “a possible target date for the earliest attempt for a manned lunar 

landing is 1967, with an accelerated U.S. effort.” NASA told the Vice President that 

the cost to carry out the overall NASA 10-year plan at a pace that would allow a fi rst 

attempt at a lunar landing in 1967 would be $33.7 billion through 1970. (II-9) 

Lyndon Johnson consulted not only government agencies, but also individuals 

whom he respected, as he carried out his review. One of those individuals was 

Wernher von Braun, who told Johnson “we have an excellent chance of beating 

the Soviets to the first landing of a crew on the moon (including return capability, 

of course) [emphasis in original].” He added, “The reason is that a performance 

jump by a factor 10 over their present rockets is necessary to accomplish this 

feat. While today we do not have such a rocket, it is unlikely that the Soviets 

have it. Therefore, we would not have to enter the race toward this obvious 

next goal in space exploration against hopeless odds favoring the Soviets.” Von 

Braun suggested “with an all-out crash program I think we could accomplish this 

objective in 1967/68.” (II-10) 

By 28 April, Johnson could report to the President that “the U.S. can, if it 

will, firm up its objectives with a reasonable chance of attaining world leadership 

in space during this decade.” In particular, he added, “manned exploration of the 

moon, for example, is not only an achievement with great propaganda value, but 

it is essential as an objective whether or not we are first in its accomplishment— 

and we may be able to be first.” (Volume I, III-8) 

Johnson continued his review, consulting with leading members of Congress. 

(Volume I, III-10) The review took place as NASA was preparing to launch the fi rst 

suborbital flight in Project Mercury, and there was debate within the White House 

regarding whether to televise the event live, given the chance of a catastrophic 

failure. The decision was made to do so, and on 5 May Alan Shepard became 

the first American to enter space on a 15-minute journey. During the same week, 

President Kennedy asked Johnson to travel to Southeast Asia to get a sense of 

the situation there and whether direct U.S. military intervention was required. 

Johnson wanted to get his final recommendations on space to the President before 

he left Washington on Monday, 8 May; this meant that those preparing the basis 

for those recommendations would have to work over the weekend. 

By the morning of 8 May, James Webb and Secretary of Defense Robert 

McNamara signed a report titled “Recommendations for Our National Space 

Program: Changes, Policies, Goals.” They transmitted the report to the Vice 

President, saying “this document represents our joint thinking. We recommend 

that, if you concur with its contents and recommendations, it be transmitted to the 

President for his information and as a basis for early adoption and implementation 

of the revised and expanded objectives which it contains.” Johnson later that 

day did deliver the report to the President, without modification and with his 
Exploring the Unknown 395

concurrence; incidentally 8 May was the day on which Alan Shepard came to 

Washington to celebrate the success of his Mercury mission. 

The Webb-McNamara report called for an across-the-board acceleration of 

the U.S. space effort aimed at seeking leadership in all areas, not only dramatic 

space achievements. As its centerpiece, the report recommended 

our National Space Plan include the objective of manned lunar 

exploration before the end of this decade. It is our belief that manned 

exploration to the vicinity of and on the surface of the moon represents 

a major area in which international competition for achievement in 

space will be conducted. The orbiting of machines is not the same as the 

orbiting or landing of man. It is man, not merely machines, in space that 

captures the imagination of the world. 

A very expensive undertaking such as sending humans to the Moon was justifi ed, 

according to Webb and McNamara, because “this nation needs to make a positive 

decision to pursue space projects aimed at enhancing national prestige [emphasis in 

original]. Our attainments are a major element in the international competition 

between the Soviet system and our own. The nonmilitary, noncommercial, 

nonscientifi c but ‘civilian’ projects such as lunar and planetary exploration are, 

in this sense, part of the battle along the fluid front of the cold war.” (II-11) 

After a quick review of the report’s recommendations by the White House 

staff, Kennedy approved them. He announced his decisions at the end of an 

address to a joint session of Congress on 25 May 1961. He told the assemblage, 

and the nation, “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the 

goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him 

safely to earth.” (Volume I, III-12) 

Congress quickly and without significant opposition approved the $549 

million addition to NASA’s FY 1962 budget that was needed to get started on the 

accelerated program; this amount when added to the increase already approved 

in March represented an 89 percent increase of the previous year’s budget. With 

this initial approval in hand, NASA could begin to implement Project Apollo. 

Getting Started 

Locating the Facilities 

It was clear from the start of planning for Apollo that NASA would need a 

major new installation to manage the effort and new facilities for launching the 

Apollo missions. Prior to the Apollo decision, NASA had planned to move the 

Space Task Group, which was managing Project Mercury from its base at Langley 

Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, to the Goddard Space Flight Center 

in Greenbelt, Maryland. The thinking was that all NASA missions, human and 

robotic, could be managed by a single Field Center. But a project of the scope of 

Apollo would overwhelm other activities at Goddard, and there was high political 
396 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

interest in creating a new NASA center for Apollo. This meant that Governors, 

Congressmen and Senators, and business representatives from a number of 

locations around the United States pressured NASA to consider locating the new 

Center in their area. In response, NASA set up a series of criteria that the new 

facility would have to meet, and a site survey team visited 23 potential locations. 

In particular, the Massachusetts political establishment put pressure on the 

President to consider a location in his home state, even though the proposed 

site did not meet all NASA’s criteria, especially a climate that would permit yearround outdoor operations. (II-14) 

On 19 September 1961, NASA announced that a new Manned Spacecraft 

Center would be located “in Houston, Texas, on a thousand acres to be made 

available to the government by Rice University.”10 This decision may well have 

been preordained. Even before President Kennedy announced his decision to 

go to the Moon, on 23 May, James Webb had written a memorandum to Lyndon 

Johnson on his return from his inspection trip to Southeast Asia to bring the 

Vice President up to date on what had happened in the two weeks he had been 

away from Washington. Webb noted that he had had several interactions with 

Representative Albert Thomas of Houston, who chaired the House appropriations 

subcommittee controlling NASA’s budget, and that “Thomas has made it very 

clear that he and George Brown were extremely interested in having Rice 

University make a real contribution” to the accelerated space effort. (Brown was 

head of the Houston-based construction company Brown & Root and a major 

political ally of Lyndon Johnson. Brown had been one of the outsiders consulted 

by Johnson in April as the space review was underway). (Volume II, III-7) Given 

the infl uence of Thomas over the NASA budget and the political links between 

Johnson and Brown, it would have been diffi cult to choose another location for 

the new Center. 

It was also clear to NASA that it would need to build new launch facilities 

for the large boosters needed for Apollo. At the time of the decision to go to the 

Moon, NASA was already developing the Saturn 1 rocket, with fi rst-stage thrust 

of 1.5 million pounds coming from a cluster of eight H-1 rocket engines, but it 

would not have sufficient power to launch human missions to the Moon. NASA 

in March had gotten White House permission to develop a more powerful Saturn 

2 vehicle that added a second stage powered by engines using liquid hydrogen as 

their fuel. At the start of planning for lunar landing missions, NASA’s thinking 

focused on a new, very large launch vehicle called Nova, which would cluster 

eight F-1 rocket engines, each with 1.5 million pounds of takeoff thrust, as a 

means of carrying a spacecraft directly to the lunar surface. As NASA planning 

moved forward during 1961 (this process is discussed below), variations of an 

advanced Saturn vehicle, using three, four, and ultimately five F-1 engines in its 

first stage were considered. While a Saturn 1 or Saturn 2 (which never got beyond 

the preliminary design stage) could be launched from an existing launch pad on 

10. Henry C. Dethloff, Suddenly, Tomorrow Came . . .: A History of the Johnson Space Center 

(Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4307, 1993), 

p. 40. 
Exploring the Unknown 397

the Air Force-controlled Atlantic Missile Range at Cape Canaveral, Florida, that 

range could not accommodate the larger advanced Saturn or Nova boosters. 

As a lunar landing decision appeared more and more likely in late April 

1961, NASA Associate Administrator Robert Seamans had directed Kurt Debus, 

a von Braun associate who was in charge of NASA’s launch operations at the 

Atlantic Missile Range, to begin to search for a site to launch much larger 

boosters. By August, Debus and his associates had examined eight possible 

locations, including three outside of the continental U.S., and had concluded 

that Merritt Island, Florida, adjacent to Cape Canaveral, was the preferred 

site, with White Sands, New Mexico as second choice.11 On 1 September NASA 

announced its intention to purchase 125 square miles of property on Merritt 

Island; on 24 August 1961, NASA and the Department of Defense had signed 

an interim agreement on the relationship between what was called the Merritt 

Island Launch Area and the Atlantic Missile Range; that agreement was replaced 

by a more permanent agreement in January 1963. Anticipating a high launch 

rate for Saturn vehicles, NASA in 1962 decided to build what was to be called 

Launch Complex 39; the complex included a huge vertical assembly building 

where the launch vehicles would be assembled and checked out before being 

transported to one of two launch pads, designated 39A and 39B. While NASA’s 

launch operations at Cape Canaveral had previously been managed by a division 

of the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, for Apollo NASA decided to 

create a separate Launch Operations Center reporting to NASA Headquarters 

and named Debus to head the facility.12 (Volume IV, I-41 and I-42) 

In addition to new launch facilities, NASA also needed a site for the assembly 

of the large first stage of the Saturn 1 and advanced Saturn vehicles. NASA 

selected a former ship, airplane, and tank factory located in the outskirts of New 

Orleans, Louisiana. The land had been granted by French King Louis XV in 

1763 to a wealthy but eccentric recluse and junk dealer named Antoine Michoud 

for use as a plantation, and the plant built on the site almost two hundred years 

later was named after him. For testing the powerful F-1 engine, after considering 

34 sites, NASA chose an isolated location in Hancock County, Mississippi, and 

christened it the Mississippi Test Facility. Site selection for both facilities was 

subject to political maneuvering as well as technical criteria.13 

Finally, NASA also had to decide where to locate the control center to manage 

the Apollo missions once they were underway. The mission control center for 

Project Mercury was located at Cape Canaveral in Florida, and there was some 

thought of placing the Apollo control room there. By mid-1962, however, NASA 

decided that a new Mission Control Center should be created as part of the 

Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. (II-25) 

11. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 88–89. 

12. Ibid, pp. 90-99. See also Charles D. Benson and William Barnaby Faherty, Moonport: A 

History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration Special Publication-4204, 1978). 

13. For more on this selection, see Roger Bilstein, Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the 

Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Special Publication-4208, 1980). 
398 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Building the Spacecraft 

Meantime, NASA had been thinking about an advanced spacecraft called 

Apollo since at least 1960. Thus the organization was quickly able to initiate 

the procurement of the vehicle, even before it was known exactly how it would 

be used for the lunar landing mission. By 28 July 1961, NASA had an approved 

procurement plan in place; 12 firms were identified as potential bidders. (II-13) 

Ultimately, only five bids for the contract were submitted. The competition for 

the Apollo spacecraft contract took place over the following four months; on 28 

November, NASA announced that North American Aviation had been selected 

to build the vehicle. This turned out to be a controversial decision, particularly 

after problems with North America’s performance became known and it was 

discovered that the NASA Source Evaluation Board had identified the Martin 

Company as its preferred choice, with North American Aviation as a “desirable 

alternative.”14 (II-20) 

Selecting the Launch Vehicle 

While the basic elements of the Apollo spacecraft, with a three-person crew 

and two elements, (one housing the crew and the command center for the vehicle 

and the other housing propulsion and other systems) had been fixed since 1960, 

it took NASA until the end of 1961 to select the launch vehicle for the Apollo 

missions to the Moon. There were two reasons for this. One was that the “national 

space plan” contained in the 8 May Webb-McNamara memorandum had called 

for a collaborative NASA-Department of Defense effort to define a family of 

launch vehicles that could meet both agencies’ requirements and advance the 

development of both liquid fuel and solid-fuel propulsion systems. While NASA, 

and particularly its rocket development team headed by Wernher von Braun, 

had experience only with liquid-fueled boosters, the Department of Defense was 

interested in pushing the development of large solid-fuel rocket motors for various 

advanced military and intelligence uses. The focus of this planning effort was a 

“NASA-DOD Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group.” The group was directed by 

Nicholas Golovin of NASA; its deputy director was Lawrence Kavanaugh of DOD. 

The group started work in July 1961, and by the fall had become bogged down in 

very detailed studies and deadlocked over the relative roles of liquid-fueled and 

solid-fueled boosters in the lunar landing program. Its fi nal recommendations 

attempted to satisfy both NASA and DOD, and ended up pleasing neither agency. 

(Volume II, II-20) 

In parallel with the Large Launch Vehicle study, NASA continued to carry 

out its own analyses of what kind of launch vehicles would be needed for Project 

Apollo. These analyses were hindered by a basic issue; NASA at the end of 1961 

had not yet selected the approach—called the “mission mode”—which it would 

14. For a history of the Apollo spacecraft, see Courtney G. Brooks, James M. Grimwood, and 

Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft (Washington, DC: 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4205, 1979). 
Exploring the Unknown 399

use to send crews to the Moon. (The process of making that decision is described 

in the following section.) This was the second reason for the delay in identifying 

the launch vehicles for Apollo; it was hard to define what kind of launch vehicle 

would be needed without knowing what requirements it would have to meet. 

Still, as the end of the year approached there was a need to make some basic 

launch vehicle decisions. The NASA-DOD study had come out with a general set 

of recommendations that did not provide an adequate basis for NASA’s decisions. 

So on 6 November, Milton Rosen of NASA Headquarters organized a two-week 

study to recommend to the NASA leadership “a large launch vehicle program” 

which would “meet the requirements of manned space flight” and “have broad 

and continuing national utility.” (Volume IV, I-31) On 20 November, Rosen 

reported that “to exploit the possibility of accomplishing the first lunar landing 

by rendezvous,” NASA should develop an “intermediate vehicle” that had fi ve F-1 

engines in the first stage, four or five J-2 engines in its second stage, and one J-2 

in its third stage. (The J-2 was an engine powered by high energy liquid hydrogen 

fuel that would have the capability to stop and restart in orbit.) Since a direct 

flight to the Moon was at this point still NASA’s stated preference for the lunar 

landing missions, Rosen also recommended that “a NOVA vehicle consisting of 

an eight F-1 first stage” should be developed on a “top priority basis.” He added 

“large solid rockets should not be considered as a requirement for manned lunar 

landing.” (Volume IV, I-32) 

The recommendation for a fi ve-engine first stage for the advanced Saturn 

launch vehicle, soon called the Saturn C-5 and ultimately the Saturn V, was 

quickly accepted by the NASA leadership. That decision, as will be seen later, 

soon became a key to NASA’s choice of how to get to the Moon.15 

Choosing Apollo’s Managers 

From the time that Kennedy announced his decision to go to the Moon, 

it was clear that the responsibility for developing the Apollo spacecraft and 

training the astronauts to operate it would be assigned to the Space Task Group. 

This group was headed by Robert Gilruth, a widely respected veteran of the 

National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), NASA’s predecessor. As 

soon as it was decided that NASA would build a new Field Center for Apollo and 

that it would be located in Houston, Gilruth and his team began to move their 

base of operations to Houston and to hire the many additional staff who would 

be needed to carry out the spacecraft development, astronaut training, and 

flight operations. It was equally clear that Wernher von Braun and his German 

rocket team, now working for NASA in the new Marshall Space Flight Center 

in Huntsville, Alabama, would be the core of the group developing the launch 

vehicles for Apollo. 

15. For more information on the origins and development of the Saturn launch vehicles, see 

Bilstein, Stages to Saturn and Ray Williamson, “Access to Space: Steps to Saturn V” in John M. Logsdon 

et al., eds., Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Program (Washington, 

DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4407, Vol. IV, 1999). 
400 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

What NASA needed were highly qualified individuals to lead the overall 

Apollo program at its Washington Headquarters. After considering several other 

candidates from both inside and outside of the Agency, Webb, Dryden, and 

Seamans settled on D. Brainerd Holmes, who had managed the very large ballistic 

missile early warning project for RCA. Webb used his powers of persuasion to 

convince Holmes to join NASA. Holmes accepted the position and joined NASA 

in October 1961 in the new position of Associate Administrator for Manned 

Space Flight. One of Holmes’s fi rst identified needs was to find someone to apply 

a “systems management” approach to the already sprawling Project Apollo; that 

person turned out to be a dynamic young engineer named Joseph Shea, who 

came to NASA at the very end of 1961.16 Over the following year, Holmes and 

Shea provided the energy and technical management skills to get Apollo started 

down a path to a lunar landing “before this decade is out,” although neither was 

with NASA by the time that first landing took place. 

On the same day, 20 November, that Rosen recommended development 

of a fi ve-engine first stage Saturn vehicle, White House science advisor Jerome 

Wiesner prepared a memorandum for the President’s close associate Theodore 

Sorenson, summarizing the state of progress on Project Apollo. Wiesner noted, 

“Six months have elapsed since the decision was announced to put man on the 

moon, yet none of these crucial hardware programs have progressed beyond the 

study phase. Lead times on these development and construction programs are 

of critical importance.” In particular, “Major decisions have not been announced 

as to what extent rendezvous will be employed, what Advanced Saturn vehicle 

will be built (probably C-4), and what will be the characteristics of the so-called 

Nova which could put man on the moon by direct ascent. The relative emphasis 

of rendezvous versus direct ascent is a key to the entire program.” (II-19) It would 

take almost a year before a decision on how to go to the Moon—by some form of 

rendezvous or by a direct fl ight—was final; that decision, as Wiesner noted, was 

key to getting to the Moon before 1970. 

Finding a Way to the Moon17 

NASA Chooses The Way 

In early May 1961, when it appeared likely that President Kennedy would 

approve sending Americans to the Moon, NASA Associate Administrator Robert 

Seamans asked one of his senior staff members, William Fleming, to put together 

16. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 120–123; Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Aiming at Targets (Washington, 

DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4106, 1996), pp. 93–94. 

For a discussion of the application of systems management to Apollo, see Stephen B. Johnson, 

The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs (Baltimore: Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 2002). 

17. For more detailed discussions of the decision on what should be the preferred approach to 

a lunar landing, see John M. Logsdon, “NASA’s Implementation of the Lunar Landing Decision,” 

NASA HHN-81, September 1968; James R. Hansen, Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the
Exploring the Unknown 401

a task force to examine “in detail a feasible and complete approach to the 

accomplishment of an early manned lunar mission.” Seamans asked for a report 

within four weeks; the report was actually delivered in mid-June.18 The task force 

considered only one approach to the lunar mission, the “direct ascent” mode, in 

which the very large Nova launch vehicle would send a complete spacecraft to the 

lunar surface. This approach had been the basis of NASA’s early planning for a 

lunar landing. But Seamans also recognized that there were other approaches to 

the lunar landing that would involve rendezvous between two or more elements 

of a lunar spacecraft. So on the same day as President Kennedy announced the 

lunar landing goal, 25 May, Seamans asked Bruce Lundin of the Lewis Research 

Center to head up another group that would examine various rendezvous 

approaches as a way of getting to the Moon. 

Lundin and his associates conducted a rapid assessment of various rendezvous 

approaches and reported back to Seamans on 10 June. They noted, “mission 

staging by rendezvous has been the subject of much investigation at Marshall, 

Langley, Ames, Lewis, and JPL.” The group examined four rendezvous concepts: 

1) rendezvous in Earth orbit; 2) rendezvous in lunar orbit after take-off from the 

lunar surface; 3) rendezvous in both Earth and lunar orbit; 4) rendezvous on the 

lunar surface. They concluded “of the various orbital operations considered, the 

use of rendezvous in Earth orbit by two or three Saturn C-3 vehicles (depending 

on estimated payload requirements) was strongly favored.” This approach was 

either the first or second choice of all members of the group.19 (II-12) 

Based on this conclusion, Seamans formed yet another group, this one 

to examine rendezvous approaches in more depth than had been possible in 

the rapid Lundin study. This group was headed by Donald Heaton of NASA 

Headquarters. Following on Lundin’s report, the group considered only Earth 

orbital rendezvous approaches. In its late August report, the group concluded 

“rendezvous offers the earliest possibility for a successful manned lunar landing [emphasis 

in original].” 

NASA continued to consider both a direct ascent and Earth orbital rendezvous 

approaches for the next several months. Then, on 15 November, “somewhat as a 

voice in the wilderness,” John Houbolt, a NASA engineer at the Langley Research 

Center, bypassed several layers of management and wrote an impassioned ninepage letter to Robert Seamans, arguing that NASA was overlooking the best way 

to get to the Moon before 1970, lunar orbital rendezvous. He claimed that “the 

lunar rendezvous approach is easier, quicker, less costly, requires less development, 

less new sites and facilities” and that Seamans should “Give us the go-ahead, and 

C-3, and we will put men on the Moon in very short order—and we don’t need 

any Houston empire to do it.” Houbolt told Seamans “it is conceivable that after 

reading this you may feel that you are dealing with a crank. Do not be afraid of 

Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. NASA Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 4, 1999; 

and Murray and Cox, pp. 113–143. 

18. Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood, On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project 

Gemini (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication4203, 1977), pp. 36–37. 

19. Ibid, p. 38. 
402 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

this. The thoughts expressed here may not be stated in as diplomatic a fashion 

as they might be. . . . The important point is that you hear the ideas directly, not 

after they have filtered through a score or more of other people” (II-15). 

Houbolt attached a report to his letter summarizing the results of work done 

by him and his associates at the Langley Research Center. (While Houbolt was 

only one of the originators of the lunar rendezvous concept, he was its primary 

spokesperson.) The report described the proposed mission plan: 

A manned exploration vehicle is considered on its way to the moon. On 

approach, this vehicle is decelerated into a low-altitude circular orbit 

about the moon. From this orbit a lunar lander descends to the moon 

surface, leaving the return vehicle in orbit. After exploration the lunar 

lander ascends for rendezvous with the return vehicle. The return vehicle 

is then boosted into a return trajectory to the earth, leaving the lander 

behind. 

The primary advantage of this approach was “the marked reduction in 

escape weight required; the reduction is, of course, a direct reflection of the 

reduced energy requirements brought about by leaving a sizable mass in lunar 

orbit, in this case, the return capsule and return propulsion system.” With less 

mass to carry to the Moon, Houbolt and his associates argued, a lunar landing 

mission could be accomplished by a single Saturn C-3 launch vehicle with two F-1 

engines in its first stage. (II-16) 

Houbolt in May had written an initial letter directly to Seamans, and the fi rst 

reaction of NASA management was to discipline him for twice contacting Seamans 

outside of approved channels. But George Low, now working for Brainerd Holmes 

at NASA Headquarters, told Holmes that despite its tone, “Houbolt’s message is a 

relatively sound one and I am forced to agree with many of the points he makes.” 

Robert Gilruth and his associates in Houston were also beginning to see the 

merits of designing two separate spaceships, one for the journey to lunar orbit 

and return to Earth, the other only to land on the Moon. They began to do their 

own studies of the concept. By the end of January, Brainerd Holmes’s deputy 

Joseph Shea, after being briefed by Houbolt on what was becoming known at 

the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) concept, noted that “Brainerd and I agreed 

that LOR looks suffi ciently attractive to warrant further study. He feels that the 

study should be run from OMSF, rather than either Center, to provide a measure 

of objectivity.” He added “We are also concerned that MSFC will be especially 

negative with LOR because they have not studied it.”20 (II-17) 

Over the next four months, both the Manned Space Craft Center (MSC) at 

Houston and the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) at Huntsville carried out 

detailed studies of alternative rendezvous approaches to getting to the Moon. 

The idea of developing a huge launch vehicle, Nova, to carry astronauts to the 

Moon had by now lost favor as a feasible approach, mainly because it seemed 

20. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 120, 124–140. 
Exploring the Unknown 403

to be too large a jump to go from the launch vehicles with which NASA had 

experience to something so gigantic. In addition, the concept of designing a 

single spacecraft to carry out all phases of the mission, particularly the lunar 

landing and the return into the Earth’s atmosphere, looked increasingly diffi cult 

as Maxime Faget and other designers at MSC gave detailed attention to that 

challenge. During the early months of 1962, Houston became convinced that 

some version of the LOR approach, which involved two separate spacecraft, one 

specialized only for landing on the Moon and one for the journey to and from 

lunar orbit, was indeed the best way to proceed. The combined weight of the 

two spacecraft would allow the mission to be launched with a single Saturn C5 (Saturn V) booster, although there was very little margin for weight growth. 

They shared their analyses and reasoning with their colleagues at MSFC, who 

were continuing to focus their efforts to various approached to Earth Orbital 

Rendezvous (EOR). 

A climactic meeting was held at MSFC on 7 June. For most of the day, the 

Marshall staff presented their positive findings on EOR to Joseph Shea from NASA 

Headquarters. At the end of the day, MSFC Director Wernher von Braun provided 

concluding remarks. He shocked many of his associates by announcing that he 

had concluded that his first priority choice was the “Lunar Orbit Rendezvous 

Mode,” because “We believe this program offers the highest confi dence factor of 

successful accomplishment within this decade.” Von Braun added “we agree with 

the Manned Spacecraft Center that the designs of a maneuverable hyperbolic 

reentry vehicle and of a lunar landing vehicle constitute the two most critical 

tasks in producing a successful lunar spacecraft. A drastic separation of these two 

functions into two separate elements is bound to greatly simplify the development 

of the spacecraft system.” He noted “the issue of ‘invented here’ versus ‘not 

invented here’ does not apply to either the Manned Spacecraft Center or the 

Marshall Space Flight Center” because “both Centers have actually embraced a 

scheme suggested by a third.” Von Braun told Shea “personnel of MSC and MSFC 

have by now conducted more detailed studies on all aspects of the four modes 

than any other group. Moreover, it is these two Centers to which the Offi ce 

of Manned Space Flight would ultimately have to look to ‘deliver the goods.’ I 

consider it fortunate indeed for the Manned Lunar Landing Program that both 

Centers, after much soul searching, have come to identical conclusions.” (II-18) 

The White House Disagrees 

With this rather startling announcement, given that the two Centers with 

primary responsibilities for Apollo were now in agreement, NASA Headquarters 

had little choice but to accept LOR as its choice for getting Americans to the 

Moon, and scheduled an 11 July press conference to announce that decision. 

However, James Webb on 3 July learned that there were strong objections to LOR 

on the part of the President’s science advisor, Jerome Wiesner, and his associates. 

Later that day, Webb called Joe Shea, saying “Jerry Wiesner just called me and he’s 
404 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

in a highly emotional state; he thinks LOR is the worst mistake in the world.”21 

NASA was allowed to go ahead with its 11 July press conference, but could only 

announce the LOR choice as tentative, with more studies to be conducted. 

Wiesner spelled out his reservations about the LOR choice in a 17 July letter 

to James Webb. (II-27) Wiesner was worried that the spacecraft weight limitations 

imposed by using the Saturn C-5 launch vehicle provided no margins if additional 

radiation shielding or zero-gravity countermeasures were discovered to be 

needed. He suggested that 

the matter of which mission mode is most consistent with the main 

stream of our national space program, and therefore the one most likely 

to be useful in overtaking and keeping ahead of Soviet space technology, 

is also one that I believe requires further consideration. . . . the question 

of which mode is likely to be most suitable for enhancing our military 

capabilities in space, if doing so should turn out to be desirable, should 

be reviewed with care. 

Wiesner’s views were in substantial part based on the views of the Space 

Vehicle Panel of the President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC), which 

was chaired by Brown University chemist, Donald Hornig. Wiesner forwarded 

to NASA with his letter the panel’s preliminary 11 July report. (II-26) The panel 

had concluded that a better approach to the Moon mission was to send a twoperson crew, rather than the three astronauts that NASA had been planning on 

since 1960, and to use the EOR or direct ascent mode rather than LOR. The staff 

person supporting the PSAC panel was none other that Nicholas Golovin, who 

had been replaced by Joseph Shea as Brainerd Holmes’s deputy and soon left 

NASA, unhappy with how he had been treated. He was then hired by Wiesner as 

his space specialist. Golovin and Shea were both self-confident individuals, with 

diametrically different approaches to key aspects of their systems analysis work. It 

is not possible to judge how much Golovin’s antagonism towards NASA fi gured in 

the NASA-White House dispute over the choice of mission mode, but it certainly 

was an element in the controversy that was to linger for several months. 

James Webb replied to Wiesner on 20 July, saying that NASA would indeed 

carry out the studies recommended by the Space Vehicle Panel and responding 

to some of Wiesner’s criticisms. (II-28) In an attempt to smooth over the dispute, 

Webb concluded his letter by saying “this constructive criticism by eminently 

qualified men is of tremendous value, and I am looking forward to further 

discussions with you as the results of our present studies begin to crystallize.” 

However, this polite tone did not last. There were continuing tensions over 

the next few months between Wiesner and Golovin on one hand and Webb and 

his associates, particularly Joe Shea, on the other. On 11 September, the dispute 

became public. On that day President Kennedy fl ew to Huntsville to be briefed 

on the progress being made on Apollo at the Marshall Space Flight Center. As 

21. Ibid, p. 141. 
Exploring the Unknown 405

the president toured the MSFC facilities accompanied by Wiesner, Webb, and von 

Braun, he had to intervene to stop a heated discussion between those three that 

had broken out within earshot of the accompanying press contingent over the 

wisdom of the LOR choice. 

By 24 October, James Webb had had enough of the White House interventions 

into what he considered NASA’s authority to make its own technical decisions. In 

a letter to Wiesner, he attached a summary report of the reviews of the mission 

mode choice; that report noted that it was NASA’s conclusion that “the lunar 

orbit rendezvous mode is the best choice for achieving a manned lunar landing 

mission before the end of the decade,” and that “comparisons of the 2-man lunar 

mission capsules with the present LOR approach lead to the conclusion that LOR 

is the preferred mode on the basis of technical simplicity, scheduling and cost 

considerations.” (II-29) 

Webb in his letter implied that Wiesner, if he still disagreed with NASA’s 

conclusions, would have to bring the matter before the president for resolution. 

He told Wiesner 

my own view is that we should proceed with the lunar orbit plan, should 

announce our selection of the contractor for the lunar excursion vehicle, 

and should play the whole thing in a low key. If you agree, I would like 

to get before you any facts . . . you believe you should have in order to 

put me in position to advise Mr. O’Donnell [the president’s appointment 

secretary] that neither you nor the Defense Department wishes to 

interpose a formal objection to the above. In that case, I believe Mr. 

O’Donnell will not feel it wise to schedule the president’s time and that 

the president will confirm this judgment. 

In early November, Webb and Wiesner “met in a tense confrontation” before 

the president. Webb “cast the issue in terms of who was in charge of getting to the 

moon.” According to one account, Kennedy said “Mr. Webb . . . you’re running 

NASA— you make the decision.”22 On 7 November, Kennedy’s National Security 

Advisor McGeorge Bundy asked Wiesner to write Webb a final time, telling 

Webb that “the president thinks the time is coming for a fi nal recommendation 

and relies on Director Webb to review all the arguments and to produce that 

recommendation.” He added “what the president has in mind is that we should 

make Webb feel the responsibility for a definite decision and the importance of 

weighing all opinions, without trying to make his decision for him.” Wiesner was 

to ask Webb for a letter to be part of the president’s files that recorded NASA’s 

reasons for its recommendation. (II-30) 

Bundy’s memorandum was a bit after the fact; on the same day, 7 November, 

NASA called a press conference to announce that the choice of the lunar orbital 

rendezvous approach was final, and that NASA had selected the Grumman Aircraft 

Engineering Corporation to build the lunar landing spacecraft. Webb did write 

22. Lambright, Powering Apollo, p. 113. 
406 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

the requested letter, telling the president that “the decision to adopt the Lunar 

Orbit Rendezvous mode was based on major systems and engineering studies 

which involved over a million man-hours of effort on the part of government 

and contractor personnel.” He added “despite the very extensive study efforts, 

however, we are dealing with a matter that cannot be conclusively proved before 

the fact, and in the final analysis the decision has been based upon the judgment 

of our most competent engineers and scientists who evaluated the studies and 

who are experienced in this field.” Webb noted “The decision on the mode to be 

used for the lunar landing had to be made at this time in order to maintain our 

schedules, which aim at a landing attempt in late 1967.” (II-31) 

Eighteen months after President John F. Kennedy had announced his decision 

to send Americans to the Moon, the plan for meeting that goal was now in place. 

The choice of the “mission mode” was, as Wiesner had told Theodore Sorenson 

a year earlier, the “key to the entire program.” 

The Science of Apollo 

While NASA’s managers and engineers were deciding how to get to the Moon, 

there was a parallel activity focused on what scientifi c activities would take place 

on the lunar surface, and who would carry out those activities.23 As a fi rst step 

in linking scientific considerations to Apollo planning, NASA Headquarters in 

March 1962 established a working group to recommend what scientific tasks lunar 

explorers should perform. This group was headed by Charles P. Sonnett of NASA’s 

Lunar and Planetary Programs Office. The group held its first meeting on 27 

March; one immediate question was whether it would be desirable, perhaps even 

necessary, to include trained scientists on Apollo crews. After that meeting, Joseph 

Shea asked the relevant staff in the Office of Manned Space Flight: “Is there any 

fundamental reason which would prevent the use of one or more professional 

scientists as crew members?” and “What serious practical problems would result if 

such personnel were included in the selection training program?” (II-21) 

There were no major objections raised to selecting scientists as Apollo 

astronauts, and over the next three years NASA worked together with the National 

Academy of Sciences to first set criteria for scientist-astronauts and then recruit 

a first group of individuals who met those criteria. For the first time in selecting 

astronauts, prior proficiency in piloting high-performance jet aircraft was not 

required to apply, although those selected would be required to undergo fl ight 

training. Over 1,000 applications were sent to the National Academy of Sciences; 

after screening, the Academy recommended 16 candidates to NASA. On 28 June 

1965, NASA announced that it had selected six men as its fi rst scientist-astronauts. 

(Of those six, only one, geologist Harrison H. “Jack” Schmitt, would fly an Apollo 

mission, although three others flew during the 1973 Skylab mission.)24 

23. For the origins of scientific planning for lunar exploration, see W. David Compton, Where No 

Man Has Gone Before: A History of Lunar Exploration Missions (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration Special Publication-4214, 1989), Chaps. 2–3. 

24. Ibid, Chap. 5. 
Exploring the Unknown 407

Sonnett’s group completed its work in early July 1962. Its recommendations 

were then reviewed during a “Summer Study” of the National Academy’s Space 

Science Board, which was already underway at the University of Iowa. The study 

report endorsed most of the recommendations of Sonnett’s report, and as 

modified by the Board’s review they then became the basis for NASA’s planning 

regarding the scientific aspects of Apollo missions. (II-41 and Volume V, I-22, 

II-12, II-13) 

Another pressing issue as the Apollo missions were being designed was 

how to obtain the needed information about the lunar environment, such as 

the radiation environment astronauts would experience on the journeys to and 

from the Moon, the physical properties of the lunar soil, and the topography of 

the Moon. Brainerd Holmes and his associates turned to previously approved 

robotic lunar science programs, Ranger and Surveyor, which were managed by 

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in hopes that they could provide much of this 

information. Ranger missions would make hard landings on the Moon, sending 

back images as the spacecraft approached the lunar surface; Surveyor missions 

would land softly on the lunar surface and send back detailed images and other 

information about the area surrounding their landing site. 

Tensions between the original scientific objectives of these missions and 

NASA’s need for engineering information were inevitable. (II-22, Volume V, II11) Later Ranger and Surveyor missions were indeed modifi ed to meet Apollo’s 

needs, creating lasting resentment among some members of the scientifi c 

community with respect to the intervention of engineering concerns into the 

setting of scientific priorities for robotic missions. NASA also decided to add a 

third robotic lunar program, Lunar Orbiter, to obtain high-resolution imagery of 

the lunar surface. That program was managed by the Langley Research Center, 

which was less closely linked to the scientific community than was JPL; the 

program used a camera modifi ed from its original highly classifi ed intelligence 

satellite mission to obtain the images needed. 

Even with all of this information, there was continuing controversy about 

the character of the lunar surface. One prominent astronomer, Thomas Gold of 

Cornell University, suggested that the smooth areas of the Moon were likely to be 

covered with a layer of fine dust several meters deep, raising the possibility that a 

lunar lander might sink into the dust or topple over after landing. Even after the 

first Surveyor spacecraft landed on the Moon without problems on 2 June 1966, 

Gold suggested that his views might still be valid. (II-46) 

An early planning issue for NASA was the selection of the locations on the 

Moon where Apollo would land. NASA did not want to restrict itself to a single 

location for even the first lunar landing attempt, and of course was planning more 

than one Apollo mission to the Moon. Engineering and trajectory considerations 

entered into play, making the choice of landing sites complex. Because of the 

weight limitations associated with the Apollo spacecraft and lunar module, only a 

landing at a location on the near side of the Moon and near the lunar equator was 

feasible; this meant that Apollo could not visit approximately 80 percent of the 

overall lunar surface. (II-24) Ultimately NASA identified a number of potential 
408 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

landing sites on the near side of the Moon and close to the lunar equator; then 

the scientific community identified locations of highest scientifi c interest.25 

Because an explicit objective of Apollo was the safe return to Earth of 

astronauts and their spacecraft and of the samples of the Moon they would collect 

during their stays on the lunar surface, NASA in its planning could not ignore 

the remote possibility that there could be living organisms on the Moon which, if 

brought to Earth, might have negative effects.26 The scientific community through 

the Space Science Board had pointed out this issue since the start of planning 

for missions to the Moon, and the Board’s 1962 Summer Study recommended 

that NASA develop “appropriate quarantine and other procedures . . . when 

handling returned samples, spacecraft, and astronauts [in order to] make the 

risk as small as possible.”27 (Volume V, II-14) NASA did little in response to this 

recommendation, and in 1964 the Space Studies Board once again expressed 

its concerns. By 1965, NASA realized that it would have to develop elaborate 

Lunar Receiving Laboratory facilities at Houston for quarantining whatever had 

returned from the Moon and that measures to initiate that quarantine would 

have to be put in place for the period between when the astronauts and their 

spacecraft returned to Earth and they were placed in those facilities. In 1966 

NASA also established an Inter-Agency Committee on Back Contamination to 

develop policies on the issue.28 

That Committee issued its report on the elaborate measures to be taken to 

prevent contamination of Earth by alien organisms from the Moon in August 

1967. (II-52) NASA also developed policies to minimize biological contamination 

to the Moon by the Apollo astronauts, their spacecraft, and the scientifi c 

experiments to be carried out on the lunar surface. (II-53) 

As the Apollo 11 mission, the first attempt at a lunar landing, was imminent 

in March 1969, concerns were raised both through the National Academy of 

Sciences and in representations to Congress that NASA was not being diligent 

enough in its application of the measures related to back contamination. (II54, II-55, II-56) There was even some possibility that NASA might be forced to 

delay the Apollo 11 launch until it convinced the external scientifi c community 

that the way it was preceding did not pose unacceptable risks. Ultimately, NASA 

was able to allay Congressional concerns, and the mission was launched on the 

planned date. 

25. Ibid, Chap. 6 

26. There is a long history of belief about life on the Moon—not sophisticated, complex life but 

certainly life that might harm humans. Esteemed astronomer Patrick Moore suggested as late as 1955 

that there may indeed be vegetation in the crater Aristarchus where changing bands of color might 

signal the possibility of life hanging on near gaseous eruptions from underground. See Patrick Moore, 

“Life on the Moon?” Irish Astronomical Journal, 3, no. 5 (1955): 136. 

27. Quoted in Compton, Where No Man has Gone, p. 45. 

28. See Ibid, Chapter 4, for a discussion of the approach taken to handling lunar samples. 
Exploring the Unknown 409

What Priority for Apollo? 

As part of NASA’s buildup for the Apollo project, James Webb on 13 March 

1962 wrote to President Kennedy, asking him to assign the top government 

priority—called “DX”— to the lunar landing project. To be assigned such a 

priority, a program had to have objectives of key political, scientifi c, psychological 

or military import. Those programs with this priority had first call on the scarce 

resources needed to achieve their goals. The President approved this request upon 

the recommendation of the National Aeronautics and Space Council. (II-23) 

One scarce resource not covered by the DX priority was money—specifi cally, 

funds within the overall NASA budget to be allocated to ensuring that Apollo 

would meet its goal of landing Americans on the Moon before 1970. And the 

man in charge of Apollo, Brainerd Holmes, by mid-1962 had come to believe 

that the project was receiving enough funds, and that with additional funds not 

only would a lunar landing by the end of 1967 (NASA’s planning target at the 

time) be possible, but even might be accomplished earlier. As Robert Seamans 

observed, “by the summer of 1962, Jim [Webb] and I knew we had a problem with 

Brainerd Holmes.” Holmes was a “very exciting person for the media. He had a 

way of expressing himself that made news.”29 Indeed, the 10 August issue of Time 

magazine featured Holmes on its cover and dubbed him “Apollo czar.” 

Holmes was seeking an additional $400 million for Apollo for the current FY 

1963. There were two ways to get these funds. One way was to transfer them from 

other NASA programs within the overall NASA budget provided by Congress. 

The other was to request that amount in a supplemental appropriation from 

Congress. James Webb refused to approve either choice, angering Holmes. 

Apparently Holmes discussed the situation directly with President Kennedy, 

probably during the president’s inspection tour of the Apollo buildup on 11 and 

12 September, with a stress on an earlier date for the first landing attempt. The 

President then asked Webb whether there was indeed a possibility of making the 

lunar landing in 1966 rather than 1967. Webb responded in late October, telling 

Kennedy “the late 1967 target date is based on a vigorous and driving effort, but 

does not represent a crash program. A late 1966 target would require a crash, 

high-risk effort.” Webb added that NASA was “prepared to place the manned 

lunar landing program on an all-out crash basis aimed at the 1966 target date if 

you should decide this is in the national interest,” but substantial and immediate 

budget increases would be required. (II-32) 

President Kennedy had asked his Bureau of the Budget during that summer 

to take a careful look at the actual situation with respect to the overall U.S. 

space program, focusing on two questions: “the pace at which the manned lunar 

landing should proceed” and “the approach that should be taken to other space 

programs in the 1964 budget.” Director of the Budget David Bell sent the results 

of the review to the President on 13 November. (Volume I, III-13) The review 

examined four options for Apollo. The first was the current NASA plan, with no 

29. Seamans, Aiming at Targets, p. 103. 
410 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

supplemental budget request for FY 1963 and a late 1967 target for the fi rst lunar 

landing. The second was to examine the budget implications of an accelerated 

program along the lines being advocated by Holmes. The final option examined 

the impact of slipping the landing date target by a year. Bell told the President “I 

agree with Mr. Webb that alternative 1, the NASA recommendation, is probably 

the most appropriate choice at this time.” 

Holmes remained unhappy. He was the apparent source for a second Time 

story that appeared on 19 November, titled “Space is in Earthly Trouble.” The 

magazine’s editors had deleted a Holmes quote from the story before it was 

published that said “The major stumbling block of getting to the moon is James 

E. Webb. He won’t fight for our program.”30 

Given the now-public controversy, President Kennedy scheduled a 21 

November meeting in the Cabinet Room of the White House to discuss NASA’s 

plans for Apollo. Like a number of meetings while Kennedy was President, this 

meeting was tape-recorded; a transcript of the discussion provides a rare insight 

into the interactions between Kennedy and Webb. (II-33) During the meeting, 

Kennedy and Webb had the following exchange: 

President Kennedy: Do you think this program [Apollo] is the toppriority of the Agency? 

James Webb: No, sir, I do not. I think it is one of the top-priority 

programs, but I think it’s very important to recognize here . . . and that 

you have found what you could do with a rocket as you could fi nd how 

you could get out beyond the Earth’s atmosphere and into space and 

make measurements. Several scientific disciplines that are very powerful 

are beginning to converge on this area. 

President Kennedy: Jim, I think it is the top priority. I think we ought to 

have that very clear. Some of these other programs can slip six months, 

or nine months, and nothing strategic is gonna happen, it’s gonna . . . 

But this is important for political reasons, international political reasons. 

This is, whether we like it or not, in a sense a race. If we get second to 

the Moon, it’s nice, but it’s like being second any time. So that if we’re 

second by six months, because we didn’t give it the kind of priority, then 

of course that would be very serious. So I think we have to take the view 

that this is the top priority with us. 

Later in the meeting, the President and the NASA head continued their debate: 

President Kennedy: Everything that we do ought to really be tied into 

getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. 

30. Dwayne Day has provided a discussion of these issues which can be found at http://history. 

nasa.gov/JFK-Webbconv/pages/backgnd.html (accessed 25 August 2006). 
Exploring the Unknown 411

James Webb: Why can’t it be tied to preeminence in space? 

President Kennedy: Because, by God, we keep, we’ve been telling 

everybody we’re preeminent in space for fi ve years and nobody believes 

it because they have the booster and the satellite. We know all about the 

number of satellites we put up, two or three times the number of the 

Soviet Union . . . we’re ahead scientifi cally. 

President Kennedy: I do think we ought to get it, you know, really clear 

that the policy ought to be that this is the top-priority program of the 

Agency, and one of the two things, except for defense, the top priority 

of the United States government. I think that that is the position we 

ought to take. Now, this may not change anything about that schedule, 

but at least we ought to be clear, otherwise we shouldn’t be spending 

this kind of money because I’m not that interested in space. I think it’s 

good; I think we ought to know about it; we’re ready to spend reasonable 

amounts of money. But we’re talking about these fantastic expenditures 

which wreck our budget and all these other domestic programs and the 

only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it in this time or fashion, is 

because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as 

we did by a couple years, by God, we passed them. 

James Webb: I’d like to have more time to talk about that because there 

is a wide public sentiment coming along in this country for preeminence 

in space. 

President Kennedy: If you’re trying to prove preeminence, this is the way 

to prove your preeminence. 

As he prepared to leave the meeting, the president asked Webb to prepare 

a letter stating his position on why space preeminence, and not just being fi rst 

to the Moon, should be the country’s goal: “I think in the letter you ought to 

mention how the other programs which the Agency is carrying out tie into the 

lunar program, and what their connection is, and how essential they are to the 

target dates we’re talking about, and if they are only indirectly related, what their 

contribution is to the general and specific things possibly we’re doing in space.” 

Webb’s letter was sent to the president on 30 November. (Volume I, III-14) 

In it, Webb said that in his view “the objective of our national space program is 

to become preeminent in all important aspects of this endeavor and to conduct 

the program in such a manner that our emerging scientific, technological, and 

operational competence in space is clearly evident.” Webb emphasized that “the 

manned lunar landing program, although of highest national priority, will not by 

itself create the preeminent position we seek.” 

Webb’s response apparently did not totally satisfy John F. Kennedy. As he visited 

the Los Alamos National Laboratory on 8 December, he asked his science advisor 

Jerome Wiesner to again look into the possibility of accelerating the target date for 
412 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

the lunar landing. Wiesner replied on 10 January 1963, telling the president “that 

approximately 100 million dollars of the previously discussed 326 million dollar 

supplementary could have a very important effect on the schedule, but that to do 

so it would have to be available in the very near future.” Such a funding increase, 

said Wiesner, should be used to make sure that the Saturn V launch vehicle (he still 

called it the C-5) would be available when it was needed. (II-34) 

Overall, however, President Kennedy seems to have accepted the basic 

argument made by James Webb— that preeminence in space should be the 

guiding objective of the national space program. In a 17 July 1963 press 

conference, Kennedy responded to a press report that the Soviet Union was not 

planning to send its cosmonauts to the Moon, saying “The point of the matter 

always has been not only of our excitement or interest in being on the moon; but 

the capacity to dominate space, which would be demonstrated by a moon fl ight, I 

believe, is essential to the United States as a leading free world power. That is why 

I am interested in it and that is why I think we should continue.”31 

New Leadership and New Approaches for Apollo 

As 1963 began, there were a number of technical problem areas in the Apollo 

program, particularly with the F-1 engine that would power the first stage of the 

Saturn V. (Volume IV, I-35, I-36, I-37) In addition, the strained relationship between 

NASA’s top leaders and Brainerd Holmes also was only becoming worse.32 On 12 

June, Holmes submitted his resignation. This meant that Apollo was losing the 

leader who in the eyes of the public and media had come to personify the effort. 

It took NASA a little over a month to settle on a replacement for Holmes. 

The individual selected, George Mueller, was Vice President for Research and 

Development of Space Technology Laboratories; his selection was announced on 

23 July and Mueller reported to NASA on 1 September. At Space Technologies 

Laboratories, Mueller had excelled in applying a systems engineering approach 

to the management of the complex Minuteman ICBM program, and he brought 

the same approach to NASA. Unlike Holmes, who courted media attention, 

Mueller focused his attention on relationships between NASA Headquarters, the 

NASA Field Centers, NASA’s contractors, and Congress. For example, he created 

a NASA-Industry Apollo Executives Group that brought together key NASA 

personnel working on Apollo and the leaders of the companies building Apollo 

hardware. One of the leading accounts of the Apollo program describes Mueller 

as “brilliant,” “intellectually arrogant,” and “a complex man.” Robert Seamans 

characterized him as “tireless.”33 

31. “News Conference 58,” John F. Kennedy Library and Museum, http://www.jfklibrary.org/ 

Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Press+Conferences/003POF05Pressconference58_07171963. 

htm (accessed 25 August 2006). 

32. Seamans, Aiming at Targets, p. 105. 

33. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 158, 160; Seamans, Aiming at Targets, p. 110. 
Exploring the Unknown 413

Soon after he entered NASA, the organization implemented a major 

reorganization in which the heads of the Field Centers working on Apollo 

reported to the Office of Manned Space Flight (i.e., Mueller), rather than 

directly to Seamans, the Agency’s Associate Administrator and general manager. 

By a combination of his force of will and this reorganization, Mueller “was the 

undisputed boss of manned space flight from the day he walked into the offi ce in 

1963 until he left six years later.”34 

In the next several months Mueller made a number of key personnel 

changes. He assigned George Low and Joseph Shea— both of whom welcomed 

the assignments— to the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Low to become 

Deputy Director under Robert Gilruth and Shea to head the Apollo Spacecraft 

Program Office. On 31 December 1963, Air Force Brigadier General Samuel 

Phillips took over the Apollo Program Office at NASA Headquarters. The team 

of Mueller and Phillips was to provide strong leadership as the Apollo program 

encountered both tragedy and triumph. 

Soon after he came to NASA, Mueller asked two veteran NASA engineers not 

directly involved in Apollo, John Disher and Del Tischler, to conduct a discrete 

independent assessment of the situation within Apollo. They reported to Mueller 

on 28 September with the troubling conclusions that the “lunar landing cannot 

likely be attained within the decade with acceptable risk” and that the “fi rst 

attempt to land men on moon is likely about late 1971.” The two estimated that 

the “program cost through initial lunar landing attempt will approximate 24 

billion dollars.” (II-36) Mueller had Disher and Tischler present their conclusions 

to Robert Seamans, who found the briefing “unsatisfactory.” According to some 

accounts, Seamans asked that the briefing material be destroyed to prevent its 

conclusions from becoming known inside and outside of NASA.35 

Clearly, bold steps were needed to get Apollo on a schedule that had a good 

chance of meeting President Kennedy’s goal of a lunar landing before 1970, 

and Mueller soon took them. First he canceled fl ights of the Saturn 1 booster so 

that attention could be shifted to the upgraded Saturn 1B, which would use the 

same upper stage as the Saturn V. At an 29 October meeting of his Management 

Council, with the senior leadership from Houston and Huntsville present, 

Mueller announced a new approach to getting ready for missions to the Moon 

that soon became known as “all-up testing.” Mueller “stressed the importance of a 

philosophical approach to meeting schedules which minimizes ‘dead-end’ testing, 

and maximized ‘all-up’ systems flight tests. He also said the philosophy should 

include obtaining complete systems at the Cape [emphasis in original].” (II-37) Two 

days later Mueller sent a teletype message to the Apollo field centers proposing 

a new, accelerated schedule of Apollo flights; in this message, he reiterated that 

his “desire that ‘all-up’ spacecraft and launch vehicle flights be made as early as 

possible in the program. To this end, SA-201 [the fi rst flight of the Saturn 1B] and 

501 [the fi rst flight of the Saturn V] should utilize all live stages and should carry 

complete spacecraft for their respective missions.” (II-38) 

34. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 160. 

35. Ibid, pp. 153–154. 
414 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

The staff at Marshall Space Flight Center was “incredulous” when they 

first heard of Mueller’s dictate. It violated the step-by-step approach to rocket 

testing they had been following since their time in Germany.36 But they could 

not provide compelling counterarguments, particularly given the pressure to 

have the first lunar landing attempt come before the end of 1969. Von Braun 

wrote Mueller on 8 November, saying that “We believe the philosophy of fl ying 

live all stages, modules, and systems, beginning with the first R&D launching, 

to be a worthy objective. There is no fundamental reason why we cannot fl y 

‘all-up’ on the fi rst flight.” Von Braun hedged his response a bit, saying “Our 

practical application of this philosophy should recognize this objective, but with 

the important reservation that clear, alternative, ‘fall back’ positions are also 

formally recognized.”37 Von Braun was later to agree “in retrospect it is clear that 

without all-up testing the first manned lunar landing could not have taken place 

as early as 1969.”38 Mueller’s “all-up” decision thus joined the selection of lunar 

orbit rendezvous as keys to Apollo’s success. According to one account, “the crisis 

in Apollo leadership that had begun in 1962 with Holmes’s mutiny thus ended in 

1963 with an astute new manned space flight director, a stronger overall Apollo 

management team, and decisive steps to get Apollo back on schedule.”39 

1963—A Year of Uncertainty 

Increasing Criticisms 

Even as internal steps were being taken to get Apollo on track to meet its 

“before the decade is out” goal, external to the space agency there were several 

developments that placed the future course of the program in some doubt. 

After President Kennedy’s 25 May 1961 speech announcing the lunar 

landing goal, the public and political reception to the president’s initiative was 

in general very positive. Beginning in 1963, however, criticism of Apollo in the 

context of overall national priorities, as well as scientific ones became much more 

widespread.40 Much of this criticism was in the form of newspaper articles and 

editorials, but there were also the beginnings of dissent regarding the Apollo 

goal within the political system. On 10 and 11 June, the Senate Committee on 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, under its new Chairman, Senator Clinton 

Anderson of New Mexico (Robert Kerr had died on 1 January 1963), listened as 10 

scientists discussed Apollo. The majority complained about the priority that had 

been assigned to the lunar landing program, and provided dramatic examples of 

36. Howard McCurdy discusses this difference in approach to testing in Chapter 2 of his book 

Inside NASA: High Technology and Organizational Change in the U.S. Space Program (Baltimore: Johns 

Hopkins University Press, 1992). 

37. Wernher von Braun to George E. Mueller, 8 November 1963, Folder #18675, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

38. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 162. 

39. Lambright, Powering Apollo, p. 118. 

40. Compton ̧ Where No Man Has Gone, Chap. 3. 
Exploring the Unknown 415

how the funds could otherwise be used. Philip Abelson, editor of the prestigious 

journal Science, reported that he had conducted a straw poll of “scientists not 

connected by self-interest to NASA,” which had resulted in a 110 to 3 vote 

against the program. In his testimony, Abelson suggested that “manned space 

exploration has limited scientific value and has been accorded an importance 

which is quite unrealistic,” and that the “diversion of talent to the space program 

is having or will have direct and indirect damaging effects on almost every area 

of science, technology, and medicine,” and might “delay conquest of cancer and 

mental illness.”41 Liberal Senator William Fulbright (D-AK), chairman of the 

Committee on Foreign Relations, suggested “this allocation of priorities [to the 

lunar program] is a recipe for disaster.” Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 

writing in the widely-read Saturday Evening Post, stated that “this racing to the 

moon, unavoidably wasting large sums and deepening our debt, is the wrong way 

to go about it.”42 

In addition to these public declarations, there were private criticisms from 

senior members of the U.S. science and technology community. As one example, 

on 11 April 1963 Vannevar Bush, a highly respected man who had headed the 

U.S. scientific effort during World War II and whose recommendations in his 

famous report Science, the Endless Frontier had helped shape post-war government 

support of science, wrote to James Webb (with whom he had worked when Harry 

Truman was president and whom he knew well) saying: “the difficulty is that the 

program, as it has been built up, is not sound. The sad fact is that the program is 

more expensive than the country can now afford; its results, while interesting, are 

secondary to our national welfare.” He added “while the scientific results of an 

Apollo program would be real, I do not think that anyone would attempt to justify 

an expenditure of 40 or 50 billion dollars to obtain them.” With respect to the 

argument that Apollo would enhance national prestige, Bush thought that “the 

courageous, and well conceived, way in which the president handled the threat 

of missiles in Cuba advanced our national prestige far more than a dozen trips 

to the moon. Having a large number of devoted Americans working unselfi shly 

in undeveloped countries is far more impressive than mere technical excellence. 

We can advance our prestige by many means, but this way is immature in its 

concept.” Bush told Webb “as a part of lowering taxes and putting our national 

financial affairs in order, we should have the sense to cut back severely on our 

rate of expenditure on space. As a corollary they could remove all dates from 

plans for a trip to the moon; in fact, he could announce that no date will be set, 

and no decision made to go to the moon, until many preliminary experiments 

and analyses have rendered the situation far more clear than it is today.” (II-35) 

41. Quoted in Logsdon, Decision, pp. 175–176. 

42. Fulbright and Eisenhower are quoted in Dodd L. Harvey and Linda Ciccoritti, U.S.-Soviet 

Cooperation in Space, (Miami: Center for Advanced International Studies, University of Miami, 1974), 

p. 113. 
416 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Apollo Under Review 

In November 1962 President John F. Kennedy had identified beating Russia 

to the Moon as the country’s highest priority in space. Less than five months later, 

there was some suggestion that the president might have been having second 

thoughts about that priority and about the impacts of the accelerated space 

program on the nation’s economy and technical activities, although whether 

this indeed was the case is not clear from the historical record. On 9 April, 

the president wrote Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson in his role as Chairman 

of the National Aeronautics and Space Council, saying that “in light of recent 

discussions, I feel the need to obtain a clearer understanding of a number of 

factual and policy issues relating to the National Space Program which seem to 

rise repeatedly in public and other contexts.” Kennedy asked Johnson to carry 

out a quick review of the program to answer a number of specifi c questions.43 

(Volume I, III-15) 

Johnson’s report came on 13 May; NASA and DOD had been closely involved 

in its preparation. In addition to answering the specific questions posed by 

the President, the report noted “the space program is not solely a question of 

prestige, of advancing scientific knowledge, or economic benefit or of military 

development, although all of these factors are involved. Basically, a much more 

fundamental issue is at stake . . . the future of society.” (Volume I, III-16) 

To the Moon Together? 

If Kennedy was indeed questioning the wisdom of racing Russia to the Moon, 

one reason may have been the changed nature of U.S.-Soviet relations after the 

United States had forced the Soviet Union to withdraw its missiles from Cuba in 

October 1962. Kennedy seems to have concluded that the time was ripe to revisit a 

notion that had preceded his decision to enter the space race—that a flight to the 

Moon should be a cooperative U.S.-Soviet undertaking. According to Kennedy 

advisor Theodore Sorensen, “it is no secret that Kennedy would have preferred 

to cooperate with the Soviets” in manned missions to the Moon.44 In an interview 

shortly after Kennedy’s assassination, Sorenson expanded on this idea: 

I think the President had three objectives in space. One was to ensure its 

demilitarization. The second was to prevent the fi eld to be occupied by 

the Russians to the exclusion of the United States. And the third was to 

make certain that American scientific prestige and American scientifi c 

effort were at the top. Those three goals all would have been assured 

in a space effort which culminated in our beating the Russians to the 

moon. All three of them would have been endangered had the Russians 

continued to outpace us in their space effort and beat us to the moon. 

43. Compton ̧ Where No Man Has Gone, Chap. 3. 

44. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and 

Kennedy, 1958–1964 (New York: Norton, 1997), p. 121. 
Exploring the Unknown 417

But I believe all three of those goals would also have been assured by a 

joint Soviet-American venture to the moon. 

The difficulty was that in 1961, although the President favored 

the joint effort, we had comparatively few chips to offer. Obviously the 

Russians were well ahead of us at that time. . . . But by 1963, our effort 

had accelerated considerably. There was a very real chance we were even 

with the Soviets in this effort. In addition, our relations with the Soviets, 

following the Cuban missile crisis and the test ban treaty, were much 

improved—so the President felt that, without harming any of those three 

goals, we now were in a position to ask the Soviets to join us and make it 

efficient and economical for both countries. (II-43) 

President Kennedy met Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev only once, on 3 and 

4 June 1961. This was soon after Kennedy had made his speech announcing the 

lunar landing goal, but twice during the summit meeting, and at the President’s 

initiative, Kennedy and Khrushchev had discussed the possibility of cooperation 

in going to the Moon.45 Khrushchev reacted negatively to Kennedy’s proposal, 

and the matter was dropped for the next two years. 

In mid-1963, the president began again to float the idea of a joint U.S.­

Soviet mission to the Moon. One problem, however, was that there was no 

evidence from intelligence sources that the Soviet Union was in fact intending 

to send cosmonauts to the Moon.46 In fact, it was reported that a leading British 

scientist, Bernard Lovell, had been told by his Soviet counterparts that there 

was no Russian program to send people to the Moon. Asked at a 17 July press 

conference on whether he favored a joint U.S.-Soviet lunar mission, Kennedy, for 

the first time in a public forum, said “we have said before to the Soviet Union that 

we would be very interested in cooperation.” However, he added, “the kind of 

cooperative effort which would be required for the Soviet Union and the United 

States to go to the moon would require a breaking down of a good many barriers 

of suspicion and distrust and hostility which exist between the Communist world 

and ourselves.” Kennedy concluded that he would “welcome” such cooperation, 

but that he “did not see it yet, unfortunately.”47 

By September, Kennedy had decided to publicly test the waters with respect 

to possible U.S.-Soviet cooperation in going to the Moon. During a 18 September 

meeting with James Webb, Kennedy told the NASA Administrator for the fi rst 

time that he intended to make such a proposal in a 20 September speech to the 

General Assembly of the United Nations. (Volume II, I-41) In his 20 September 

speech, Kennedy said 

45. John M. Logsdon, “To the Moon Together? John F. Kennedy and U.S. Soviet Space 

Cooperation,” unpublished paper in author’s fi les. 

46. The reality was that in 1963 the Soviet leadership had not yet decided to approve a lunar 

landing mission. See John M. Logsdon and Alain Dupas, “Was the Race to the Moon Real?” Scientifi c 

American 270, no. 6 (June 1994): 36. 

47. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1963, (Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 567–568. 
418 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

in a field where the United States and the Soviet Union have a special 

capacity— in the field of space— there is room for new cooperation . . . 

I include among these possibilities a joint expedition to the moon. Why, 

therefore, should man’s fi rst flight to the moon be a matter of national 

competition? . . . Surely we should explore whether the scientists and 

astronauts of our two countries— indeed of all the world— cannot work 

together in the conquest of space, sending some day in this decade to 

the moon not the representatives of a single nation, but representatives 

of all our countries.48 

Kennedy’s proposal was greeted with dismay by many of those who had been 

Apollo’s strongest supporters. For example, Congressman Albert Thomas sent 

a handwritten note to the president the day after the speech, saying that “the 

press and many private individuals seized upon your offer to cooperate with the 

Russians in a moon shot as a weakening of your former position of a forthright 

and strong effort in lunar landings.” Thomas asked the president for “a letter 

clarifying your position with reference to our immediate effort in this regard.”49 

Kennedy replied to Thomas on 23 September. (II-39) He told Thomas “if 

cooperation is possible, we mean to cooperate, and we shall do so from a position 

made strong and solid by our national effort in space. If cooperation is not 

possible—and as realists we must plan for this contingency too—then the same 

strong national effort will serve all free men’s interest in space, and protect us 

also against possible hazards to our national security.” 

There were suggestions in the aftermath of the president’s speech that it was 

a public relations move or a way of justifying a withdrawal of the United States 

from a fast-paced lunar landing program. Countering these suggestions is the fact 

that in the weeks following the United Nations speech, the White House Offi ce 

of Science and Technology examined ways to turn the president’s proposal into 

reality, even as Nikita Khrushchev on 26 October told a group of visiting journalists 

that the Soviet Union had no plans to send people to the Moon. For example, 

on 29 October, Science Advisor Jerome Wiesner provided a memorandum for 

Kennedy proposing “a joint program in which the USSR provides unmanned 

exploratory and logistic support for the U.S. Apollo manned landing.” (II-40) 

Wiesner suggested that such a plan be quickly offered to the Soviet Union in 

light of Khrushchev’s statement. Wiesner noted “if the proposal is accepted we 

will have established a practical basis for cooperative program. If it is rejected 

we will have demonstrated our desire for peaceful cooperation and the sincerity 

of our original proposal.” Following on Wiesner’s suggestion, on 12 November, 

President Kennedy signed a National Security Action Memorandum directing 

James Webb “to assume personally the initiative and central responsibility within 

the Government for the development of a program of substantive cooperation 

48. Ibid, p. 695. 

49. Letter from Albert Thomas (signed only “Thomas”), 21 September1963. National Security 

Files, Box 308, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. 
Exploring the Unknown 419

with the Soviet Union . . . including cooperation in lunar landing programs.” 

(Volume II, I-42) 

Uncertainties Resolved . . . In the Worst Possible Way 

On 18 November 1963, the Senate voted to cut $612 million from NASA’s 

budget request, leading The New York Times to question “whether the Administration 

can count on the budgetary support necessary to achieve a lunar landing by the 

1969 deadline.”50 That was a good question, given what was happening within the 

White House budget staff. The Bureau of the Budget staff in November 1963 was 

completing a comprehensive review of the national space program that had been 

initiated in October; its draft report asked: “Should consideration be given at this 

time to backing off from the manned lunar landing goal? [Emphasis in original].” 

The budget office suggested “the review has pointed to the conclusion that in the 

absence of clear changes in the present technical or international situations, the 

only basis for backing off from the MLL [manned lunar landing] objective at this 

time would be an overriding fiscal decision either (a) that the budgetary totals in 

1965 or succeeding years are unacceptable and should be reduced by adjusting 

the space program, or (b) that within present budgetary totals an adjustment 

should be made shifting funds from space to other programs.”51 (II-42) When 

Congress passed the NASA FY 1964 appropriations bill, the space agency was 

allocated a $5.1 billion budget, an increase of $1.3 billion over FY 1963 but a $0.6 

billion reduction from what the president had requested for NASA at the start 

of the year. 

President Kennedy visited Cape Canaveral on 16 November, and saw the 

progress being made on the facilities being developed for Apollo.52 On 21 

November, Kennedy gave the space program a strong endorsement in a speech 

in San Antonio, where he had started a three-day political trip. That evening the 

president attended a testimonial dinner for Albert Thomas in Houston, and then 

flew to Dallas. The next day, Kennedy fell victim to an assassin’s gun. 

With John F. Kennedy’s death and Lyndon B. Johnson becoming president, 

any chance of the United States “backing off” of the lunar landing program 

that Kennedy had initiated vanished; instead, the program became in a sense 

a memorial to the fallen president. Lyndon Johnson was far less interested in 

cooperating with the Soviet Union in space than had been Kennedy. In January 

1964 NASA submitted the report requested by Kennedy’s 12 November national 

security directive (Volume II, I-43), but there had been no sign from Nikita 

Khrushchev that he was interested in discussing cooperation, and President 

Johnson did not press the issue. For the next three years, while James Webb fought 

to maintain congressional support for a budget adequate to meet Kennedy’s 

50. Quoted in Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 161. 

51. It is not clear from available sources whether this review was carried to completion. 

Document II-42 is a labeled draft, and contains only the thoughts of the Bureau of the Budget staff. 

Room was left for recommendations by various senior officials, but whether those recommendations 

were made in the aftermath of President Kennedy’s assassination is not known. 

52. Seamans, Aiming at Targets, p. 113-–15. 
420 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

“before the decade is out” goal, the rest of NASA turned to getting the Apollo 

hardware ready to fly and the Apollo astronauts trained for lunar exploration. 

Moving Ahead, but Losing Momentum 

During the three year period from 1964 to 1966, there was signifi cant 

(though troubled, as will be discussed below) progress in the program aspects 

of Apollo, but during those same years, “NASA stopped growing, and [James] 

Webb sought to maintain momentum.”53 The NASA budget peaked at $5.25 

billion in FY 1965 and then began a gradual decline. While Lyndon B. Johnson 

was strongly committed to completing Apollo, he found himself constrained 

by the budget demands of his Great Society programs and the war in Vietnam, 

and was unwilling to provide signifi cant financial support for major post-Apollo 

space initiatives. Congress continued to question whether NASA needed all the 

resources it was requesting to complete Apollo, and was equally unwilling to 

support major new programs. By 1966, Webb was frustrated by what he perceived 

as lack of adequate political support from the White House as he battled to hold 

off congressional attempts to slash the NASA budget. (Volume I, III-19) 

NASA by this time was a very different organization than it had been just 

three years earlier, as the mobilization of human and financial resources needed 

to carry out Apollo peaked. The Agency’s budget had increased by 89 percent in 

the year after President Kennedy’s May 1961 speech, another 101 percent in the 

following year, and then another 38 percent as the budget approached its peak. 

The NASA staff had increased from 17,500 civil servants in 1961 to 34,300 at the 

end of 1965, and the related contractor force from 57,000 to 376,700.54 Apollo 

was truly a national effort. 

On 24 December 1965, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh Dryden succumbed 

to cancer. With his death, NASA lost a respected official and a key participant in 

the management of the Agency as it had gone through this rapid expansion. 

Dryden was not replaced; Robert Seamans took on the position of Deputy 

Administrator while continuing his role as the Agency’s general manager. 

To the outside observer, all elements of the Apollo program appeared to 

be moving forward towards a lunar landing before the end of the decade, with 

the fi rst flight of the Apollo spacecraft with a crew aboard scheduled for early 

1967. During 1965 and 1966, a series of 10 mainly successful Gemini launches 

demonstrated many of the capabilities, particularly rendezvous and docking, 

that would be needed for Apollo. Four Saturn 1 launches and the first Saturn 1B 

launch tested various aspects of the lunar mission; two of these launches carried 

Apollo command and service modules without a crew aboard. Technical problems 

53. Lambright, Powering Apollo, p. 132. 

54. Sylvia Kraemer, “Organizing for Exploration,” in John M. Logsdon et al., eds., Exploring the 

Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, (Washington, DC: National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration Special Publication-4407, Vol. I, 1995), p. 613. 
Exploring the Unknown 421

with the F-1 engine that powered the first stage of the Saturn V appeared to have 

been resolved, and the mammoth booster was moving towards its first test fl ight. 

The technical reality was rather different. There were major problems in the 

Apollo spacecraft program and the S-II second stage of the Saturn V launcher, 

both being developed by North American Aviation,55 and the lunar module being 

developed by Grumman was running well behind schedule and was overweight.56 

By the end of 1966, Apollo’s Washington managers were stressing publicly that 

it would be difficult to attempt an initial lunar landing mission until sometime 

in the second half of 1969. Thus Administrator James Webb was quite surprised 

to read an interview with Wernher von Braun that appeared in the 12 December 

1966 issue of U.S. News & World Report headlines “A Man on the Moon in ’68?” 

In the interview, von Braun suggested, with a number of caveats, that “there is 

a distinct possibility that, if everything really clicks and we don’t hit any major 

snags, it [the first landing attempt] may come off in ’68,” on the fourth fl ight of 

the Saturn V launcher.57 

In response to the interview, Webb fired off an annoyed memorandum to von 

Braun. (II-47) He told von Braun “there is certainly a very, very low possibility 

that complete Saturn V systems will be available for flights out as far as the Moon 

in 1968. Under these circumstances, it seems to me that you will need to be 

very careful in dealing with the press.” Webb’s concern was that NASA needed 

to “take account of all the difficulties we are likely to encounter in this very 

complex Saturn V-Apollo system, particularly as we are now so hemmed in, have 

so little room to make adjustments, and have no financial margins.” He was also 

concerned that statements like von Braun’s could “undermine the credibility of 

those of us who are working so hard to get the money to continue this program 

and to avoid having the vehicles now approved (15 Saturn V’s) deleted from the 

program on the basis that they are not needed to accomplish the mission.” 

Soon after Lyndon Johnson became President, he had asked NASA to begin 

to identify post-Apollo options. NASA responded by January 1965 with a “laundry 

list” of future possibilities. (Volume I, III-18) But by that time, “Johnson did not 

want to hear about the possibilities, nor did he particularly want Congress to hear 

them.”58 Recognizing that a second Apollo-like initiative was not in the offi ng, 

NASA focused its post-Apollo planning on an interim effort that became known 

as the Apollo Applications Program. The program initially was ambitious in 

scope, but never received significant funding. (II-45) Ultimately only one of the 

proposed Apollo Applications missions was flown; this was the 1973 Skylab, using 

an upper stage of a surplus Saturn V launch vehicle as an interim space station. 

Lacking any additional missions for the Saturn V, in August 1968 Webb found 

himself forced to make the painful decision to begin the process of shutting 

55. See Murray and Cox, Apollo, Chaps. 12–13, for a discussion of these problems. 

56. For an account of the development of the lunar module, see Thomas J. Kerlly, Moon Lander: 

How We Developed the Apollo Lunar Module (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001). 

57. “A Man on the Moon in ’68?” U.S. News & World Report, 12 December 1966, p. 63. 

58. Lambright, Powering Apollo, p. 139. 
422 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

down the production of the heavy lift booster, a decision that became fi nal in 

1972. (II-58) 

Webb’s biographer Professor W. Henry Lambright concludes that Webb’s 

“strategies to maintain NASA, Apollo, and other programs had succeeded and 

failed in the 1964-1966 time frame.” Webb had “kept up overall momentum for 

Apollo” but “NASA’s budget was cut back . . . post-Apollo was delayed, and Webb 

saw his own power to persuade start to slip.”59 

The Apollo 1 Fire 

Despite these concerns, there was a fair degree of optimism as 1967 began, 

with the first crew-carrying flight of Apollo (an Earth-orbital test mission of 

the Apollo command and service modules designated Apollo 204) scheduled 

for launch on 21 February. The crew included veteran astronauts Virgil “Gus” 

Grissom, Edward White, and rookie Roger Chaffee. The spacecraft they were to 

fly was a “Block A” model, intended only for orbital fl ight. 

At 1:00 p.m. on 27 January, the crew was strapped into the spacecraft as it sat 

atop an unfueled Saturn 1B launcher on Pad 34 at Cape Canaveral for a lengthy 

countdown test. At 6:31, as the test neared its end, Roger Chaffee told the control 

room that “we’ve got a fire in the cockpit.” Within less than a minute, the three 

astronauts were dead of asphyxiation as they inhaled toxic gases created by the 

fire within the still-sealed spacecraft.60 

James Webb, Robert Seamans, and George Mueller learned of the fi re 

soon afterwards. Webb immediately notified President Johnson; later the three 

huddled at NASA Headquarters to decide how to proceed. They decided to ask 

the president to let NASA manage the accident investigation rather than have 

the White House appoint an external investigation board. While Webb worked 

to convince Johnson and congressional leaders that NASA was best qualifi ed to 

conduct the investigation, Seamans and Mueller identified the individuals who 

would compose the investigation board. Apollo program director Sam Phillips 

flew to Cape Canaveral (by then called Cape Kennedy) to take charge there. By 

the next day, the Apollo 204 Review Board had been named; it was to be chaired 

by Floyd Thompson, Director of NASA’s Langley Research Center, and had eight 

other members from both within and outside of NASA. Seamans charged the 

board to “review the circumstances surrounding the accident to establish the 

probable cause or causes of the accident” and to “develop recommendations for 

corrective or other action based upon its findings and determinations.” (II-48) 

The Review Board went about its work intensively. By 25 February, its 

preliminary findings were ready to be made public, and James Webb issued a 

statement summarizing them. (II-49) In this statement, Webb noted that astronaut 

Frank Borman, a member of the board, had told him that “he would not have 

been concerned to enter the capsule at the time Grissom, White, and Chaffee 

59. Ibid, p. 141. 

60. See Murray and Cox, Apollo, Chaps. 14–15 for a description of the fire and its aftermath. 
Exploring the Unknown 423

did so for the test, and would not at that time have regarded the operation as 

involving substantial hazard. However, he stated that his work on the board has 

convinced him that there were hazards present beyond the understanding of 

either NASA’s engineers or astronauts.” 

The Apollo 204 Review Board submitted its final report to Administrator 

Webb on 5 April. (II-50) The board found that “the test conditions were extremely 

hazardous.” Once the fire started, “the crew was never capable of effecting 

emergency egress because of the pressurization before rupture and their loss of 

consciousness soon after rupture.” With respect to the spacecraft, “defi ciencies 

existed in Command Module design, workmanship, and quality control.” 

On 27 February, the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 

chaired by Clinton Anderson of New Mexico, held the first congressional public 

hearing since the accident. While he supported the space program, Anderson 

did not get along with James Webb, who had resisted Anderson’s attempts to exert 

influence over NASA activities, and was not willing to wait until the Review Board 

issued its final report to begin congressional questioning. At the hearing, junior 

Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale asked Webb about a “Phillips Report” severely 

critical of North American Aviation’s management of its parts of the Apollo effort. 

Webb did not know what Mondale was referring to, and stonewalled the Senator’s 

inquiry. George Mueller told the committee that no such report existed. Later 

that day Webb became furious when he discovered that there was indeed such a 

document, in the form of a set of notes and a cover letter sent to North American 

Aviation President Leland Atwood after a late 1965 visit to North American by a 

NASA review team led by Apollo program director Sam Phillips. (II-44) In his 

cover letter, Phillips had told Atwood that “I am definitely not satisfi ed with the 

progress and outlook of either program [the Apollo Spacecraft and S-II stage of 

the Saturn V]” and that “even with due consideration of hopeful signs, I could 

not find a substantial basis for confidence in future performance.” 

Neither Seamans nor Mueller thought that what Phillips had prepared in 

1965 constituted a “report,” but Webb saw immediately that semantic quibbling 

would not extricate NASA from appearing to be withholding information from 

Congress. After discussing how best to give Congress access to the material, 

NASA decided to have Sam Phillips present its contents to an open hearing 

of Andersen’s committee. As he probed further, Webb discovered that there 

had been continuing criticism of North American’s performance of which he 

had been unaware. Webb had a developing sense “that the men he trusted the 

most—his senior officials at headquarters— had let him down.” In Webb’s view, 

George Mueller “had deliberately presented a filtered picture of the situation, 

and Seamans had failed to press him on it.” Determined to change this situation, 

Webb reasserted control of the Apollo program “with a vengeance.”61 One of his 

moves was to force North American to remove the senior manager of its Apollo 

efforts, Harrison Storms, from his position as head of the company’s space 

61. Lambright, Powering Apollo, p. 161. Lambright’s book includes a thorough discussion of how 

Webb reacted to the Apollo fire and its aftermath. 
424 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

division; if North American did not make such a move, threatened Webb, he 

would shift the Apollo contracts to another company.62 

Relations between Webb and Seamans became strained in the months 

following the fire, and Seamans submitted his resignation on 2 October 1967. 

Mueller stayed on; a change at the top of the manned space flight program would 

likely have resulted in unacceptable delays in fixing the problems revealed by the 

fi re and getting NASA back on track. In Houston, Joseph Shea took the Apollo 

fire as a personal responsibility, and his associates began to worry about his 

physical and mental condition. He was persuaded to return to Washington as a 

deputy to George Mueller, but without significant Apollo responsibilities. By July 

1967, Shea decided to leave NASA. In Shea’s place in Houston, George Low took 

over the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office in addition to his duties as Deputy 

Center Director. 

Not only were relations strained between Webb and his senior people within 

NASA; there were continuing tensions between him and members of Congress, 

and particularly Senator Clinton Anderson. Webb had always prided himself on 

maintaining a relationship of mutual trust and personal credibility with senior 

Congressmen, and now that relationship seemed at risk. He wrote Anderson in 

advance of a 9 May hearing, saying that “I am deeply troubled by your statement 

to me last Saturday that members of the committee are not satisfi ed with our 

testimony on NASA’s actions in follow-up of the defi ciences [sic] found by the 

management review team headed by General Phillips at North American Aviation 

in 1965.” He added “your statement that members of the committee believe NASA 

is endeavoring to put a disproportionate part of the blame for the Apollo 204 

accident on North American Aviation and avoid its proper acceptance of blame 

troubles me even more.” (II-51) 

Eventually the furor over the accident quieted. There were no serious 

suggestions that the Apollo program be halted or the “before the decade is out” 

goal be abandoned. Under George Low’s close supervision, North American 

set about remedying the deficiencies in the Apollo spacecraft. Grumman was 

moving ahead with its work on the lunar module, but continuing to confront 

both schedule and weight problems. The Saturn V had its fi rst test launch on 9 

November 1967; all test objectives were met successfully. As 1968 began, there 

was increasing confidence that the first lunar landing attempt could come before 

the end of 1969. 

Apollo Around the Moon 

By the beginning of 1968, NASA was ready to schedule the first launch of 

the redesigned Apollo Command and Service Module; the date was fi nally set 

for 7 October. That Earth-orbiting mission would be the first in a sequence of 

62. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 231. For an account of this situation sympathetic to Storms, see 

Mike Gray, Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon (New York: W.W. Norton, 1992). 
Exploring the Unknown 425

missions leading up to a lunar landing. The missions were designated by letters 

of the alphabet: 

C – test of the Apollo Command and Service module in low Earth orbit


D – test of the Apollo Command and Service and Lunar Modules in low 


Earth orbit;


E – test of the Apollo Command and Service and Lunar Modules in a 


mission beyond Earth orbit, but not headed to the Moon; 


F – test of all equipment in lunar orbit;


G – lunar landing mission.

It was not clear as the year began whether following this schedule would 

provide adequate assurance that the United States would reach the Moon before 

the Soviet Union. Throughout the 1960s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 

had closely monitored the progress of the Soviet space program. In the years 

immediately following the 1961 Kennedy decision to go to the Moon, there was 

no indication that the Soviet Union was developing the facilities and equipment 

that would be required for a competitive lunar landing program. When Soviet 

scientists in mid-1963 said that there was no Soviet lunar landing program, they 

were correct. But earlier in 1963, U.S. satellites had detected what appeared 

to be the beginning of a large construction project at the main Soviet launch 

site, the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Soviet republic of Kazakhstan. By 1964, 

construction of a large assembly building and two launch pads could be seen. It 

was during that year that the Soviet leadership finally approved a Soviet Moon 

program, but there were continuing bureaucratic battles inside of the Soviet 

space community that slowed progress. The program also, it has been learned 

in retrospect, never received adequate funding. By mid-1965, the Intelligence 

Community had concluded that the Soviet Union did indeed have a lunar 

program, but that it was not proceeding on a pace that was competitive with 

Apollo. In December 1967, a U.S. satellite returned an image of a previously 

unseen large booster on one of the new launch pads. 

Throughout this period, James Webb was regularly briefed on the status 

of the Soviet space effort. In 1964, and then with more frequency in 1966 and 

subsequent years, Webb said publicly that the Soviet Union was developing a 

launch vehicle with lifting capabilities larger than those of the Saturn V. The fact 

that the Soviet Union seemed to indeed be racing the United States to the Moon 

helped Webb politically as Apollo came under criticism in 1967 and 1968.63 

In fact, the reality was that by 1967 the Soviet Union was conducting two 

lunar programs, one aimed at a lunar landing and a second, using a version of 

63. This account of what the United States knew at the time about the Soviet space program 

is based on Dwayne A. Day, “Webb’s Giant,” The Space Review, 19 July 2004, www.thespacereview.com/ 

article/188/1, (accessed September 6, 2006), Dwayne A. Day, “The Secret at Complex J,” Air Force 

Magazine 87, no. 7 (July 2004): pp. 72–76 and Dwayne A. Day, “From the Shadows to the Stars: James 

Webb’s Use of Intelligence Data in the Race to the Moon.” Air Power History 51, no.4 (Winter 2004): 

30–39. For a discussion of what was later learned about the Soviet lunar effort, see John M. Logsdon 

and Alain Dupas, “Was the Race to the Moon Real?” 
426 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

the proven Proton launch vehicle and a modified Soyuz spacecraft called Zond, 

aimed at flights around the Moon, without the capability to land. In April 1968, 

the CIA issued an update of a 1967 assessment of the Soviet program. (II-57) The 

report said that “we continue to estimate that the Soviet manned lunar landing 

program is not intended to be competitive with the US Apollo program. We now 

estimate that the Soviets will attempt a manned lunar landing in the latter half 

of 1971 or in 1972, and we believe that 1972 is the more likely date.” However, 

added the CIA, “the Soviets will probably attempt a manned circumlunar fl ight 

both as a preliminary to a manned lunar landing and as an attempt to lessen the 

psychological impact of the Apollo program. In NIE 11-1-67 [the 1967 estimate], 

we estimated that the Soviets would attempt such a mission in the first half of 

1968 or the first half of 1969 (or even as early as late 1967 for an anniversary 

spectacular). The failure of the unmanned circumlunar test in November 1967 

leads us now to estimate that a manned attempt is unlikely before the last half of 

1968, with 1969 being more likely.” Senior Apollo managers could not help but 

have this intelligence estimate in the back of their minds as they moved toward 

the beginning of crew-carrying Apollo flights, although there is little direct 

evidence that it influenced their thinking. 

In addition to getting Apollo hardware ready to fly, there was an immense 

amount of detailed effort required to actually design the lunar landing 

missions. That responsibility was assigned to a veteran NASA engineer named 

Howard W. “Bill” Tindall, who in August 1967 was named Chief of Apollo Data 

Priority Coordination, an opaque title that gave no indication of his sweeping 

responsibilities. Tindall had an exuberant personality and viewed Apollo “as one 

long stretch of fun that had by some miracle given to him instead of work.” One of 

the results of Tindall’s approach to his duties was a series of what became known 

as “Tindallgrams.” While dealing with the myriad of serious issues involved in 

getting ready to land on the Moon, these communications adopted a breezy, 

irreverent tone, and “became a sensation” around the Manned Spacecraft Center. 

As one example, Tindall told George Low on 8 August that “a rather unbelievable 

proposal has been bouncing around lately”—to delete the rendezvous radar on 

the lunar module as a weight saving measure. Tindall continued “because it is 

seriously ascribed to a high ranking official [George Mueller],” it was being taken 

seriously. He told Low, “I thought I’d write this note in hopes you could proclaim 

it to be a false alarm or if not, to make it one.”64 (II-59) 

While the redesigned Apollo spacecraft seemed ready for a crewed launch, 

the same could not be said of the Saturn V or the lunar module. The second 

test launch of the Saturn V took place on 4 April 1968. In contrast to the almost 

perfect first test launch the preceding November, there were multiple problems 

with this flight. Each of the three stages of the vehicle had a separate failure. It 

took all of the skill and experience of the von Braun rocket team to diagnose the 

64. For a discussion of Tindall’s contributions and style, see Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 

292–297. 
Exploring the Unknown 427

causes of the failures. This was essential, because NASA’s planning called for the 

next flight of the Saturn V to carry three astronauts.65 

That mission, designated “D” in NASA’s plans, was intended to carry a 

complete Apollo spacecraft, including both the command and service modules 

and the lunar module, for a test fl ight in low Earth orbit. Presuming success of 

the “C” mission in October, NASA hoped to launch the next flight before the end 

of the year. 

However, there was a major obstacle to overcome. The lunar module 

scheduled to be flown on the mission had arrived at the Kennedy Space Center 

with a number of problems to be solved. As NASA attempted to address them, 

it appeared increasingly unlikely that the module would be ready to fly in 1968, 

and indeed that the test flight might not be possible until February or March 

1969. If that happened, the likelihood of landing on the Moon by the end of 

1969 became remote. Faced with this situation, George Low began to consider 

an alternative flight sequence: “the possibility of a circumlunar or lunar orbit 

mission during 1968,” using only the command and service modules launched by 

a Saturn V, “as a contingency mission to take a major step forward in the Apollo 

Program.” By 9 August, as problems with the lunar module persisted, he took 

this idea to the Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, Robert Gilruth, who 

immediately saw its benefits. The same morning, according to Low’s notes: 

I met with Gilruth, Kraft and Slayton. [Christopher Kraft was head of 

flight operations and Donald ‘Deke’ Slayton was head of the astronaut 

office.] After considerable discussion, we agreed that this mission should 

certainly be given serious consideration and that we saw no reason at the 

present time why it should not be done. We immediately decided that 

it was important to get both von Braun and Phillips on board in order 

to obtain their endorsement and enthusiastic support. Gilruth called 

von Braun, gave him the briefest description of our considerations, and 

asked whether we could meet with him in Huntsville that afternoon. I 

called Phillips at KSC and also informed him of our activities and asked 

whether he and Debus could join us in Huntsville that afternoon. Both 

von Braun and Phillips indicated their agreement in meeting with us, 

and we set up a session in Huntsville for 2:30 p.m. 

At the afternoon meeting in von Braun’s office, “all present exhibited a great 

deal of interest and enthusiasm for this flight.” The meeting ended “with an 

agreement to get together in Washington on 14 August 1968. At that time the 

assembled group planned to make a decision as to whether to proceed with these 

plans or not. If the decision was affirmative, Phillips would immediately leave for 

Vienna to discuss the plans with Mueller and Webb (at that time, Administrator 

Webb and manned spaceflight head Mueller would be attending a United 

65. Bilstein, Stages to Saturn, pp. 360–363. 
428 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Nations Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space), since it would be most 

important to move out as quickly as possible once the plan was adopted.” (II-60) 

With all of the key managers of the Apollo meeting agreed, it would be 

difficult for NASA’s top officials to overturn Low’s plan, but it turned out that 

they also were not willing to give it their total approval. The senior managers 

from Houston, Huntsville, Cape Kennedy, and the NASA Headquarters Apollo 

program office met with the new NASA Deputy Administrator, Thomas Paine, on 

14 August as planned. (Paine was a newcomer to space; before he came to NASA 

he had been an executive of the General Electric Company, most recently the 

manager of GE’s Center for Advanced Studies. He had assumed the number two 

position at NASA in January 1968, following the resignation of Robert Seamans.) 

At the 14 August meeting, Paine “congratulated the assembled group for not 

being prisoners of previous plans and indicated that he personally felt that this 

was the right thing for Apollo and that, of course, he would have to work with 

Mueller and Webb before it could be approved.” There was a decision not to send 

Sam Phillips to Vienna because his sudden appearance there might compromise 

what were still considered secret plans. Instead, interactions with Webb and 

Mueller were by secure telephone and diplomatic couriers. 

Webb was “shocked” when he first heard of what his staff was planning, but 

quickly both he and Mueller saw the logic of what was being proposed. However, 

they added a note of caution. While the Apollo managers could begin to plan for 

a lunar mission, they could not commit NASA to undertaking such a bold step 

until the October C mission, designated Apollo 7, was a success. Following this 

constrained approval of the plan, Apollo Program Director Sam Phillips on 19 

August issued a directive announcing the revised program plan. (II-61) The new 

mission would be designated C’ (C prime) and Apollo 8. Whether it would go to 

the Moon, stay in low Earth orbit, or follow some other mission plan would not be 

decided until the results of the Apollo 7 mission were available, said Phillips. 

As Low noted, the implications of this tentative decision were dramatic in 

terms of when the first attempt at a lunar landing could be scheduled. At the 14 

August meeting, 

We also discussed the mission sequence to be followed after the proposed 

mission and proposed that the best plan would be to fly the D mission 

next, followed by an F mission, which, in turn, would be followed by the 

first lunar landing mission. In other words, the proposed mission would 

take the place of the E mission but would be fl own before D. MSC also 

proposed that for internal planning purposes we should schedule the 

D mission for March 1, 1969; the F mission for May 15, 1969; and the G 

mission for July or August, 1969. However, dates two weeks later for D, 

one month later for F, and one month later for G should be our public 

commitment dates. (II-60) 

Following Phillips’s 19 August directive tentatively approving the C’ mission, 

Low on 20 August issued his own directive to those working on the Apollo 
Exploring the Unknown 429

spacecraft and planning the Apollo missions. The launch date for the fi rst 

attempt at a lunar landing was set for 8 July 1969. (II-66) 

The Apollo 7 mission took place from 11 to 22 October 1968; aboard were 

astronauts Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. All objectives of 

the flight were met, clearing the path for a decision to send the Apollo 8 mission 

into lunar orbit. 

That decision would not be made by James E. Webb. On 16 September, Webb 

had gone to the White House for a meeting with President Johnson to discuss 

a variety of issues, including how best to protect NASA and particularly Apollo 

during the transition to the next President. (Johnson had announced in March 

1968 that he would not seek reelection.) Webb knew that he was very unlikely to 

continue as NASA Administrator, whether Hubert Humphrey or Richard Nixon 

was elected. He and Humphrey did not get along, and as a committed Democrat 

he was even more unlikely to be retained by Nixon. Webb was weary after six 

and a half years running NASA at a frenetic pace, and had been a target of 

congressional criticism since the Apollo fire. Webb thought that at some point 

in the fall he should step aside and let Thomas Paine, a non-political person, 

demonstrate that he was capable of running NASA at least through the fi rst 

lunar landing. 

To Webb’s surprise, the president not only took up Webb’s offer to resign, 

but decided that Webb should announce it immediately, even before he left the 

White House. Obediently, Webb told the White House press corps that he would 

leave NASA on 7 October, his sixty-second birthday. Webb was not able to contact 

Paine or his wife before making the announcement.66 

Although momentum was great after the success of Apollo 7 to take Apollo 8 

to lunar orbit, a final decision to undertake that bold step had not yet been made. 

In particular, George Mueller was worried about whether the overall program 

gains from the mission justified the fallout from a failure. A final review of the 

mission was scheduled for 10 and 11 November. In advance of those meetings, 

Mueller wrote to Gilruth, saying “There are grave risks to the program as a whole, 

not just to the Apollo 8 mission, in embarking on a lunar orbit mission with the 

second manned flight of the CSM. We have to face the possibility that this type 

of mission could appear to the public, and to our peers in government, to be a 

precipitous, risky venture where the propaganda value is the only gain.” Mueller 

was concerned that the enthusiasm within NASA for flying the mission might 

have had the effect of suppressing justified concerns about the risks. He told 

Gilruth “the risks from a purely technical aspect are probably reasonable and 

acceptable. If such a mission failed, however, the risks to the program as a whole 

could be signifi cant.” (II-62) 

The 10 November meeting included the top executives of the companies 

involved in Apollo. After hearing a series of presentations by NASA managers, 

the executives were polled on their views of whether Apollo 8 should be approved 

as a lunar orbit mission. Although there were a few questions raised, according to 

66. For more on Webb’s resignation, see Lambright, Powering Apollo, pp. 200–204 and Murray 

and Cox, Apollo, pp. 322–323. 
430 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

George Low, “the meeting was adjourned with the conclusion that a fi rm recommendation to fly the Apollo 8 mission to lunar orbit would be made the next day 

to the Acting Administrator.” (II-63) That recommendation came the next day 

in the form of a memorandum from Sam Phillips to George Mueller. (II-64) On 

11 November, there were a series of internal NASA meetings in which Thomas 

Paine heard the same briefings as had been given the previous day. In a fi rst, 

large meeting, George Mueller continued to play the devil’s advocate. A second 

meeting involved Paine, Associate Administrator Homer Newell, who had been 

with NASA since its beginning and was respected for his judgment, Mueller, and 

the NASA Center Directors. A third meeting involved only Paine, Newell, and 

Mueller. At its conclusion, Paine announced that he had approved the plan to 

make Apollo 8 a mission to go into orbit around Moon. (II-65) The launch date 

was set for 21 December, which meant that the Apollo spacecraft would go into 

lunar orbit on Christmas Eve. 

As the launch preparations for Apollo 8 went forward, there was continuing 

concerns that the Soviet Union might still launch a flight around the Moon. Soviet 

Union had modified its new Soyuz spacecraft so that it could carry cosmonauts in 

a flight around the Moon (but not into lunar orbit). They designated the modifi ed 

spacecraft Zond. It would be launched on its circumlunar trajectory by a version 

of the Proton rocket. The original hope was that the fi rst flight with cosmonauts 

aboard could occur on the fiftieth anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution in 

October 1967, but a failure in April 1967 of the Earth-orbital version of the Soyuz 

spacecraft, resulting in the death of cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov, delayed testing 

of the Zond spacecraft into 1968. A September 1968 Zond-5 did go around the 

Moon and returned its passengers— turtles and insects— to Earth, still alive. 

But a November Zond-6 mission had several failures; if there had been a crew 

aboard, they would have died. Even so, the cosmonauts scheduled to make the 

first crewed Zond mission asked permission from the Soviet Politburo to make an 

attempt at the next launch window in early December, but that permission was 

never given. The way was thus clear for Apollo 8 to be the first spacecraft to reach 

the Moon with humans aboard.67 

The fi ve first stage engines of the Saturn V booster rumbled into action at 

7:51 a.m. on 21 December, lifting Frank Borman, James Lovell, and Bill Anders 

on their historic journey. Less than three hours later, the engine on the third 

stage of the launch vehicle fired, injecting the Apollo 8 spacecraft on a trajectory 

that would take it to the vicinity of the Moon three days later. Once it arrived at 

the Moon, the engine on its service module fired, placing the Apollo spacecraft 

into lunar orbit, where it remained for 20 hours. 

The public highlight of the mission came on Christmas Eve, as the crew 

televised the view of the lunar surface from their spacecraft back to millions of 

people on Earth. Then, to the surprise of almost everyone, including the mission 

controllers back on Earth, the crew took turns reading the first verses from the 

67. For more information on the failed Soviet circumlunar program, see Logsdon and Dupas, 

“Was the Race to the Moon Real?” and Marcus Lindroos, “The Soviet Manned Lunar Program,” 

http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/lindroos_moon1.htm (accessed 10 September 2006).
Exploring the Unknown 431

Bible’s Genesis account of the creation of Earth. Frank Borman closed their 

broadcast by saying “goodnight, good luck, a Merry Christmas, and God bless 

you all—all of you on the good Earth.”68 (II-72) 

In addition to this dramatic broadcast, the Apollo 8 crew brought home with 

them the iconic photograph of the blue Earth rising above the desolate lunar 

landscape when they landed on 27 December. In addition to its public impact, 

the successful mission demonstrated that NASA was ready to operate at the lunar 

distance. The path to a lunar landing had been pioneered; “For many of the 

people in the Apollo Program, Apollo 8 was the most magical flight of all.”69 

Goal Met: Americans on the Moon 

Two missions stood between Apollo 8 and, if they were successful, the fi rst 

attempt at a lunar landing. On 3 March 1969, for the first time a Saturn V launched 

the full Apollo spacecraft— the command and service modules and the lunar 

module. That combination at just over 292 thousand pounds was the heaviest 

payload ever put into orbit. The crew—James McDivitt, David Scott, and Rusty 

Schweickart—remained in Earth orbit. Over the course of the 10 day mission, 

the lunar module spent 6 hours undocked from the command and service 

modules at distances up to 113 miles before rendezvous and redocking, thereby 

demonstrating an essential element of the lunar orbital rendezvous approach. 

Both the descent and ascent engines of the lunar module were fired in a variety 

of modes. Schweickart performed a 39 minute extra-vehicular activity to test the 

Apollo portable life support system that would be used for walking on the lunar 

surface. The mission was extremely complex, and all of its objectives were met 

successfully. 

Apollo 10 would be a dress rehearsal for the lunar landing mission, carrying 

out all elements of that mission except for the final descent from 47,000 feet 

above the lunar surface. It was planned to follow the same time line as a landing 

mission attempt, with the same Sun angles and the same out-and-back trajectory. 

Some, most notably George Mueller, thought that the mission should actually 

attempt the landing; Mueller’s view was that to reduce risks the lunar landing 

should be achieved in the fewest possible flights. But this idea was vetoed, both 

because the lunar module assigned to the mission was too heavy to actually land 

and because the crew and the mission managers in Houston argued successfully 

that they needed the experience of this mission under their belts to reduce the 

risks associated with the first landing attempt.70 

68. Murray and Cox, Apollo, pp. 325–334, provide a vivid account of the Apollo 8 mission. See 

also Robert Zimmerman, Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8, (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1998). 

This essay will not provide detailed accounts of the Apollo missions. For such accounts from the 

astronauts’ perspective, see Andrew Chaikin, A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts, 

(New York: Viking, 1994). 

69. Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 333. 

70. Ibid, pp. 338–339. 
432 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Once again, Apollo 10 met all of its test objectives. The lunar module 

undocked from the command and service modules by about 350 miles, and then 

successfully redocked, once again demonstrating the feasibility of the approach 

that NASA had chosen in 1962. The mission was launched on 18 May and returned 

to a safe landing in the Pacific Ocean on 26 May. The crew of Thomas Stafford, 

John Young, and Gene Cernan had demonstrated that NASA was ready to try to 

land on the Moon. Apollo 11 was next. 

NASA, and particularly the top astronaut official Deke Slayton, had adopted 

an approach to flight crew assignment that resulted in the backup crew for a 

particular mission becoming the prime crew for a mission three flights down that 

line. That meant that the Apollo 11 flight assignment would go to the crew that 

had been the backup for Apollo 8—Neil Armstrong, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, and 

Fred Haise. In reality, Haise was a replacement for the backup crew for Michael 

Collins, who had recently had back surgery. On 6 January 1969, Slayton informed 

Neil Armstrong that he would command the Apollo 11 mission, with Aldrin as 

his lunar module pilot. Collins had fully recovered from the surgery that had 

sidelined him for Apollo 8, and would serve as command module pilot.71 

NASA of course had been planning the lunar landing mission in detail for 

some months. (Indeed, the Sea of Tranquility had been identified as a possible 

site for the first landing in 1962.) Because the basic objective of the initial mission 

was to land on the Moon’s surface, get a few samples of lunar material, and return 

safely to Earth, that planning had been quite conservative. For example, Sam 

Phillips had proposed in October 1968 that the first landing mission should 

conduct only one extra-vehicular walk on the Moon’s surface of no more than 

three hours, and that the astronauts should stay within 300 feet of the lunar 

module. An open item was whether both astronauts, or only one, should leave the 

lunar module for a walk on the Moon. After some controversy on whether it was 

feasible, Phillips also recommended that the mission should have the capability 

of televising the first steps on the Moon back to Earth. (II-67) 

Once the Apollo 11 prime crew had been chosen, there followed almost 

seven months of intensive training to get them ready for the mission.72 While they 

and their colleagues at the Manned Spacecraft Center focused on that training, 

NASA Headquarters considered how best to attend to the symbolic aspects of 

the mission. Richard Nixon had been elected president in November 1968, and 

as he took offi ce he named Thomas Paine to continue to serve as Acting NASA 

Administrator; only after a number of others had turned the job down did he 

nominate Paine to be Administrator on 5 March. Paine was confirmed by the 

Senate on 20 March and was sworn in on 21 March. 

During the spring Paine appointed one of his top advisors, Associate Deputy 

Administrator Willis Shapley, to chair a Symbolic Activities Committee to 

recommend to him how best to recognize the historic character of the fi rst lunar 

landing. Shapley was a veteran Washington bureaucrat and both Webb and Paine 

71. For more on the Apollo 11 crew assignment process, see Chaikin, A Man on the Moon, pp. 

136–140. 

72. For a discussion of this training, see Ibid, pp. 163–183. 
Exploring the Unknown 433

looked to him for advice on political, policy, and budgetary issues. By mid-April, 

the Committee had decided that “the intended overall impression of the symbolic 

activities and of the manner in which they are presented to the world should be 

to signalize [sic] the first lunar landing as an historic forward step of all mankind 

that has been accomplished by the United States of America.” The primary way to 

indicate that the lunar landing was an American achievement would be “placing 

and leaving a U.S. flag on the moon in such a way as to make it clear that the 

flag symbolized the fact that an effort by American people reached the moon, 

not that the U.S. is ‘taking possession’ of the moon. The latter connotation is 

contrary to our national intent and would be inconsistent with the Treaty on 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.” (II-70, II-71) 

In January 1969, some in NASA Headquarters had interpreted Richard 

Nixon’s words in his inaugural address “as we explore the reaches of space, let us 

go to the new worlds together” as indicating that the White House might prefer 

that a United Nations flag, rather than the American flag, be placed on the Moon. 

When he heard of this suggestion, George Low told NASA Headquarters “my 

response cannot be repeated here. I feel very strongly that planting the United 

States flag on the moon represents a most important aspect of all our efforts.” 

(Volume II, I-12) 

Another matter of concern was what might be said as the fi rst human 

stepped onto the Moon. Julian Scheer, the top public affairs official at NASA 

Headquarters, heard a rumor that George Low was seeking advice on what might 

be said. Scheer wrote to Low, saying “we have not solicited comment or suggestions 

on what the astronauts might say. Not only do I personally feel that we ought not 

to coach the astronauts, but I feel it would be damaging for the word to get out 

that we were soliciting comment.” Scheer added “that the truest emotion at the 

historic moment is what the explorer feels within himself, not for the astronauts 

to be coached before they leave or to carry a prepared text in their hip pocket.” 

Low quickly responded, saying that there had been a misunderstanding; Low 

had sought advice on what should be carried to the Moon, not what should be 

said. He added, “I completely agree with you that the words said by the astronauts 

on the lunar surface (or, for that matter, at any other time) must be their own. I 

have always felt that way and continue to do so.” Low had made the point to Neil 

Armstrong, the Apollo 11 commander, that “whatever words are said must be his 

own words.” (II-68, II-69) 

The first human mission to the Moon was launched at 9:32 a.m. EDT on 16 

July, 1969. Four days later, at 4:17 p.m., after a perilous descent, the lunar module 

came to rest on the lunar surface. A few seconds later, Armstrong radioed back 

“Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle [the name assigned to the mission’s 

lunar module] has landed.”73 

The mission plan that had been prepared for the Apollo 11 crew called for 

them to go to sleep between the time they landed and the time they exited the 

lunar module for the first Moon walk. (A decision had been made that both 

73. For a vivid account of the landing and the rest of the Apollo 11 mission, see Ibid, pp. 

184–227. 
434 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Armstrong and Aldrin would conduct an extra-vehicular activity, rather than have 

one astronaut stay in the lunar module as a safety measure.) But with the landing 

safely behind them and the lunar module in good condition, the keyed-up crew 

suggested that they begin their Moon walk five hours ahead of schedule, without 

the intervening sleep period. Permission was quickly granted. Getting ready to 

leave the lunar module went more slowly than had been planned, but fi nally, at 

10:56 p.m. EDT, Neil Armstrong stepped off of the lunar module, saying, “that’s 

one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” (Armstrong meant to say “a 

man,” but the “a” may have gotten lost in the excitement of the moment.) 

Aldrin followed Armstrong 14 minutes later. The two spent two and a half 

hours carrying out their assigned tasks, including planting the U.S. flag on the 

lunar surface. During their Moon walk, President Richard Nixon called from the 

Oval Office, proclaiming it “the most historic telephone call ever made from the 

White House.” 

The ascent stage of the Eagle performed as planned, and at 1:54 p.m. EDT on 

21 July Armstrong and Aldrin were launched from the lunar surface to rendezvous 

with Michael Collins, who had been circling the Moon in the command and 

service module Columbia. The two spacecraft docked three hours later, and a 

little less than twelve hours later fired the service module engine to send them 

on a trajectory for a landing in the Pacific Ocean at 12:50 p.m. EDT on 24 July. 

The crew, the command module, and the 44 pounds of precious lunar cargo 

were immediately placed in quarantine, where they were soon greeted by the 

President, who had flown to the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier Hornet, to greet 

them. The Hornet docked in Honolulu, Hawaii, on the afternoon of 26 July; from 

there, the crew flew back to Houston. (I-73) 

The goal set by John F. Kennedy just over eight years earlier had been met; 

Americans had flown to the Moon and returned safely to Earth. Apollo 11 was a 

success, technically and politically. (II-81, II-74) 

What Do You Do Next, 


Once You Have Been to the Moon?


Continuing Exploration 

There were a few within NASA, Robert Gilruth among them, who thought 

that there should be no additional flights to the Moon, given how risky they 

were and that the program’s fundamental goal had been achieved. But the 

momentum behind additional missions overrode these hesitations. As Apollo 

11 concluded its mission in July 1969, there were nine additional flights to the 

Moon, through Apollo 20, being planned. Apollo 12 through 15 would use the 

same basic equipment as had Apollo 11, but would land at different locations 

and stay for increasingly longer times on the lunar surface. Apollo 16 through 
Exploring the Unknown 435

20 would carry a lunar rover, a small vehicle that would allow the astronauts to 

transverse the lunar surface, and could stay on the Moon for up to 78 hours.74 

Apollo 12, carrying Charles “Pete” Conrad, Alan Bean, and Richard Gordon, 

was launched during a thunderstorm on 14 November 1969. Lightning struck the 

spacecraft during its initial ascent and for a moment it appeared that the mission 

would have to be aborted. But this threat passed, and the lunar module made a 

precision landing within walking distance of the Surveyor III spacecraft that had 

landed on the moon in April 1967. 

The next mission, Apollo 13, was launched on 11 April 1970. Its crew included 

James Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise. Swigert was a last minute substitute 

for T. K. “Ken” Mattingly. There was concern that Mattingly had been exposed to 

measles and might become ill during the mission. More than two days away from 

Earth on the mission’s outbound journey, an oxygen tank in the service module 

exploded, placing the crew’s life in jeopardy. There would be no lunar landing, 

and it took heroic efforts by the crew and those on the ground to bring the 

crew back safely by using the lunar module as a life boat for most of the journey 

around the Moon and back to Earth. 

The intended landing site for Apollo 13 had been the Frau Mauro, a location 

of high scientific interest. When Apollo 14 was launched, on 31 January 1971, it 

was targeted to land at the same site. The crew—Alan Shepard, who had made the 

first U.S. spaceflight almost ten years earlier, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell— 

carried out two extended Moon walks. The mission became notorious when at 

the conclusion of the second walk Shepard used a piece of lunar equipment with 

an actual head of a six-iron golf club inserted in it to hit (after two misses) the 

first lunar golf shot. 

The Apollo 14 crew was the last to be required to undergo quarantine 

after their return to Earth. The possibility of lifting the quarantine had been 

examined after the first two Apollo missions, but the Interagency Committee on 

Back Contamination refused to do so on the recommendation of a committee set 

up by the National Academy of Sciences to review the issue. Because Frau Mauro, 

the planned landing site for Apollo 13, was a very different type of location on 

the Moon than the places where Apollo 11 and 12 had landed, and because 

the astronauts would take a deep core sample, “a majority (of the committee) 

recommend continuance of the 3-week lunar quarantine period. A minority favor 

discontinuance of quarantine.” (II-76) When there was no evidence of possible 

back contamination after Apollo 14 returned, the requirement for quarantine 

was lifted.75 

Missions Canceled 

When Richard Nixon became president in January 1969, he was advised of 

the need for decisions on the character of the U.S. civilian space program once 

74. For a description of the various stages of lunar explorations, see Compton, Where No Man 

Has Gone Before, Chaps. 10–14. 

75. Ibid, p. 223. 
436 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

Apollo had reached the Moon. In February, he asked his Vice President, Spiro 

Agnew, to chair a “Space Task Group” to provide him with recommendations on 

the future in space. The Task Group worked through the summer in the midst 

of the enthusiasm surrounding Apollo 11, and on 15 September submitted a 

bullish set of recommendations that called for the United States to accept “the 

long-range option or goal of manned planetary exploration with a manned Mars 

mission before end of this century as the first target.” (Volume I, III-25) As steps 

toward this goal, the group recommended a series of increasingly larger Earthorbiting space stations launched by the Saturn V and continued exploration of 

the Moon. It also recommended the development of a lower cost Earth-to-orbit 

space transportation system, which soon became known as the Space Shuttle. 

This type of recommendation was not at all what the Nixon administration 

had in mind; its top goal was reducing government spending. Between September 

1969 and January 1970, the NASA budget went through a series of reductions from 

what had been proposed to get started on the recommendations of the Space 

Task Group, and George Low, who had become NASA Deputy Administrator in 

December 1969, announced on 4 January 1970 that NASA was canceling Apollo 

20 and stretching out the remaining seven missions so that they would continue 

through 1974. Ten days later, faced with continuing budget cuts, Administrator 

Thomas Paine announced that production of the Saturn V would be suspended 

indefinitely once the fifteenth vehicle had been completed.76 While NASA tried 

for several years to retain the option of restarting the Saturn V production line, 

by 1972 it decided that it had no choice but to give up this possibility. (Volume IV, 

I-46) Thus within six months of the first landing on the Moon, the United States 

had essentially abandoned the heavy-lift capability that had been so central to 

James Webb’s vision of what Apollo could create. 

Richard Nixon finally responded to the Space Task Group in a statement 

issued on 7 March 1970, saying, “space expenditures must take their proper place 

within a rigorous system of national priorities. What we do in space from here 

on in must become a normal and regular part of our national life and must 

therefore be planned in conjunction with all of the other undertakings which 

are important to us.”77 It was clear that there would be no more Apollo-like space 

goals set while Nixon was in offi ce. 

Nixon’s intent to reduce the government budget continued to have an impact 

on Apollo through the rest of 1970, and even into 1971. Thomas Paine, frustrated 

by his lack of success in getting White House support for ambitious post-Apollo 

plans and eager to return to General Electric, announced his resignation on 

15 August 1970; George Low became Acting Administrator. Low was almost 

immediately faced with a decision on whether to cancel two of the remaining six 

Apollo missions, recognizing that NASA could not both fly these missions, launch 

the Skylab space station in 1973, and begin its preferred new program, the Space 

76. Ibid, pp. 195–196. 

77. Richard M. Nixon, “Statement About the Future of the United States Space Program,” 7 

March 1970, in U.S. President, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon, 1970 

(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 251. 
Exploring the Unknown 437

Shuttle, within the budget being proposed for the next several years by the White 

House Office of Management and Budget. (II-77) Reluctantly, Low agreed that 

NASA should cancel Apollo 15, the last limited capability mission, and Apollo 19. 

The remaining flights after Apollo 14 were then renumbered Apollo 15 through 

17. The cancellation was announced on 2 September. 

Even after this announcement, there was continued White House pressure 

to reduce the NASA budget. There was a possibility that NASA would have to 

choose between canceling one or more of the remaining Apollo missions and 

flying Skylab. Low wrote Nixon’s science advisor Edward Davis, Jr., on 30 October, 

saying “on balance, the weight of evidence seems to favor Skylab over Apollo if a 

choice must be made.” This was the case, said Low, because “the scientifi c returns 

from the single Skylab mission promise to be greater than those from a sixth 

Apollo lunar landing. We have already capitalized on our Apollo investment 

but not yet on that of Skylab; we will have more new options better developed 

stemming from Skylab than from Apollo; and, for this increased return, we risk 

less in earth orbit than at lunar distances.” (II-78) 

NASA was not forced to make this draconian choice in 1970, but the possibility 

of canceling Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 was revived by the White House in 1971 as 

the NASA budget was being prepared; the space agency was also seeking White 

House permission to begin development of the Space Shuttle. James Fletcher, a 

former president of the University of Utah and industrial executive, had become 

NASA Administrator in May 1971. In November, he wrote the Deputy Director of 

the Office of Management and Budget, Caspar W. Weinberger, recommending 

“against the cancellation of Apollo 16 and 17 because these flights are scientifi cally 

important, and because much of the overall support for NASA’s space program 

depends on our actions with respect to these flights.” In his letter, Fletcher listed 

a number of adverse consequences that could result. If, however, a decision to 

cancel the missions were made, said Fletcher, the rationale behind the decision 

should be that “in these times of pressing domestic needs, the manned space 

program should be earth-oriented instead of exploration and science-oriented.” 

(II-79) 

In reality, it was the professional staff of the Office of Management and 

Budget, not Weinberger, who was pressing for the cancellations. In an 12 August 

1971 memorandum to President Nixon, Weinberger had written that his offi ce 

was proposing to cut the NASA budget “because it is cuttable, not because it is 

doing a bad job or an unnecessary one.” He added, “I believe that this would be a 

mistake” because “an announcement that we are canceling Apollo 16 and 17 . . . 

would have a very bad effect.” In Weinberger’s view, “it would be confi rming in 

some respects, a belief that I fear is gaining credence at home and abroad: That 

our best years are behind us, that we are turning inward, reducing our defense 

commitments, and voluntarily starting to give up our super-power status, and our 

desire to maintain world superiority.” The memorandum was returned by Nixon 

with a hand-written notation: “I agree with Cap.” (Volume I, III-28) 

It was a political rationale that initiated the Apollo program, and at least in 

part it was a political rationale that convinced the White House to continue the 

program. Apollo 16 and 17 would be launched. 
438 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon 

The Scientists Are Not Happy 

Tensions between those who saw Apollo as an opportunity to gather valuable 

scientific data and materials and those who saw it as primarily a challenging 

engineering enterprise intended to demonstrate U.S. technological and 

organizational might had been present since the start of the program, and 

persisted through to its conclusion. For example, Donald Wise, the chief scientist 

of NASA’s Apollo Lunar Exploration Office, left the Agency in the immediate 

aftermath of Apollo 11, telling Associate Administrator Homer Newell that his 

office, with the responsibility for getting lunar science moving, “was largely 

wasting its time running in tight circles within the bureaucracy and the various 

competing elements of NASA.” He felt that this situation would persist until the 

NASA leadership “determines that science is a major function of manned space 

flight.” (Volume V, I-25) Echoing this concern, George Mueller wrote to Manned 

Spacecraft Center Director Robert Gilruth in September 1969, reminding Gilruth 

that after Apollo 11 “increased interest and direct participation of the scientifi c 

community in Apollo is taxing our capability to the limit. Despite this, we will 

certainly detract measurably from the success of Apollo 11, and the missions yet to 

be flown, unless we meet the challenge. Therefore, we must provide the support 

required in the science area.” With respect to criticisms from the scientifi c 

community about the scientific aspects of Apollo, Mueller added “some members 

of the scientific community are impatient and as you know, are willing to air their 

views without necessarily relating those views to what is practicable and possible. 

Public discussion aside, it is our policy to do the maximum science possible in 

each Apollo mission and to provide adequate science support.” (II-75) 

There were some members of the scientific community who were excited 

by the potential scientific returns from Apollo, and were very upset as NASA 

canceled three Apollo missions in 1970. A letter from 39 scientists protesting 

these cancellations was sent to Representative George Miller, Chairman of the 

House Committee on Science and Astronautics, soon after NASA announced 

the cancellation of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. The scientists argued 

that “the Apollo lunar program is intended to supply not merely information of 

interest to scientists, but to give us finally a clear understanding of the origin of 

the earth-moon system and with this, an understanding of the origin and mode 

of construction of our earth.” “Because the structure of the Apollo program is 

one of increasing capabilities,” they stated, “the two canceled missions represent 

much more than one third of the planned scientific program. With this 

curtailment, the program may fail in its chief purpose of reaching a new level of 

understanding.” (II-80) 

The Final Missions 

Pressure from the science community had one tangible result. On 13 August 

1971 NASA announced that the crew for the last mission to the moon, Apollo 17, 

would include as lunar module pilot Harrison H. “Jack” Schmitt, a Ph.D. geologist 
Exploring the Unknown 439

who had come to NASA as a scientist-astronaut in 1965 and had been deeply 

involved in planning the science to be done on the lunar missions. Assigning 

Schmitt to this mission meant that Joe Engle, who had been part of the Apollo 

14 backup crew together with Gene Cernan and Ron Evans, would not have an 

opportunity to fly to the Moon.78 

Schmitt’s selection came on the heels of the scientifically most successful mission 

to date, Apollo 15, launched on 26 July with a crew of David Scott, Alfred Worden, 

and James Irwin. This was the first mission to carry the lunar roving vehicle, and 

Scott and Irwin used the vehicle to traverse almost 17 miles of the lunar surface, a 

distance much greater than that traveled by the previous three crews. They spent 

three days on the Moon, and conducted three extra-vehicular activities. Most 

signifi cantly, they identifi ed and brought back to Earth specimens of the primitive 

lunar crust, the first material that had solidified from the molten outer layer of the 

young Moon; one of these samples was dubbed the “Genesis rock.” 79 

The penultimate Apollo mission, Apollo 16, was launched on April 16, 1972. 

The mission was commanded by John Young; other crew members were command 

module pilot Ken Mattingly, who had been bumped from the Apollo 13 mission, 

and lunar module pilot Charles Duke. The mission was targeted to land in the lunar 

highlands, an area of the Moon that had not yet been explored. Apollo 16’s objectives 

were similar to those of the preceding mission, with a focus on characterizing a 

region thought to be representative of much of the lunar surface.80 

All of the prior Apollo missions had been launched during daylight hours. 

After an almost three-hour delay, Apollo 17 lifted off at 12:33 a.m. EST on 7 

December 1972. The vivid light from the Saturn V’s five F-1 engines illuminated 

the night sky with an unreal brilliance. After they landed on the Moon on 11 

December “for the next 75 hours Cernan and Schmitt conducted the longest, and 

in many ways the most productive, lunar exploration of the Apollo program.”81 

As they prepared to leave the lunar surface for the last time, Cernan unveiled 

a plaque on the descent stage of the lunar module, which would remain on the 

Moon’s surface. It read “Here man completed his first explorations of the moon.” 

As he took a last look at the lunar landscape, Cernan added “As we leave the moon 

at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came, and, God willing, as we shall return, with 

peace and hope for mankind.” The Lunar Module America lifted off of the Moon 

at 5:55 p.m. EST on December 14. 

With its departure, a remarkable era in human history came to a close, at 

least for the next half-century. For the first time, human beings had left their 

home planet. 

78. For more on Schmitt’s selection, see Chaikin, A Man on the Moon, 448–451. 

79. Compton, Where No Man has Gone Before, pp. 231–242. 

80. Ibid, pp. 244–247. 

81. Ibid, p. 250. 
440 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-1

Document Title: NASA, “ Minutes of Meeting of Research Steering Committee 

on Manned Space Flight,” 25–26 May 1959.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Within less than a year after its creation, NASA began looking at follow-on programs to 

Project Mercury, the initial human spacefl ight effort. A Research Steering Committee on 

Manned Space Flight was created in spring 1959; it consisted of top-level representatives 

of all of the NASA fi eld centers and NASA Headquarters. Harry J. Goett from Ames, but 

soon to be head of the newly created Goddard Space Flight Center, was named chair of 

the committee. The fi rst meeting of the committee took place on 25 and 26 May 1959, in 

Washington. Those in attendance provided an overview of research and thinking related to 

human spacefl ight at various NASA centers, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and the 

High Speed Flight Station (HSFS) at Edwards Air Force Base. George Low, then in charge 

of human spacefl ight at NASA Headquarters, argued for making a lunar landing NASA’s 

long-term goal. He was backed up by engineer and designer Maxime Faget of the Space Task 

Group of the Langley Research Center and Bruce Lundin of the Lewis Research Center. 

After further discussion at its June meeting, the Committee agreed on the lunar landing 

objective, and by the end of the year a lunar landing was incorporated into NASA’s 10-year 

plan as the long-range objective of the agency’s human spacefl ight program. 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

1520 H STREET NORTHWEST

Washington 25, D.C.

Minutes of Meeting of

RESEARCH STEERING COMMITTEE

ON MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

NASA Headquarters Offi ce

Washington, D.C.

May 25-26, 1959

Present:

 Mr. Harry J. Goett, Chairman

 Mr. M. B. Ames, Jr. (part time)

 Mr. De E. Beeler

 Dr. A. J. Eggers

 Mr. M. A. Faget

 Mr. Laurance K. Loftin, Jr.

 Mr. George M. Low
Exploring the Unknown 441

 Mr. Bruce T. Lundin

 Mr. Harris M. Schurmeier

 Mr. Ralph W. May, Jr., Secretary

Observers:

 Mr. John Disher

 Mr. Robert Crane

 Mr. Warren North

 Mr. Milton Rosen (part time)

 Mr. Kurt Strass

COMMITTEE PURPOSE

The Directors of the Offi ces of Aeronautical and Space Research 

and Space Flight Development had planned to attend the beginning of this 

fi rst meeting to express their interests in and objectives for the Committee. 

As circumstances prevented their attendance, the Chairman disclosed his 

interpretation of their views. He reaffi rmed that the Committee was formed 

by the Offi ce of Aeronautical and Space Research and reports to that offi ce. 

The offi ce desires that the Committee take a reasonably long term look at manin-space problems leading eventually to recommendations as to what [2] future 

mission steps should be and to recommendations concerning broad aspects of 

Research Center (including JPL and HSFS) research programs to assure that 

they are providing proper information. It is hoped that the Centers will assist 

the Committee by making general studies for it as deemed necessary and that 

there will be a healthy relationship between the Centers and Committee with 

mutual support. Although the Committee needs to do long range thinking about 

space fl ight missions and concepts, it should be set signifi cantly beyond Mercury 

and Dyna Soar. The Chairman further explained, that although the Offi ce of 

Space Flight Development had no cognizance over the Committee, the director 

has expressed hopes that the Committee in an interim sort of way could make 

some recommendations by September 1959 regarding what type of approach 

Space Flight Development should take in using Fiscal Year 1961 budget money 

earmarked for Project Mercury follow-up.

Following these statements there was some discussion of our relationship 

to other committees, in particular the ARPA Man in Space Committee, the 

ARPA MRS-V Committee and the NASA Long Range Objectives and Program 

Planning Committees. The fi rst committee was set up for ARPA-NASA relations 

on Project Mercury and apparently is being disbanded. The MRS-V Committee 

has just formed, has NASA representation (George Low), and concerns an ARPA 

manned recoverable satellite vehicle project that has no fi rm status as yet. The 

latter committee composed of Dr. Hagen and Messrs. Ames and Clement is 

concerned with arriving at a general ten year NASA research and development 

program for Dr. Glennan’s use with the Space Council in connection with the 

1961 budget.

Each member then gave this views about how this Committee should 

operate. There was unanimous feeling that we should not be infl uenced by other 

committees or groups. NASA is concerned with the national space program so 
442 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

this committee should do long range objective planning, decide what supporting 

research and to some extent what vehicle recommendations are appropriate, and 

then take aggressive steps to assure that the work is implemented with proper 

orientation and coordination among all NASA Research Centers including 

JPL and HSFS. Certain space fl ight objectives have to be decided upon early 

to work toward. The Committee should not get bogged down with justifying 

the need for man in space in each of the steps but out-rightly assume that he 

is needed inasmuch as the ultimate objective of space exploration is manned 

travel to and from other planets. It is felt that the Committee can help put [3] 

more objectiveness in NASA space research by stressing overall jobs to be done 

and concepts to be explored. Past experience as with the X-15 and Mercury 

has shown that research geared to defi nite objectives is mutually benefi cial to 

both research planning and project development. On the other hand a point 

was made that the Committee has to assure that NASA research retains enough 

diversity to avoid overlooking important new ideas. It is questionable, however, 

as to whether the NASA will be able to develop space research to the degree of 

systematic coverage that the NACA was able to do previously for example in the 

case of the aerodynamics of aircraft wing and body confi gurations.

National Booster Program

Mr. Rosen reviewed the national booster program as presently conceived 

including Scout, Delta, Vega, Centaur, Saturn (formerly Juno IV) and Nova. This 

information is largely available in a brochure on the booster program distributed 

to all NASA centers and is not repeated here. A tabulated synopsis is appended 

however. [not included] This information is still fairly current except it now appears 

that the Saturn payload capabilities may be as much as 50 percent higher. The 

Nova vehicle depends strongly on hydrogen and its design is still very fl uid. Lewis 

is working reasonably on this project and Mr. Lu[n]din agreed to supply reasonably 

detailed information on it for distrubution [sic] to committee members.

NASA has invited proposals to develop a system to recover the two rocket 

engines and associated vehicle tail section that is normally ejected from Atlas. 

The proposals are to be for eight Atlas’ if the overall operation is shown to be at a 

net saving to the Government. The Committee asked for copies of the proposal 

invitation. Subsequent to the meeting Mr. Rosen has indicated that the contract 

document is not in a form suitable for distribution and probably would not be 

of any interest to the members since no specifi cations are made, Space Flight 

Development will be glad to make them available to the Committee.

Mr. Crane reviewed the stringent booster requirements of Dyna Soar 

to assure that the vehicle will not exceed critical load and temperature limits 

throughout the fl ight range. This restricts the vehicle to a rather limited altitudevelocity corridor. To accomplish this any of the [4] boosters in the present booster 

program would have to be modifi ed to a major degree. A 4-barrel modifi ed Titan 

fi rst stage booster has been proposed by one of the contractors. The Committee 

asked to be kept informed of the Dyna Soar booster developments.
Exploring the Unknown 443

Dyna Soar

Mr. Ames briefl y reviewed the history of Dyna Soar up to its present 

status of source selection between two contractors – Boeing and Martin-Bell. He 

also discussed some of the philosophy of why it is considered as a hypersonic 

research vehicle for exploring the fl ight corridor at speeds up to orbital and some 

of the design features.

Some concern was voiced that the Dyna Soar concept utilizes the radiation 

cooling principle to the limit of existing technology without leaving much room 

for growth. Thus some members felt that Dyna Soar did not fi t in the NASA 

space exploration mission. Other members, however, recognized the need for 

continuing to look at vehicle conrecognized [sic] the need for continuing to look 

at vehicle concepts with orbital fl ight and conventional landing capabilities; Dyna 

Soar does fi t into this picture and also permits exploration of winged vehicles at 

speeds up to orbital.

Project Mercury

Mr. Faget discussed in considerable detail the Project Mercury concept, its 

operational and design features, the test and build up development programs, its 

status and planned schedule. The material he discussed is largely summarized in 

a document prepared by the Langley Space Task Group entitled “Project Mercury 

Discussion” dated May 18, 1959, which was distributed to most Committee 

members. A movie was also shown dealing with the Mercury capsule fabrication, 

mockup, escape rocket system and orientation control system. Project Mercury 

has pointed up the need for general research on large parachutes.

PROGRAM REVIEWS BY COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Mr. Loftin: - Sixty percent of Langley’s effort is currently related to space 

and reentry fl ight broken down approximately as follows:

Satellites and spacecraft 24% (Including 7% on Project Mercury)

Ballistic Missiles 10%

[5]

Anti-Ballistic Missiles 6%

Boost-glide winged reentry 20%

A substantial amount of Langley’s work is on new fl ight concepts and is 

across the board involving investigations of overall aerodynamic characteristics, 

stability and control, heat transfer, structural aspects, systems analysis, pilot 

integration and so forth. Examples of these are work on (1) winged reentry 

at 90% angle of attack of a vehicle type having folding wing tips and a landing 

L/D of 8 to 10, (2) a kite type concept utilizing folding high temperature metal 
444 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

cloth between structural members, (3) infl atable wing concepts so that wings 

can be folded for take-off, and (4) a half pyramid confi guration with possible 

aerodynamic heating advantages but a large base area resulting in low L/D.

Langley’s more general research on spacecraft may be categorized along 

the general lines of –

(1) Aerodnamics [sic] and Gas Dynamics: - Examples – Heat transfer, 

general aerodynamic characteristics, boundary-layer transition, 

static and dynamic stability investigations.

(2) Structures: - Examples – Investigation of structural design concepts 

such as radiation cooling, forced cooling, ablation, heat sinks, 

sandwich construction, environmental effects and aeroelastic 

characteristics. (The Committee asked for a detailed elaboration of 

this at the next meeting.)

(3) Materials: - Examples – Studies of emissivity, ablating materials, 

refractory materials, oxidation and evaporation in high vacuums.

(4) Dynamic Loads: - Examples – Noise, vibration, fl utter, fuel sloshing, 

gust loads and landing loads.

(5) Trajectories, guidance and control: - Examples – Trajectory 

calculations, static and dynamic computations of manned reentry, 

fl ight simulation studies, reaction control investigations, use of ground 

fl ight control center, and investigation of such things as solar auxiliary 

power, horizon scanners, fl ywheel inertial devices and the like. 

[6]

(6) Space Flight: - Langley has a lunar committee that is considering 

a conceptual approach to a small lunar orbital vehicle that would 

be of interest to manned space fl ight. Mr. Loftin felt that we are 

reaching the point where reentry research is being overemphasized 

in comparison to research on actual space fl ight. In true space fl ight 

man and the vehicle are going to be subjected to space environment 

for extended periods of time and there will undoubtedly be space 

rendezvous requirements. All these aspects need extensive study and 

Mr. Loftin felt the best means would be with a true orbiting space 

laboratory that is manned and that can have crew and equipment 

changes. Langley is starting to look at this step.

Mr. Eggers: - Mr. Eggers reviewed a write-up he had prepared for the 

meeting summarizing research being conducted at Ames applicable to problems 

associated with manned space fl ight. Since copies were distributed to the 

membership, no reference is made to its content in the minutes.

In addition, Mr. Eggers discussed some preliminary long 

range research program thinking at Ames geared toward a space fl ight 

objective. It is diffi cult to evolve a good research program without some 

fl ight objectives in mind. Man’s capabilities for space fl ight are not 
Exploring the Unknown 445

known and fi rsthand experience is needed through use of a broad based 

vehicle concept that is fl exible in operation. With this in mind Ames 

set down some ground rules for thinking about a space fl ight mission to 

work toward, namely – (1) For the time being the planning should be for 

a concept that can be achieved within 5 to 10 years, (2) the space fl ight 

concept should be realistic in terms of money and manpower and (3) the 

fl ight concept should be one in which there would be a strong interplay 

between laboratory research and vehicle development. This has led to 

Ames’ present thinking that the next step NASA manned space fl ight 

vehicle should have the following performance objectives: (1) two man 

occupancy, (2) escape speed capability, (3) lunar orbit capability, and (4) 

a minimum fl ight duration of one week. Ames’ preliminary estimate is 

that the minimum weight of such a vehicle would be about 6000 pounds. 

Saturn could probably boost it. Ablation shielding should be able to 

handle the hearing satisfactorily. The vehicle should be capable of 

diversifi ed space research on many problems including investigation of 

space and atmosphere maneuvering, pilot competence and capabilities, 

space science experiments, telescopic observations, lunar observations 

and so forth where man would be a vital link in the operation or 

experiment. [7]

Mr. Lundin: - Mr. Lundin also had a prepared writeup distributed to the 

membership which discussed Lewis’ research in the categories of (1) trajectory 

studies, (2) mission analyses, (3) storage of cyrogenics in space, (4) power 

production, (5) shielding, (6) electronic propulsion, (7) supersonic parachutes 

and stabilizing devices, (8) jet blast and noise at launch site, (9) control, navigation 

and guidance, and (10) manned space capsule orientation control. The material 

in this write-up is not reiterated in the minutes. Lewis research now leans heavily 

toward rockets of various types and high energy propellants. Lewis is working 

mostly on applications of the type being considered for the top stages in present 

national booster program. There is a signifi cant amount of work going into 

pumps and hydrogen-oxygen auxiliary power systems also.

In conclusion Mr. Lundin expressed his views that the Committee should 

not concern itself much with fl ight vehicle concepts well along the way such as 

Mercury or Dyna Soar but rather should look to longer range objectives. He 

felt strongly that although the Committee must consider interim space fl ight 

programs, we should not set our sights too low for the present long objective. The 

ultimate objective is manned interplanetary travel and our present goal should 

be for a manned lunar landing and return as with Nova. If we limit our present 

objective to manned reconnaissance, we may seriously impair the country’s 

ultimate space fl ight objective. He mentioned that the Air Force already has a 

manned lunar landing mission under study under SR-183.

Mr. Beeler: - Mr. Beeler likewise reviewed some prepared circulated 

material on HSFS research pertinent to space vehicles in the categories of (1) 

reaction controls, (2) terminal guidance and landing problems, (3) exit and 

entry research, (4) crew factors, (5) air launch studies, (6) astronomical platform, 

and (7) space fl ight.
446 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

He listed some major space fl ight and research objectives that the NASA 

could work toward as follows:

Space flight objectives Research areas

Man in space soonest (on way Maneuvering entry

with Mercury)

Lunar reconnaissance Orbiting laboratory

Lunar landing and return Rendezvous

[8]

Mars-Venus reconnaissance

Mars-Venus landing and return

HSFS feels that manned lunar reconnaissance is a good goal to work 

toward and has in mind a vehicle with the same general performance objectives 

as mentioned by Mr. Eggers.

Mr. Schurmeier: - Mr. Schurmeier in discussing JPL’s work on Vega gave 

the following performance fi ngers which are somewhat lower than mentioned by 

Mr. Rosen earlier:

Attitude-circular orbit Payload

3000 miles 1300 lbs.

1000 miles 3500 lbs.

300 miles 5000 lbs.

100 miles 5700 lbs.

Of the eight vehicles ordered, the fi rst four are primarily for vehicle development 

with payload interests secondary.

The general type of payloads and approximate fi ring schedules are, 

however, as follows:

Vehicle Number Launch Date Payload

1 August 1960 Lunar probe

2 October 1960 Mars probe

3 January 1961 Venus probe

4 March 1961 Earth satellite

5 May 1961 Earth satellite

6 July 1961 Space mission

7 September 1961 Earth satellite

8 November 1961 Space mission

Firing pad availability at Canaveral restricts launchings to one every other month. 

Because of this and the necessary vehicle development required for manned fl ight 

reliability, Vega will probably not be available for manned missions before 1962.
Exploring the Unknown 447

JPL is doing a substantial amount of research on mission studies. A 

report on this work has recently been published which Mr. Schurmeier agreed 

to send copies of to the Secretary for distribution to all members. JPL considers 

its primary mission to be that of deep space exploration. At present it is 

concentrating on unmanned fl ight concepts although the ultimate objective is 

[9] manned interplanetary travel to explore life on other planets.

The last item Mr. Schurmeier covered was JPL’s general research related 

to man in space. In particular he mentioned JPL’s work in control, guidance, 

navigation, tracking, communications, solid propellant rockets, storable liquid 

propellent [sic] rockets, fundamental physics, nuclear propulsion and auxiliary 

power. JPL every two months put out a document summarizing its fundamental 

research programs and another summarizing its vehicle development programs. 

Mr. Schurmeier stressed the need for a coordinated national program in the 

general areas of guidance and tracking much along the lines of the present 

national booster program.

Mr. Faget: - Mr. Faget endorsed selecting lunar exploration as the 

present goal of the Committee although the end objective should be manned 

interplanetary travel. Space rendezvous will very likely be desirable in such 

operations and equatorial orbits certainly have attractive features. This places 

the space vehicles in the radiation belt, however, and aggressive research is 

needed to learn more about the radiation belt, its effects on living beings, antiradiation medicines and shielding.

The Langley Space Task Group has done some preliminary thinking 

about Project Mercury follow-ups. Mr. Strauss described three ideas. The fi rst 

is an enlarged Mercury type capsule (7.5 ft. diameter and 10.6 ft. long) weighing 

3550 pounds to put two men in orbit for three days. The second would involve 

placing a two-man Mercury capsule ahead of an 8-foot diameter 12-foot long 

cylinder to put two men in space for about two weeks. The third idea was to 

mount the two-man Mercury capsule at an angle to the cylinder mentioned 

above, to have all of this attached by adjustable cables to the Vega motor some 

distance away and to rotate the whole affair about the base of the cylinder to 

provide artifi cial gravity. This system would weigh of the order of 6000 pounds.

Mr. Low: - Mr. Low recommended that the Committee – 

(1) Adopt the lunar landing mission as its present long range objective 

with proper emphasis on intermediate steps because this approach 

will be easier to sell,

[10]

(2) Look into vehicle staging so that Saturn could be used for manned 

lunar landings without complete reliance on Nova,

(3) Look into whether parachute or airport landing techniques should 

be emphasized,

(4) Attach importance to research on auxiliary power plants such as 

hydrogen-oxygen systems.
448 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

NEXT MEETING

Committee objectives – In summarizing the present meeting it was 

concluded that the following is a sensible order of accomplishment:

1. Man in space soonest – Project Mercury

2. Ballistic probes

3. Environmental satellite

4. Maneuverable manned satellite

5. Manned space fl ight laboratory

6. Lunar reconnaissance satellite

7. Lunar landing

8. Mars-Venus reconnaissance

9. Mars-Venus landing

The committee at this meeting was not in agreement on whether the 

present long range objective should be number 6 or 7. The Chairman asked each 

member to give more thought to this before the next meeting.

Agenda – The following agenda was agreed to for the next meeting:

1. Space Flight Structural Concepts – Loftin and a Langley structures 

man

2. Parachute development – Low, Loftin

3. Space vehicle landing techniques – Faget, Eggers, Beeler, Loftin

4. Mercury lift capabilities – Faget

5. Reentry corridor – Eggers

[11]

6. Man’s control functions – Beeler

7. Auxiliary power requirements – Lundin, Schurmeier

8. Propulsion requirements for lunar landing – Lundin, Schurmeier

9. Lift support – Schurmeier, Faget, Beeler

10. Control, guidance and navigation – Schurmeier

11. ABMA Saturn payload plans – Low

Location and Date – It was agreed to hold to next meeting at Ames on 

June 25 and 26.

ADJOURNMENT

The meeting adjourned at 1:15 p.m. on May 26.
Exploring the Unknown 449

Document II-2

Document Title: George M. Low, Chief, Manned Space Flight, “Manned Space 

Flight,” NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, 28-29 July 1960.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

On 28 and 29 July 1960, NASA held a “NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference” in 

Washington to discuss the Agency’s plans for future programs and to solicit industry interest 

in participating in them. NASA announced at this conference that the spacefl ight project to 

follow Project Mercury would be named Project Apollo. This conference was in many ways 

the beginning of what eventually became the most massive engineering project undertaken 

since the Manhattan Project. This document is George Low’s presentation to the conference. 

NASA-Industry

Program Plans

Conference

July 28-29, 1960

Departmental Auditorium 

Constitution Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C.

[2]

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

By George M. Low Chief, Manned Space Flight

Introduction

The benefi ts that might accrue from the manned exploration of space are, 

in a large measure, unknown. It is certainly clear that no amount of instrumentation 

will tell us as much about the moon, or the planets, as man himself will be able to 

tell, once he has visited those dis tant places. Only man can cope with the unexpected; and the unexpected, of course, is the most interesting.

We should, therefore, state only one broad objective for the manned 

space fl ight program:

“To provide the capability for manned exploration of space.”

With this objective in mind, we have devel oped a program that is broadly 

outlined in fi g ure 1. [not included] At this point it should be stated that offi cial 
450 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

approval of this program has not been obtained. Rather, this presentation 

includes what we now believe to be a rational and reason able approach to a longrange development pro gram leading to the manned exploration of outer space.

MANNED SPACEFLIGHT PROGRAM

Program Outline

The initial step in this program is Project Mercury--a project designed to 

put a manned satellite into an orbit about 120 miles above the earth’s surface, let 

it circle the earth three times, and then bring it back safely.

Project Mercury, we believe, is an essential step before we can proceed 

with other, more diffi cult manned space missions. It is true that all of our plans 

for the scientifi c exploration of space assume that eventually man will participate in that exploration. The trouble is that, although all of us think men can be 

useful in this new environment, none of us know for sure.

If it should turn out that men cannot per form useful work in space, it is 

quite possible that the direction of a substantial portion of our efforts will have 

to be changed. So it is important to fi nd out about man’s capabilities in space-and 

soon! Project Mercury is the simplest way to learn what we need to know, at the 

earliest possible date.

But the determination of man’s capabilities in a space environment is only 

one of the ben efi ts that will be derived from Project Mer cury. Of equal importance 

is the technical knowledge being gained during the design, con struction, and 

operation of the fi rst vehicle spe cifi cally engineered for manned fl ight in space.

The accomplishment of Project Mercury will mark a tremendous step 

forward; man’s ven ture into space will immeasurably extend the frontiers of 

fl ight. The speed of fl ight will be increased by a factor of 8 over present achievements, and the altitude by a factor of 5; the environment encountered in space 

fl ight will be one that heretofore has not even been ap proached. This extension 

of the fl ight envelope has required major technical advancements in many diverse 

fi elds, including aerodynamics, [3] biotechnology, instrumentation, communications, attitude control, environmental control, and parachute development-to 

mention only a few. By its very advanced nature, therefore, Project Mercury has 

opened the door for the next step in the manned space fl ight program.

This next step involves the development of a manned spacecraft designed 

to allow man to perform useful functions in space. This space craft should 

ultimately be capable of manned circumlunar fl ight, as a logical intermediate 

step toward future goals of landing men on the moon and the planets. The design 

of the spacecraft should also be suffi ciently fl exible to permit its use as an earthorbiting laboratory, as a necessary intermediate step toward the establishment of 

a permanent manned space station.

In this decade, therefore, our present plan ning calls for the development 

and construction of an advanced manned spacecraft with suffi cient fl exibility to 

be capable of both circum lunar fl ight and useful earth-orbital missions. In the 

long range, this spacecraft should lead toward manned landings on the moon 

and planets, and toward a permanent manned space station.

This advanced manned space fl ight program has been named “Project 

Apollo.”
Exploring the Unknown 451

Flight Missions

Further details of the desired dual mission capability are illustrated in fi gure 2. 

[not included] It should be pointed out, however, that these details are merely 

representative and may well be changed and redefi ned as the results of further 

studies become available.

The design for an ultimate circumlunar fl ight will require the solution 

of many, but not all, of the problems associated with a manned land ing on the 

moon; this is particularly true of earth reentry and recovery. The mission will 

require a considerable amount of trajectory con trol, thereby imposing rather 

severe require ments on the navigation and control system. Manned circumlunar 

fl ight is the ultimate manned mission consistent with our planned booster 

capability, that is, with the Saturn vehicle.

Before circumlunar missions are attempted, earth-orbital fl ights will be 

required for space craft evaluation, for crew training, and for the development 

of operational techniques. In conjunction with, or in addition to, these qualifi cation fl ights, the spacecraft can be used in earth orbit as a laboratory for 

scientifi c meas urements or technological developments in space.

Modular Concept

In order to achieve this multiplicity of mis sions, it may be desirable to 

employ the so- called “modular concept” in the design of the advanced manned 

spacecraft. This concept is illustrated in fi gure 3. [not included]

In this design concept, various building blocks or “modules” of the 

vehicle system are em ployed for different phases of the mission. Basically, the 

spacecraft is conceived to con sist of three modules: a command center mod ule, a 

propulsion module, and a mission module.

The command center would house the crew during the launch and 

reentry phases of fl ight; [4] it would also serve as the fl ight control center for the 

remainder of the mission. We anticipate that this module will be identical for 

both the circumlunar and the earth-orbital missions.

The propulsion module would serve the pri mary function of providing 

safe return to earth in case of an aborted mission. In this sense, it might be 

compared with the escape tower and retrorockets on the Mercury capsule. In 

addi tion, for circumlunar fl ight, this component should have the capability of 

making mid course corrections: it might also be used to place the spacecraft 

into an orbit around the moon and eject it from that orbit. In an earth-orbital 

mission, the propulsion module should per mit a degree of maneuverability in 

orbit or rendezvous with other vehicles. Once again, it may be desirable to provide 

identical propul sion units for both orbital and circumlunar fl ights.

The command center and propulsion units to gether might be considered, 

for some applica tions, as a complete spacecraft, even without the mission 

modules.

The mission module would differ for the vari ous fl ight missions. For 

circumlunar fl ight, it would be used to provide better living quarters than the 

command center can afford, and some equipment for scientifi c observations. (Detailed design studies may well indicate that the command center and circumlunar 

mission mod ules should be combined into a single package.)
452 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

For earth-orbital fl ight, the mission module can be considerably heavier 

than for circum lunar fl ight. Hence this module can usefully serve as an earthorbiting laboratory, with ade quate capacity for scientifi c instrumentation and 

reasonably long lifetimes in orbit.

Of all the modules mentioned, only the com mand center unit would be 

designed with re entry and recovery capability.

Command Center Module

Figure 4 [not included] illustrates some of the requirements for the 

command center module.

This module must be designed to reenter the earth’s atmosphere at 

essentially parabolic vel ocity, or about 36,000 feet per second. It will have to 

withstand the severe heating en countered at these velocities, and it must be 

statically stable over the entire speed range from 36,000 feet per second to the 

landing speed.

A degree of maneuverability will be required to stay within the limits of 

a rather narrow fl ight corridor. The boundaries of this corri dor are determined 

by maximum tolerable loads or heating, on the one hand, and minimum 

aerodynamic loads to cause reentry in a single pass, on the other hand. The 

amount of maneuverability can be minimized through the provision of adequate 

midcourse propulsive corrections.

The maneuverability provided for corridor control should also permit a 

landing at a fi xed point (or within a small area) on earth.

A conventional airplane-type landing is not required. Instead, vertical 

landings using parachutes or other devices are acceptable. Be cause of the 

worldwide aspects of these mis sions, the vehicle must be capable of surviving 

both ground and water landings.

An important design consideration is that safe recovery must be possible 

for both normal and aborted missions. As in the case of the Mercury capsule, it is 

expected that the most severe requirements will stem from some of the off-design 

conditions.

There has been a great deal of discussion concerning the role to be played 

by the pilot in a space mission. Under the assumption that Project Mercury will 

demonstrate that man can indeed perform useful functions in space, we believe 

that in all future missions the pri mary control should be onboard.

[5] This guideline is not to be construed as im plying that there would be no 

automatic guid ance or control systems on board. Certainly there are many functions 

that can better be performed automatically than manually. But the basic decisionmaking capabilities, and some control functions, are to be assigned to the man.

Propulsion Module

Because of the possibility of a catastrophic failure of any of the Saturn 

stages, the space craft must be equipped with suffi cient propul sion to permit safe 

crew recovery from aborted missions. Such capability must be provided for an 

abort at any speed up to maximum velocity and should be independent of the 

launch pro pulsion system.
Exploring the Unknown 453

Some of the requirements for the propulsion module are summarized 

as follows:

Primary Secondary

Safe recovery from aborts Lunar orbit

Course corrections Maneuvering in earth orbit

Return from orbit

Preliminary studies have indicated that, for a circumlunar mission, 

roughly one-third of the permissible spacecraft weight will be re quired for 

onboard propulsion.

In a normal mission, this same propulsion may be applied for course 

corrections, both while approaching the moon and when return ing to earth. 

As mentioned earlier, the pro pulsion that must be carried for emergency 

considerations may, in a normal mission, be suffi cient to place the spacecraft 

into a satellite orbit around the moon.

For the earth-orbital mission, the propulsion module would again serve 

the primary function of providing safe return capability from aborted missions. 

If it is not needed for this purpose, then the available impulse might be used for 

maneuvering in orbit and for orbital rendezvous with other satellites.

Mission Modules

We have tentatively specifi ed that the ad vanced manned spacecraft 

should be designed for a 3-man crew. Our concept is that, during launch and 

reentry, this crew would be located in the command center unit but, for the remainder of the fl ight, at least two of the crew members would be in the mission 

module (fi g. 5).[not included]

The use of a pressure suit in the command center module may be 

acceptable. But the mission module should defi nitely be designed to permit 

“shirtsleeve” operations, that is, op erations without the use of pressure suits. We 

believe that pressure suits, as currently en visioned, would not be acceptable for 

the dura tion of a circumlunar fl ight.

The foregoing requirements apply for both the circumlunar mission and 

the earth-orbital mission. However, there are other require ments that differ widely 

between the two types of fl ight. For example, the circumlunar mis sion module 

requires an environmental control system that need only provide for about 1 

week’s life support; on the other hand, it may be desirable to keep the earthorbiting labora tory in space for periods ranging from 2 weeks to 2 months.

The circumlunar module would carry only a minimum amount of 

instrumentation required to complete the mission, whereas a great deal of 

instrumentation for scientifi c measurements and observations should be provided 

in the or biting laboratory.

Required Developments

The advanced manned spacecraft will require many systems and subsystems that 

must be de veloped especially for this vehicle. Some of these systems may be 

entirely new, while others may be growth versions of Mercury components.
454 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[6]Major developments that will be needed are listed as follows:

Basic reentry vehicle

Environmental control system

Attitude control system Power supplies

Communications system

Onboard propulsion

Guidance and control system

Pilot displays

The general specifi cations for the basic re entry vehicle were mentioned 

earlier. As yet, no specifi c recommendations regarding its con fi guration can be 

made.

The advanced manned spacecraft will involve the development of perhaps 

several environ mental control systems. These systems would be incorporated 

into the command center, the orbiting laboratory, and the circumlunar module. 

Gaseous-, liquid-, and chemical -oxygen systems all deserve consideration for 

these applications.

A system for sensing and controlling the craft’s attitude will have to be 

developed.

Suitable power supplies will have to be selected. It is estimated that the 

power required for the circumlunar mission will be of the order of 400 kilowatt 

hours, with a peak load of roughly 4 kilowatts.

Voice and telemetry communication systems most certainly will be 

needed. Television may also be desirable.

The onboard propulsion requirement was dis cussed in connection 

with the propulsion module. The demands on this system are many and varied, 

ranging from high-thrust, short -duration requirements for abort maneuvers to 

the very low thrust needed for course correc tions.

An area that deserves considerable attention is that of guidance, control, 

and displays. Suf fi cient information must be supplied to the pilot to permit him 

to make trajectory corrections, to enter and stay within the appropriate corridor, 

and to land at a preselected [sic] location.

Radiation Considerations

A problem of major concern for fl ight beyond low earth orbits is that of 

radiation in space (fi g. 6) [not included]

The following types of radiation are pertinent to circumlunar fl ight:

(1) Trapped radiation (Van Allen) 

(2) Cosmic radiation

(3) Solar fl are particles

The trapped radiation in the Van Allen radiation belts is of rather high 

intensity but of suffi ciently low energy to make shielding feasible. Because the 

time spent in the radia tion belts will be small, only a small amount of shielding is 

required for this type of radiation.
Exploring the Unknown 455

The energies of cosmic radiation are so high that shielding becomes 

impractical. However, the peak intensity is suffi ciently low that no danger is 

expected in a 5-day mission.

The most serious problem results from the particles generated by some 

solar fl ares. The energy of these particles is of a magnitude that may require 

more shielding than is practical from the standpoint of weight; following a major 

fl are, the intensity may be so high as to cause severe biological damage. However, 

there are some indications that it might be possible to predict major fl ares (or at 

least their ab sence) several days in advance. If, in the fu ture, it should indeed be 

possible to predict these fl ares, then the radiation problem could be circumvented 

by avoiding fl ights during a time of anticipated major fl are activity.

The radiation problem, more than any other, requires a great deal of 

study before the manned spacecraft can be employed for circumlunar fl ight. 

Many of the answers now lacking will be supplied through our scientifi c satellite 

and probe programs. The effects of the various types of radiation on living tissues 

are yet to be determined.

[7] Weightless Flight

Another as yet unresolved problem area is illustrated in fi gure 7. [not 

included] A question naturally arises as to whether man will be able to func tion 

in a weightless environment for prolonged periods of time.

The answer to this question must await the completion of the fi rst manned 

orbital fl ight in Project Mercury. That fl ight should shed much light on the 

desirability of incorporating artifi cial gravity into future manned spacecraft.

Inevitably, the solution to this problem will have a profound effect on the 

design of the orbiting laboratory module and perhaps also on the circumlunar 

module.

Manned Space Flight Program

Program Phasing

Our planning thus far has led to a proposed overall timetable for the 

advanced manned spacecraft program, as presented in fi gure 8.[not included]

This program is expected to be under the direction of the Space Task 

Group of the God dard Space Flight Center--the same group that is currently 

managing Project Mercury.

Several months ago, very detailed program guidelines were presented to 

each of NASA’s research and space fl ight centers. As a re sult of these presentations, 

the centers have initiated intensive research and study pro grams, all designed to 

generate the background information required for the design of the ad vanced 

manned spacecraft. This information will be available to industry, of course.

In the near future, industry will be invited to participate, by contract, 

in a program of system design studies. According to present plans, a systems 

contract for the design, engi neering, and fabrication of the manned space craft 

and its components will probably be initiated in fi scal year 1962.

However, it should be emphasized that this program has no offi cial 

standing as yet. Pro vision for the initiation of NASA’s manned space fl ight 
456 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

program, beyond Project Mercury, is expected to be included in the fi scal year 

1962 budgetary request to be sent to the Congress in January 1961. With that 

statement as a basic premise, our present thinking is outlined to in dicate the 

probable course of future fl ight events (fi g. 9). [not included]

Flight Program

Major Mercury fl ights probably will con tinue for several years.[8] Research and 

development, and prototype fl ights of the advanced manned spacecraft are listed 

to start in 1962 and to end in 1965. Early fl ights in this series would be used to 

verify fi nal design criteria for the spacecraft shape and its heat protection; it is 

planned to use Atlas-Agena-B as the launch vehicle for these missions. Following 

the Atlas-Agena fl ights, the Saturn vehicle will be used for full- scale development 

and prototype fl ights.

Earth-orbital missions, using the fi nal space craft, could conceivably 

begin in 1966, with circumlunar missions following as soon as the state of both 

technical and aeromedical knowl edge permits such fl ights.

Program Costs

The fi nal chart (table I) lists the funding associated with the manned spacefl ight 

pro gram. In fi scal years 1960 and 1961, the ma jority of the funds allocated for 

manned space fl ight will be devoted to Project Mercury.

TABLE I Manned Space Flight Funding [millions]

Fiscal Project 

Mercury

Advanced 

manned 

spacecraft

Total

1960

1961

87.06 

106.75

0.10

1.00

87.16

107.75

In future years, we anticipate that an in creasingly larger proportion of 

manned space fl ight funds will be allocated to the more ad vanced programs in 

this area.

Concluding Remarks

NASA’s manned space fl ight program, for the present decade, calls for the 

development and construction of an advance manned space craft with suffi cient 

fl exibility to be capable of both circumlunar fl ight and useful earth-orbital 

missions. In the long range, this spacecraft should lead toward manned landings 

on the moon and planets, and toward a permanent manned space station.

In order to achieve this multiplicity of mis sions, the use of the modular 

concept is pro posed. In this concept, various building blocks, or modules, of the 

vehicle system are employed for different phases of the mission. Basically, the 
Exploring the Unknown 457

spacecraft is conceived to consist of three modules: a command center module, a 

propul sion module, and a mission module.

In addition to the basic vehicle modules, this program will require other 

new developments, such as environmental control systems, attitude stabilization 

devices, power supplies, communi cations, guidance-and-control systems, onboard 

propulsion, and pilot displays.

In the current fi scal year, contractors will be invited to participate in a 

program of systems studies. It is believed probable that a contract for the design, 

engineering, and fabrication of the complete spacecraft system may be initiated 

in fi scal year 1962. 

Document II-3

Document Title: George M. Low, Memorandum for Director of Space Flight 

Programs, “Manned Lunar Landing Program,” 17 October 1960.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Given the increasing attention in 1960 to the precursors to a future lunar landing mission, 

in October 1960 Manned Space Flight Program Chief, George Low, informed Director of 

Space Flight Programs, Abe Silverstein, that he was forming a working group to address the 

technical, schedule, and budgetary issues associated with a lunar landing program. The 

results of Low’s group provided a basis for NASA’s response the following year as President 

Kennedy considered a dramatic acceleration of the lunar landing program. 

October 17, 1960

MEMORANDUM for Director of Space Flight Programs

Subject: Manned Lunar Landing Program

1. It has become increasingly apparent that a preliminary program 

for manned lunar landings should be formulated. This is necessary in order 

to provide a proper justifi cation for Apollo, and to place Apollo schedules and 

technical plans on a fi rmer foundation.

2. In order to prepare such a program, I have formed a small working 

group, consisting of Eldon Hall, Oran Nicks, John Disher and myself. This group will 

endeavor to establish ground rules for manned lunar landing missions; to determine 

reasonable spacecraft weights; to specify launch vehicle requirements; and to prepare 

an integrated development plan, including the spacecraft, lunar landing and take-off 

system, and launch vehicles. This plan should include a time-phasing and funding 

picture, and should identify areas requiring early studies by fi eld organizations.

3. At the completion of this work, we plan to brief you and General 

Ostrander on the results. No action on your part is required at this time; Hall will 

inform General Ostrander that he is participating in this study.
458 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[signed]

George M. Low

Program Chief

Manned Space Flight

Document II-4

Document Title: George M. Low, Program Chief, Manned Space Flight, 

Memorandum for Associate Administrator, “Transmittal of Report Prepared 

by Manned Lunar Working Group,” 7 February 1961, with Attached Report, “A 

Plan for a Manned Lunar Landing.”

Source: Johnson Space Flight Center Archives.

George Low had been among the fi rst in NASA to openly advocate a lunar landing goal and 

was a vocal proponent of that goal. In October 1960 he formed a Manned Lunar Working 

Group Task Force. The task force transmitted its fi ndings to NASA Associate Administrator 

Robert Seamans on 7 February; its report was the fi rst fully developed plan for how NASA 

proposed to send humans to the Moon. Low and his group concluded that “The present state 

of knowledge is such that no invention or breakthrough is believed to be required to insure 

the over-all feasibility of safe manned lunar fl ight.” This was an important consideration 

two months later as President Kennedy considered whether to commit the United States to 

sending Americans to the Moon. The group also estimated that the plan could be carried out 

over 10 years for an average cost of $700 million per year, for a total cost of $7 billion.

[Originally marked “For Internal Use Only”]

February 7, 1961

MEMORANDUM for Associate Administrator

Subject: Transmittal of Report Prepared by Manned Lunar Working Group

1. The attached report, entitled “A Plan for Manned Lunar Landing” was 

prepared by the Manned Lunar Working Group. It accurately represents, to the 

best of my knowledge, the views of the entire Group.

2. Copies of a draft of this report were submitted to the Program 

Directors, NASA Headquarters, and to the Directors of Marshall Space Flight 

Center and Space Task Group. In cases where comments were submitted, these 

comments were incor porated in the report.

3. The Group stands ready to make a presentation of the material 

presented in the report at any time you might so desire.

4. No additional work is planned until further instruc tions are received.
Exploring the Unknown 459

/Signed/

George M. Low

Program Chief

Manned Space Flight

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON 25, D. C.

A PLAN FOR MANNED LUNAR LANDING*

INTRODUCTION

In the past, man’s scientifi c and technical knowledge was limited by the 

fact that all of his observations were made either from the earth’s surface or from 

within the earth’s atmosphere. Now man can send his measuring equipment 

on satellites beyond the earth’s atmosphere and into space beyond the moon 

on lunar and planetary probes. These initial ventures into space have already 

greatly increased man’s store of knowledge.

In the future, man himself is destined to play a vital and direct role in 

the exploration of the moon and of the planets. In this regard, it is not easy 

to conceive that instruments can be devised that can effectively and reliably 

duplicate man’s role as an explorer, a geologist, a surveyor, a photographer, a 

chemist, a biologist, a physicist, or any of a host of other specialists whose talents 

would be useful. In all of these areas man’s judgment, his ability to observe and 

to reason, and his decision-making capabilities are required. 

*Prepared by the Lunar Landing Working Group, January 1961.

[2]

The initial step in our program for the manned exploration of space is 

Project Mercury. This Project is designed to put a manned satellite into an orbit 

more than 100 miles above the earth’s surface, let it circle the earth three times, and 

bring it back safety. From Project Mercury we expect to learn much about how man 

will react to space fl ight, what his capabilities may be, and what should be provided 

in future manned spacecraft to allow man to function usefully. Such knowledge is 

vital before man can participate in other, more diffi cult, space missions.

Project Mercury is the beginning of a series of programs of everincreasing scope and complexity. The future can be expected to include the 

milestones shown in Figure 1. 

The next step after Mercury is Project Apollo. The multi -manned Apollo 

spacecraft will provide for the development and exploitation of manned space 

fl ight technology in earth orbit; it also provide the initial step in a long-range 

program [3] for the manned exploration of the moon and the planets. In this 

paper we will focus on a major milestone in the program for manned exploration 
460 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

of space - lunar landing and exploration. This milestone might be subdivided 

into two phases:

1. Initial manned landing, with return to earth;

2. Manned exploration.

This report will be limited to a discussion of the initial manned lunar 

landing and return mission, with the clear recog nition that it is a part of an 

integrated plan leading toward manned exploration of the moon.

An important element in the manned space fl ight program is the 

establishment of a space station in an earth orbit. Present thinking indicates 

that such a station can be established in the same time period as manned lunar 

landings can be made, and also that many of the same technological developments 

are required for both purposes. Although both missions were broadly considered 

in planning developments for the lunar program, only the lunar requirements 

are discussed in this paper.

An undertaking such as manned lunar landing requires a team effort on 

an exceedingly broad scale. The various elements of [4] this effort are indicated 

in Figure 2. [not provided] The basic capability is provided through the parallel 

development of a spacecraft and a launch vehicle. Both of these developments 

must proceed in an orderly fashion, leading to hardware of increasing capability. Supporting these developments are many other scientifi c and technical 

programs and disciplines, as shown in the fi gure. The implementation of the 

manned spacecraft program requires information that will be obtained in the 

unmanned spacecraft and life science programs. The development of launch 

vehicle capability requires new engines, techniques to launch from earth orbit, 

and might include launch vehicle recovery developments. Both the spacecraft 

and the launch vehicle programs can progress only as new knowledge is obtained 

through advanced research.

All of these program elements currently exist in the total NASA program. 

Work is under way in areas that are pertinent to the development of the capability 

for manned lunar landing. In this report the interrelationship between the various 

programs will be studied. Key items will be examined in detail, to determine the 

proper phasing between the development of new systems, and the availability of 

the background information required for these developments.

[5]

NASA RESEARCH

Already there exists a large fund of basic scientifi c knowledge, as a result 

of the advanced research of the past several years, which permits confi dence that 

the technology required for manned lunar fl ight can be successfully developed. 

It would be misleading to imply that all of the major problems are now clearly 

foreseen; however, there is an acute aware ness of the magnitude of the problems. 

The present state of knowledge is such that no invention or breakthrough is believed 

to be required to insure the over-all feasibility of safe manned lunar fl ight. 

An aggressive research program which will insure a sound technological 

foundation for lunar vehicle system development is currently under way. This 
Exploring the Unknown 461

research is being carried out as a major part of the programs of the NASA 

Research Centers and in the supporting research activities of the NASA Space 

Flight Centers, both internally and by contract. It includes basic research 

in the physical and biological sciences; and applied research leading to the 

development of spacecraft, orbital operations, operations at the lunar surface, 

propulsion and [6] launch vehicles. This research is supported by a wide variety 

of experimental facilities in being, and new highly advanced facilities that are 

becoming available.

Consider, for example, one of the major spacecraft problems, that of 

aerodynamic heating. A lunar spacecraft will reenter the earth’s atmosphere at about 

one and one-half times the reentry speed of a near-earth satellite and with twice 

the kinetic energy. Research to date has shown that radiative heat of the spacecraft 

by the hot incandescent gas envelope may become an appreciable percentage 

of the total heating. For the case of the reentering satellites, this radiative heat 

transfer had been unimportant. Analytical work and early experimental results 

have enabled estimates to be made of the gross radiative heat transfer. Continuing 

experimental research will be carried out in newer, more advanced facilities that 

are becoming available. Selected fl ight experiments to progressively higher speeds 

are needed for verifi cation of the analytical and experimental results. The earliest 

of these, providing reentry velocities of 30,000 ft/sec, are scheduled for early 1962. 

All of this research will help to achieve detailed understanding of the heating 

problem, to allow accurate prediction of the heat [7] transfer, and to fi nd the best 

materials and methods for spacecraft construction.

Research in this area, as well as in the other areas listed in Figure 3 [not 

provided], seeks to provide the basic information which should lead to greater 

simplifi cation and reliability, and to reduced weight. The scope of the work is 

such that the basic informa tion required in support of a manned lunar landing 

project should be in hand within three to fi ve years.

LAUNCH VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

The magnitude of a step in our space fl ight program, at any given time, 

will always depend on the capability of our launch vehicles. This capability, both 

present and projected, is shown in Figure 4 [not provided], where the payload 

weight at escape velocity is plotted as a function of time. During the current year, 

we should achieve the possibility of propelling 750 pounds to escape velocity, using 

the Atlas-Agena vehicle. By 1963, the Atlas -Centaur should increase this capability 

to 2,500 pounds; this will be doubled when the Saturn C-l becomes operational in 

1964. However, the C-l is only an interim vehicle that is severely limited because 

of the lack of a suffi ciently large high-energy [8] engine for the second stage. A 

later version of the Saturn, called the C-2, will more than triple the C-l payload 

capa bility at escape velocity. Because the second stage of the C-2 must await the 

development of the J-2 (200,000 pound thrust hydrogen-oxygen) engine, it will not 

be operational until 1967. The Saturn C-2 will be the fi rst launch vehicle giving us 

the capability of manned fl ight to the vicinity of the moon; however, a single C-2 

cannot provide suffi cient energy to complete a manned lunar landing mission.

The required launch vehicle capability can be achieved in several ways. 

Two promising means are: one, orbital operations, wherein a number of Saturn 

C-2 launched payloads are rendezvoused, assembled or refueled in earth orbit, and 

then launched as a single system from earth toward the moon; and two, the direct 
462 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

approach, using a vehicle much larger than Saturn which would have the capability 

of propelling a suffi ciently large payload toward the moon from the surface of the 

earth. Both methods appear to be technically feasible, and will be discussed.

Orbital operation techniques must be developed as part of the space 

program, whether or not the manned lunar landing mission is considered. These 

techniques will be required for [9] resupply and transfer to space stations and 

orbiting laboratories, for inspections and repair of other satellites, for rescue 

operations and for military applications. Successful development of these 

techniques of rendezvous, refueling and launching from orbit could allow us to 

develop a capability for the manned lunar mission in less time than by any other 

means. In view of these facts, NASA is planning a vigorous program for developing 

orbital operations techniques. This program is outlined in Figure 5.

Under present plans, initial rendezvousing, docking and refueling 

tests would make use of the Atlas-Agena vehicle. In these tests, conventional 

storable propellants will be used. In order to demonstrate the feasibility of orbital 

operations with high-energy hydrogen-oxygen propellants, a refueling exer cise is 

planned wherein an Atlas-Centaur will be used to refuel an upper stage of a Saturn 

C-l vehicle. This demonstration is expected to be attempted in 1965 or 1966. 

Following this demonstration, full-scale refueling and orbital launch operations 

will be conducted using Saturn C-2 vehicles. These operations will involve the 

launch of several C-2’s to refuel an upper stage initially put into orbit. Following 

the development of this capability in the 1967-68 time period, this system is [10] 

expected to be available for operational use in 1968-69 time period.

For the purpose of the manned lunar mission, the Saturn C-2 would be 

used to place into earth orbit an empty upper vehicle stage that would subsequently 

be used to propel the spacecraft toward the moon. Four or fi ve additional C-2 

payloads would be required to fi ll this empty stage with propellants. The last 

launching would propel the manned spacecraft together with the lunar take-off 

stage into earth orbit. Six or seven successful Saturn launchings, therefore, are 

required in order to place a space vehicle system into earth orbit that will then be 

capable of propelling an 8,000 pound spacecraft toward the moon, land ing on 

the moon and returning it toward earth.

Orbital operations techniques will probably be required to perform the 

more diffi cult planetary mission even with the availability of much larger launch 

vehicles. Many of the missions shown in Figure 1 indicate the need for vehicles 

larger than the Saturn C-2. Large earth space stations that may be assembled in 

orbit will very likely require the launching of larger sub- assemblies into orbit than 

can be carried with a single Saturn C-2. Exploration of the moon following the 

initial landing will [11] also require vehicles larger than the Saturn C-2. Also, if 

the spacecraft weight increases materially as a result of information gained in the 

areas of weightlessness and radia tion, the required number of earth launchings 

using Saturn could increase to an extent where the orbital operations techniques 

with this vehicle would no longer be attractive. 

It is proposed, therefore, that a vehicle larger than the Saturn C-2 be 

phased into the launch vehicle program in an orderly fashion following the 

Saturn development. Such a launch vehicle, called Nova, would use a cluster of 

1,500,000 pound thrust F-l engines in its booster stage. The exact number of F-l 

engines will have to be determined later, when a more complete defi nition of 

Nova missions is in hand. Nova might be suffi ciently large to permit a manned 

lunar landing with a single launching directly from earth. Or, although substan-
Exploring the Unknown 463

tially larger than the Saturn C-2, it might still not be large enough to approach 

the moon directly from earth; in this case it would materially reduce the number 

of rendezvous operations needed in earth orbit for each lunar mission.

A Nova-class vehicle development program, based on an assumed 

confi guration, is given in Figure 6 [not provided]. The program is phased so that 

major decisions concerning the vehicle size and [12] confi guration need not be 

made until after suffi cient background information is available in the spacecraft 

development program.

The present program for development of the F-l engine is shown in 

this fi gure. Preliminary fl ight rating tests are now scheduled toward the end of 

1963, and further testing should lead to a qualifi ed engine by the end of 1965. 

Studies are under way to determine possible confi gurations of the vehicle and its 

performance capabilities. Preliminary design of the vehicle can be started in 1962 

and would continue through 1963. As will be shown later, the spacecraft weight for 

the manned lunar mission should be fi rmly established in this time period.

Construction of static test stands and launch facility will be initiated in 

1963. Developmental fl ight tests of the fi rst stage could begin in 1966. Subsequent 

tests would add various upper stages until a complete launch vehicle should be 

ready for operational use in 1970. 

Comparison of Launch Vehicles

A comparison of the Saturn C-2 and several Nova-class vehicles, as used 

for the manned lunar mission, is made in Figure 7[not provided]. The numbers 

under each launch vehicle indicate the [13] successful launchings required for 

each lunar fl ight. Spacecraft weights from 8,000 to 16,000 pounds are assumed; 

corresponding weights that must be propelled to escape velocity are indicated. 

Uncertainties in these latter weights are a result of uncertainties in the design of 

the lunar landing and take-off stages. In all cases, the use of storable propellants 

has been assumed for the return propulsion.

Use of the Saturn C-2 requires minimum of six to seven vehicles 

successfully completing each orbital operation. Increased spacecraft weight, 

failures of the launch vehicle, failures in the orbital operations, propellant 

losses either during transfer or by evaporation during the operation, and extra 

propulsion for accomplishing the rendezvous would all increase the required 

number of Saturns.

At this time, operations with six or seven Saturns appear to be feasible. 

However, if several of the aforementioned even tualities materialize, and if the 

number of launchings increases appreciably, the orbital operations technique for 

manned lunar landings may no longer be practical. A better defi nition of these 

problems will come during the orbital operations develop ment program and 

during the spacecraft development program. [14] If, as a result of these programs, 

it appears that orbital operations are indeed feasible, the Nova development 

could be slowed down and delayed. Conversely, if the orbital operations become 

too complex and cumbersome, this work should be de-emphasized and the Nova 

development could be speeded up.

Use of the Nova-class vehicle offers the possibility of greatly reducing 

the required number of launchings from earth. It might be possible to provide 

mission capability without rendezvous with a four-engine Nova; with an eightengine Nova, this type of mission capability is virtually assured.
464 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Thus, if future diffi culties force the use of an unaccept ably large number 

of Saturns for this mission, the availability of a Nova-class vehicle would permit 

accomplishment of the planned fl ights. It should be recognized, however, that 

the development of Nova will undoubtedly bring about many problems, and will 

not be easy.

It is possible that other propulsion developments could contribute to 

manned lunar fl ight capability. Examples are the use of large solid propellant 

rockets, or nuclear propulsion. In defi ning a Nova confi guration, consideration 

will be given to both of these types of propulsion. At the present time it [15] 

appears that nuclear propulsion will not be suffi ciently developed for the initial 

manned lunar landing; however, nuclear propulsion might be very desirable and 

economically attractive for later exploration of the moon. 

Programs in Support of Launch Vehicle Development

Activities presently under way or planned in support of the launch vehicle 

development are shown in Figure 8 [not provided]. For comparative purposes, 

major milestones for both the orbital operations and the Nova development are 

indicated. 

Engine Development: The chemical fuel engines currently under 

development include the F-l, the J-2, and the LR-119. The F-l engine produces 

1,500,000 pounds of thrust using conventional LOX/RP propellants; the J-2 

engine will produce 200,000 pounds of thrust using hydrogen-oxygen propellants; 

the LR-119 produces a thrust of 17,500 pounds and also uses hydrogen-oxygen 

propellant. Both the LR-119 and the J-2 engine are scheduled for use in the Saturn 

C-2 vehicle. All three engines could be used in the Nova launch vehicle. The 

end of each bar in Figure 8 indicates the time when a qualifi ed engine could be 

available. Also indicated in the fi gure is a proposed plan for testing a cluster of F-l 

engines; cluster testing could be completed [16] during 1966, if test facilities can 

be made available in time. Nuclear propulsion is currently under development 

jointly by NASA and the AEC. Although actively under development, the research 

character of this program precludes the possibility of determining schedules for 

manned use of this engine at the present time.

The feasibility of using large solid rocket motors in the fi rst stages of 

launch vehicles of the Nova-class is also being studied. Test fi rings of rocket 

motors in the one-quarter to one-half million pound thrust class are planned for 

the 1961-62 time period.

These fi rings will be made with segmented motors that could be 

assembled to provide much larger capability.

Launch Vehicle Recovery: Means to reduce the high cost of launch vehicles 

are continually being sought. A promising method for possible major-reductions 

in hardware costs for future missions, is the recovery of launch vehicles. Launch 

vehicle recovery would also permit postfl ight inspection of hardware, offering the 

possibility of reducing vehicle develop ment time and increasing vehicle reliability. 

Because of these possible advantages, a research and development program in the 

area of launch vehicle recovery will be implemented as indicated [17] in Figure 8. 

In this program, it is fi rst planned to recover the booster stage of the Saturn C-2; 

later, recovery of stages from orbit will be attempted. If these methods prove to be 

successful, all of the launch vehicle hardware required for the orbital operations 

phase of this plan could be reused. Informa tion gained during these operations 
Exploring the Unknown 465

could be applied later to the recovery of Nova vehicle hardware, thus offering the 

possibility of greatly reducing the cost of future operations.

Hawkeye Program: This country’s fi rst program making use of 

rendezvous techniques will be the Air Force’s Hawkeye program. Much of the 

technology developed for Hawkeye might be applied to the proposed program of 

orbital launch vehicle operations. Close coordination with Hawkeye is, therefore, 

being main tained in order to derive the maximum benefi ts from this program.

SPACECRAFT DEVELOPMENT

The spacecraft development for the manned lunar landing mission will 

be an extension of the Apollo program. Before a spacecraft capable of manned 

circumlunar fl ight and lunar landing can be designed, a number of unknowns 

must be answered.

[18] The two most serious questions are:

1. What are the effects on man of prolonged exposure to 

weightlessness?

2. How may man best be protected from radiation in space?

The entire spacecraft design, its shape and its weight, will depend to a great 

extent on whether or not man can tolerate prolonged periods of weightlessness. 

And, if it is determined that he cannot, then the required amount of artifi cial gravity, 

or perhaps of other forms of sensory stimulation, will have to be specifi ed.

The spacecraft design and weight will also be greatly affected by the 

amount of radiation shielding required to protect a man. In this area, a clear 

defi nition of the perti nent types of radiation, and their effects on living beings, 

is needed.

These two unknowns, radiation and weightlessness, might cause the largest 

foreseeable changes in spacecraft design. Other unknowns are also important, 

but will have lesser effects on the vehicle weight. For example, the lunar surface 

[19] characteristics must be defi ned before a landing system can be designed; yet 

it is not expected that any landing device will cause major weight perturbations. 

As will be shown later, the complete answers to these questions will not 

be available for several years. It is proposed, therefore, to implement the Apollo 

spacecraft develop ment in two phases. Apollo “A” will provide the capability of 

multimanned fl ight in earth orbit; it will also be a test vehicle, perhaps unmanned, 

for reentry at parabolic velocities. Apollo “B” will be an advanced version of 

Apollo “A” and will be phased into the development program at a later date, when 

defi nitive design decisions can be made. Apollo “B” will have the capability of 

manned circumlunar fl ight, and manned landing on the moon.

It is not suggested that the entire spacecraft development would be 

implemented in two phases. The Apollo spacecraft is conceived to employ a 

number of components, or modules, as listed in Figure 9 [not provided]. With 

the exception of the “command center,” these modules will either be common to 

both Apollo “A” and Apollo “B” or they will be required for only one of the two 

types of mission.

[20]The command center will house the crew during the launch and 

reentry phases of fl ight; it will also serve as the fl ight control center for the 

remainder of the mission. It will be the only spacecraft unit designed with 
466 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

reentry and recovery capability. Apollo “A” used in conjunction with the 

Saturn C-1 launch vehicle, will provide the capability of multimanned fl ight in 

earth orbit for extended periods of time. It will perform missions beyond the 

capability of Mercury, with increased sophistication and fl ight duration, leading 

to more defi nitive results concerning manned space fl ight; and it will provide for 

continuity in the manned fl ight program.

Apollo “B,” used in conjunction with Saturn C-2, will be an advanced 

version of Apollo “A” with the capability of manned fl ight to the moon. It is 

conceivable that only minor changes in design, together with some improvements 

of onboard systems, will be desirable or required to modify the Apollo “A” 

spacecraft for the Apollo “B” mission. On the other hand, it is also possible that 

future knowledge will dictate a major change from Apollo “A” to Apollo “B.”

Proposed development schedules for both the “A” and “B” command 

center units are shown in Figure 9. Also shown in this fi gure are the schedules 

for the design, fabrication [21] and fl ight testing of two types of onboard 

propulsion system. The Launch Escape Propulsion System will be used in case 

of a launch vehicle malfunction in the earth’s atmosphere. The Mission Abort 

Propulsion System will provide return-to-earth capability for the remainder of 

the mission; it will also provide for maneuverability and course corrections; and, 

for a lunar landing mission, it will be used as the take-off stage from the moon. 

These propulsion systems will be used in conjunction with both the “A” and “B” 

command center units. Both propulsion systems will have to be thoroughly tested 

and highly reliable. The use of existing engines, such as the Agena engine, for 

the Mission Abort Propulsion System, appears to be very desirable.

The two remaining modules are the Orbital Space Laboratory and the Lunar 

Landing System. The Orbital Space Laboratory, to be used initially with Apollo “A,” 

will be used for spacecraft evaluation, for crew training and for the development of 

operational techniques; it can also serve as a base for scientifi c measurements and 

technological developments. The Lunar Landing System will be used only with 

the Apollo “B” command center; controlled by this command center, the landing 

module will pro vide for a manned landing on the moon’s surface.

[22] The schedules (Figure 9) for the design, fabrication and fl ight 

testing of each module of the Apollo vehicle were developed so as to be consistent 

with the availability of the required background knowledge. 

Spacecraft - Launch Vehicle Phasing

The proposed schedule of spacecraft fl ights is compared with launch 

vehicle availability in Figure 10 [not provided]. The fi rst manned fl ights on 

Saturn C-l with the Apollo “A” spacecraft will come a reasonable period of time 

after this launch vehicle is operational; orbital laboratory fl ights on C-l are not 

scheduled until after two years of operational use of this vehicle have elapsed. 

First manned fl ights on Saturn C-2 will be made with the Apollo “B” spacecraft, 

shortly after the C-2 vehicle is operational.

The fi rst lunar landing, using the orbital operationsapproach, could 

occur at the time this approach is developed. Manned fl ights using Nova could 

take place not much later, if it is determined that the mission should be performed 

with the Nova vehicle.

[23]
Exploring the Unknown 467

Support by Unmanned Spacecraft Program

A signifi cant amount of the information required in the design of the 

manned lunar spacecraft will be derived from unmanned space fl ight programs. 

These programs will yield scientifi c data needed to develop design criteria; and 

techno logical advancements that might apply directly to the manned spacecraft.

Some of the areas of interest are listed in Figure 11[not provided]. At the top 

of this fi gure, signifi cant milestones in the Apollo “B” development, and in the lunar 

landing system development, are given. Under these milestones, pertinent areas 

where informa tion is needed are shown. These include: Information concerning 

the cislunar and lunar environment, where the several types of radiation will be 

probed, fi elds will be measured and meteorite impact probabilities will be assessed; 

the measurement of lunar surface properties, including terrain texture and 

features, surface composition, and physical characteristics; and the determination 

of lunar body properties, such as shape and mass distribution. Technological 

developments include power systems, tracking and telecommunications, attitude 

orientation and stabilization, mid-course and terminal guidance and control, 

retropropulsion, and impact absorbers.

[24] Of all of the areas mentioned above, the information per taining to 

cislunar and lunar environment, and to lunar surface characteristics, is the most 

important. A clear understanding of trapped, cosmic, and solar fl are radiation 

is required before the spacecraft weight can be fully determined. For example, 

reliable solar fl are prediction methods would be required to support a decision 

that shielding against this type of radiation is not required. Of, if such prediction 

methods should turn out to be less reliable than is currently anticipated, further 

information on the directionality of solar proton beams would be helpful. 

Questions such as: “Do solar fl are particles impinge on the dark side of the moon, 

or in the shadow of a crater?” must be answered. Detailed knowledge about the 

lunar surface characteris tics is required before the design for the lading gear of 

the manned vehicle can be fi nalized, and before the exact method of touchdown 

on the moon (i.e., vertical or horizontal) can be determined. 

A detailed analysis of the information presented in Figure 11 has shown 

that fl ights are scheduled in ongoing NASA programs which could obtain all the 

required information; and that this information is expected to be in hand prior 

to the time of hardware fabrication for either the Apollo “B” command center 

[25] unit, or the lunar landing system.

The earth satellite programs, using Scout, Delta, and the Atlas-Agena 

launch vehicles, will signifi cantly increase our store of knowledge concerning the 

near-earth and cislunar environment. At least 26 fi rings of scientifi c satellites are 

planned between now and the end of 1964. In the same period of time, the Ranger 

spacecraft will probe the environment between earth and moon, and planetary 

probes of the Mariner series will obtain additional scientifi c information. In this 

time period, it might be desirable to schedule additional Ranger fl ights for the 

purpose of fully defi ning the environment in the vicinity of the moon, and on 

the moon’s surface.

Both the Ranger and the Surveyor spacecraft will obtain information 

concerning lunar topography, surface character istics, and body properties. 

According to present schedules, and assuming reasonable success, suffi cient 

information will be available to design a lunar landing system for the manned 

spacecraft at the time when such information is required.
468 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The Prospector series of fl ights will provide fi nal land ing system design 

confi rmation. It will also assist in selecting the landing site for the manned 

craft, and might even [26] bring equipment to the moon’s surface that could be 

used in the manned mission. Close coordination between the Prospector and 

Apollo projects will be maintained in order to assure maximum utilization of 

developments; such coordination should greatly benefi t both projects.

Advancements in spacecraft technology will be derived from the earth 

satellite programs, and from the Ranger, Surveyor, and Prospector developments. 

Some of these advancements will apply directly to the manned lunar landing 

program.

Weightlessness and Radiation-Biological Tests

Before the Apollo “B” spacecraft design can be completed, the question 

previously raised concerning weightlessness must be answered. In Figure 12 [not 

provided], programs that are now planned in this area are listed; for comparison, 

signifi cant milestones in the Apollo “B” development are also shown.

To date, manned weightless fl ights have been made for a [27] maximum 

time duration of one minute.1 In this short time period, no gross physiological 

effects were noted. Ongoing programs will soon provide information of the 

effects of weight lessness on man for several minutes, and then several hours; 

and the effects on animals for many hours and then for several days. If, in each 

succeeding step, it is demonstrated that there are no adverse biological effects 

of weightlessness, then the design of a spacecraft without provision for artifi cial 

gravity can proceed with confi dence; conversely, if future experiments show 

marked psychological or physiological changes as a result of prolonged exposure 

to weightlessness, then artifi cial gravity will have to be incorporated into the 

Apollo “B” spacecraft design.

_______________________________________________________

1 Animals have been subjected to several days of weightless fl ight in 

Russian experiments. Although there are indications that these animals suffered 

no adverse effects, insuffi cient data are available, in this country, to draw any 

fi rm conclusions.

[28] As indicated in Figure 12, a considerable amount of experimental 

evidence on this subject will have been obtained before the Apollo “B” design is 

even started; complete informa tion should be available before fabrication of 

hardware is begun. These conclusions, however, are based on the assumption 

that all programs that are currently in the planning stage, including the 

biomedical orbiting satellite program using Mercury capsules, will actually be 

implemented.

The biological effects of radiation in space will be determined largely 

from a correlation of the physical measure ments previously discussed (Figure 

11) with the results of ground measurements on biological specimen. However, 

a number of selected experiments in space, involving living subjects, will have to 
Exploring the Unknown 469

be made before shielding requirements for Apollo “B” can be fully defi ned. Tests 

of this type that either have been made, or are fi rmly planned, are indicated in 

Figure 12. Additional tests are currently being planned by NASA, in cooper ation 

with the Air Force and the Atomic Energy Commission. 

Manned Flight Technology

Much of the information required for the design of a space craft for 

manned lunar landing will be derived directly from Project Mercury, and from 

DynaSoar developments.

[29]The experience gained in developing systems for manned fl ight in 

space, and in preparing both the equipment and the men for such fl ights, will 

be of major importance. Operational concepts being worked out and applied in 

Project Mercury and DynaSoar should apply directly to future manned missions.

For example, the Mercury spacecraft will have all the onboard systems 

- the attitude stabilization and control system, the communications system, the 

environmental control system, etc. - that will be required in future manned 

spacecraft. Although some of the systems required for the Apollo spacecraft will 

be entirely new, their design should, in general, be related to Mercury experience; 

it is more than likely that many of the systems will be direct growth versions of 

Mercury equipment.

Extensions of Project Mercury, beyond the present program, are planned 

as part of the Apollo development. These fl ights would provide for extended 

periods of weightlessness, and perhaps for experiments with artifi cial gravity. 

Manned rendezvous tests, using the Mercury spacecraft for control, and a version 

of the Hawkeye vehicle as the controlled craft, can be carried out. The Mercury 

capsule cap also be used as a test bed for the development of Apollo guidance 

and control equipment. All of these fl ights can occur before manned fl ights with 

Apollo “A” are scheduled to take place.

[30] SCHEDULES AND COSTS

A summary of manned space fl ight missions, leading toward a manned 

lunar landing, is presented in Figure 13 [not provided]. Starting late in 1961, the 

Mercury-Atlas combination will give us the capability of orbiting one man for 

a short period of time. The Apollo “A” spacecraft, using the Saturn C-l launch 

vehicle, will allow multimanned, long duration, orbital fl ight in 1965. Later, in 

1967, an advanced version of the Apollo spacecraft (Apollo “B”) launched by the 

Saturn C-2, will provide the capability for manned circumlunar fl ight, and for 

lunar orbits.

Manned landings on the moon, using the Apollo “B” space craft, could be 

made in the 1968-1971 time period. If orbital operations using the Saturn C-2 vehicles 

prove to be practicable for this mission, then it might be accomplished toward the 

beginning of this range of time. On the other hand, if the spacecraft becomes 

much more complex than now envi sioned, and consequently much heavier, a Nova 

vehicle will most likely be required before man can be landed on the moon. In the 

latter event, the program goals may not be accomplished as quickly.

[31]The plan presented in this report consists of a number of relatively 

independent programs. Decisions to implement these programs can be made 
470 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

as time progresses; no single decision committing NASA to carry out the entire 

plan is required at this time. The plan is also suffi ciently fl exible to permit major 

changes in objectives in later years, without the requirement that earlier phases 

of the program be repeated. 

Some of the major phases of the Launch Vehicle Program are shown 

in Figure 14 [not provided]. For each of these phases, the year of initiation is 

shown, together with the total duration of this phase and total funding required 

to complete the phase. Thus, for example, a decision to go ahead with the AtlasAgena docking demonstration would be required in FY 1962, in order to meet 

the total program objectives; the total funding required for these tests would be 

$80,000,000 dis tributed over a period of nearly three years. 

In the Nova development, only those phases that are not now funded 

are included in Figure 14. Thus, it is assumed that the F-l engine development, 

and the Nova confi guration [32] studies that are presently under way, will be 

continued. No major new commitment will be required until late in FY 1963, 

when the development of the fi rst stage would be started.

A similar breakdown for the phasing of various components of the 

spacecraft is given in Figure 15 [not provided]. In order to meet the previously 

presented program objectives, the development of the Apollo “A” spacecraft, the 

Launch Escape Propulsion System, and the Mission Abort Propulsion System, 

would have to be initiated in FY 1963. The development of the Orbital Laboratory, the Apollo “B” spacecraft, and the Lunar Landing System would follow in 

later years.

The aforementioned fl exibility of programming also becomes evident in 

this fi gure. Assume that for some now unknown reason it becomes undesirable 

to explore the moon in the suggested time period, and that a decision is made 

that a large space station should be developed fi rst. Such a decision could be 

made as late as 1965, without previously having committed anymore than the 

design phases of the manned lunar vehicles.

[33]A summary of the development and funding schedules is presented 

in Figure 16 [not provided], where the various program phases are given as 

a function of the fi scal year of program initiation. Most of the funds initially 

committed in 1962 will be for design phases. Major hardware contracts would 

not be awarded until 1963, with additional hardware developments starting in 

1964 and 1965. The average cost per year, over a ten year period, for the total 

program is of the order of $700,000,000.

A basic ground rule in developing this plan was that the funding for 

fi scal year 1962 cannot be increased beyond the level that has been submitted 

to the Congress. However, increased funding in fi scal year 1962, in selected 

areas, might give increased assurance of meeting the projected fl ight dates. In 

particular, acceleration of the Saturn C-2, through earlier funding of the S-2 

stage, would make this vehicle operational as much as a year before it is required 

for manned fl ight; the present program does not provide for any time between 

launch vehicle availability and manned spacecraft fl ights.

Earlier C-2 availability, together with earlier fund ing for the orbital 

docking demonstrations, would allow for additional unmanned orbital 

operations before manned fl ights [34] to the moon are made. Earlier spacecraft 

funding, for Apollo “A, “would lead to earlier fl ights with this vehicle. In the area 

of life sciences, increased funding in fi scal year 1962 would lead to the earlier 
Exploring the Unknown 471

availability of informa tion on the effects of prolonged periods of weightlessness, 

and the biological effects of radiation. 

An examination of the required NASA staffi ng to carry out this plan 

was not made as a part of this study. However, it must be recognized that neither 

Marshall Space Flight Center nor Space Task Group, as presently staffed, could 

fully support these programs. If the program is to be adopted, immediate 

consideration must be given to this problem.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In, preparing this plan for a manned lunar landing capa bility, it was 

recognized that many foreseeable problems will require solutions before the plan 

can be fully implemented. Yet, an examination of ongoing NASA programs, in 

the areas of advanced research, life sciences, spacecraft development, and engine 

and launch vehicle development, has shown that solutions [35] to all of these 

problems should be available in the required period of time.

Throughout the plan, allowances were made for foreseeable problems; 

but it must be recognized that unforeseeable problems might delay the 

accomplishment of this mission. Nevertheless, the plan is believed to be sound 

in that it requires, at each point in time, a minimum committment [sic] of funds 

and resources until the needed background information is in hand. Thus, the 

plan does not represent a “crash” program, but rather it represents a vigorous 

development of technology. The program objectives might be met earlier with 

higher initial funding, and with some calculated risks.

[pp. 36- 51 not provided]

Document II-5

Document Title: Letter from L. V. Berkner, Chairman, Space Science Board, 

National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, to James E. Webb, 

Administrator, NASA, 31 March 1961, with attached: Space Science Board, 

National Academy of Sciences, “Man’s Role in the National Space Program.”

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The Space Studies Board (SSB) had been formed by the National Academy of Sciences a few 

months before the creation of NASA in 1958, with the hope that it could be the primary infl uence 

on the scientifi c goals of the nation’s space program. NASA resisted such a role, and used the SSB 

as a source of non-binding advice on scientifi c priorities. The SSB was chaired by Lloyd Berkner, 

who had been considered for the position of NASA Administrator and was a personal friend 

of James Webb. The SSB met on 10 and 11 February 1961 to discuss its position on human 

spacefl ight and presented a preliminary list of its fi ndings to Webb on 27 February. The full 

report, which was only three pages long, was not sent to Webb until 31 March. Copies were also 

sent to Jerome Wiesner, the President’s science advisor; Herbert York, Director of Defense Research 

and Engineering; and Alan Waterman, Director of the National Science Foundation.
472 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Unlike the negative perception of NASA’s human spacefl ight program held by member’s of 

the President’s Science Advisory Committee, which was refl ected in the advice of Presidentelect Kennedy’s space transition team (chaired by Jerome Wiesner), the Space Science Board 

policy statement presented a positive view of the scientifi c value of humans in space. Using 

this statement, Webb and others in NASA could point to scientifi c support of a human 

spacefl ight effort aimed at the exploration of the Moon and planets.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

SPACE SCIENCE BOARD

March 31, 1961

Mr. James E. Webb, Administrator

National Aeronautics & Space Administration

1520 H Street, N.W.

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Mr. Webb:

I am enclosing two major policy positions that have been developed by 

the Space Science Board as recommendations to the Government.

The fi rst of these concerns the enunciation of the major objective of 

space exploration and thus embraces man’s role. The Board believes that the 

enunciation of such a policy would clarify the objectives of the national space 

effort by clearly focusing upon its goals.

The second document [not included] considers the support of basic 

research and argues, quite aside from current fl ight-package and related 

research, that a major and broad effort is required for the long-range success of 

our national space efforts. Our recommendations in this area represent careful 

discussions over a period of some three years.

Sincerely yours,

L. V. Berkner

Chairman

SPACE SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences

2101 Constitution Avenue

Washington 25, D.C.
Exploring the Unknown 473

Man’s Role in the National Space Program

At its meeting on February 10 and 11, 1961, the Space Science Board gave 

particular consideration to the role of man in space in the national space science 

program. As a result of these deliberations the Board concluded that scientifi c 

exploration of the Moon and planets should be clearly stated as the ultimate 

objective of the U.S. space program for the foreseeable future. This objective 

should be promptly adopted as the offi cial goal of the United States space program 

and clearly announced, discussed and supported. In addition, it should be 

stressed that the United States will continue to press toward a thorough scientifi c 

understanding of space, of solving problems of manned space exploration, and of 

development of applications of space science for man’s welfare.

The Board concluded that it is not now possible to decide whether 

man will be able to accompany early expeditions to the Moon and planets. 

Many intermediate problems remain to be solved. However, the Board strongly 

emphasized that planning for scientifi c exploration of the Moon and planets 

must at once be developed on the premise that man will be included.

Failure to adopt and develop our national program upon this premise will 

inevitably prevent man’s inclusion, and every effort should be made to establish 

the feasibility of manned space fl ight at the earliest oppor tunity.

From a scientifi c standpoint, there seems little room for dissent that man’s 

participation in the exploration of the Moon and planets will be essential, if and 

when it becomes technologically feasible to include him. Man can contribute 

critical elements of scientifi c judgment and discrimination in conducting the 

scientifi c exploration of these bodies which can never be fully supplied by his 

instruments, however complex and sophisticated they may become. Thus, 

carefully planned and executed manned scientifi c expeditions will inevitably be 

the more fruitful. Moreover, the very technical problems of control at very great 

distances, involving substantial time delays in command signal reception, may 

make perfection of planetary experiments impossible without manned controls 

on the vehicles.

[2] There is also another aspect of planning this country’s program for 

scientifi c exploration of the Moon and planets which is not widely appreciated. 

In the Board’s view, the scale of effort and the space craft size and complexity 

required for manned scientifi c exploration of these bodies is unlikely to be greatly 

different from that required to carry out the program by instruments alone. In 

broad terms, the primary scientifi c goals of this program are immense: a better 

under standing of the origins of the solar system and the universe, the investigation 

of the existence of life on other planets and, potentially, an understanding of 

the, origin of life itself. In terms of conducting this program a great variety of 

very intricate instruments (including large amounts of auxiliary equipment, such 

as high-powered transmitters, long-lived power supplies, electronics for remote 

control of instru ments and, at least, partial data processing) will be required. It 

seems obvious that the ultimate investigations will involve spacecraft whether 

manned or unmanned, ranging to the order of hundreds of tons so that the scale 

of the vehicle program in either case will differ little in its magnitude.
474 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Important supporting considerations are essential to realization of 

these concepts:

(a) Development of new generations of space vehicles, uniquely designed 

for use in space research and not adaptations of military rockets, 

must proceed with suffi cient priority to ensure that reliable vehicles 

of adequate thrust are available for lunar and planetary research. 

This program should also include development of nuclear stages as 

rapidly as possible.

(b) Broad programs designed to determine man’s physio logical and 

psychological ability to adapt to space fl ight must likewise be pushed 

as rapidly as possible. However, planning for “manned” scientifi c 

exploration of the Moon and the planets should be consummated 

only as fast as possible consistent with the development of all relevant 

information. The program should not be undertaken on a crash 

basis which fails to given reasonable attention to assurance of success 

or tries to by-pass the orderly study of all relevant problems. 

(c) Consideration should be given soon to the training of scientifi c 

specialists for spacecraft fl ights so that they can conduct or accompany 

manned expeditions to the Moon and planets.

[3] The Board strongly urges offi cial adoption and public announce ment 

of the foregoing policy and concepts by the U.S. government, Furthermore, while 

the Board has here stressed the importance of this policy as a scientifi c goal, it is not 

unaware of the great importance of other factors associated with a United States 

man in space program. One of these factors is, of course, the sense of national 

leadership emergent from bold and imaginative U.S. space activity. Second, the 

members of the Board as individuals regard man’s exploration of the Moon and 

planets as potentially the greatest inspirational venture of this century and one 

in which the entire world can share; inherent here are great and fundamental 

philosophical and spiritual values which fi nd a response in man’s questing spirit 

and his intellectual self-realization. Elaboration of these factors is not the purpose 

of this document. Nevertheless, the members of the Board fully recognize their 

parallel importance with the scientifi c goals and believe that they should not be 

neglected in seeking public appreciation and acceptance of the program.

Document II-6

Document Title: Memorandum to Pierre Salinger from Hugh Sidey, 14 April 

1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.
Exploring the Unknown 475

Document II-7

Document Title: “Memorandum to the President from Jerome Wiesner Re: 

Sidney Memorandum,” 14 April 1961.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

President John F. Kennedy was extremely effective in his relations with print and electronic 

media, and often became personal friends with reporters covering his presidency. One of 

these individuals was Hugh Sidey, who covered the White House for Life magazine. In 

the aftermath of the launching of Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961, Sidey requested an 

interview with the president and provided Kennedy’s press secretary Pierre Salinger with a 

memorandum as background for the interview. On the date of the memorandum, 14 April, 

Sidey sat in on a meeting between Kennedy and his top space advisors in the Cabinet room; 

he described the meeting in his 1963 book, John F. Kennedy, President. In preparation 

for Sidey’s discussions with the president and, separately, Kennedy’s top advisor Theodore 

Sorenson, Presidential science advisor Jerome Wiesner prepared a response to the Sidey 

memorandum.

Document II-6

Offi ce Memorandum

To Pierre Salinger

From Hugh Sidey

Date April 14, 1962

Questions for the President on Space –

(FYI my initial surveillance of the space problem reveals some ragged 

dilemmas on the landscape. There are a lot of good minds in NASA and other 

dusty offi ces of the space agency that think we still are fi ddling, haven’t made the 

necessary decisions. They claim the President isn’t getting the range of advice on 

this problem he should have. Their arguments are damned cogent. They scoff 

at the theory of some scientists that the Russians have now gone as far as they can 

for a few years. They hoot equally at the idea that our space effort is “locked in” 

and can’t be accelerated. They claim, with compelling logic, that if we are to get 

in this race at all we’ve got to declare a national space goal, go for broke on a big 

booster (which means plenty of dough, granted). If we don’t do this then we are 

going to sit here over the next eight years and watch the Soviets march right on 

ahead. I must confess, as near as I can tell on the surface there has been no great 

urgency attached to this space decision. If it has been made, we don’t know it.

But knowing the President some, I can’t believe he hasn’t sensed [2] the 

urgency. Therefore if I could get a little guidance on the following questions it 

would help)

1. Why haven’t we declared a crash program on one of the big boosters 

and pulled in our horns on others? Has the President accepted the theory that 
476 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

we can’t move faster? The extra 78 million for Saturn indeed is some boost 

but Saturn isN’t [sic] the long range solution and there is no crash program in 

sight for the big Nova engine or solid fuels. Is the budget consideration and the 

political climate the confi ning factor this year?

2. Might there now be a change in the Project Mercury? We get rumbles 

that this pre-orbital shot coming up late this month has really been rushed in 

hopes we might beat the Soviets. But there is more hazard in it than there should 

be and now that shot should be delayed, maybe dropped entirely while we try to 

leapfrog ahead.

3. How much of the feeling of no decision is due to the newness of the 

administration and preoccupation with other things so far? Will there be a new 

and tough look followed by some hard decisions soon?

Document II-7

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

April 14, 1961

MEMORANDUM FOR

THE PRESIDENT

The following points are pertinent to the Sidey memorandum:

First of all, no one in the Administration believes that the Russians are fi nished 

with their space exploits or that there aren’t exciting space exploits still to be 

carried out that they will undoubtedly drive hard to accomplish. Extended 

duration fl ights of man in an earth orbit, unmanned and manned landings on 

the moon, manned and unmanned exploration of the planets, manned space 

stations and a variety of important applications of space are still ahead. Among 

these are communications satellites, meteorological satellites and a variety of 

military applications of satellite-based systems. We, of course, have no knowledge 

at all about future Soviet intentions, but it would be surprising if they didn’t 

pursue vigorously at least some of these possibilities.

Sidey is concerned that there is no long-term and very ambitious large booster 

program. The previous Administration made the decision not to drive vigorously 

for such a booster, although it did fund the F-1 engine, which would be needed 

for the Nova booster, and in our recent budget review we provided $9 million 

to accelerate that program. Because there was not a well developed program 

looking beyond the Mercury man in space, this Administration has undertaken 

to examine the range of possibilities which in turn will determine the future 

booster program. It should be noted that we did add $14 million to the Rover 

program to accelerate its research. We deferred a decision on the Rover rocket 
Exploring the Unknown 477

program, an expensive program (about $1 billion to a fl ight test) until the 

national policy on the long-range space goals could be established. We have had a 

thorough review of the Rover program, and both NASA and the Science Advisory 

Committee are looking into the range of possibilities in the big booster fi eld, 

including the relative merits of solid fuels and large chemical boosters, as well as 

nuclear rockets. It should be noted that these ambitious space systems could not 

exist for a number of years, and it seems inappropriate to cancel all of the ongoing activity until that time. It has become perfectly clear to the Administration 

that these decisions had to be faced, and it is our intention to do so. On the other 

hand, it would have been erroneous to commit very large sums of money without 

fi rst establishing clear-cut national goals that go beyond the present plans. In the 

end it will be necessary to decide how large a share of the funds available [2] to 

the Federal Government should be committed to this fi eld.

In regard to the Mercury sub-orbital fl ight now scheduled for April 28, the 

following are the facts: The dates were not advanced to compete with the Soviet 

fl ight. It has always been a tight schedule, paced by available funds and technical 

problems. We have analyzed it thoroughly and don’t believe that its chances of 

success would be greatly enhanced by any reasonable delays in the fi ring schedule 

or a small number of additional test fi rings. Some consideration should be given 

to the question of whether or not the risks involved in a failure don’t out-weigh 

the advantages of carrying out of the shot successfully. There are valid technical 

reasons for carrying out the experiment in view of the bio-medical and systems 

test information that will be obtained. It is probably fair to say that the successful 

orbiting of man has removed many of the bio-medical questions which it was 

designed to answer.

Jerome B. Wiesner

Document II-8

Document Title: John F. Kennedy, Memorandum for Vice President, 20 April 1961.

Source: Presidential Files, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, 

Massachusetts.

Document II-9

Document Title: NASA, “Do We Have a Chance of Beating the Soviets?” 

22 April 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
478 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-10

Document Title: Letter to the Vice President of the United States from Wernher 

von Braun, 29 April 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-11

Document Title: Memorandum to the Vice President from James E. Webb, 

NASA Administrator, and Robert S. McNamara, Secretary of Defense, 8 May 

1961, with attached: “Recommendations for Our National Space Program: 

Changes, Policies, Goals.”

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

President Kennedy’s memorandum on 20 April led directly to the Apollo program. By posing 

the question “Is there any . . . space program which promises dramatic results in which we 

could win?” President Kennedy set in motion a review that concluded that only an effort 

to send Americans to the Moon met the criteria Kennedy had laid out. This memorandum 

followed a week of discussion within the White House on how best to respond to the challenge 

to U.S. interests posed by the 12 April1961, orbital fl ight of Yuri Gagarin.

Both NASA and the Department of Defense gave rapid responses to the president’s 

questions. (The Department of Defense response can be found in Volume I, Document III-7.) 

While the Low study of a piloted lunar landing (Document II-4) had projected a cost of $7 

billion for such an effort the NASA response gave only a cost estimate for acceleration the 

overall NASA program of between $22 and $33 billion.

Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, in his new role as Chair of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Council, provided a preliminary report to the president on 28 April 

indicating that the most likely recommendation to come from his review was a focus on 

human missions to the Moon (Volume I, Document III-8). This conclusion had been strongly 

infl uenced by Wernher von Braun, who the vice president had consulted independent of 

NASA’s Washington managers. Von Braun told the vice president in his letter that the 

United States had “an excellent chance” of beating the Russians to a lunar landing.

During the Space Council review, the vice president also contacted congressional 

leaders to make sure that they would be willing to support a bold space recommendation, 

should the president make one. He found that those whom he consulted were strongly in 

favor of an accelerated effort (Volume I, Document III-10).

The fi nal recommendations of the review came in the form of a memorandum 

signed by NASA Administrator Webb and Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara. This 

memorandum was the hurried product of a weekend of work following the successful suborbital 

fl ight of Alan Shepard, the fi rst U.S. astronaut, on Friday, 5 May 1961. The urgency was 
Exploring the Unknown 479

caused by the vice president’s desire to get recommendations to the president before he left on 

a rapidly arranged inspection tour to Southeast Asia. NASA, the Department of Defense, 

and the Bureau of the Budget staffs and senior offi cials met on Saturday and Sunday at 

the Pentagon to put together the memorandum, which the vice president approved without 

change and delivered to the President on Monday, 8 May. On that same day, Shepard came 

to Washington for a parade down Pennsylvania Avenue and a White House ceremony with 

President Kennedy. The recommendation that the United States undertake space programs 

aimed at enhancing national prestige, even if they were not otherwise justifi ed by scientifi c, 

commercial, or military benefi ts, because such prestige was part of the ”battle along the fl uid 

front of the cold war,” provided the underpinning rationale of Project Apollo. Only excerpts 

from the document directly related to setting the lunar landing goal are included here; the 

complete memorandum appears as Document II-11 in Volume I of this series.

Document II-8

April 20, 1961

MEMORANDUM FOR

VICE PRESIDENT

In accordance with our conversation I would like for you as Chairman of 

the Space Council to be in charge of making an overall survey of where we stand 

in space.

1. Do we have a chance of beating the Soviets by putting a laboratory in 

space, or by a trip around the moon, or by a rocket to land on the moon, or by a 

rocket to go to the moon and back with a man. Is there any other space program 

which promises dramatic results in which we could win?

2. How much additional would it cost?

3. Are we working 24 hours a day on existing programs. If not, why not? If 

not, will you make recommendations to me as to how work can be speeded up.

4. In building large boosters should we put our emphasis on nuclear, 

chemical or liquid fuel, or a combination of these three?

5. Are we making maximum effort? Are we achieving necessary results?

I have asked Jim Webb, Dr. Wiesner, Secretary McNamara and other 

responsible offi cials to cooperate with you fully. I would appreciate a report on 

this at the earliest possible moment.

John F. Kennedy

Document II-9

NATIONAL AURONAUTICS [sic] AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

April 22, 1961
480 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

1. “Do we have a chance of beating the Soviets?”

a. “By putting a laboratory in space?”

There is no chance of beating the Soviets in putting a multi-manned laboratory 

in space since fl ights already accomplished by the Russians have demonstrated 

that they have this capability. The U.S. program must include the development 

of a multi-manned orbiting laboratory as soon as possible since it is essential for 

the accomplishment of the more diffi cult fl ights to the moon.

b. “Or by a trip around the moon?”

With a determined effort of the United States, there is a chance to 

beat the Russians in accomplishing a manned circumnavigation of the moon. 

The Russians have not as yet demonstrated either the booster capability or the 

technology required for returning a man from a fl ight around the moon. The 

state of their booster technology and other technology required for such a 

diffi cult mission is not accurately known. With an accelerated program, it is not 

unreasonable for the U.S. to attempt a manned circumlunar fl ight by 1966.

[2]

c. “Or by a rocket to land on the moon?”

On September 12, 1959, the Russians crash-landed a small package on 

the moon. This package did not transmit any information from the surface of 

the moon. The NASA program currently includes impacting instruments on 

the moon in such a way that they may survive the impact and transmit scientifi c 

information back to earth. The fi rst fl ight in this program is scheduled for 

January 1962. Close-up television pictures will be obtained of the surface of the 

moon, as the spacecraft descends to the moon. In August 1963 the current NASA 

program also includes a soft landing of instruments on the moon. Several fl ights 

in succeeding months are included in this program to insure the possibility of 

success. The Russians can accomplish this mission now if they choose. 

d. “Or by a rocket to go to the moon and back with a man?”

There is a chance for the U.S. to be the fi rst to land a man on the moon 

and return him to earth if a determined national effort is made. The development 

of a large chemical rocket booster, the spacecraft for landing and return, and 

major developments in advanced technology are required to accomplish this most 

diffi cult mission. The Russians initiated their earth orbiting program probably 

as early as 1954 as evidenced by their fl ight of a dog in November 1957. In the 

earth orbiting [3] competition the United States was attempting to accomplish 

in less than three years what the Russians had worked on for seven years. It is 

doubtful that the Russians have a very great head start on the U.S. in the effort 

required for a manned lunar landing. Because of the distinct superiority of U.S. 

industrial capacity, engineering, and scientifi c know-how, we believe that with 

the necessary national effort, the U.S. may be able to overcome the lead that the 

Russians might have up to now. A possible target date for the earliest attempt for 

a manned lunar landing is 1967, with an accelerated U.S. effort.
Exploring the Unknown 481

e. “Is there any other space program which promises dramatic results 

in which we could win?”

(1) The current NASA program provides the possibility of returning 

a sample of the material from the moon surface to the earth in 1964. An 

experiment of this kind would have dramatic value and may or may not be a part 

of the Russian program. The Russians could carry out but such an experiment in 

the same time period or earlier if they choose.

(2) The lead the U.S. has taken in developing communications 

satellites should be exploited to the fullest. Although not as dramatic as manned 

fl ight, the direct benefi ts to the people throughout the world in the long term 

are clear. U.S. national prestige will be enhanced by [4] successful completion 

of this program. The current program will provide for the fl ight of an active 

communications satellite in mid-1962. The experiment will enable live television 

pictures to be transmitted across the Atlantic. The continuing program will lead 

to the establishment of worldwide operational communications systems.

(3) The U.S. lead established in our successful meteorological 

experiments with the TIROS satellites, should be maintained with a vigorous 

continuing program. The whole world will benefi t from improved weather 

forecasting with the possibility of avoiding the disastrous effects of major weather 

disturbances such as typhoons, hurricanes and tornadoes.

[5]

2. “How much additional would it cost?”

An estimate of the cost of the 10-year space exploration program as 

planned under the Eisenhower Administration was 17.91 billion dollars, as 

shown in Table A-1, attached. [not provided] In this program it was planned 

that manned lunar landing and return to earth would occur in the time period 

after 1970 but before 1975. Re-evaluation of the cost of this program based on 

providing adequate back-ups in all areas of the work has recently been made and 

the original cost estimate revised to 22.3 billion dollars for the ten-year period 

through 1970. [not provided] For an accelerated national program aiming toward 

achieving manned lunar landing in the 1967 period, it is estimated that the cost 

over the same ten-year period will be 33.7 billion dollars, as shown in Table E-1. 

[not provided] The additional 10 billion dollar cost of the program is due largely 

to paying for the program in the shorter time period. The resulting annual costs 

are naturally higher.

A list of the major items that would be initiated in 1962 with an accelerated 

program is shown in Attachment F. The total FY-62 funds, $1,744 millions, shown 

in Table E-1 is $509 million more than the approved current FY-62 budget.

[pp. 6-8 not provided]

[9]

Attachment F
482 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

MAJOR ITEMS IN THE ACCELERATED PROGRAM REQUIRING THE 

ADDITIONAL FUNDS SHOWN IN TABLE E-1 FOR FISCAL YEAR 1962

1. Increase number of Mercury capsule fl ights to accelerate acquisition of 

knowledge on man’s behavior under space fl ight conditions.

2. Initiate possible additions to Mercury capsules for longer duration fl ights 

with intermediate launch vehicles.

3. Accelerate unmanned lunar exploration to provide fundamental 

scientifi c data for manned fl ight to moon.

4. Accelerate developments which will provide us with the essential 

knowledge and information to design spacecraft which can survive a 

return from the moon into the earth’s atmosphere. 

5. Initiate developments of solid propellant rockets which can be used as 

a fi rst or second stage of a launch vehicle for manned lunar landing 

missions (Nova).

6. Initiate engineering design work and experimental development of a 

cluster of F-I engines for Nova.*

7. Initiate design and engineering of a Nova vehicle using a cluster of F-1 

liquid rocket engines as a fi rst stage.*

8. Initiate development of the tankage and engines required for a second 

stage of Nova.

9. Accelerate supporting technology essential to the attainment of the goals 

of the program.

10. Initiate construction of launch pads and other necessary facilities.

11 Provide additional vehicles and spacecraft for accelerating the TIROS 

meteorological program.

*The F-1 is the liquid rocket engine now under development which will 

have 1,500,000 pounds thrust in a single chamber.

[10]

3. “Are we working 24 hours a day and, if not, why not?”

There is not a 24 hour a day work schedule on existing NASA space 

programs, except for selected areas in Project Mercury, the Saturn C-1 booster, 

the Centaur engines, and the fi nal launching phases of most fl ight missions.

a. Project Mercury at Cape Canaveral has been since October 1960 

on a three-shift, seven-day- a-week basis plus shift overtime for 

all phases of capsule checkout and launch preparations. The 

McDonnell St. Louis plant, where the capsules are made, has 

averaged a 54-hour week on Mercury from the beginning, but 

also employs two or three shifts as needed in bottleneck areas. It 

now runs three shifts in the capsule test and checkout areas.

b. SATURN C-1 project operates at Huntsville around-the-clock 

throughout any critical test periods for the fi rst-stage booster; 

the remaining Saturn work is on a one-shift basis plus overtime 

which results in an average 47 hour week. 
Exploring the Unknown 483

c. CENTAUR hydrogen engine, which also is needed for the Saturn 

upper stages, is on three shifts in Pratt &Whitney’s shops and 

test stands. 

d. Lastly, the fi nal launch preparations of most fl ight missions 

require around-the-clock work at the launch sites [11] at Cape 

Canaveral, Wallops Station, or the Pacifi c Missile Range. 

In addition, NASA computer installations at Goddard and 

Marshall Centers operate continuous shifts in order to handle 

launch vehicle test analyses promptly, and determine orbital 

and trajectory data, and provide tracking and telemetry of space 

vehicles in fl ight. 

NASA and its contractors are not working 24-hour days on the rest of its 

projects because: 

a. Certain projects are at an early stage of experimental study or design 

engineering where exchange of ideas is diffi cult to accomplish 

through multi-shifts.

b. The schedules have been geared to the availability of facilities and 

fi nancial resources. The funding levels for both contractors and 

government laboratories have been suffi cient only for single-shift 

operations plus overtime (generally from 5 to 20%) as required to 

keep up the schedules.

c. The limitations on manpower and associated funding determine the 

extent to which the NASA fl ight development centers may employ 

extra shifts.

In a number of areas in the national space program, the work could 

be accelerated if more manpower and more facilities were to be provided and 

funded in the immediate future. Recommendations to accomplish this are made 

elsewhere in this memorandum.

[12]

4. “In building large boosters should we put our emphasis on nuclear, 

chemical or liquid fuel, or a combination of these three?”

In building the large launch vehicles required for the manned lunar 

landing mission, the immediate emphasis must be on the development of large 

solid and liquid rockets. It is believed that, in order to provide the necessary 

assurance that we will have a large launch vehicle for the lunar mission, we must 

have a parallel development of both a solid and liquid fueled large launch vehicle. 

The program on nuclear rockets must be prosecuted vigorously on a research 

and development basis. It is not believed that the nuclear rocket can play a role in 

the earliest attempt at manned lunar landing. The nuclear rockets will be needed 

in the even more diffi cult mission following manned lunar exploration. Use of 

the nuclear rocket for missions is not expected until after 1970 although fl ight 

test for developing the rocket will occur before then.
484 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[13]

5a. “Are we making a maximum effort?”

No, the space program is not proceeding with a maximum effort. 

Additional capability exists in this country which could be utilized in this task. 

However, we believe that the manpower facilities and other resources now 

assigned are being utilized in an aggressive fashion.

5b. “Are we achieving necessary results?”

Our program is directed towards unmanned scientifi c investigation 

of space, manned exploration of space, and application of satellites to 

communication and meteorological systems. The scientifi c investigation is 

achieving basic knowledge important for a better understanding of the universe 

and also provides data necessary for the achievement of manned space fl ight 

and the satellite applications. It is generally agreed that our scientifi c program is 

yielding most signifi cant results.

The Mercury program is the fi rst and necessary step in an ongoing 

program leading to the manned laboratory, circumlunar fl ight, and manned 

lunar landing discussed under Item 1. A manned ballistic fl ight is scheduled in 

May, unmanned orbital fl ights and orbital fl ights with chimpanzee are scheduled 

for the Spring and Summer providing the background for the manned fl ight 

planned in 1961.

Future manned fl ight depends upon improved launch vehicle capability 

as well as a new spacecraft for the crew. The Saturn will [14] provide our fi rst 

capability for large payloads but must be followed by a still larger vehicle for 

manned lunar landing. The launch vehicle for the fi rst manned lunar landing will 

utilize either clustered F-1 liquid engines or solid propellant motors as discussed 

in item 4. We are achieving necessary technical data on the liquid engines but 

not on the large solid rocket engines. Ultimately, nuclear propulsion will be used 

to carry heavy payloads long distances into space. With our great capacity for 

engine research we have the capacity in this country to proceed more rapidly 

towards our objectives.

The TIROS and Echo satellites have provided important background 

data for meteorological and communication satellite systems. Additional 

experimentation is required in both fi elds before operational systems can be 

completely defi ned. We are continuing our meteorological program with TIROS 

fl ights and will use a newly-designed satellite called Nimbus when it is available 

in 1962. The fi rst communication satellite (Echo) was a 100-ft. balloon which 

refl ected ultra-high frequency signals between transmitters and receivers. The 

Echo type experiment is continuing and in addition we are instituting a program 

called Relay which carries microwave equipment for power amplifi cation. This 

process decreases the requirements on the ground equipment but requires 

electronic equipment in the satellite with extremely high reliability compared to 

present day standards.

[15]

In summary, we are achieving signifi cant scientifi c and technical results. 

We welcome the opportunity of reviewing these results with you to ensure that 

these results are compatible with our national goals.
Exploring the Unknown 485

Document II-10

April 29, 1961

Dear Mr. Vice President:

This is an attempt to answer some of the questions about our national space 

program raised by The President in his memorandum to you dated April 20, 

1961. I should like to emphasize that the following comments are strictly my own 

and do not necessarily refl ect the offi cial position of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration in which I have the honor to serve.

Question 1. Do we have a chance of beating the Soviets by putting a 

laboratory in space, or by a trip around the moon, or by a rocket to land on the 

moon, or by a rocket to go to the moon and back with a man? Is there any other 

space program which promises dramatic results in which we could win? 

Answer: With their recent Venus shot, the Soviets demonstrated that they 

have a rocket at their disposal which can place 14,000 pounds of payload in orbit. 

When one considers that our own one-man Mercury space capsule weighs only 

3900 pounds, it becomes readily apparent that the Soviet carrier rocket should 

be capable of 

— launching several astronauts into orbit simultaneously. (Such an 

enlarged multi-man capsule could be considered and could serve as a small 

“laboratory in space.”)

— soft-landing a substantial payload on the moon. My estimate of the 

maximum soft-landed net payload weight the Soviet rocket is capable of is about 

1400 pounds (one-tenth of its low orbit payload). This weight capability is not

suffi cient to include a rocket for the return fl ight to earth of a man landed on the 

moon. But it is entirely adequate for a powerful radio transmitter which would relay 

lunar data back to earth and which would be abandoned on the lunar surface after 

completion of this mission. A similar mission is planned for our “Ranger” project, 

which uses an Atlas-Agena B boost rocket. The “semi-hard” landed portion of the 

Ranger package weighs 293 pounds. Launching is scheduled for January 1962. 

The existing Soviet rocket could furthermore hurl a 4000 to 5000 pound 

capsule around the moon with ensuing re-entry into the earth atmosphere. 

This weight allowance must be considered marginal for a one-man round-themoon voyage. Specifi cally, it would not suffi ce to provide the capsule and its 

occupant with a “safe abort and return” capability, a feature which under NASA 

ground rules for pilot safety is considered mandatory for all manned space fl ight 

missions. One should not overlook the possibility, however, that the Soviets may 

substantially facilitate their task by simply waiving this requirement.

A rocket about ten times as powerful as the Soviet Venus launch rocket is required 

to land a man on the moon and bring him back to earth. Development of such a super 

rocket can be circumvented by orbital rendezvous and refueling of smaller rockets, 

but the development of this technique by the Soviets would not be hidden from 

our eyes and would undoubtedly require several years (possibly as long or even 

longer than the development of a large direct fl ight super rocket).

a) we do not have a good chance of beating the Soviets to a manned 

“laboratory in space.” The Russians could place it in orbit this year while we could 
486 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

establish a (somewhat heavier) laboratory only after the availability of a reliable 

Saturn C-1 which is in 1964. 

b) we have a sporting chance of beating the Soviets to a soft-landing of 

a radio transmitter station on the moon. It is hard to say whether this objective is on 

their program, but as far as the launch rocket is concerned, they could do it at 

any time. We plan to do it with the Atlas-Agena B- Ranger #3 in early 1962.

[3] c) we have a sporting chance of sending a 3-man crew around the moon

ahead of the Soviets (1965/66). However, the Soviets could conduct a round-themoon voyage earlier if they are ready to waive certain emergency safety features 

and limit the voyage to one man. My estimate is that they could perform this 

simplifi ed task in 1962 or 1963.

d) we have an excellent chance of beating the Soviets to the fi rst landing 

of a crew on the moon (including return capability, of course). The reason is that 

a performance jump by a factor 10 over their present rockets is necessary to 

accomplish this feat. While today we do not have such a rocket, it is unlikely 

that the Soviets have it. Therefore, we would not have to enter the race toward 

this obvious next goal in space exploration against hopeless odds favoring the 

Soviets. With an all-out crash program I think we could accomplish this objective 

in 1967/68.

Question 2. How much additional would it cost?

Answer: I think I should not attempt to answer this question before the 

exact objectives and the time plan for an accelerated United States space program 

have been determined. However, I can say with some degree of certainty that 

the necessary funding increase to meet objective d) above would be well over $1 

Billion for FY 62, and that the required increases for subsequent fi scal years may 

run twice as high or more.

Question 3. Are we working 24 hours a day on existing programs? If not, 

why not? If not, will you make recommendations to me as to how work can be 

speeded up.

Answer: We are not working 24 hours a day on existing programs. At 

present, work on NASA’s Saturn project proceeds on a basic one-shift basis, with 

overtime and multiple shift operations approved in critical “bottleneck” areas.

During the months of January, February and March 1961, NASA’s 

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, which has systems management for the 

entire Saturn vehicle and develops the large fi rst stage as an in-house project, 

has worked an average of 46 hours a week. This includes all administrative and 

clerical activities. In the areas critical for the Saturn project (design activities, 

assembly, inspecting, testing), average working time for the same period was 47.7 

hours a week, with individual peaks up to 54 hours per week.

Experience indicates that in Research & Development work longer 

hours are not conducive to progress because of hazards introduced by fatigue. 

In the aforementioned critical areas, a second shift would greatly alleviate the 

tight scheduling situation. However, additional funds and personnel spaces are 

required to hire a second shift, and neither are available at this time. In this area, 

help would be most effective.

Introduction of a third shift cannot be recommended for Research & 

Development work. Industry-wide experience indicates that a two-shift operation 

with moderate but not excessive overtime produces the best results.

In industrial plants engaged in the Saturn program the situation is 

approximately the same. Moderately increased funding to permit greater use 
Exploring the Unknown 487

of premium paid overtime, prudently applied to real “bottleneck” areas, can 

defi nitely speed up the program.

Question 4. In building large boosters should we put our emphasis on 

nuclear, chemical or liquid fuel, or a combination of these three?

Answer: It is the consensus of opinion among most rocket men and 

reactor experts that the future of the nuclear rocket lies in deep-space operations 

(upper stages of chemically-boosted rockets or nuclear space vehicles departing 

from an orbit around the earth) rather than in launchings (under nuclear power) 

from the ground. In addition, there can be little doubt that the basic technology 

of nuclear rockets is still in its early infancy. The nuclear rocket should therefore 

be looked upon as a promising means to extend and expand the scope of our 

space operations in the years beyond 1967 or 1968. It should not be considered as 

a serious contender in the big booster problem of 1961.

The foregoing comment refers to the simplest and most straightforward 

type of nuclear rocket, viz. the “heat transfer” or “blow-down” type, whereby 

liquid hydrogen is evaporated and superheated in a very hot nuclear reactor and 

subsequently expanded through a nozzle.

There is also a fundamentally different type of nuclear rocket propulsion 

system in the works which is usually referred to as “ion rocket” or “ion propulsion.” 

Here, the nuclear energy is fi rst converted into electrical power which is then used 

to expel “ionized” (i.e., electrically charged) particles into the vacuum of outer 

space at extremely high speeds. The resulting reaction force is the ion rocket’s 

“thrust.” It is in the very nature of nuclear ion propulsion systems that they 

cannot be used in the atmosphere. While very effi cient in propellant economy, 

they are capable only of very small thrust forces. Therefore they do not qualify as 

“boosters” at all. The future of nuclear ion propulsion lies in its application for 

low-thrust, high-economy cruise power for interplanetary voyages.

As to “chemical or liquid fuel” The President’s question undoubtedly 

refers to a comparison between “solid” and “liquid” rocket fuels, both of which 

involve chemical reactions.

At the present time, our most powerful rocket boosters (Atlas, fi rst 

stage of Titan, fi rst stage of Saturn) are all liquid fuel rockets and all available 

evidence indicates that the Soviets are also using liquid fuels for their ICBM’s and 

space launchings. The largest solid fuel rockets in existence today (Nike Zeus 

booster, fi rst stage Minuteman, fi rst stage Polaris) are substantially smaller and 

less powerful. There is no question in my mind that, when it comes to building 

very powerful booster rocket systems, the body of experience available today with 

liquid fuel systems greatly exceeds that with solid fuel rockets.

There can be no question that larger and more powerful solid fuel rockets 

can be built and I do not believe that major breakthroughs are required to do 

so. On the other hand it should not be overlooked that a casing fi lled with solid 

propellant and a nozzle attached to it, while entirely capable of producing thrust, 

is not yet a rocket ship. And although the reliability record of solid fuel rocket 

propulsion units, thanks to their simplicity, is impressive and better than that of 

liquid propulsion units, this does not apply to complete rocket systems, including 

guidance systems, control elements, stage separation, etc. 

Another important point is that booster performance should not be 

measured in terms of thrust force alone, but in terms of total impulse; i.e., 

the product of thrust force and operating time. For a number of reasons it is 

advantageous not to extend the burning time of solid fuel rockets beyond about 
488 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

60 seconds, whereas most liquid fuel boosters have burning time of 120 seconds 

and more. Thus, a 3-million pound thrust solid rocket of 60 seconds burning 

time is actually not more powerful than a 1 1/2-million pound thrust liquid 

booster of 120 seconds burning time.

I consider it rather unfortunate that several solid fuel rocket manufacturers 

(with little or no background in developing complete missile systems) have recently 

initiated a publicity campaign obviously designed to create the impression that 

a drastic switch from liquid to solid rockets would miraculously cure all of this 

country’s big booster ills. I am convinced that if we recklessly abandon our liquid 

fuel technology in favor of something we do not yet understand so well, we would 

be heading for disaster and lose even more precious time.

My recommendation is to substantially increase the level of effort and 

funding in the fi eld of solid fuel rockets (by 30 or 50 million dollars for FY 62) 

with the immediate objectives of 

- demonstration of the feasibility of very large segmented solid fuel 

rockets. (Handling and shipping of multi-million pound solid fuel rockets 

become unmanageable unless the rockets consist of smaller individual segments 

which can be assembled in building block fashion at the launching site.)

- development of simple inspection methods to make certain that such 

huge solid fuel rockets are free of dangerous cracks or voids

- determination of the most suitable operational methods to ship, handle, 

assemble, check and launch very large solid fuel rockets. This would involve a 

series of paper studies to answer questions such as 

a. Are clusters of smaller solid rockets, or huge, single poured-in-launchsite solid fuel rockets, possibly superior to segmented rockets? This question must 

be analyzed not just from the propulsion angle, but from the operational point of 

view for the total space transportation system and its attendant ground support 

equipment. 

b. Launch pad safety and range safety criteria (How is the total operation 

at Cape Canaveral affected by the presence of loaded multi-million pound solid 

fuel boosters?) 

c. Land vs. off-shore vs. sea launchings of large solid fuel rockets. 

d. Requirements for manned launchings (How to shut the booster off in 

case of trouble to permit safe mission abort and crew capsule recovery? If this is 

diffi cult, what other safety procedures should be provided?)

Question 5. Are we making maximum effort? Are we achieving necessary 

results?

Answer: No, I do not think we are making maximum effort.

In my opinion, the most effective steps to improve our national stature in 

the space fi eld, and to speed things up would be to

- identify a few (the fewer the better) goals in our space program as 

objectives of highest national priority. (For example: Let’s land a man on the 

moon in 1967 or 1968.)

- identify those elements of our present space program that would 

qualify as immediate contributions to this objective. (For example, soft landings 

of suitable instrumentation on the moon to determine the environmental 

conditions man will fi nd there.)

- put all other elements of our national space program on the “back 

burner.”
Exploring the Unknown 489

- add another more powerful liquid fuel booster to our national launch 

vehicle program. The design parameters of this booster should allow a certain 

fl exibility for desired program reorientation as more experience is gathered.

Example: Develop in addition to what is being done today, a fi rst-stage 

liquid fuel booster of twice the total impulse of Saturn’s fi rst stage, designed to 

be used in clusters if needed. With this booster we could

a. double Saturn’s presently envisioned payload. This additional 

payload capability would be very helpful for soft instrument landings 

on the moon, for circumlunar fl ights and for the fi nal objective of a 

manned landing on the moon (if a few years from now the route via 

orbital re-fueling should turn out to be the more promising one.) 

b. assemble a much larger unit by strapping three or four boosters 

together into a cluster. This approach would be taken should, a few 

years hence, orbital rendezvous and refueling run into diffi culties 

and the “direct route” for the manned lunar landing thus appears 

more promising.

[9]

In addition, relief in certain administrative areas would be mandatory. In 

my opinion, the two most serious factors causing delays in our space program are:

1. Lack of fl exibility in the use of approved funds and in adapting 

the program to the changes caused by rapidly acquired new knowledge and 

experience. After the Congress and The President have established the funding 

level at which the aforementioned national high-priority objective is to be 

supported, all restraints as to how these funds are to be applied should be 

removed. At the present time such restraints include:

• Funds assigned to “Research and Development” may not be 

used to build facilities in support of R&D, and vice versa.

• Government installations such as the Marshall Space Flight 

Center are unable to hire more personnel or establish a second 

shift because "personnel spaces" are lacking. Such "spaces" must, 

of course, be supported with adequate salary funds, but an 

increase in such funds alone does not yet provide the spaces.

2. Contracting procedures. Contracting procedures must be 

simplifi ed. This probably requires some special directives from the highest level. 

To illustrate the present dilemma: If NASA plans to let a contract for a new 

stage of Saturn, the fi rst step is a wide-open invitation to everybody interested 

to attend a bidder’s briefi ng. Here, the interested parties are told what the stage 

looks like, that substantial facilities are required to develop it, and that each 

bidder must prepare a very detailed proposal (which might cost him as much 

as $300,000 to $500,000 to prepare) before the contractor can be selected. This 

fi rst go-round will usually discourage 80 per cent of the original bidders, but 

takes approximately eight weeks. In the meantime, NASA must prepare detailed 

specifi cations.
490 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

For the actual preparation of the proposal the contractors must be given 

several weeks. Usually, six to ten companies will participate in the fi nal bid. In 

order to be competitive, these bids must be prepared by the best scientists and 

engineers at the contrac tor’s proposal. Evaluation of all these many proposals 

takes [10] additional weeks. Before the contract can be signed, eight to ten 

months usually have elapsed since initiation of the contracting procedure, and 

several million dollars worth of efforts of the best rocket and missile brains have 

been spent.

While there is certainly some merit in this long, drawn-out competitive 

procedure, we must realize that our Soviet com petitors are not faced with some 

of these problems, simply because the issue of possible favoritism does not exist 

in a country where all industry is government-owned.

My suggestion is not to switch to indiscriminate sole source procurement, 

but to limit the participation in important and diffi cult technological developments 

to those few companies who really have the resources, the experience and the 

available capacity to execute the job effectively. With a hungry aircraft and 

automotive industry, it is not surprising that at the present time the contracting 

NASA agency is subjected to all kinds of pressure aimed at giving additional 

contractors a chance to prove themselves. But the NASA agency involved usually 

knows very well the few companies which really possess the capabilities needed.

Summing up, I should like to say that in the space race we are competing 

with a determined opponent whose peacetime economy is on a wartime footing. 

Most of our procedures are designed for orderly, peacetime conditions. I do not 

believe that we can win this race unless we take at least some measures which thus 

far have been considered acceptable only in times of a national emergency.

Yours respectfully,

/s/

Wernher von Braun

Document II-11

8 May 1961

Dear Mr. Vice President:

Attached to this letter is a report entitled “Recommendations for Our National 

Space Program: Changes, Policies, Goals”, dated 8 May 1961. This document 

represents our joint thinking. We recommend that, if you concur with its contents 

and recommendations, it be transmitted to the President for his information and 

as a basis for early adoption and implementation of the revised and expanded 

objectives which it contains.
Exploring the Unknown 491

Very respectfully,

James E. Webb 

Administrator

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Robert S. McNamara 

Secretary of Defense

[1] Introduction

It is the purpose of this report (1) to describe changes to our national 

space efforts requiring additional appropriations for FY 1962; (2) to outline the 

thinking of the Secretary of Defense and the Administrator of NASA concerning 

U.S. status, prospects, and policies for space; and (3) to depict the chief goals 

which in our opinion should become part of Integrated National Space Plan. 

These matters are covered in Sections I, II, III, respectively.

Three appendices (Tabs A through C) [not included] support these 

sections. Tab A highlights the Soviet space program. The bulk of this Tab 

(Attachment A) is separated from this report since it bears a special security 

classifi cation. Tab B includes a description of major U.S. space projects and 

elements. Tab C provides fi nancial summaries of the present programs, the 

proposed add-ons, and future costs of the program.

The fi rst joint report contains the results of extensive studies and 

reappraisals. It is a fi rst and not our last report and does not, of course, represent 

a complete or fi nal word about our space undertakings.

[pp. 2- 6 not included]

[7] II. NATIONAL SPACE POLICY 

The recommendations made in the preceding Section imply the 

existence of national space goals and objectives toward which these and other 

projects are aimed. Major goals are summarized in Section III. Such goals must 

be formulated in the context of a national policy with respect to undertakings 

in space. It is the purpose of this Section to highlight our thinking concerning 

the direction that such national policy needs to take and to present a backdrop 

against which more specifi c goals, objectives and detailed policies should, in our 

opinion, be formulated.

a. Categories of Space Projects

Projects in space may be undertaken for any one of four principal reasons. 

They may be aimed at gaining scientifi c knowledge. Some, in the future, will be 
492 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

of commercial or chiefl y civilian value. Several current programs are of potential 

military value for functions such as reconnaissance and early warning. Finally, 

some space projects may be undertaken chiefl y for reasons of national prestige.

The U.S. is not behind in the fi rst three categories. Scientifi cally and 

militarily we are ahead. We consider our potential in the commercial/civilian area 

to be superior. The Soviets lead in space spectaculars which bestow great prestige. 

They lead in launch vehicles needed for such missions. These bestow a lead in 

capabilities which may some day become important from a military point of view. 

For these reasons it is important that we take steps to insure that the current and 

future disparity between U.S. Soviet launch capabilities be removed in an orderly 

but timely way. Many other factors however, are of equal importance.

b. Space Projects for Prestige

All large scale space projects require the mobilization of resources on 

a national scale. They require the development and successful application of 

the most advanced technologies. They call for skillful management, centralized 

control and unfl agging pursuit of long range [8] goals. Dramatic achievements 

in space, therefore, symbolize the technological power and organizing capacity 

of a nation.

It is for reasons such as these that major achievements in space contribute 

to national prestige. Major successes, such as orbiting a man as the Soviets 

have just done, lend national prestige even though the scientifi c, commercial 

or military value of the undertaking may by ordinary standards be marginal or 

economically unjustifi ed.

This nation needs to make a positive decision to pursue space projects aimed 

at enhancing national prestige. Our attainments are a major element in the 

international competition between the Soviet system and our own. The nonmilitary, non-commercial, non-scientifi c but “civilian” projects such as lunar and 

planetary exploration are, in this sense, part of the battle along the fl uid front of 

the cold war. Such undertakings may affect our military strength only indirectly 

if at all, but they have an increasing effect upon our national posture. 

c. Planning

It is vital to establish specifi c missions aimed mainly at national prestige. 

Such planning must be aimed at both the near-term and at the long range 

future. Near-term objective alone will not suffi ce. The management mechanisms 

established to implement long range plans must be capable of sustained centralized 

direction and control. An immediate task is to specify long-range goals, to describe 

the missions to be accomplished, to defi ne improved management mechanisms, 

to select the launch vehicles, the spacecraft, and the essential building blocks 

needed to meet mission goals. The long-term task is to manage national resources 

from the national level to make sure our goals are met.

It is absolutely vital that national planning be suffi ciently detailed 

to defi ne the building blocks in an orderly and integrated way. It is absolutely 

vital that national management be equal to the task of focusing resources, 

particularly scientifi c and engineering manpower [9] resources, on the essential 

building blocks. It is particularly vital that we do not continue to make the error 

of spreading ourselves too thin and expect to solve our problems through the 

mere appropriation and expenditure of additional funds.

[remainder of p.9 – p. 12 not included]
Exploring the Unknown 493

[13] III. MAJOR NATIONAL SPACE GOALS

It is the purpose of this section to outline some of the principal goals, 

both long range and short range, toward which our national space efforts should, 

in our opinion, be directed. It is not the intent to specify all of the goals or 

even all of the major goals of importance to a National Space Plan. We wish to 

stress fi ve principal objectives which in our opinion have not been adequately 

formulated or accepted in the past and which we believe should be accepted as a 

basis for specifi c project undertakings in the years ahead.

a. Manned Lunar Exploration

We recommend that our National Space Plan include the objective of 

manned lunar exploration before the end of this decade. It is our belief that manned 

exploration to the vicinity of and on the surface of the moon represents a major area 

in which international competition for achievement in space will be conducted. The 

orbiting of machines is not the same as the orbiting or landing of man. It is man, not 

merely machines, in space that captures the imagination of the world.

The establishment of this major objective has many implications. It will 

cost a great deal of money. It will require large efforts for a long time. It requires 

parallel and supporting undertakings which are also costly and complex. Thus, for 

example, the RANGER and SURVEYOR Projects and the technology associated 

with them must be undertaken and must succeed to provide the data, the 

techniques and the experience without which manned lunar exploration cannot 

be undertaken.

The Soviets have announced lunar landing as a major objective of their 

program. They may have begun to plan for such an effort years ago. They may 

have undertaken important fi rst steps which we have not begun.

It may be argued, therefore, that we undertake such an objective with 

several strikes against us. We cannot avoid announcing not only our general goals 

but many of our specifi c plans, and our successes [14] and our failures along the 

way. Our cards are and will be face up-their’s are face down.

Despite these considerations we recommend proceeding toward this objective. 

We are uncertain of Soviet intentions, plans or status. Their plans, whatever they 

may be, are not more certain of success than ours. Just as we accelerated our ICBM 

program we have accelerated and are passing the Soviets in important areas in space 

technology. If we set our sights on this diffi cult objective we may surpass them here 

as well. Accepting the goal gives us a chance. Finally, even if the Soviets get there fi rst, 

as they may, and as some think they will, it is better for us to get there second than 

not at all. In any event we will have mastered the technology. If we fail to accept this 

challenge it may be interpreted as a lack of national vigor and capacity to respond.

[remainder of memorandum not included]
494 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-12

Document Title: Bruce Lundin et al., “A Survey of Various Vehicle Systems for 

the Manned Lunar Landing Mission,” 10 June 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Once the decision to go to the Moon had been made, NASA had to decide how to achieve 

that goal. At the time of President Kennedy’s decision, the leading plan was to use a very 

large launch vehicle called Nova to carry a spacecraft directly to the lunar surface. An 

alternative to this “direct ascent” approach was to carry out rendezvous operations at some 

location during the lunar landing mission. This study was the fi rst of several between 

June 1961 and June 1962 that evaluated various rendezvous approaches and compared 

them to an approach using a very large booster, designated Nova. Based on its results, 

some sort of rendezvous in Earth orbit was given increasingly serious consideration as an 

alternative to the direct ascent approach for the rest of 1961. This study was also the fi rst to 

examine rendezvous in lunar orbit, which in 1962 emerged as NASA’s preferred approach 

to accomplishing the lunar landing.

A SURVEY OF VARIOUS VEHICLE SYSTEMS FOR 

THE MANNED LUNAR LANDING MISSION

by

Bruce T. Lundin – Lewis, Chairman

Walter J. Downhower – JPL

A.J. Eggers, Jr. – Ames

Lt. Col. George W. S. Johnson – USAF

Laurence K. Loftin, Jr. – Langley

Harry O. Ruppe – Marshall

William J. D. Escher – Hdqs., Secretary

Ralph W. May, Jr. – Hdqs., Secretary

June 10, 1961

[no page number]

A SURVEY OF VARIOUS VEHICLE SYSTEMS FOR 

THE MANNED LUNAR LANDING MISSION
Exploring the Unknown 495

I. INTRODUCTION

In response to the request of the Associate Administrator on May 25, 

1961, it has been undertaken to assess a wide variety of systems for accomplishing 

a manned lunar landing in the 1967-1970 time period. This study has, as directed, 

placed primary emphasis on the launch vehicle portions of the systems, including 

vehicle sizes, types and staging. In addition a number of variations on the use 

of rendezvous to add fl exibility and improve energy management in the lunar 

mission have been considered. The results of this study are the subject of the 

present report, and they are discussed in the following order.

First, the use of rendezvous to achieve a manned lunar landing is discussed 

in terms of rendezvous locations, vehicle types, and mission requirements, and the 

more attractive types of rendezvous are rated in the light of these considerations. 

Then a number of alter nate Nova’s for accomplishing the manned lunar mission 

are discussed briefl y, and some consideration is given to the attendant question 

of launch sites, booster recovery, and the role of man in the system. Finally, the 

various methods for achieving manned lunar landing are compared in terms of 

time phasing, reliability, and approximate cost.

II. MISSION STAGING BY RENDEZVOUS

II. 1. General

Mission staging by rendezvous has been the subject of much investigation 

at Marshall, Langley, Ames, Lewis, and JPL. The work has concerned itself with 

analytical and simulator studies of orbital mechanics, and control and guidance 

problems as applied to rendezvous. Such critical questions as launch timing, 

and automatic and piloted guidance of the vehicles to a rendezvous have been 

carefully analyzed. Orbital refueling as well as attachment of self-contained 

modules have been considered.

Because the use of rendezvous permits the accomplishment of a given 

mission in a number of different ways employing different launch vehicles, the 

various groups working on rendezvous have arrived [2] at a number of different 

concepts for accomplishing the lunar landing mission. The assumptions made 

by the different groups with regard to such parameters as return weight, specifi c 

impulse, etc., were, however, consistent to the extent that meaningful comparisons 

can be made between the different concepts. In the discussion to follow, the more 

attractive rendezvous concepts will be summarized, after which the advantages 

and disadvantages of each will be indicated and a rating system developed.

II 1. a: Mission Types

The rendezvous concepts which will be considered for the lunar landing 

are as follows:

1. Rendezvous in earth orbit;
496 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

2. Rendezvous in lunar orbit after take-off from the 

lunar surface;

3. Rendezvous in both earth and lunar orbit;

4. Rendezvous on the lunar surface.

Also possible are:

5. Rendezvous in transit to the moon;

6. Rendezvous in lunar orbit before landing.

Although advantages can be claimed for concepts 5 and 6, they are excluded 

from consideration because they are clearly inferior to concepts 1 through 4.

II. 1. b: Vehicles Considered

The vehicles considered were restricted to those employing en gines 

presently under development. These vehicles are:

(a) Saturn C-2 which has the capability of placing about 45,000 

pounds in earth orbit and 15,000 pounds in an escape 

trajectory;

(b) Saturn C-3 which has the capability of placing about 110,000 

pounds in earth orbit and 35,000 pounds in an escape 

trajectory. The confi guration of the C-3 considered here 

employs the following staging:

[3]

First 2 F-l

Second 4 J-2

Third 6 LR115

II. 1. c: Mission Requirements

The signifi cant requirements employed in this examination of the 

manned lunar mission are as follows:

1. Return spacecraft weight -- 12,500 lbs. 

2. Velocity increments (60 hr. transfer)

earth orbit to escape 10,600 fps

braking into lunar orbit 3,400 fps

lunar landing 6,860 fps

lunar ascent and return 9,930 fps

3. Stage mass fractions

launch and transfer stages 0.90

lunar landing stage 0.87
Exploring the Unknown 497

4. Impulses

hydrogen-oxygen 420 sec

storable propellants 300 sec

These fi gures and estimates are considered reasonable and consistent 

with those used in the concurrent Nova studies. With this information we can 

now match the previously discussed vehicles and rendezvous concepts.

II. 2. Mission Vehicle Matching

II. 2. a: Earth Rendezvous Only.

On the basis of the preceding paragraph, the following weights at 

different stages of the mission pertain to the case of rendezvous in earth orbit 

only (based on H202 performance):

[4]

Weight returned to vicinity of earth 12, 500 pounds

Lunar take-off weight 28, 800 pounds

Weight landed on moon 31, 000 pounds

Weight in escape trajectory 73, 000 pounds

Weight in earth orbit 210, 000 pounds

These weights indicate that fi ve C-2’s or two C-3’s are required in order 

to accomplish the mission.

II. 2. b: Lunar Rendezvous.

A concept in which a rendezvous is made in lunar orbit only or together 

with earth orbit rendezvous possesses basic advantages in terms of energy 

management and thus launch vehicle requirements. This approach involves 

placing the complete spacecraft in orbit about the moon at a rela tively low 

altitude. One or two of the three-man crew then descends to the lunar surface 

in a special capsule which detaches from the spacecraft. Upon leaving the lunar 

surface, the capsule performs a rendezvous with that portion of the spacecraft 

which remained in lunar orbit. The lunar capsule is, of course, left behind on the 

return trip of the spacecraft to earth. A variation on this approach involves two 

lunar landing capsules, one of which remains with the “mother” ship and can be 

used for rescue operations on the lunar surface.

The basic advantage of the system is that the propellant required for the 

lunar landing and take-off is reduced which in turn translates into a reduction 

in the amount of weight which must be put into an escape tra jectory. The escape 

weight saving achieved is related to the fraction of the spacecraft weight which 

is retained in lunar orbit. The actual weight saving which can be realistically 

achieved by this method can only be determined after detailed consideration 

of the design and integration of the complete spacecraft. Calculations suggest, 

however, that the amount of weight which must be put into an escape trajectory 

for a given reentry vehicle weight might be reduced by a factor of two by use of 
498 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

the lunar rendezvous technique. The earth booster requirement might therefore 

be reduced to one C-3 with lunar rendezvous or two to three C-2 ‘s with earth 

and lunar rendezvous.

II. 2. c. Lunar Surface Rendezvous

This scheme envisions accomplishment of the initial manned lunar 

mission with C-2 launched vehicles assembled on the lunar surface. An unmanned 

transport spacecraft launched by a C-2 can deposit an approxi mately 5, 000 lb. 

payload on the moon. (No.1 on fi g. 7).[not included] Previous SUR VEYOR 

or RANGER shots would establish the landing spot and provide [5] homing 

beacons, TV monitoring equipment, and so forth (Items 4, 5, and 6 on fi g. 7). 

[not included]

A number of methods for refueling on the lunar surface may be 

envisioned. One possible concept may be recounted as follows: Four 5,000 lb. 

refueler vehicles (Item 2 on fi g. 7) [not included]would be landed approximately 

equally spaced around a spacecraft carrying a capsule suitable for returning 

one man to the earth, and within 45 feet of it. Solid propulsion units would be 

transferred from the refuelers to the centrally located spacecraft by means of 

specially designed transfer tracks. The assembly operation would be monitored 

by TV, and the assembled vehicle would be checked out before sending man 

from earth to the area via a second landing capsule (Item 3). [not included] The 

space station would be capable of maintaining itself in the lunar environment. 

The astronaut would walk from the landing capsule to the take-off vehicle and 

depart for earth. The four solid rockets used for launch from the lunar surface 

would be identical to the four retro-rockets used for each vehicle in landing on 

the moon. These retro-rockets would be jettisoned before touchdown and a soft 

landing controlled with liquid vernier rockets. A great deal of the technology 

developed for SURVEYOR would be utilized in this concept for manned lunar 

landing. The return vehicle weight would be approximately 5,500 lbs. at lunar 

injection, 5,200 lbs. as the earth is approached, and 3,500 to 4,000 lbs. at earth 

reentry. Careful study of Apollo study contractor results has indicated this to be 

adequate for a full-sized three-man Apollo capsule having only one man aboard. 

(Further description is given in Appendix II-2-c.) [not included]

Saturn C-2’s would be used throughout for earth-based launch vehicles. A 

minimum of 6 successful launches would be required for the basic mission. The 

actual number required to accomplish the mis sion would be a direct function of the 

success rate of the fi rings and assembly operations on the lunar surface; however, any 

failure before manned capsule landing does not affect the success of the manned 

lunar landing sequence. Identical transport spacecraft would be used in all C-2 

launches; also, only the payloads would differ, i.e., capsules or return propellant.

[6]
Exploring the Unknown 499

II. 2. d: Mixed Nova-Saturn Operations for the Time Period 1966 – 1969

Basic launch vehicles available in the time period of interest to accomplish 

the manned lunar landing and return missions may be both the SATURN and NOVA. 

Two basic modes of operations using either SATURN or NOVA are as follows:

1. The NOVA vehicle places the spacecraft with or without capsule in 

the waiting orbit fi rst. A SATURN vehicle standing by on a launch 

pad will be launched with the lunar crew after the orbit of the 

NOVA payload has been estab lished, and will rendezvous with the 

remainder of the spacecraft in the waiting orbit. If desirable either 

the en tire capsule will be mechanically connected with the spacecraft or the crew changes ships only. The SATURN at this time will 

have had around 30 fl ights, and therefore be considerably more 

reliable than the NOVA. The very fi rst NOVA which successfully 

orbits the payload will offer the fi rst chance for a manned lunar 

landing. This procedure is expected to save one year in the total 

program schedule, and possibly to reduce overall cost as a smaller 

number of NOVA vehicles is required.

2. Same procedure as outlined under 1., but the entire lunar return 

vehicle with a payload of approximately 60, 000 lbs. will be orbited 

by a SATURN C-3 and will rendezvous (in cluding docking) with the 

NOVA payload, which is a stage used both for acceleration to escape 

and for the landing maneuver on the moon. This procedure offers a 

20 percent performance margin and can be used in case the capsule 

reentry weight should grow beyond the maximum design weight for 

which the original NOVA was designed.

[Sections II.3 – II.6 not included] ...

[16] II. 7. Summary Rating

Various combinations of boosters and rendezvous concepts for performing 

the manned lunar mission were reviewed. Guide lines which were adopted for the 

rating process placed primary emphasis on (1) ability to accomplish the lunar 

landing mission as soon as possible and (2) relative reliability of the concept. 

Con siderably lesser importance was attached to cost and/or growth potential for 

other future space missions. 

The results are tabulated in the following table.
500 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Rendezvous Concepts Order of Preference

by each committee member Total

ABCDEF

Earth RV with 5-7 C-2’s 4 44633 24

Earth RV with 2-3 C-3’s 2 111218

Lunar RV with 1 C-3 5 32344 21

Earth and Lunar RV with C-2’s 6 6 3 5 5 5 30

RV on Lunar Surface 3 5 6 4 1 6 25

Earth RV with NOVA and C-l 1 2 5 2 6 2 18

The concept of a low altitude earth orbit rendezvous utilizing Saturn C-3’s 

is a clear preference by the group.

[Sections III-VI not included] 

[ 26]

Mission staging by rendezvous offers two advantages of particu lar 

signifi cance to such large, complex, and long-range missions as a manned lunar 

landing. Because both future payload requirements and vehicle capability are 

uncertain at best, the ability to increase payload by adding a vehicle to the 

operation reduces the critical dependance [sic] of future mission capability on 

decisions relating to launch vehicle design and development. The inherently 

smaller vehicles associated with this method also permit the development of 

effective and effi cient launch vehicles with engines currently in development.

Of the various orbital operations considered, the use of rendez vous 

in earth orbit by two or three Saturn C-3 vehicles (depending on estimated 

payload requirements) was strongly favored. This preference stemmed largely 

from the small number of orbital operations required and the fact that the C-3 is 

considered an effi cient vehicle of large utility and future growth.

The rendezvous technique itself, in terms of launch operations, guidance 

and control, and orbital operations, is considered feasible of development within 

the time period of interest. Some justifi cation for this point of view is found in both 

current technology and in the fact that many of the technological advancements 

required for the lunar landing and take-off operations are applicable to the 

rendezvous with an artifi cial satellite.

[27]

The principal diffi culties involved in the development of a new 

4,000,000 pound RP-LOX engine for a NOVA vehicle are associated with size and 

the development time span required through PFRT is estimated at 6 years. If a 

NOVA vehicle incorporating a new large engine development is contemplated, the 

Phoenix concept possesses suffi cient attractive features to warrant serious study. 

The utiliza tion of pressurized storable propellants for a large fi rst-stage engine offer 
Exploring the Unknown 501

important reductions in complexity; solid rocket engines are, however, believed 

to offer even greater simplifi cation without signifi cant performance differences. 

The “standpipe” concept of propellant delivery through acceleration-head effects 

incorporates suffi cient diffi culties of engine system development and manned 

abort capability as to render it unattractive for application to a NOVA vehicle.

Document II-13

Document Title: Ernest W. Brackett, Director, Procurement & Supply, to 

Robert R. Gilruth, Space Task Group, “Transmittal of Approved Project Apollo 

Spacecraft Procurement Plan and Class Determination and Findings,” 28 July 

1961, with attached: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, “Project 

Apollo Spacecraft Procurement Plan,” 28 July 1961; Robert C. Seamans, 

Associate Administrator, to Robert R. Gilruth, Space Task Group, “Appointment 

of Source Evaluation Board,” 25 July 1961; James E. Webb, Administrator, 

“Establishment of Sub-Committees to the NASA Source Evaluation Board 

Project Apollo,” 25 July 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA headquarters, Washington, DC.

Once President Kennedy had established the lunar goal, NASA had to establish 

procurement procedures for the necessary equipment, as well as evaluation boards for 

approving contractors. The fi rst major element of Project Apollo to be put under contract 

would be the Apollo spacecraft. Procedures and committees for the spacecraft procurement 

were established just over two months after President Kennedy’s announcement of Project 

Apollo on 25 May 1961. 

Washington 25, D.C.

July 28, 1961

From: NASA Headquarters 

To: Space Task Group

ATTENTION: Mr. Robert R. Gilruth

Subject: Transmittal of Approved Project Apollo Spacecraft 

Procurement Plan and Class Determination and Findings

Reference: (a) Director, Space Task Group letter of June 26, 1961 to 

NASA Headquarters transmitting proposed Project Apollo 

Procurement Plan

1. Reference (a) forwarded a proposed procurement plan for Project 

Apollo. As a result of reviews made by various offi ces of NASA Headquarters a 
502 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

revised procurement plan for Project Apollo Spacecraft has been signed by the 

Associate Administrator under date of July 28, 1961, and is attached hereto as 

Enclosure 1. Also attached as Enclosure 2, is the Class Determination and Findings 

for this project which was signed by the Administrator under date of July 25, 1961.

2. A paragraph has been included in the approved procurement 

plan (fi rst paragraph, page 4) which provides that, “Prior to commencement of 

negotiations, NASA will develop a contract clause which will assure NASA control 

over the selection and retention of the Contractor’s key personnel assigned to 

the project.” For your information, the Associate Administrator interprets this 

paragraph to mean that the number of key personnel that NASA will exercise 

control over should be restricted to a number not exceeding ten, and if at all 

possible, some lesser number.

3. The Director of Reliability, NASA Headquarters, recommended 

that Mr. James T. Koppenhaver of his offi ce be added to the Source Evaluation 

Board as a non-voting member in accordance with NASA General Management 

Instruction 2-4-3. This has been done. He also recommends that Dr. William 

Wolman of the Offi ce of Reliability, NASA Headquarters, be made a member 

of the technical subcommittee. He also suggests that consideration be given to 

establishing a subcommittee consisting of two members of NASA Headquarters 

and three members of Space Task Group to evaluate the reliability and quality 

assurance aspects of the proposals. The last suggestions submitted, without 

recommendation, for your consideration.

[signed]

Ernest W. Brackett Director, 

Procurement & Supply

[2]

PROJECT APOLLO SPACECRAFT PROCUREMENT PLAN

The procurement plan describes in brief the requirements for Project Apollo, 

the overall procurement program, and specifi es the policies and procedures to 

be utilized in the selection of a qualifi ed contractor who will be responsible for 

the development of the Command Module and Service Module for all missions 

and for performing systems integration and systems engineering.

DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT APOLLO SCOPE OF WORK

1. Missions. Project Apollo will be developed in three separate but 

related mission concepts:

a. Phase “A”. A manned spacecraft to be placed in orbit 

around the earth at 300 nautical mile altitude for a twoweek duration for the purpose of developing space fl ight 

technology and conducting scientifi c experimentation. The 

spacecraft is to be capable of rendezvous in earth orbit.
Exploring the Unknown 503

b. Phase “B”. A manned spacecraft for circumlunar and 

orbital fl ight around the moon at an appropriate height and 

duration to permit the development of fl ight operations in 

deep space and provide an assessment of the system for the 

lunar landing mission.

c. Phase “C”. A manned spacecraft to be soft landed on the 

surface of the moon and returned to earth.

2. Module concept. It is contemplated that the spacecraft for each 

of these three phases of Project Apollo will consist of separate 

modules as follows:

a. A Command Module which will serve as a control center for 

spacecraft and launch vehicle operation, as crew quarters for 

the lunar mission, and as the entry and landing vehicle for 

both nominal and emergency mission phases. To the greatest 

extent possible, the same command module will be used for 

all three phases cited in paragraph 1a, b, and c above.

b. A Service Module which will house support systems and 

components and will contain propulsion systems, as 

required, for emergency aborts, returning from earth orbit, 

mid-course corrections, lunar orbit and de-orbit, and lunar 

take-off. It is contemplated that separate contracts will be 

issued for some of these propulsion systems.

[3]

c. An Orbiting Laboratory Module for use in earth orbiting 

missions, as a laboratory technological or scientifi c 

experiments and measurements.

d. A Propulsion Module to be added for the lunar landing 

mission, for the purpose of landing the Command and 

Service Modules on the moon’s surface.

PROCUREMENT PROGRAM

It is intended, under the overall procurement program, to award several contracts 

for each separate phase or sub-phase of the Apollo Project Spacecraft specifi cally 

as follows:

1. A contract to a Principal Contractor for the following elements of 

the Project:

a. A Command Module and Service Module to serve all fl ight 

missions. 

b. A propulsion system for the earth-orbiting mission, if needed.
504 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

c. Responsibility for systems engineering and systems integration for all elements being developed by other contractors 

associated with Project Apollo Spacecraft systems. It is 

intended that the same Principal Contractor will be retained 

for all three phases, however, the Government will retain 

the option of selecting a new Principal Contractor for Phases 

“B” and “C” if it is considered desirable to do so.

2. A contract for the development of an Orbiting Laboratory Module 

and vehicle adapter for the earth orbiting mission.

3. A contract for the development of a Propulsion Module to provide a 

propulsion system for lunar landing.

4. An associate contract for the development of a guidance and 

navigation system, to be housed in the Command Module, required 

for use on all manned missions.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF CONTRACTORS

The responsibilities of each of the associated contractors participating in Project 

Apollo Spacecraft procurement will be different and will be developed and 

defi ned separately as each contract is negotiated and written. Each contract will 

contain reliability requirements for mission accomplishment and fl ight safety. 

General types of responsibility, however, can be summarized as follows:

[4]

A. Command Module and Service Module Contractor. (Principal Contractor)

The contractor assigned responsibility for the development of the command module and service module will also be responsible for systems 

integration and systems engineering for all missions. The Principal Contractor will serve in the role of principal integrator of all modules of the 

spacecraft to assure compatibility and timely and complete execution of 

all requirements of each mission. The contractor will also serve as the 

principal point of coordination with the launch vehicle developer to assure effective solution of interface problems between launch vehicle and 

spacecraft components, and with ground support developers to meet all 

of their requirements.

B. Space Laboratory Module and Propulsion Module Contractors.

The contractors assigned responsibility for the development of Phase A 

Space Laboratory Module or Phases C Propulsion Module will be expected to complete all aspects of their subsystem and to work under the 

general technical direction of the Principal Contractor to assure the full 

and timely completion of the integrated spacecraft system and its integration with the launch vehicle and relate ground support facilities.
Exploring the Unknown 505

TYPE OF CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION 

It is intended that a Cost-Plus-a-Fixed-Fee type of contract will be used initially in 

the procurement of the spacecraft.

A copy of the necessary Class Determination and Findings authorizing negotiation 

of contracts for Apollo Spacecraft, pursuant to 10 USC 2304(a)(11), is attached. 

(Enclosure No. 1)

In view of the magnitude, complexity, and substantial dollar value of the Apollo 

Spacecraft, a Principal Contractor and Associate Prime Contractor method of 

procurement is recommended. The spacecraft Principal Contractor will be 

contractually assigned responsibility and authority for the design of the system 

and the integration of the performance specifi cation of all sub-systems and 

components to assure that they fi t into a compatible, effi cient system, and to 

manage the day-to-day development and production. The Space Task Group will 

retain authority to make major decisions, resolve confl icts between the Spacecraft 

Principal Contractor and the associated contractors; review and/or approve 

decisions made by the Principal Contractor; approve the make-or-buy policies. In 

addition, the Space Task Group will control concentration of Principal Contractor 

“in house” effort; assure competition in the selection of sub-contractors by 

requiring the Spacecraft Principal Contractor to take full advantage of the 

facilities and capabilities of existing sub-system manufacturers by subcontracting 

or the placement of systems direct by NASA with associated contractors.

[5]

Requests for proposals will require, [sic] that companies will furnish a description 

of the proposed organization and management plan for the spacecraft project 

including names of personnel to be assigned to key positions within such 

organization. Prior to commencement of negotiations, NASA will develop a 

contract clause which will assure NASA control over the selection and retention 

of the contractor’s key personnel assigned to the project.

NASA will reserve the right to issue a separate contract to a qualifi ed organization 

to assess systems reliability. If it is subsequently determined that such a contract is 

to be issued, this will be done at about the same time as the principal contractor 

is selected. Similar reliability assessment contracts may be placed for associated 

systems, as required.

CONTRACT NEGOTIATION AND AWARD

It is the intention of the Government to select at this time a contractor qualifi ed 

to perform all the tasks set forth under paragraph 1a, b, and c of the Procurement 

Program section of this plan and to award a contract broad enough in scope 

to provide, with subsequent amendment, for the accomplishment of the total 

tasks required toward the completion of the Project Apollo Spacecraft Program. 

The initial contract will specifi cally cover the engineering study, detail design, 

development of manufacturing techniques, fabrication of breadboards, test 
506 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

hardware, laboratory models, “test” spacecraft, certain long lead items, and a 

detailed engineering mockup of the Apollo Spacecraft.

The Administrator may determine that negotiation will be conducted with 

several companies. If such negotiations are directed, the names of the 

companies selected for negotiations will not be announced. Following 

completion of such negotiation, the Source Evaluation Board will again 

report to the Administrator the results of the negotiations at which time he 

will determine that company with which to negotiate a contract if satisfactory 

terms can be arranged. Announcement of such selection will then be made 

in accordance with NASA regulations. Negotiations will be conducted by 

the Space Task Group procurement and technical staffs, with supplemental 

assistance from Headquarters management and technical staffs. The contract 

will be negotiated to spell out as extensively as possible all facets of contractor 

organization, management, technical performance and cost control to achieve 

the maximum assurance of protection of the interests of the Government, 

consonant with the urgency of the work of the Project.

SELECTION OF BIDDERS LIST

The fi eld of contractors suitably qualifi ed to undertake a program of this 

magnitude is limited. It is intended to solicit proposals from only 12 [6] companies 

who have indicated their defi nite interest in the Apollo Program and who have 

demonstrative competence and capability to successfully perform the procurement 

under consideration. Any other fi rms who may request an opportunity to submit 

a proposal will be required to furnish substantiating evidence as to their ability to 

perform before a request for proposal will be furnished. Space Task Group will 

maintain a complete documentation of the reasons for selection of companies 

invited to receive request for proposal and the reasons for declining to furnish 

requests for proposal to any company so requesting.

The selected sources are as follows:

1. Boeing Airplane Company

Seattle, Washington

2. Chance Vought Aircraft, Inc.

Dallas, Texas

3. General Dynamics Corporation

San Diego, California

4. Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc.

Santa Monica, California

5. General Electric Corporation

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

6. Goodyear Aircraft Corporation

Akron, Ohio
Exploring the Unknown 507

7. Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation

Bethpage, Long Island 

8. Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

Sunnyvale, California

9. Martin Company

Baltimore, Maryland

10. McDonnell Aircraft Corporation

St. Louis, Missouri

11. North American Aviation

Los Angeles, California

12. Republic Aviation Corporation

Farmingdale, New York

[7]

In addition, a synopsis of this procurement will be publicized for the benefi t of 

subcontractors in accordance with NASA Circular No. 131, dated April 17, 1961, 

Subject: Publicizing of NASA Proposed Research and Development Procurement, 

Reference 18-2.203-4.

SCHEDULE OF PROCUREMENT ACTION

July 28 Request for Proposals mailed and bidders invited 

to conference

Aug. 14-15 Bidders Conference

Oct. 9 Proposals due

Dec. 1 Evaluation of proposals completed

Dec. 28 Selection of contractor

Dec. 29 Letter Contract (if desirable)

Apr. 30 Defi nitive contract

SOURCE EVALUATION

It is proposed that a NASA Source Evaluation Board be appointed by the Associate 

Administrator, NASA Headquarters, to be chaired by Mr. W. C. Williams, 

Associate Director of Space Task Group. The members of this Board will be 

specifi cally designated from appropriate NASA personnel. The Chairman of the 

Board will appoint such business and technical committees as may be necessary 

to assist the Board in the evaluation. The membership of these committees 
508 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

will be drawn from appropriate Government personnel. Recommendations 

for Board appointments are attached, (Enclosure No. 2) for approval by the 

Associate Administrator. Committee appointments anticipated at this time are 

also attached for information, (Enclosure No. 3).

REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS

The Source Evaluation Board will review the Request for Proposals, prior to the 

release to the selected prospective contractors, to assure that the RFP is complete 

in all details as to the technical, management and cost aspects and further, that 

it will adequately serve the intended purposes. The Source Evaluation Board 

shall be free to comment on and recommend any changes in the RFP considered 

essential to meet all Project Apollo objectives.

[8]

PROPOSAL EVALUATION

The evaluation of proposals submitted by industry will be the primary responsibility 

of the Source Evaluation Board. In these evaluations the Board will be free to 

seek further information from bidders or to offer bidders the opportunity of 

making further oral or written clarifi cation of their submissions. In addition, 

the Board should be authorized to establish additional sub-committee, work 

groups or consulting relationships with other NASA employees or with other 

Government consultants as required. Where desirable, members of the Source 

Evaluation Board will be authorized to visit the facilities of bidders to acquaint 

themselves at fi rst hand with the personnel and facilities with which project work 

would be carried out. The fi nal product of the work of the Source Evaluation 

Board will be a presentation of fi ndings to the Administrator.

BIDDERS CONFERENCE

Twelve days after release of the RFP a principal contractors bidders conference 

will be held at the Space Task Group, Langley Field, Virginia or such other 

suitable location in this geographical area as considered appropriate, for a 

detailed briefi ng on the proposed procurement. Contractors who are invited 

will be limited to a maximum of 10 representatives each which limitation shall 

include any subcontractor representatives. Attendance by contractors will be 

limited to those companies invited to submit proposals.

CONTRACT COST DETERMINATION

In view of the signifi cant nature of this procurement, specifi c attention, review, 

and analysis will be given by STG in determining the reasonableness of costs 

submitted by a contractor. To meet this objective, contractors will be required 

to prepare comprehensive and extensive cost breakdowns for each category of 

proposed contract performance. Each contractor will be required to furnish with 

his proposal his procedures and techniques, as appropriate, for his accounting 

system, which shall include but not necessarily be limited to; methods of costing 

labor, material, burdens, etc., to each contract; cost estimation and reimbursement 
Exploring the Unknown 509

billing procedures. All contracts will incorporate all clauses required by law and 

regulation, plus other special conditions that may be necessary to adequately 

protect the Government’s interests.

Approved

[signed by Robert Seamans]

Associate Administrator

Enclosure No. 1

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

SPACE TASK GROUP

LANGLEY FIELD, VIRGINIA

DETERMINATION AND FINDINGS

AUTHORITY TO NEGOTIATE CLASS OF CONTRACTS

Upon the basis of the following determination and fi ndings which I 

hereby make as agency head, the proposed class of contracts described below 

may be negotiated without formal advertising pursuant to the authority of 10 

U.S.C 2304 (a) (11).

This procurement will consist of more than one contract for the 

accomplishment of Project Apollo.

Findings

I hereby fi nd that the primary objective of Project Apollo is to safely place 

a manned vehicle containing a 3-man crew into an earth and lunar orbital fl ight 

making a soft lunar landing and return take-off and to effect a safe recovery of 

the men and vehicle. A secondary objective is to study the capabilities of men for 

extended periods of approximately 14 days in the environments associated with 

earth and lunar launchings, orbital fl ights, lunar landings and recovery. There is an 

urgent require ment for this program to be completed at the earliest date compatible 

with reasonable assurance of success and with a high degree or assurance that the 

human occupants can safely escape from any forseeable [sic] situation which may 

develop. First attempt at orbital fl ight will be preceded by a program involving 

numerous research, experimental, and developmental contracts.
510 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

In addition to studies and services essential to the successful operation of 

Project Apollo, there is a continued need for research and development, design, 

engineering, fabrication and assembly of material and equipment.

The proposed class of contracts does not call for quantity production of 

any article.

It is impossible to describe in precise detail, or by any defi nite drawings or 

specifi cations, the nature or the work to be performed; only the ultimate objectives 

and the general scope or the work can be outlined. The materials, equipment, 

and services to be procured for Project Apollo will be in quantities requiring the 

high reliability and performance critical to the successful performance or the 

Manned Satellite Vehicle program.

[2]

Determination

Based on the fi ndings above made, I hereby determine that the proposed 

contracts are for experimental, developmental or research work, or for the making 

or furnishing of property for experiment, test, development and research.

This class determination shall remain in effect until June 30, 1962.

James E. Webb, Administrator

Date July 25, 1961 

Enclosure No. 2

From NASA Headquarters

To Space Task Group ATTENTION: Robert R. Gilruth

Subject: Appointment of Source Evaluation Board

1. The following personnel are designated to serve as a Source 

Evaluation Board in connection with the procurement of development of 

spacecraft required for the Apollo Project. This Board, operating at the direction 

of the chairman, will review proposals from prospective contractors and based 

on its fi ndings recommend source selection to this offi ce for approval:

Walter Williams (Chairman) – Asst. to Director, Space Task Group 

Robert O. Piland – Head, Apollo Project Offi ce, Space Task Group

George M. Low – Chief, Manned Space Flight, NASA Headquarters

Wesley L. Hjornevik – Asst. Director for Administration, Space Task Group

Brooks C. Preacher – Offi ce of Procurement Review, NASA Headquarters

Maxime A. Faget – Chief, Flight Systems Division, Space Task Group

James A. Chamberlin – Head, Engineering Division, Space Task Group
Exploring the Unknown 511

Charles W. Mathews – Head, Operations Division, Space Task Group

Dave W. Lang – Procurement & Contracting Offi cer, Space Task Group 

* James T. Koppenhaver – Offi ce of Reliability and Systems 

 Analysis, NASA Headquarters

[signed by Robert Seamans]

Associate Administrator

* Non-voting Member (Gen. Management Instruction 2-4-3)

Enclosure No. 3

[10]

ESTABLISHMENT OF SUB-COMMITTEES

TO THE NASA SOURCE EVALUATION BOARD

PROJECT APOLLO

Technical Sub-Committee

Robert O. Piland (Chairman) – Head, Apollo Projects Offi ce, Space 

 Task Group

John B. Becker – Aero Physics Division, Langley Research Center

Andre J. Meyer – Assistant Chief, Engineering Division, Space 

 Task Group

Caldwell C. Johnson, Jr. – Head, Systems Engineering Branch, Space 

 Task Group

Robert G. Chilton – Head, Flight Dynamics Branch, Space Task Group

S. C. White – Chief, Life Systems Division, Space Task Group

William A. Mrazek – Director, Structures and Mechanics Division,

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Such other technical representation as may be required from other 

Government activities may be requested or designated as required.

Business Sub-Committee

Glenn F. Bailey – Contract Specialist, Space Task Group

Phillip H. Whitbeck – Special Ass’t. to the Assistant Director for

 Administration, NASA Headquarters

John D. Young – Director of Management Analysis Division, 

 NASA Headquarters

Douglas E. Hendrickson – Budget and Finance Offi cer, Space Task 

Group

George F. MacDougall, Jr. – Head, Contract Engineering Branch, 

 Space Task Group
512 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

John M. Curran – Procurement Review Offi ce – NASA Headquarters

Wilbur H. Gray – NASA Technical Representative, McDonnell 

 Aircraft Corp.

Such other business management of fi nancial representation as may be 

required from other government activities may be requested or designated as 

requested.

Document II-14

Document Title: “Memorandum for the President by James Webb, 14 September 

1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

With Presidential announcement of the decision to go to the Moon, it was clear that NASA 

would need to create a new Field Center dedicated to human spacefl ight. The chair of NASA’s 

House Appropriations Committee, Representative Albert Thomas of Houston, Texas, made 

it very clear that he expected the new Center to be located in or near his district (Volume 

II, Document III-7). Even so, at the very least NASA had to go through the motions of an 

open competition for the location of the Center, and a number of localities in different states 

(and their Governors, Senators, and Congressmen) made their interest in being chosen well 

known. President Kennedy’s home state of Massachusetts put particular pressure on NASA 

and the White House to consider Hingham Air Force Base near Boston as the location. 

September 14, 1961

MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT

In view of the situation which has arisen in Massachusetts, I believe you 

should know personally that Dr. Hugh Dryden and I, last night and this morning, 

have carefully reviewed all the factors relating to the location of the manned 

space fl ight center. It included a careful examination of the material brought 

back from Hingham yesterday by the site survey team. The team was sent without 

notifi cation to the Governor or anyone in Massachusetts and made its visit and 

examination without any publicity so far as I know.

Our decision is that this laboratory should be located at Houston, Texas, 

in close association with Rice University and the other educational institutions 

there and in that region.

A press release has been prepared announcing this decision, and we are 

holding it for issue after White House notifi cation of those which your staff feels 

should have advance information.
Exploring the Unknown 513

The only personal commitment I have in connection with the release is 

to personally call the Acting Chairman of the House Committee on Science and 

Astronautics, Congressman George Miller of California, so that he will know in 

advance of newspaper release what the decision is. He has been very active and 

concerned on behalf of California.

Attached hereto is the transcript of the talk I gave at the National Press Club 

on September 12. [not included] On page 15 you will fi nd underlined the reference I 

made to your instructions. You may need this at your next press conference.

[2]

There are also marked sections in the transcript which refer to you, Vice 

President Johnson, and the facilities location question on pages 1, 2, 3, 6, 13, 14, 

15 and 16.

Incidentally, since we had too little time at our meeting Monday for me 

to give you as full a report on our activities as I would like, you might wish to take 

this transcript along for reading, perhaps on the plane. Particularly, the checked 

paragraph at the bottom of page 10 is an area of thought which you and I need 

to explore. If we can develop this idea in terms of regional patterns of developing 

science and technology and feeding them back into economic growth, it may be 

one of the tremendous accomplishments of your Adminis tration.

/Signed/

James E. Webb 

Administrator

Enclosure:

Transcript of National Press Club 

Speech, September 12, 1961. [not included]

*****************************************

SITE SELECTION PROCEDURE

The procedure established for the selection of a site for the manned 

space fl ight laboratory, one of four major facilities required for the manned lunar 

landing mission on the accelerated schedule set by the President, is as follows:

I. The selection of the site is to be made by the Administrator of NASA in 

consultation with the Deputy Administrator.
514 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

II. As the fi rst step in the collection of information to aid the Administrator in 

his selection, the Associate Administrator on July 7, 1961 instructed the Director 

of the Offi ce of Space Flight Programs to establish preliminary site criteria and to 

propose the membership for a site survey team. The team, appointed on August 7, 

1961 consisted of

John F. Parsons, Chairman 

Associate Director

Ames Research Center

N. Philip Miller

Chief, Facilities Engineering Division

Goddard Space Flight Center

Wesley L. Hjornevik

Assistant Director for Administration 

Space Task Group

I. Edward Campagna 

Construction Engineer 

Space Task Group

[2 ]

Because of the sudden illness of Mr. Hjornevik on August 12, 1961, he 

was replaced by

Martin A. Byrnes

Project Management Assistant 

Space Task Group

III. The site survey team met on August 11 with the Director of the Offi ce of 

Space Flight Programs, the Associate Director of the Space Task Group, and the 

Assistant Director of Space Flight Programs for Manned Space Flight. During 

this meeting tentative site requirements were developed.

IV. The site requirements were formulated in detail by the site survey team, 

and at a meeting with the Administrator; Deputy Administrator; Director of 

Space Flight Programs; Director, Offi ce of Programs; and the Assistant Director 

for Facilities, Offi ce of Programs, the following criteria were approved by the 

Administrator: 

Essential Criteria

1. Transportation:

Capability to transport by barge large, cumbersome space vehicles (30 to 40 feet 

in diameter) to and from water shipping. Prefer ably the site should have its own 

or have access to suitable docking facilities. Time required in transport will be 

considered.
Exploring the Unknown 515

Availability of a fi rst-class all-weather commercial jet service airport and 

a Department of Defense air base installation in the general area capable of 

handling high-performance military aircraft.

2. Communications:

Reasonable proximity to main routes of the long-line telephone system.

[3]

3. Local Industrial Support and Labor Supply:

An existing well-established industrial complex including machine and fabrication 

shops to support a research and development activity of high scientifi c and 

technical content, and capable of fabricating pilot models of large spacecraft.

A well-established supply of construction contractors and building trades and 

craftsmen to permit rapid construction of facilities without premium labor costs.

4. Community Facilities:

Close proximity to a culturally attractive community to permit the recruitment and 

retention of a staff with a high percentage of professional scientifi c personnel.

Close proximity to a well-established institution of higher educa tion with 

emphasis on an institution specializing in the basic sciences and in space related 

graduate and post graduate education and research.

5. Electric Power:

Strong local utility system capable of developing up to 80,000 KVA of reliable 

power.

6. Water:

Readily available good-quality water capable of supplying300,000 gallons per 

day potable and 300,000 gallons per day industrial.

7. Area:

1,000 usable acres with a suitable adjacent area for further development. Suitable 

areas in the general location for low hazard and nuisance subsidiary installations 

requiring some isolation.

8. Climate:

A mild climate permitting year-round, ice-free, water transpor tation; and 

permitting out-of-door work for most of the year to facilitate operations, reduce 

facility costs, and speed con struction.
516 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[4]

Desirable Criteria

1. Impact on Area:

Compatibility of proposed laboratory with the regional planning that may exist 

and ability of community facilities to absorb the increased population, and to 

provide the related industrial and transport support required.

2. Site Development Costs:

Consideration of costs for site development required for the proposed laboratory.

3. Operating Costs:

Consideration of costs for normal operations including utility rates, construction 

costs, wage scales, etc.

4. Interim Facilities:

Availability of reasonably adequate facilities for the temporary use of up to 1,500 

people in the same general area as the permanent site.

V. The site survey team at the same meeting was instructed to survey possible 

sites on the basis of published and other available information, selecting on 

the basis of the approved criteria those which should be visited by the team, 

visiting these sites and such others as might be directed by the Administrator, 

and preparing a report, including a listing of the advantages and disadvantages 

of the sites considered.

VI. A review by the site survey team of climatological data furnished by the 

United States Weather Bureau and information provided by the Department of 

the Army, Corps of Engineers, on water-borne commerce in [5] the United States 

(references 1 and 2), provided the following prelimi nary list of prospective areas 

which would fulfi ll the essential criteria of water transportation and climate:

Norfolk, Virginia 

Charleston, South Carolina 

Savannah, Georgia 

Jacksonville, Florida 

Miami, Florida

Tampa, Florida

Mobile, Alabama

New Orleans, Louisiana 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana 

Memphis, Tennessee 

Houston, Texas

Corpus Christi, Texas

San Diego, California
Exploring the Unknown 517

Los Angeles, California 

Santa Barbara, California 

San Francisco, California 

Portland, Oregon

Seattle, Washington

This preliminary list of possible areas was then reviewed with regard to the 

other essential site criteria with the assistance of references 3 and 4 and through 

consultations with the General Services Administra tion regarding surplus 

Government property, and the list was reduced on August 16, 1961, to the 

following nine areas:

Jacksonville, Florida (Green Cove Springs Naval Station)

Tampa, Florida (MacDill Air Force Base)

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Shreveport, Louisiana (Barksdale Air Force Base)

Houston, Texas (San Jacinto Ordnance Depot)

Victoria, Texas (FAA Airport)

Corpus Christi, Texas (Naval Air Station) 

San Diego, California (Camp Elliott)

San Francisco, California (Benicia Ordnance Depot)

[6]

To properly evaluate each area accurately a physical inspection of the area by 

members of the site survey team was deemed essential. Accord ingly, arrangements 

were made to visit these nine areas. While in cer tain areas additional sites were 

brought to the attention of the team and arrangements were made to visit those 

sites. Hence, the original nine sites were increased to twenty-three by the addition 

of the following:

Bogalusa, Louisiana

Houston, Texas (University of Houston Site) 

Houston, Texas (Rice University Site) 

Houston, Texas (Ellington Air Force Base) 

Liberty, Texas

Beaumont, Texas

Harlingen, Texas

Berkeley, California

Richmond, California

Moffett Field, California (Naval Air Station) 

St. Louis, Missouri (Daniel Boone Site)

St. Louis, Missouri (Industrial Park Site)

St. Louis, Missouri (Lewis and Clarke Site) 

St. Louis, Missouri (Jefferson Barracks Site)

Visits to the above twenty-three sites were initiated on August 21, 1961 and 

completed September 7, 1961.
518 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

It will be noted that the team felt that locations north of the freezing line were 

unlikely to meet the requirements and hence proposed no visits to sites in this area.

VII. While the team was visiting sites, several presentations were made directly 

to the Administrator, Deputy Administrator, and other offi cials, notably from 

proponents of sites in the Boston, Rhode Island, and Norfolk areas. It was agreed 

to consider these sites in the fi nal review.

[7]

On August 12th the Administrator and Deputy Administrator reviewed the 

factors which had entered into the approved criterion on climate, i.e.:

“A mild climate permitting year-round, ice-free, water 

transportation; and permitting out-of-door work for most of 

the year to facilitate operations, reduce facility costs, and speed 

construction.”

The considerations leading to this criterion are as follows:

1. The purpose of specifying a mild climate which will permit year -round, 

ice-free, water transportation is self-evident. It is necessary so that the 

spacecraft and/or its components can be transported by water to other 

sites at any time of the year to avoid delays in the overall program.

2. The requirement for out-of-door work most of the year stems from our 

experience with aircraft and large missiles. Since the space craft will be 

of comparable size it is expected that all work cannot be effi ciently done 

within buildings. An appreciable amount of fi tting, checking, and/or 

calibration work will be accomplished out-of-doors to facilitate the overall 

operation. Also the possi bility of handling much larger spacecraft, such 

as a 10-15 man space station, must be considered. The climate factor will 

become more important as such spacecraft become parts of the program.

3. A mild climate avoids the necessity of special protection to the spacecraft 

against freezing of moisture in the many complicated components while 

transferring to and from sites and between site buildings. To provide 

such protection would be time-consuming and costly.

4. A mild climate will facilitate recovery procedure training of the astronauts 

and other activities which must be conducted out-of -doors.

5. A mild climate permits a greater likelihood of day-to-day access by air to 

and from the site from other parts of the country.

6. In summary, the selection of a site in an area meeting the stated climate 

criterion will minimize both the cost and the time required for this 

project. A mild climate will permit year-round construc tion activity, 

thereby accelerating the advancement of the project.
Exploring the Unknown 519

[8]

Sites north of the freezing line fail to meet these requirements. For example, in 

the case of the Boston area, the U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau 

report entitled “Local Climatological Data with Comparative Data, 1960, Boston, 

Massachusetts,” states:

In the year 1960 it rained 114 days for a total amount of 44.46 inches. The 

rainfall was distributed uniformly throughout the year. The normal total 

annual rainfall over the years is 38.86 inches falling on 133 days.

The daily minimum temperature for the months of December, January, 

February and March ranges from 21.6o F to 30.0 oF well below freezing 

while the average maximum temperature for December, January, and 

February is below 40 oF.

Normal degree days, a measure of the heating required, is 5791 — a 

high value.

Approximately 52 inches of snow and sleet fell in 1960, the average over 

the years is about 40 inches.

The average hourly wind speed is 12.5 miles per hour.

In addition to the detailed information outlined above, this same report in 

describing the Boston climate states:

The city’s latitude places it ... in ... large bodies of air from 

tropical and polar regions resulting in variety and changeability of the 

weather elements.

... assuring an ordinarily dependable precipitation supply.

Hot summer afternoons are ...”

The average date of the last killing frost in spring is April 16.

The average date of the fi rst killing frost in autumn is October 25.

Boston has no dry season; ... 

Coastal storms, or ‘northeasters’, are prolifi c producers of rain and 

snow. The main snow season extends from November through March.

[9] 

Although winds of 32 m.p.h. or higher may be expected on at least 

one day in every month of the year, gales are both common and more 

severe in winter.
520 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

By direction of the Administrator, the site survey team visited the Hingham, 

Massachusetts, site near Boston on September 13 for an inspection of the terrain 

and existing buildings.

References Used by Site Survey Team

1. Waterborne Commerce of the United States, Calendar Year 1958, 

Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers.

2. The Intercoastal Waterway, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1961.

3. Army Map Service Map of Major Army, Navy and Air Force Installations 

of the United States. 8205 Edition 21-AMS.

4. Education Directory 1959-1960, Part 3, Higher Education, U.S. Department 

of Health, Education and Welfare, Offi ce of Education

Document II-15

Document Title: John C. Houbolt, NASA, Langley Research Center, Letter to Dr. 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 15 November 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-16

Document Title: Langley Research Center, NASA, “MANNED LUNAR-LANDING 

through use of LUNAR-ORBIT RENDEZVOUS,” Volume 1, 31 October 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-17

Document Title: Joseph Shea, Memorandum for the Record, 26 January 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
Exploring the Unknown 521

Document II-18

Document Title: “Concluding Remarks by Dr. Wernher von Braun About Mode 

Selection for the Lunar Landing Program Given to Dr. Joseph F. Shea, Deputy 

Director (Systems) Offi ce of Manned Space Flight,” 7 June 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA headquarters, Washington, DC.

John Houbolt of NASA’s Langley Research Center, along with several Langley colleagues, had 

been examining rendezvous concepts in 1959 and 1960. Although not the sole originator of 

the lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) mode, Houbolt became its most persistent supporter and 

in 1961 went outside of normal bureaucratic channels to advocate the approach as a means 

of accomplishing the lunar landing mission, rather than the Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR) 

mode that had gained favor in the months following President Kennedy’s speech announcing 

the lunar landing goal. This letter from Houbolt to NASA Associate Administrator Robert 

Seamans was a catalyst in shifting the thinking within NASA in favor of the LOR mode. 

The Saturn C-3 that Houbolt refers to in his letter was a confi guration of the Saturn booster 

with two F-1 engines in its fi rst stage. The Saturn C-2 was a less powerful booster using 

older rocket engines in its fi rst stage that NASA had decided not to develop by the time 

Houbolt wrote his letter. NOVA was a very large booster with eight F-1 engines in its fi rst 

stage that was designed to take astronauts directly to the Moon without need for rendezvous. 

The Fleming, Lundin, and Heaton Committees were groups set up within NASA earlier in 

1961 to examine various approaches to the lunar landing mission. The Golovin Committee 

was a NASA-DOD group attempting to develop a national launch vehicle program. PERT 

was a chart-based management approach to complex projects.

The 31 October 1961 Langley Study that was the basis for Houbolt’s arguments indicates the 

other key members of the Langley team that developed the lunar orbit rendezvous scheme.

By the end of 1961, the new Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston was beginning to be 

interested in the LOR concept, while Wernher von Braun and his team at the Marshall Space 

Flight Center focused their studies on the EOR approach to accomplishing the lunar landing 

mission. This led Brainerd Holmes, head of piloted spacefl ight at NASA Headquarters, 

and his assistant Joseph Shea to conclude that further study of the LOR concept should be 

managed by Headquarters to minimize inter-Center rivalries.

Following Shea’s memorandum, the choice of an approach to carrying out the lunar landing 

mission received intensive attention within NASA in the fi rst fi ve months of 1962. Project 

Apollo leaders at the new Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston,Texas, gradually came 

to favor the LOR approach. Wernher von Braun and his associates at the Marshall Space 

Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, had based their launch vehicle planning on the use 

of the EOR approach. At a climactic meeting at the Marshall Space Flight Center on 6 June 

1962, von Braun made the concluding remarks. (This document, dated 7 June, is the text 

of those remarks.) Much to the surprise of many of his associates at Marshall, von Braun 

endorsed the LOR mode as the preferred approach. With his endorsement, NASA soon 

adopted this approach in its planning for the lunar landing mission.
522 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The C-1 and C-5 vehicles referred to in von Braun’s statement became known as the Saturn I 

and Saturn IB and the Saturn V. The C-8 was a confi guration with eight fi rst-stage engines 

that were never built. The S-IVB was the third stage of the Saturn V vehicle and the S-II its 

second stage. Robert “Bob” Gilruth was the Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center and 

Chuck Matthews a senior manager there. NAA was North American Aviation, the contractor 

building the Apollo Command and Service Module and the S-II and S-IVB stage of the 

Saturn V launcher. Rocketdyne was the company building the F-1 and J-2 rocket engines.

Document II-15

National Aeronautics and 

 Space Administration 

 Langley Research Center

Langley Air Force Base, Va.

November 15, 1961

Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr.

Associate Administrator

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

1520 H Street, N.W.

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Dr. Seamans:

Somewhat as a voice in the wilderness, I would like to pass on a few thoughts 

on matters that have been of deep concern to me over recent months. This concern 

may be phrased in terms of two questions: (1) If you were told that we can put man 

on the moon with safe return with a single C-3, its equivalent or something less, 

would you judge this statement with the critical skepticism that others have? (2) Is 

the establishment of a sound booster program really so diffi cult?

I would like to comment on both these questions, and more, would like 

to forward as attachments condensed versions of plans which embody ideas and 

suggestions which I believe are so fundamentally sound and important that we 

cannot afford to overlook them. You will recall I wrote to you on a previous occasion. 

I fully realize that contacting you in this manner is somewhat unorthodox; but the 

issues at stake are crucial enough to us all that an unusual course is warranted.

Since we have had only occasional and limited contact, and because you 

therefore probably do not know me very well, it is conceivable that after reading 

this you may feel that you are dealing with a crank. Do not be afraid of this. The 

thoughts expressed here may mot be stated in as diplomatic a fashion as they 
Exploring the Unknown 523

might be, or as I would normally try to do, but this is by choice and the moment is 

not important. The important point is that you hear the ideas directly, not after 

they have fi ltered through a score or more of other people, with the attendant risk 

that they may not even reach you.

[2]

Manned Lunar Landing Through Use of Lunar Orbit Rendezvous

The plan. - The fi rst attachment [Document II-16] outlines in brief 

the plan by which we may accomplish a manned lunar landing through use of 

a lunar rendez vous, and shows a number of schemes for doing this by means 

of a single C-3, its equivalent, or even something less. The basic ideas of the 

plan were presented before various NASA people well over a year ago, and were 

since repeated at numerous interlaboratory meetings. A lunar landing program 

utilizing rendezvous concepts was even suggested back in April. Essentially, it had 

three basic points: (1) the establishment of an early rendezvous program involving 

Mercury, (2) the specifi c inclusion of rendezvous in Apollo developments, and 

(3) the accomplishment of lunar landing through use of C-2’s. It was indicated 

then that the two C-2’s could do the job, C-2 being referred to simply because 

NASA booster plans did not go beyond the C-2 at that time; it was mentioned, 

however, that with a C-3 the number of boosters required would be cut in half, 

specifi cally only one.

Regrettably, there was little interest shown in the idea - indeed, if any, it 

was negative.

Also (for the record), the scheme was presented before the Lundin 

Committee. It received only bare mention in the fi nal report and was not discussed 

further (see comments below in section entitled “Grandiose Plans “).

It was presented before the Heaton Committee, accepted as a good 

idea, then dropped, mainly on the irrelevant basis that it did not conform to the 

ground rules. I even argued against presenting the main plan consid ered by the 

Heaton Committee, largely because it would only bring harm to the rendezvous 

cause, and further argued that if the committee did not want to consider lunar 

rendezvous, at least they should make a strong recommendation that it looks 

promising enough that it deserves a separate treatment by itself - but to no avail. 

In fact, it was mentioned that if I felt suffi ciently strong about the matter, I should 

make a minority re port. This is essentially what I am doing.

We have given the plan to the presently meeting Golovin Committee on 

several occasions.

In a rehearsal of a talk on rendezvous for the recent Apollo Con ference, 

I gave a brief reference to the plan, indicating the benefi t derivable therefrom, 

knowing full well that the reviewing committee would ask me to withdraw any 

reference to this idea. As expected, this was the only item I was asked to delete.
524 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[3] The plan has been presented to the Space Task Group personnel 

several times, dating back to more than a year ago. The interest expressed has 

been completely negative.

Ground rules. - The greatest objection that has been raised about our 

lunar rendezvous plan is that it does not conform to the “ground rules”. This to 

me is nonsense; the important question is, “Do we want to get to the moon or not?”, 

and, if so, why do we have to restrict our thinking along a certain narrow channel. 

I feel very fortunate that I do not have to confi ne my thinking to arbitrarily set up 

ground rules which only serve to constrain and preclude possible equally good 

or perhaps better approaches. Too often thinking goes along the following vein: 

ground rules are set up, and then the question is tacitly asked, “Now, with these 

ground rules what does it take, or what is necessary to do the job?”. A design 

begins and shortly it is realized that a booster system way beyond present plans is 

necessary. Then a scare factor is thrown in; the proponents of the plan suddenly 

become afraid of the growth problem or that perhaps they haven’t computed so 

well, and so they make the system even larger as an “insurance” that no matter what 

happens the booster will be large enough to meet the contingency. Somehow, the 

fact is completely ignored that they are now dealing with a ponderous development 

that goes far beyond the state-of -the-art.

Why is there not more thinking along the following lines: Thus, with this 

given booster, or this one, is there anything we can do to do the job? In other 

words, why can ‘t we also think along the deriving a plan to fi t a booster, rather 

than derive a booster to fi t a plan? 

Three ground rules in particular are worthy of mention: three men, direct 

landing, and storable return. These are very restrictive require ments. If two men 

can do the job, and if the use of only two men allows the job to be done, then why 

not do it this way? If relaxing the direct requirements allows the job to be done 

with a C-3, then why not relax it? Further, when a hard objective look is taken at 

the use of storables, then it is soon realized that perhaps they aren’t so desirable 

or advantageous after all in comparison with some other fuels.

Grandiose plans, one-sided objections, and bias.- For some inexplicable 

reason, everyone seems to want to avoid simple schemes. The major ity always 

seems to be thinking in terms of grandiose plans, giving all sort of arguments 

for long-range plans, etc. Why is there not more thinking in the direction of 

developing the simplest scheme possible? Figuratively, why not go buy a Chevrolet 

instead of a Cadillac? Surely a Chevrolet gets one from one place to another just 

as well as a Cadillac, and in many respects with marked advantages.

[4]

I have been appalled at the thinking of individuals and committees on 

these matters. For example, comments of the following type have been made: 

“Houbolt has a scheme that has a 50 percent chance of getting a man to the 

moon, and a 1 percent chance of getting him back.” This comment was made by 

a Headquarters individual at ‘high level [‘] who never really has taken the time 

to hear about the scheme, never has had the scheme explained to him fully, or 
Exploring the Unknown 525

possible even correctly, and yet he feels free to pass judgment on the work. I 

am bothered by stupidity of this type being displayed by individuals who are in 

a position to make decisions which affect not only the NASA, but the fate of the 

nation as well. I have even grown to be concerned about the merits of all the 

committees that have been considering the problem. Because of bias, the intent 

of the committee is destroyed even before it starts and, further, the outcome 

is usually obvious from the beginning. We knew what the Fleming Committee 

results would be before it started. After one day it was clear what decisions the 

Lundin Committee would reach. After a couple days it was obvious what the main 

decision of the Heaton Committee would be. In connection with the Lundin 

Committee, I would like to cite a specifi c example. Considered by this committee 

was one of the most hair-brained ideas I have ever heard, and yet it received one 

fi rst place vote. In contrast, our lunar rendezvous scheme, which I am positive 

is a much more workable idea, received only bare mention in a negative vein, as 

was mentioned earlier. Thus, committees are no better than the bias of the men 

composing them. We might then ask, why are men who are not competent to 

judge ideas, allowed to judge them?

Perhaps the substance of this section might be summarized this way. Why 

is NOVA, with its ponderous ideas, whether in size, manufacturing, erection, site 

location, etc., simply just accepted, and why is a much less grandiose scheme 

involving rendezvous ostracized or put on the defensive?

PERT chart folly. - When one examines the various program schedules that 

have been advanced, he cannot help from being impressed by the optimism shown. 

The remarkable aspect is that the more remote the year, the bolder the schedule 

becomes. This is, in large measure, due to the PERT chart craze. It has become the 

vogue to subject practically everything to a PERT chart analysis, whether it means 

anything or not. Those who apply or make use of it seem to be overcome by a form 

of self-hypnosis, more or less accepting the point of view, “Because the PERT chart 

says so, it is so.” Somehow, perhaps unfortunately, the year 1967 was mentioned 

as the target year for putting a man on the moon. The Fleming report through 

extensive PERT chart analysis then “proved” this could be done. One cannot help 

but get the feeling that if the year 1966 had been mentioned, then this would have 

been the date proven; likewise, if 1968 had been the year mentioned.

[5]

My quarrel is not with the basic theory of PERT chart analysis; I am fully 

aware of its usefulness, when properly applied. I have been nominally in charge of 

a facility development and know the merits, utility, and succinctness by which it is 

helpful in keeping a going job moving, uncovering bottlenecks, and so forth. But 

when it is used in the nature of a crystal ball, then I begin to object. Thus, when we 

scrutinize various schedules and programs, we have to be very careful to ask how 

realistic the plan really is. Often simple common sense tells us much more than 

all the machines in the world.

I make the above points because, as you will see, we have a very strong 

point to make about the possibility of coming up with a rea1istic schedule; the plan 
526 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

we offer is exceptionally clean and simple in vehicle and booster requirements 

relative to other plans.

Booster is pacing item. - In working out a paper schedule we have adopted 

the C-3 development schedule used by Fleming and Heaton, not necessarily 

because we feel the schedule is realistic, but simply to make a comparison on a 

parallel basis. But whether the date is right, or not, doesn’t matter. Here, I just 

want to point out that for the lunar rendezvous scheme the C-3 booster is the 

pacing item. Thus, we can phrase our lunar landing date this way. We can put 

a man on the moon as soon as the C-3 is developed, and the number of C-3’s 

required is very small. (In fact, as I mentioned earlier, I would not be sur prised to 

have the plan criticized on the basis that it is not grandiose enough.)

Abort. - An item which perhaps deserves special mention is abort. People 

have leveled criticism, again erroneously and with no knowledge of the situation, 

that the lunar rendezvous scheme offers no abort possibilities. Along with our 

many technical studies we have also studied the abort problem quite thoroughly. 

We fi nd that there is no problem in executing an abort maneuver at any point 

in the mission. In fact, a very striking result comes out, just the reverse of the 

impression many people try to create. When one compares, for example, the 

lunar rendezvous scheme with a direct approach, he fi nds that on every count the 

lunar rendezvous method offers a degree of safety and reliability far greater than 

that possible by the direct approach. These items are touched upon to a limited 

extent in the attached plan.

Booster Program

My comments on a booster program will be relatively short, since the 

second attachment [not included] more or less speaks for itself. There are, 

however, a few points worthy of embellishment.

[6]

Booster design. - In the course of participating in meetings dealing with 

vehicle design, I have sometimes had to sit back completely awed and astonished 

at what I was seeing take place. I have seen the course of an entire meeting 

change because of an individual not connected with the meeting walking in, 

looking over shoulders, shaking his head in a negative sense, and then walking 

out without uttering a word. I have seen people agree on velocity increments, 

engine performance, and structural data, and after a booster design was made to 

these fi gures, have seen some of the people then derate the vehicle simply because 

they couldn’t believe the numbers. I just cannot cater to proceedings of this type. 

The situation is very much akin to a civil engineer who knows full well that the 

material he is using will withstand 60,00 psi. He then applies a factor of safety of 

2.5, makes a design, then after looking at the results, arbitrarily doubles the size 

of every member because he isn’t quite sure that the design is strong enough. A 

case in point is the C-3. In my initial contacts with this vehicle, we were assured 

that it had a payload capability in the neighborhood of 110,000-120,000 lbs. Then 

it was derated. The value used by the Heaton Committee was 105,000 lbs. By the 

time the vehicle had reached the Golovin Committee, I was amazed to fi nd that it 
Exploring the Unknown 527

had a capability of only 82, 570 lbs. Perhaps the only comment that can be made 

to this is that if we can’t do any better on making elementary computations of this 

type, then we deserve to be in the pathetic situation we are. I also wonder where 

we will stand after NOVA is derated similarly.

“Quantizing” bad. - One of the reasons our booster situation is in such a 

sad state is the lack of appropriate engines, more specifi cally the lack of an orderly 

stepping in engine sizes. Booster progress is virtually at a standstill because there are 

no engines available, just as engines were the major pacing item in the development 

of aircraft. Aside from the engines on our smaller boosters, and the H-1 being used 

on the [Saturn] C-1, the only engines we have in development are:

Capability Ratio

 15,000

 13.3

 200,000

 7.5

1,500,000

The attempt to make boosters out of this stock of engines, having very large ratios 

in capability, can only result in boosters of grotesque and unwieldy confi gurations, 

and which require many, many in-fl ight engine starts. What is needed are engines 

which step up in size at a lower ratio. Consideration of the staging of an “ideal” 

rocket system indicates that whether accelerating to orbit speed or to escape speed, 

the ratio of engine sizes needed is in the order of 3. Logically then we ought to have 

engines that step in capability by a factor of around 2, 3, or 4. An every-day analog 

that can be mentioned is outboard motors. There is a motor to serve nearly every 

need, and in the extreme cases the process of doubling up is even used.

[7]

Booster Program. - In light of the preceding paragraph, and taking into 

account the engines under development, we should add the following two:

 80,000 - 100,000 H2 - O2

 400,000 - 500,000 H2 - O2

This would then give a line-up as follows:

 15,000 H/O

 80,000 - 100,000 H/O

 200,000 H/O

 400,000 - 500,000 H/O

1,500,000 RP/O
528 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

with the 15,000-lb. engine really not needed. This array (plus those mentioned 

immediately below) would allow the construction of almost all types of boosters 

conceivable. For example, a single 80,000-100,000 engine would take the place of 

the six L-115 engines being used on S-IV; not only is the arrangement of six engines 

on this vehicle bad, but these engines have very poor starting characteristics. The 

400,000-500,000 would be used to replace the four J-2’s on the S-II. Thus, C-3 

would change from a messy 12-engined vehicle requiring 10 in-fl ight engine starts 

to a fairly simple 5-engine vehicle with only 3 in-fl ight engine starts.

In addition, the following engines should be included in a program:

1,000,000 - 1,500,000 lb. Solid

 5,000,000 Solid

and/or 5,000,000 Storable

The 1,000,000 - 1,500,000 lb. solid would in itself be a good building block and 

would probably work in nicely to extend the capabilities of vehicles, such as Titan. 

The 5,000,000 solid and/or storable would also be good building blocks and 

specifi cally would serve as alternate fi rst-stage boosters for C-3, aiming at simplicity 

and reliability.

[8]

It may be said that there is nothing new here and that all of the above 

is obvious. Indeed, it seems so obvious that one wonders why such a program 

was not started 5 years ago. But the fact that it may be obvious doesn’t help us; 

what is necessary is putting the obvious into effect. In this connection, there may 

be some who ask, “But are the plans optimum and the best?” This question is 

really not pertinent. There will never be an optimized booster or program. We 

might have an optimum booster for a given situation, but there is none that is 

optimum for all situations. To seek one, would just cause deliberation to string 

out indefi nitely with little, if any, progress being made. The DynaSoar case is a 

good example of this.

A criticism that undoubtedly will be leveled at the above suggestion is that 

I’m not being realistic in that there is just not enough money around to do all 

these things. If this is the situation, then the answer is simply that’s why we have 

Webb and his staff. That’s why he was chosen to head the organization, this is one 

of his major functions, to ask the question, do we want to do a job or not?, and, 

if so, then to fi nd out where the gaps or holes are, and then to go about doing 

what is necessary to fi ll the gaps to make sure the job gets done. Further, the load 

doesn’t have to be carried by the NASA alone. The Air Force and NASA can 

work together and share the load, and I’m sure that if this is done, the necessary 

money can be found. Even if some project, say, for example, the 5,000,000-lb. 

storable engine has to be dropped for some reason after it gets started; no harm 

will be done. This happens every day. On the contrary, some good, some new 

knowledge, will have been uncovered, even if it turns out to be the discovery of 

the next obstacle which prevents such a booster from being built.
Exploring the Unknown 529

Nuclear booster and booster size. - Although not mentioned in the 

previous section, work on nuclear engines should, of course, continue. Any 

progress made here will integrate very nicely into the booster plans indicated in 

the attachment.

As regards booster size, the following comment is offered. Excluding for 

the moment NOVA type vehicles, we should strive for boosters which make use of 

the engines mentioned in the preceding section and which are the biggest that 

can be made and yet still be commensurate with existing test-stand sites and with 

the use of launch sites that are composed of an array of assembly buildings and 

multiple launch pads. The idea behind launch sites of this type is an excellent 

one. It keeps real estate demands to a minimum, allows for ease in vehicle 

assembly and check-out, and greatly eases the launch rate problem. Thus, C-3 

or C-4 should be designed accordingly. We would then have a nice work-horse 

type vehicle having relative ease of handling, and which would permit a lunar 

landing mission, as indicated earlier in the lunar rendezvous write-up section. 

From my point of view, I would much rather confi ne my spending to a single 

versatile launch site of the type mentioned, save money in real estate acquisition 

and launch site development necessary for the huge vehicles, and put the money 

saved into an engine development program. 

[9]

Concluding Remarks

It is one thing to gripe, another to offer constructive criticism. Thus, 

in making a few fi nal remarks, I would like to offer what I feel would be a sound 

integrated overall program. I think we should: 

1. Get a manned rendezvous experiment going with the Mark II Mercury.

2. Firm up the engine program suggested in this letter and attachment, 

converting the booster to these engines as soon as possible.

3. Establish the concept of using a C-3 and lunar rendezvous to accomplish 

the manned lunar landing as a fi rm program.

Naturally, in discussing matters of the type touched upon herein, one 

cannot make comments without having them smack somewhat against NOVA. I 

want to assure you, however, I’m not trying to say NOVA should not be built. I’m 

simply trying to establish that our scheme deserves a parallel front-line position. 

As a matter of fact, because the lunar rendezvous approach is easier, quicker, 

less costly, requires less development, less new sites and facilities, it would appear 

more appropriate to say that this is the way to go, and that we will use NOVA as 

a follow on. Give us the go-ahead, and C-3, and we will put men on the moon in 

very short order - and we don’t need any Houston empire to do it.

In closing, Dr. Seamans, let me say that should you desire to discuss the 

points covered in this letter in more detail, I would welcome the opportunity to 

come up to Headquarters to discuss them with you.
530 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Respectfully yours,

John C. Houbolt

Document II-16

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER

VOLUME 1

MANNED LUNAR-LANDING through use of LUNAR-ORBIT RENDEZVOUS

[i]

FOREWORD

In the course of conducting research on the problem of space ren dezvous 

and on various aspects of manned space missions, Langley Research Center has 

evolved what is believed to be a particularly appealing scheme for performing 

the manned lunar landing mission. The key to the mission is the use of lunar 

rendezvous, which greatly reduces the size of the booster needed at the earth.

More defi nitely the mission may be described essentially as follows: A 

manned exploration vehicle is considered on its way to the moon. On approach, 

this vehicle is decelerated into a low-altitude circular orbit about the moon. From 

this orbit a lunar lander descends to the moon surface, leaving the return vehicle 

in orbit. After exploration the lunar lander ascends for rendezvous with the return 

vehicle. The return vehicle is then boosted into a return trajectory to the earth, 

leaving the lander behind.

The signifi cant advantage brought out by this procedure is the marked 

reduction in escape weight required; the reduction is, of course, a direct refl ection 

of the reduced energy requirements brought about by leaving a sizable mass in 

lunar orbit, in this case, the return capsule and return propulsion system.

This report has been prepared by members of the Langley Research Center 

to indicate the research that has been conducted, and what a complete manned 

lunar landing mission using this system would entail. For further reference, main 

contacts are John D. Bird, Arthur W. Vogeley, or John C. Houbolt.
Exploring the Unknown 531

J.C.H.

October 31, 1961

[ii]

OUTLINE AND INDEX

Page

FOREWORD .............................................................................................................. i

OUTLINE AND INDEX ..........................................................................................ii

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 5

PART I

PROGRAM FOR MANNED LUNAR LANDING 

THROUGH USE OF LUNAR RENDEZVOUS ....................................................... 6

MISSION DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................ 6 

Mission profile and vehicle concept ........................................................................ 6

VEHICLE WEIGHTS AND BOOSTER REQUIREMENTS ................................. 12

PROGRAM PLAN AND SCHEDULING ................................................................ 21

FUNDING................................................................................................................ 28 

SAFETY AND RELIABILITY .................................................................................. 30

Crew safety ........................................................................................................ 30

Mission accomplishment and development reliability................................... 32

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ................................................................................ 33

Lunar Lander Development ............................................................................ 33

Rendezvous Operation Development ............................................................. 33

Instrumentation Development ........................................................................ 34

Development Facilities for Lunar Rendezvous Mission ................................. 34 

Analog docking facility ........................................................................... 35 

Lunar descent and take-off research facility .......................................... 36

Lunar landing research facility .............................................................. 36

[iii]
532 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

PART II

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE MISSION ......................................................... 41

GUIDANCE INTO A LUNAR ORBIT ................................................................... 41

DESCENT TO LUNAR SURFACE ......................................................................... 51

Lunar letdown .................................................................................................. 51 

Lunar landing technique ................................................................................. 55

LUNAR LAUNCH AND RENDEZVOUS............................................................... 59 

General considerations .................................................................................... 59 

Launch and injection phase of rendezvous .................................................... 59

Coast phase of rendezvous ............................................................................... 60 

Simulation studies ............................................................................................ 61

ABORT IN ALL PHASES........................................................................................ 70

INSTRUMENTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, LIFE SUPPORT, AND 

 AUXILIARY POWER ........................................................................................ 73

Navigation and Guidance ................................................................................ 73

Communications .............................................................................................. 75

Life Support System ......................................................................................... 76

Auxiliary Power ................................................................................................. 79

THE RADIATION HAZARD .................................................................................. 92

WEIGHTLESSNESS ................................................................................................ 94

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 95

PART III

APPENDIX - ADDITIONAL FACILITIES AND STUDIES

 (UNDERWAY AND PLANNED) IN SUPPORT OF A MANNED 

 LUNAR LANDING ........................................................... Appears in Volume II

[1]

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Studies made at Langley Research Center of various schemes for performing the manned lunar landing mission indicate that the lunar rendezvous 

method is the simplest, most reliable, and quickest means for accomplishing 

the task. This technique permits a lunar exploration to be made with a single 

C-3 booster. A fi rst landing is indicated in March 1966, with a possibility of an 

attempt as early as November 1965. These dates do not require changes in 

previously established Apollo, C-l, and C-3 development schedules. Further, the 
Exploring the Unknown 533

lunar rendezvous approach contains a number of features which tend to raise the 

schedule confi dence level; the most impor tant of these are:

(a) The Apollo vehicle, the lander, and the rendezvous experiment can 

all proceed on an independent parallel basis, thus avoiding schedule con fl icts; 

further, the overall development is simplifi ed because each vehicle has only a 

single function to perform.

(b) The lunar rendezvous approach permits complete system development 

to be done with C-l, which will be available and well developed, and makes the 

entire C-3 picture exceptionally clean and simple, thus resulting in a minimum 

cost program.

In amplifi cation of these general remarks, the following specifi c 

conclusions are drawn from the technical studies which are summarized in the 

body of this report:

A. Mission Approach and Scheduling:

1. The lunar rendezvous method requires only a single C- 3 or C-4 launch 

vehicle. Earth orbital weights required for various system arrange ments are summarized 

in fi gure 1. (See also tables VI and VII later in the text.) [not provided]

2. The lunar rendezvous method schedules the fi rst landing in March 1966.

3. The lunar rendezvous method does not require that the Apollo vehicle 

be compromised because of landing considerations.

4. The lunar rendezvous method allows the landing vehicle confi gura tion to 

be optimized for landing.

5. The lunar rendezvous method requires only C-l boosters for com plete 

system deve1opment.

[2]

6. The lunar rendezvous method provides for complete lander checkout 

and crew training in the lunar landing, lunar launch, and rendezvous docking 

operations on the actual vehicle.

B. Funding:

The lunar rendezvous method results in a program cost which will be less 

than the cost of other methods for the following reasons:

1. Requires fewer (20 to 40 percent) large boosters than other programs.

2. Requires no Nova vehicles.

3. Requires less C-3 or C-4 vehicles than other programs. 

4. Programs most fl ights on best-developed booster (C-1).
534 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

5. Requires a minimum of booster ground facilities, because large boosters 

are avoided and because of a low launch rate.

The lunar rendezvous method can be readily paralleled with some other 

program at least total program cost.

C. Lunar Rendezvous:

The lunar rendezvous under direct, visual, pilot control is a simple 

reliable operation which provides a level of safety and reliability higher than other 

methods as outlined below.

D. Safety and Reliability:

1. The lander confi guration is optimized.

2. The single-lander system permits safe return of the primary vehicle in 

event of a landing accident.

3. The two-lander system provides a rescue capability.

4. Crews can be trained in lunar landing, lunar launch, and rendezvous 

docking operations in the actual vehicle.

5. Requires fewest number of large booster fl ights.

6. Provides for most fl ights on best-developed booster (C-1).

[3]

E. Abort Capability:

1. An abort capability meeting the basic Mercury-Apollo requirements 

can be provided.

2. This abort capability can be provided with no additional fuel or weight 

penalties.

F. Lunar Lander Development:

l. Lunar lander design is optimized for landing.

2. Being essentially separate from Apollo, development can proceed with 

a minimum of schedule confl ict.

3. Research, development, and checkout can be performed on ground 

facilities now under procurement and which will be available in time to meet the 

program schedule.

G. Development Facilities:

1. The lunar rendezvous method requires no additional booster ground 

facilities (see item B-5).
Exploring the Unknown 535

2. The ground facilities required for rendezvous-operations develop ment 

are now being procured and will be ready. 

3. The ground facilities for lander development and checkout are now 

being procured and will be ready.

[remainder of report not provided]

Document II-17

January 26, 1962

 MEMORANDUM FOR THE RECORD

Brainerd and I agreed that LOR looks suffi ciently attractive to warrant 

further study. He feels that the study should be run from OMSF, rather than either 

Center, to provide a measure of objectivity.

Apparently we have to go for an open competition, which I shall try to 

get under way as quickly as possible. Because of the implications on the overall 

program, we shall attempt to conduct the study at a secret level. We are also 

concerned that MSFC will be especially negative with LOR because they have not 

studied it. I will attempt to defi ne areas in which they can contribute to our overall 

studies, in order to expose them to the details of the mode.

I am concerned that MSC’s weight estimates are quite optimistic. We 

shall concentrate, in the LOR study, on the detail, conservative estimation of the 

LEM weight, and the mechanization of rendezvous.

[Signed J. F. Shea]

J.F. Shea

Document II-18

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY DR. WERNHER VON BRAUN ABOUT MODE 

SELECTION FOR THE LUNAR LANDING PROGRAM GIVEN TO DR. 

JOSEPH F. SHEA, DEPUTY DIRECTOR (SYSTEMS) OFFICE OF MANNED 

SPACE FLIGHT

JUNE 7, 1962
536 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

In the previous six hours we presented to you the results of some of 

the many studies we at Marshall have prepared in connection with the Manned 

Lunar Landing Project. The purpose of all these studies was to identify potential 

technical problem areas, and to make sound and realistic scheduling estimates. 

All studies were aimed at assisting you in your fi nal recommendation with respect 

to the mode to be chosen for the Manned Lunar Landing Project.

Our genera1 conclusion is that all four modes investigated are technically 

feasible and could be implemented with enough time and money. We have, 

however, arrived at a defi nite list of preferences in the following order:

1. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode - with the strong recommendation 

(to make up for the limited growth potential of this mode) to initiate, 

simul taneously, the development of an unmanned, fully automatic, 

C-5 logistics vehicle.

2. Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode (Tanking Mode).

3. C-5 Direct Mode with minimum size Command Module and High 

Energy Return.

4. Nova or C-8 Mode.

I shall give you the reasons behind this conclusion in just one minute.

But fi rst I would like to reiterate once more that it is absolutely mandatory 

that we arrive at a definite mode decision within the next few weeks, preferably by 

the first of July, 1962. We are already losing time in our over-all program as a result 

of a lacking mode decision.

[2] A typical example is the S-IVB contract. If the S-IVB stage is to serve not 

only as the third (escape) stage for the C-5, but also as the second stage for the 

C-l B needed in support of rendezvous tests, a fl yable S-IVB will be needed at least 

one year earlier than if there was no C-1 B at all. The impact of this question on 

facility planning, build up of contractor level of effort, etc., should be obvious.

Furthermore, if we do not freeze the mode now, we cannot layout a defi nite 

program with a schedule on which the budgets for FY - 1964 and following can 

be based. Finally, if we do not make a clear-cut decision on the mode very soon, 

our chances of accomplishing the fi rst lunar ex pedition in this decade will fade 

away rapidly.

I. WHY DO WE RECOMMEND LUNAR ORBIT RENDEZVOUS MODE PLUS 

C-5 ONE-WAY LOGISTICS VEHICLE?

a. We believe this program offers the highest confi dence factor of 

successful accomplishment within this decade.

b. It offers an adequate performance margin. With storable propellants, 

both for the Service Module and Lunar Excursion Module, we should have a 
Exploring the Unknown 537

comfortable padding with respect to propulsion per formance and weights. 

The performance margin could be further in creased by initiation of a back-up 

development aimed at a High Energy Propulsion System for the Service Module 

and possibly the Lunar Excursion Module. Additional performance gains could 

be obtained if current proposals by Rocketdyne to increase the thrust and/ or 

specifi c impulses of the F-l and J -2 engines were implemented.

c. We agree with the Manned Spacecraft Center that the designs of a 

maneuverable hyperbolic re-entry vehicle and of a lunar landing vehicle constitute 

the two most critical tasks in producing a successful lunar spacecraft. A drastic 

separation of these two functions into two separate elements is bound to greatly 

simplify the development of the spacecraft system. Developmental cross-feed 

between results from simulated or actual landing tests, on the one hand, and 

re-entry tests, on the other, are minimized if no attempt is made to include the 

Command Module into the lunar landing process. The mechanical sepa ration of 

the two functions would virtually permit completely parallel developments of the 

Command Module and the Lunar Excursion Module. While it may be diffi cult 

to accurately appraise this advantage in terms of months to be gained, we have 

no doubt whatsoever that such a procedure will indeed result in very substantial 

saving of time.

[3] d. We believe that the combination of the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode 

and a C-5 one-way Logistics Vehicle offers a great growth potential. After the fi rst 

successful landing on the moon, demands for follow-on programs will essentially 

center on increased lunar surface mobility and increased material supplies for 

shelter, food, oxygen, scientifi c instru mentation, etc. It appears that the Lunar 

Excursion Module, when refi lled with propellants brought down by the Logistics 

Vehicle, constitutes an ideal means for lunar surface transportation. First estimates 

indicate that in the l/6 G gravitational fi eld of the moon, the Lunar Excursion 

Module, when used as a lunar taxi, would have a radius of action of at least 40 

miles from around the landing point of the Logistics Vehicle. It may well be that 

on the rocky and treacherous lunar terrain the Lunar Excursion Module will turn 

out to be a far more attractive type of a taxi than a wheeled or caterpillar vehicle.

e. We believe the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode using a single C-5 

offers a very good chance of ultimately growing into a C-5 direct capability. At 

this time we recommend against relying on the C-5 Direct Mode because of its 

need for a much lighter command module as well as a high energy landing and 

return propulsion system. While it may be unwise to count on the availability of 

such advanced equipment during this decade (this is why this mode was given a 

number 3 rating) it appears entirely within reach in the long haul.

f. If and when at some later time a reliable nuclear third stage for 

Saturn C-5 emerges from the RIFT program, the performance margin for the C-5 

Direct Mode will become quite comfortable.

g. Conversely, if the Advanced Saturn C-5 were dropped in favor of a Nova 

or C-8, it would completely upset all present plans for the implementation of the RIFT 

program. Contracts, both for the engines and the RIFT stage, have already been let 

and would probably have to be cancelled until a new program could be developed.
538 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

h. We conclude from our studies that an automatic pinpoint letdown on 

the lunar surface going through a circumlunar orbit and using a landing beacon 

is entirely possible. Whether this method should be limited to the C-5 Logistics 

Vehicle or be adopted as a secondary mode for the Lunar Excursion Module is a 

matter that should be carefully dis cussed with the Manned Spacecraft Center. It 

may well be that the demand for incorporation of an additional automatic landing 

capability in the Lunar Excursion Module buys more trouble than gains.

[4] i. The Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode augmented by a C-5 Logistics 

Vehicle undoubtedly offers the cleanest managerial interfaces between the Manned 

Spacecraft Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Launch Operations Center and 

all our contractors. While the precise effect of this may be hard to appraise, it 

is a commonly accepted fact that the number and the nature of technical and 

managerial interfaces are very major factors in conducting a complex program 

on a tight time schedule. There are already a frightening number of interfaces in 

existence in our Manned Lunar Landing Program. There are inter faces between 

the stages of the launch vehicles, between launch vehicles and spacecraft, 

between complete space vehicles and their ground equip ment, between manned 

and automatic checkout, and in the managerial area between the Centers, the 

Washington Program Offi ce, and the contractors. The plain result of too many 

interfaces is a continuous and disastrous erosion of the authority vested in the line 

organization and the need for more coordination meetings, integration groups, 

work ing panels, ad-hoc committees, etc. Every effort should therefore be made to 

reduce the number of technical and managerial interfaces to a bare minimum.

j. Compared with the C-5 Direct Mode or the Nova/C-8 Mode, the 

Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode offers the advantage that no existing contracts for 

stages (if we go to Nova) or spacecraft systems (if we go to C-5 Direct) have to be 

terminated; that the contractor structure in existence can be retained; that the 

contract negotiations presently going on can be fi nished under the existing set of 

ground rules; that the con tractor build-up program (already in full swing) can be 

continued as planned; that facilities already authorized and under construction 

can be built as planned, etc.

k. We at the Marshall Space Flight Center readily admit that when 

fi rst exposed to the proposal of the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode we were a bit 

skeptical - particularly of the aspect of having the astronauts execute a complicated 

rendezvous maneuver at a distance of 240,000 miles from the earth where any rescue 

possibility appeared remote. In the meantime, however, we have spent a great deal 

of time and effort studying the four modes, and we have come to the conclusion 

that this particular disadvantage is far outweighed by the advantages listed above.

We understand that the Manned Spacecraft Center was also quite 

skeptical at fi rst when John Houbolt of Langley advanced the proposal of the 

Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode, and that it took them quite a while to substantiate 

the feasibility of the method and fi nally endorse it.

Against this background it can, therefore, be concluded that the issue 

of “invented here” versus “not invented here” does not apply to [5] either the 

Manned Spacecraft Center or the Marshall Space Flight Center; that both Centers 
Exploring the Unknown 539

have actually embraced a scheme suggested by a third. Undoubtedly, personnel 

of MSC and MSFC have by now conducted more detailed studies on all aspects of 

the four modes than any other group. Moreover, it is these two Centers to which 

the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight would ultimately have to look to “deliver the 

goods”. I consider it fortunate indeed for the Manned Lunar Landing Program 

that both Centers, after much soul searching, have come to identical conclusions. 

This should give the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight some additional assurance 

that our recom mendations should not be too far from the truth.

II. WHY DO WE NOT RECOMMEND THE EARTH ORBIT RENDEZVOUS 

MODE?

Let me point out again that we at the Marshall Space Flight Center consider the Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode entirely feasible. Specifi cally, we found 

the Tanking Mode substantially superior to the Connecting Mode. Com pared to 

the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode, it even seems to offer a somewhat greater 

performance margin. This is true even if only the nominal two C-5’s (tanker 

and manned lunar vehicle) are involved, but the performance margin could be 

further enlarged almost indefi nitely by the use of additional tankers.

We have spent more time and effort here at Marshall on studies of the 

Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode (Tanking and Connecting Modes) than on any 

other mode. This is attested to by six big volumes describing all aspects of this 

mode. Nor do we think that in the light of our fi nal recommendation - to adopt 

the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode instead - this effort was in vain. Earth Orbit 

Rendezvous as a general operational procedure will undoubtedly play a major role 

in our over-all national space fl ight program, and the use of it is even mandatory 

in developing a Lunar Orbit Rendezvous capability.

The reasons why, in spite of these advantages, we moved it down to 

position number 2 on our totem pole are as follows:

a. We consider the Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode more complex and 

costlier than Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. Moreover, lunar mission success with Earth 

Orbit Rendezvous requires two consecutive successful launches. If, for example, 

after a successful tanker launch, the manned lunar vehicle aborts during its 

ascent, or fails to get off the pad within a certain permis sible period of time, the 

fi rst (tanker) fl ight must also be written off as useless for the mission.

b. The interface problems arising between the Manned Spacecraft 

Center and the Marshall Space Flight Center, both in the technical and 

management areas, would be more diffi cult if the Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode 

was adopted. For example, if the tanker as an unmanned vehicle was handled 

by MSFC, and the fl ight of the manned lunar vehicle was [6] conducted by the 

Manned Spacecraft Center, a managerial interface arises between target and 

chaser. On the other hand, if any one of the two Centers would take over the 

entire mission, it would probably bite off more than it could chew, with the result 

of even more diffi cult and unpleasant interface problems.
540 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

c. According to repeated statements by Bob Gilruth, the Apollo 

Command Module in its presently envisioned form is simply unsuited for lunar 

landing because of the poor visibility conditions and the undesirable supine 

position of the astronauts during landing.

III. WHY DO WE NOT RECOMMEND THE C-5 DIRECT MODE?

It is our conviction that the C-5 Direct Mode will ultimately become 

feasible - once we know more about hyperbolic re-entry, and once we have 

adequate high energy propulsion systems available that can be used conveniently 

and reliably on the surface of the moon. With the advent of a nuclear third stage 

for C-5, the margin for this capability will be sub stantively widened, of course.

a. Our main reason against recommending the C-5 Direct Mode is its 

marginal weight allowance for the spacecraft and the demand for high energy 

return propulsion, combined with the time factor, all of which would impose a 

very substantial additional burden on the Manned Spacecraft Center.

b. The Manned Spacecraft Center has spent a great deal of time and 

effort in determining realistic spacecraft weights. In the opinion of Bob Gilruth 

and Chuck Mathews, it would simply not be realistic to expect that a lunar 

spacecraft light enough to be used with the C-5 Direct Mode could be developed 

during this decade with an adequate degree of confi dence.

c. The demand for a high energy return propulsion system, which is 

implicit in the C-5 Direct Mode, is considered undesirable by the Manned Spacecraft 

Center - at the present state-of-the-art at least - because this propulsion system must 

also double up as an extra-atmospheric abort propulsion system. For this purpose, 

MSC considers a propulsion system as simple and reliable as possible (storable and 

hypergolic propellants) as absolutely mandatory. We think the question of inherent 

reliability of storable versus high energy propulsion systems - and their usability in 

the lunar surface environment - can be argued, but as long as the require ment for 

“storables” stands, the C-5 Direct Mode is not feasible performance wise.

[7] d. NASA has already been saddled with one program (Centaur) where 

the margin between performance claims for launch vehicle and demands for 

payload weights were drawn too closely. We do not consider it prudent to repeat 

this mistake.

IV. WHY DO WE RECOMMEND AGAINST THE NOVA OR C-8 MODE?

It should be clearly understood that our recommendation against the 

Nova or C-8 Mode at this time refers solely to its use as a launch vehicle for the 

implementation of the President’s commitment to put a man on the moon in 

this decade. We at Marshall feel very strongly that the AdvancedSaturn C-5 is not 

the end of the line as far as major launch vehicles are concerned! Undoubtedly, 

as we shall be going about setting up a base on moon and beginning with the 

manned exploration of the planets, there will be a great need for launch vehicles 

more powerful than the C-5. But for these purposes such a new vehicle could 

be conceived and developed on a more relaxed time schedule. It would be a 
Exploring the Unknown 541

true follow-on launch vehicle. All of our studies aimed at NASA’s needs for a 

true manned interplanetary capability indicate that a launch vehicle substantially 

more powerful than one powered by eight F-l engines would be required. Our 

recommendation, therefore, should be formulated as follows: “Let us take Nova 

or C-8 out of the race of putting an American on the moon in this decade, but let 

us develop a sound concept for a follow-on ‘Supernova’ launch vehicle”.

Here are our reasons for recommending to take Nova or C-8 out of the 

present Manned Lunar Landing Program:

a. As previously stated, the Apollo system in its present form is not 

landable on the moon. The spacecraft system would require substantial changes 

from the presently conceived confi guration. The same argument is, of course, 

applicable to the Earth Orbit Rendezvous Mode.

b. With the S-II stage of the Advanced Saturn C-5 serving as a second 

stage of a C-8 (boosted by eight F-l engines) we would have an un desirable, poorly 

staged, hybrid launch vehicle, with a payload capability far below the maximum 

obtainable with the same fi rst stage. Performance wise, with its escape capability 

of only 132,000 lbs. (in lieu of the 150,000 lbs. demanded) it would still be too 

marginal, without a high energy return propulsion system, to land the present 

Apollo Command Module on the surface of the moon.

c. Imp1ementation of the Nova or C-8 program in addition to the 

Advanced Saturn C-5 would lead to two grossly underfunded and under managed 

programs with resulting abject failure of both. Implementation [8] of the Nova 

or C-8 program in lieu of the Advanced Saturn C-5 would have an absolutely 

disastrous impact on all our facility plans.

The rafter height of the Michoud plant is 40 feet. The diameter of the 

S-IC is 33 feet. As a result, most of the assembly operations for the S-IC booster 

of the C-5 can take place in a horizontal position. Only a rela tively narrow high 

bay tower must be added to the main building for a few operations which must be 

carried out in a vertical position. A Nova or C-8 booster, however, has a diameter 

of approximately 50 feet. This means that the roof of a very substantial portion of 

the Michoud plant would have to be raised by 15 to 20 feet. Another alternative 

would be to build a very large high bay area where every operation involving 

cumbersome parts would be done in a vertical position. In either case the very 

serious question arises whether under these circumstances the Michoud plant was 

a good selection to begin with.

The foundation situation at Michoud is so poor that extensive pile driving 

is necessary. This did not bother us when we acquired the plant because the many 

thousands of piles on which it rests were driven twenty years ago by somebody 

else. But if we had to enter into a major pile driving operation now, the question 

would immediately arise as to whether we could not fi nd other building sites 

where foundations could be prepared cheaper and faster.

Any tampering with the NASA commitment to utilize the Michoud plant, 

however, would also affect Chrysler’s S-1 program, for which tooling and plant 
542 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

preparation are already in full swing at Michoud. Raising the roof and driving 

thousands of piles in Michoud may turn out to be impossible while Chrysler is 

assembling S-I’s in the same hangar.

In summary, the impact of a switch from C-5 to Nova/C-8 on the very 

concept of Michoud, would call for a careful and detailed study whose outcome 

with respect to continued desirability of the use of the Michoud plant appears 

quite doubtful. We consider it most likely that discontinuance of the C-5 plan 

in favor of Nova or C-8 would reopen the entire Michoud decision and would 

throw the entire program into turmoil with ensuing unpredictable delays. The 

construction of a new plant would take at least 2-1/2 years to benefi cial occupancy 

and over 3 years to start of production.

d. At the Marshall Space Flight Center, construction of a static test stand 

for S-IC booster is well under way. In its present form this test stand cannot be 

used for the fi rst stage of Nova or C-8. Studies indicate that as far as the noise level 

is concerned, there will probably be no ob jection to fi ring up eight F-1 engines 

at MSFC. However, the Marshall [9] test stand construction program would be 

greatly delayed, regardless of what approach we would take to accommodate 

Nova/C-8 stages. Detailed studies seem to indicate that the fastest course of action, 

if Nova or C-8 were adopted, would be to build

 — a brand new eight F-l booster test stand south of the present S-IC test 

stand, and

 — convert the present S-IC test stand into an N-II test stand. (This latter 

conclusion is arrived at because the fi ring of an N-II stage at Santa 

Susanna is not possible for safety reasons, the S-II propel lant load 

being considered the absolute maximum permissible.)

The Mississippi Test Facility is still a “cow pasture that NASA doesn’t even 

own yet,” and cannot compete with any test stand availability dates in Huntsville. 

Developments of basic utilities (roads, water, power, sewage, canals, rail spur, etc.) at 

MTF will require well over a year, and all scheduling studies indicate that whatever 

we build at MTF is about 18 months behind comparable facilities built in Huntsville. 

MTF should, therefore, be considered an acceptance fi ring and product improvement site for Michoud products rather than a basic development site.

e. In view of the fact that the S-II stage is not powerful enough for the 

Apollo direct fl ight mission profi le, a second stage powered by eight or nine J-2’s 

or two M-l’s is needed. Such a stage would again be on the order of 40 to 50 feet 

in diameter. No studies have been made as to whether it could be built in the 

Downey/Seal Beach complex. It is certain, however, that its static testing in Santa 

Susanna is impossible. As a result, we would have to take an entirely new look at 

the NAA contract.

f. I have already mentioned the disruptive effect a cancellation of the 

C-5 would have on the RIFT program.
Exploring the Unknown 543

g. One of the strongest arguments against replacement of the Advanced 

Saturn C-5 by Nova or C-8 is that such a decision would topple our entire contractor 

structure. It should be remembered that the tem porary uncertainty about the 

relatively minor question of whether NAA should assemble at Seal Beach or Eglin 

cost us a delay of almost half a year. I think it should not take much imagination 

to realize what would happen if we were to tell Boeing, NAA and Douglas that the 

C-5 was out; that we are going to build a booster with eight F -1 engines, a second 

stage with eight or nine J –2’s or maybe two M-1 engines; and that the entire 

problem of manufacturing and testing facilities must be re-evaluated.

[10] We already have several thousands of men actually at work on these three 

stages and many of these have been dislocated from their home plants in 

implementation of our present C-5 program. Rather than leaving these thousands 

of men suspended (although supported by NASA dollars) in a state of uncertainty 

over an extended period of new systems analysis, program implementation 

studies, budget reshuffl es, site selection pro cedures, etc., it may indeed turn out 

to be wiser to just terminate the existing contracts and advise the contractors that 

we will call them back once we have a new program plan laid out for them. We 

have no doubt that the termination costs incurring to NASA by doing this would 

easily amount to several hundred million dollars.

I have asked a selected group of key Marshall executives for their appraisal, 

in terms of delay of the fi rst orbital launch, if the C-5 was to be discontinued and 

replaced by a Nova or C-8. The estimates of these men (whose duties it would 

be to implement the new program) varied between 14 and 24 months with an 

average estimate of an over-all delay of 19 months. 

h. In appraising the total loss to NASA, it should also not be overlooked 

that we are supporting engine development teams at various contractor plants at 

the rate of many tens of millions of dollars per year for every stage of C-l and C-5. 

If the exact defi nition of the stages were delayed by switching to Nova/C-8, these 

engine development teams would have to be held on the NASA payroll for just 

that much longer, in order to assure proper engine / stage integration.

i. More than twelve months of-past extensive effort at the Marshall 

Space Flight Center to analyze and defi ne the Advanced Saturn C-5 system in a 

great deal of engineering detail would have to be written off as a fl at loss, if we 

abandoned the C-5 now. This item alone, aside from the time irre trievably lost, 

represents an expenditure of over one hundred million dollars.

j. The unavoidable uncertainty in many areas created by a switch to 

Nova or C-8 (Can we retain present C-5 contractors? Where are the new fabrication 

sites? Where are we going to static test? etc.) may easily lead to delays even well in 

excess of the estimates given above. For in view of the political pressures invariably 

exerted on NASA in connection with facility siting decisions, it is quite likely that 

even the NASA Administrator himself will fi nd himself frequently unable to make 

binding decisions without demanding from OMSF an extensive re-appraisal of a 

multitude of issues related with siting. There was ample evidence of this during 

the past year.
544 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

k. For all the reasons quoted above, the Marshall Space Flight Center 

considers a discontinuation of the Advanced Saturn C-5 in favor of Nova or C-8 as 

the worst of the four proposed modes for implementation of the manned lunar 

landing project. We at Marshall would consider a decision in favor of this mode to 

be tantamount with giving up the race to put a man on the moon in this decade 

even before we started.

[11]

IN SUMMARY I THEREFORE RECOMMEND THAT:

a. The Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Mode be adopted.

b. A development of an unmanned, fully automatic, one-way 

C-5 Logistics Vehicle be undertaken in support of the lunar 

expedition.

c. The C-l program as established today be retained and that, in 

accordance with progress made in S-IV B development, the C-l 

be gradually replaced by the C-I B.

d. A C-l B program be offi cially established and approved with 

adequate funding.

e. The development of high energy propulsion systems be initiated 

as a back-up for the Service Module and possibly the Lunar 

Excursion Module.

f. Supplements to present development contracts to Rocketdyne 

on the F -1 and J -2 engines be let to increase thrust and/ or 

specifi c impulse.

[signed]

Wernher von Braun, Director

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Document II-19

Document Title: Jerome Wiesner, “Memorandum for Theodore Sorensen,” 20 

November 1961.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

This memorandum from President Kennedy’s science advisor to the president’s top advisor 

provides a top-level snapshot of the status of Project Apollo at the end of 1961.
Exploring the Unknown 545

THE WHITE HOUSE

WASHINGTON

November 20, 1961

MEMORANDUM FOR

Mr. Theodore C. Sorensen

Outline of major problems related to the NASA Manned Lunar Program:

1. Required decisions 

Rendezvous 

Advanced Saturn 

Nova

2. Initiate hardware programs 

Launch vehicles (beyond Saturn C - 1) 

Engines (in addition to F-1, J-2) 

Spacecraft 

Launch pads 

Static test stands (for new stages) 

Rendezvous development

3. Activate new fi eld stations 

Houston (Spacecraft) 

Michoud (Boosters) 

Pearl River (Static test) 

AMR expansion (Launching)

4. Secure supporting information

Space environment

Long-term weightlessness

Lunar characteristics

5. Manpower (FY’63 total in-house: 26, 224 / JPL)

Availability

Competence

Salaries

[2]
546 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

6. University support 

Research grants 

Facilities 

Education

7. DOD support and related programs

Biomedical program

Titan II and III

Dyna Soar

8. Financial support

Supplemental FY ‘62: $156 M - FY ‘63: $4238.2 M

Future predictions

Note: NASA responsibilities not directly related to the manned Lunar Program:

9. Space Applications (i.e., Meteorology and Communications)

10. Aeronautics

11. Nuclear technology (Snap and Rover)

12. Other space science including Planetary and Interplanetary

13. Long-range spacecraft and vehicle technology

Comments on outline:

1. The major decisions have not been announced as to what extent 

rendezvous will be employed, what Advanced Saturn vehicle will be built (probably 

C-4), and what will be the characteristics of the so-called Nova which could put 

man on the moon by direct ascent. The relative emphasis of rendezvous versus 

direct ascent is a key to the entire program.

2. Six months have elapsed since the decision was announced to put 

man on the moon, yet none of these crucial hardware programs have progressed 

beyond the study phase. Lead times on these development and construction 

programs are of critical importance.

[3]

3. It is hoped that there will be no further fi eld stations beyond these 

already announced. However, there are major problems related to the activation 

of these centers.

4. These are the major questions related to the lunar undertaking which 

can only be obtained by a broad supporting space and life science program.
Exploring the Unknown 547

5. Many people believe that the space program may severely tax 

our supply of technical manpower for in-house and contractor needs. It is also 

important that competent leadership be available, and adequate salary scales are 

a continuing problem.

6. NASA must support a broad program of basic research related to 

the space effort in the universities. The impact on the universities and upon the 

educational requirements must also be considered.

7. There are still major problems in the NASA-DOD relationship 

related to booster development and supporting technology.

8. The total being requested of the next Congress is about 50% greater 

than was predicted for FY ‘63 last May. Extrapolation to future years of the funding 

trend does not lend itself to any optimism as to a leveling-off in the next year or two.

9 - 13. The major item in here which should be singled out at this time 

is the Nuclear Rocket Program (Rover). The total NASA-AEC request for FY ‘63 

is about $200 million. Is this level of funding realistic for a program which will 

probably not produce an operational vehicle until 1970 or later?

[signed]

Jerome B. Wiesner

Document II-20

Document Title: NASA, “Project Apollo Source Evaluation Board Report: Apollo 

Spacecraft,” NASA RFP 9-150, 24 November 1961.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The fi rst element of the system to carry astronauts to the Moon was the Apollo spacecraft. 

Even before President Kennedy set a lunar landing by the end of the decade as a national 

goal, NASA had been planning a three-person spacecraft for Earth orbital and circumlunar 

missions. After Kennedy’s 25 May 1961 speech announcing the decision to send Americans 

to the Moon, the spacecraft requirements were modifi ed to support a lunar landing mission, 

even though the approach to be taken in carrying out the mission had not yet been chosen.

The Source Evaluation Board ranked the proposal by The Martin Company fi rst among the 

fi ve companies that submitted a bid, with North American Aviation a “desirable alternative.” 

NASA Administrator James E. Webb, Deputy Administrator Hugh Dryden, and Associate 

Administrator Robert Seamans reversed this ranking, and the contract to build the Apollo 

spacecraft was awarded to North American Aviation on 28 November 1961.
548 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

PROJECT APOLLO [NASA LOGO DISPLAYED]

SOURCE EVALUATION BOARD REPORT

APOLLO SPACECRAFT

NASA RFP 9-150

CLASSIFICATION CHANGE

To Unclassifi ed on 8/17/71

November 24, 1961

Use of this document is restricted to personnel

participating in source selection procedures.

CLASSIFIED DOCUMENT – TITLE UNCLASSIFIED

This document contains information affecting the national defense of the United States 

within the [unreadable] of the espionage laws, Title 18, U.S.C., Secs. 793 and 791, the transmission 

or revelation of which in any manner to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Manned Spacecraft Center Langley Air Force Base, Virginia

REPORT OF THE SOURCE EVALUTION BOARD

APOLLO SPACECRAFT

NASA RFP 9-150

Submitted by:
Exploring the Unknown 549

Chairman: Maxime A. Faget ,Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: Robert O. Piland, Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: George M. Low, NASA Headquarters

Member: Wesley L. Hjornevik, Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: Kenneth S. Kleinknecht, Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: Charles W. Mathews, Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: James A. Chamberlin, Manned Spacecraft Center

Member: A. A. Clagett, NASA Headquarters

Member: Dr. Oswald H. Lange, Marshall Space Flight Center

Member: Dave W. Lang, Manned Spacecraft Center

*Member: James T. Koppenhaver, NASA Headquarters

Ex Offi cio: Robert R. Gilruth, Manned Spacecraft Center

*Non-voting member (reliability representative)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 2

Purpose ........................................................................................................ 2

Project Objectives ........................................................................................ 2

Project Background .................................................................................... 2

Project Elements ......................................................................................... 3

Project Cost .................................................................................................. 3

Project Schedule.......................................................................................... 3

REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL 9-150 ......................................................................... 5

Content ........................................................................................................ 5

Statement of Work ....................................................................................... 5

General Instructions ................................................................................... 5

General Contract Provision ........................................................................ 5

REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL DISSEMINATION ................................................... 6

PROPOSALS SUBMITTED ..................................................................................... 7

EVALUATION PROCEDURE ................................................................................. 8

Organization ................................................................................................ 8

Assessment Areas ......................................................................................... 8

Weighting Factors ........................................................................................ 8

Rating Method ............................................................................................. 9

Evaluation Schedule .................................................................................... 9
550 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

EVALUATION RESULTS ...................................................................................... 10

Ratings ....................................................................................................... 10

Assessment of Proposed Costs .................................................................. 11

Confl ict of Resource Requirements ......................................................... 12

Discussion of Results ................................................................................. 13 

REFERENCE .......................................................................................................... 17

[pp. 1-5 not included]

[6] REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL DISSEMINATION

Subsequent to the Headquarter’s approval of the Statement of Work and 

a Procurement Plan, the Request for Proposal was disseminated on July 28, 1961 

to the following twelve companies.

Boeing Airplane Company

Chance Vought Aircraft

General Dynamics Corporation

Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc.

General Electric Company

Goodyear Aircraft Corporation

Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation

Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

The Martin Company

McDonnell Aircraft Corporation

North American Aviation, Inc.

Republic Aviation Corporation

In addition, a synopsis of the proposed procurement was publicized in 

accordance with NASA Circular No. 131, which deals with the publicizing of 

NASA-proposed research and development procurements.

Four additional companies were provided with the Request for Proposal 

upon request.

Radio Corporation of America

Space General Corporation 

Space Technology Laboratories 

Bell Aerospace Systems

There were no complaints received from companies not invited to 

submit proposals. Potential subcontractors requesting Request for Proposals were 

referred to the potential prime contractors.

A preproposal conference attended by representatives of the sixteen 

companies was held on August 14, 1961, at which time NASA personnel discussed 

the technical and business aspects of the Request for Proposal .Approximately 
Exploring the Unknown 551

four hundred questions were answered orally and subsequently documented and 

confi rmed by mail.

[7] PROPOSALS SUBMITTED

Five companies submitted proposals on October 9, 1961, ten weeks after 

the Request for Proposal was mailed. No complaints on the time allowed were 

received and no time extensions were requested. The fi ve companies submitting 

proposals were as follows:

General Dynamics/Astronautics

General Electric Company/MSVD

The Martin Company

McDonnell Aircraft Corporation

North American Aviation, Inc./S and ID

The General Electric Company and McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 

proposed to form teams to carry out the contract. General Electric proposed to team 

with Douglas Aircraft, Grumman Aircraft, and Space Technology Laboratories. 

McDonnell proposed to team with Chance Vought, Lockheed and Hughes. 

General Dynamics proposed a single team member, AVCO. Martin and North 

American both proposed the prime-subcontractor approach. Representatives of 

the proposers made oral presentations on October 11, 1961 to members of the 

NASA evaluation team.

[8] EVALUATION PROCEDURE

Organization

The evaluation was conducted by the Source Evaluation Board. The 

Chairman of the board appointed Technical and Business Subcommittees to 

assist in the evaluation. These subcommittees in turn were assisted by panels of 

specialists. The detail procedures and membership of the subcommittees and 

panels is presented in references 2 and 3. A total of 190 personnel representing 

all major elements of the NASA and including several representatives of the DOD 

participated in the evaluation.

Assessment Areas

The Technical Evaluation consisted of two major areas, Technical 

Qualifi cations and Technical Approach. The Technical Qualifi cations portion 

covered experience, facilities, personnel, and the technical ramifi cations of 

the proposed project organization. The Technical Approach portion consisted 

of eleven areas which covered mission and system design; systems integration; 

development, reliability, and manufacturing plans; and operational concepts. The 

Business Management and Cost Evaluation consisted of the areas of organization 

and management, logistics, subcontract administration, and cost.
552 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Weighting Factors

The weighting factors assigned to the major proposal areas were as follows:

Technical Qualifi cations 30

Technical Approach 30

Business Management and Cost 40

 100

[9] Rating Method

Ratings were made on a 0-10 rating system, defi ned in the following 

manner.

10

9 Excellent

8

7 

6 Good 

5

4

3 Fair

2

1 Poor

0 Unsatisfactory

Evaluation Schedule

October 9 – 21 Detail assessment by panels

October 23 – 28 Subcommittee review

November 1 – 22 Source Evaluation Board review

[10] EVALUATION RESULTS

Ratings

The Source Evaluation Board reviewed the reports of the Technical 

and Business Subcommittees and discussed the reports with the subcommittees. 

The reports and ratings were accepted with minor modifi cations. The board 

examined the sensitivity of the weighting factors used by the various panels 

during the evaluation. It was determined that the results are not sensitive to 

moderate changes in the weighting factors. The board considered in further 

detail the item of applicable experience which had been rated by the Technical 

Subcommittee in the area of Technical Qualifi cations to insure that the factor 
Exploring the Unknown 553

of quality of experience had been adequately considered. The board’s fi ndings 

confi rmed the ratings given by the subcommittee. The board recognized that the 

Cost Panel had not had access to suffi cient information to adequately rate the 

items of Cost Experience and Cost Estimate. The board further found that the 

Organization and Management Panel had suffi cient information to adequately 

assess the Cost Experience item and so its rating of this item was used. The board 

through the use of an Ad Hoc Panel analysed the realism of the cost estimates in 

relation to the work proposed and subsequently rated this item. The rating for 

each proposal in the three major areas and a summary weighting obtained by 

applying the weight factors is presented below.

Ratings by Area

Technical 

Approach 

(30%)

Technical 

Qualifi cations

(30%)

Business 

(40%)

The Martin Company 5.58 6.63 8.09

General Dynamics/

Astronautics 

5.27 5.35 8.52

North American 

Aviation, Inc. 

5.09 6.66 7.59

General Electric 

Company

5.16 5.60 7.99

McDonnell Aircraft 

Corporation 

5.53 5.67 7.62

Summary Ratings

The Martin Company 6.9

General Dynamics/Astronautics 6.6

North American Aviation, Inc. 6.6

General Electric Company 6.4

McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 6.4

As can be seen, the North American and General Dynamics/Astronautics 

proposals received the same rating. In assessing the ratings, the board recognized 

that all the proposals had received high ratings in the Business area, the lowest 

rating (7.59) being higher than the highest rating (6.66) received in either 

the Technical Approach or Technical Qualifi cations area. Since those ratings 

established [11] that all the companies could more than adequately handle 

the business aspects of the program, the board turned its consideration to the 

Technical Evaluation for further analysis of the ratings. 

The ratings of the proposals considering only the Technical Evaluation 

areas of Approach and Qualifi cations are as follows:
554 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The Martin Company 6.1

North American Aviation, Inc. 5.9

McDonnell Aircraft Corporation 5.6

General Electric Company 5.4

General Dynamics/Astronautics 5.3

It may be concluded that General Dynamics/Astronautics’ tie for second 

place rating is due entirely to its very high rating in the Business area, since it rated last 

in the Technical Evaluation. In view of the relatively high ratings of all companies in 

the Business area, and General Dynamics lowest rating in the Technical Evaluation, 

the board fi nds North American Aviation the clearly preferred source of the two 

proposals which received the tie second place ratings.

Assessment of Proposed Costs

The Request for Proposal did not specify a particular program for the 

development of the Apollo spacecraft. Part of each contractor’s responsibility in 

deve1oping his proposal was to indicate a technical development plan, a program 

schedule inc1uding hardware and testing, and a cost estimate supporting this 

proposed plan and program. The cost estimates received, therefore, were not 

subject to direct comparison. The cost estimates received for Phase A, the earth 

orbital portion of the project, were as follows:

GD/A GE Martin MAC NAA

550 899 563 629 351

(Cost in Millions)

As mentioned above, these costs are based on the particular program proposed by 

the different offerors. These proposed programs varied to a considerable degree. 

For purposes of analysing the cost estimate an “adjusted” cost was determined. 

This “adjusted” cost modifi ed the submitted estimate to a reference number of 

spacecrafts, fl ights, and months. These adjusted costs are given below. They do 

not necessarily represent the negotiated contract cost and were used here for the 

purpose of cost analysis.

GD/A GE Martin MAC NAA

431 830 473 702 352

The cost estimates were examined in detail. Particular attention was given to 

rating the realism, validity, and overall quality of the cost proposals. In this 

regard both General Dynamics/Astronautics and Martin were considered to 

have high quality cost estimates, [12] well supported, detailed, and carefully 

considered. The low estimate of NAA was noted and carefully reviewed by 

the board, its Ad Hoc Panel, the Business Subcommittee and its Cost Panel. 

Although the quality of NAA’s past cost history was recognized, the overall 

quality of this estimate was not as high as General Dynamics/Astronautics or 

Martin and the detail and summary information appeared questionable in areas 

of engineering, design, and subcontracts cost. NAA, accordingly, was not rated 
Exploring the Unknown 555

as highly as GD/A and Martin. The General Electric Company and McDonnell 

Aircraft estimates were rated below the other estimates because of high costs for 

programs proposed which refl ected their proposed management philosophy for 

the Apollo spacecraft development.

Confl ict of Resource Requirement

The board was concerned with the possible confl ict of resource 

requirements between Apollo and other present or anticipated projects within the 

companies. Of particular concern, since they involved the preferred and alternate 

source, was the possible confl ict between Apollo and the anticipated Titan III at 

The Martin Company and between Apollo and the S-II stage at North American. 

In order to further assess the possible confl ict with the Titan III, the following 

request for information was sent to The Martin Company.

“NASA would like to ascertain the degree of confl ict in manpower and 

resources between a possible Titan III program by Martin and Martin’s Apollo 

proposal. Martin is asked to review Section 2.3 of their Management Proposal 

and inform NASA what changes would result in their proposed manpower and 

resources.”

The Martin reply was as follows: “Martin reaffi rms the subject proposal 

delivered October 9 to NASA and calls particular attention to the statements 

made in our letter of submittal and Section 2.3 of our Management Proposal 

concerning the priority Apollo will have if an award is made to us. Follow-on 

Titan programs have always been included in our future planning and, hence, 

were considered before developing the Manpower and Resources Sections of our 

Management Proposal. Titan III effort would be accomplished in our Denver 

Division and, therefore, does not constitute a confl ict with Apollo. In any event, 

we never contemplated use of Denver- Titan manpower or resources for execution 

of the Apollo program. Therefore, we contemplate no change in our proposed 

manpower or resources as a result of a possible Titan III program.”

A similar request for information related to the S-II was sent to NAA as 

follows: “NASA would like to ascertain the degree of confl ict in manpower and 

resources between the Saturn S-II contract and NAA’s Apollo proposal. North 

American is asked to correct fi gures 2.3-12, 2.3-14, and 2.3-16 of their Management 

Proposal to include the S-II load. NAA is also asked to reaffi rm or correct the 

names of key personnel on pages 2.3-24 through 2.3-32.”

[13] North American presented a detailed reply which has been fi led 

with the original proposal. The reply contained considerable detailed discussion 

and data which in essence reaffi rmed North American’s position of “no confl ict” 

as presented in the proposal.

The board considered both replies in detail and has satisfi ed itself to the 

degree possible that the manpower and resources proposed for Apollo are not in 

confl ict with those required for Titan III at Martin or the S-II at North American.
556 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Discussion of Results

The Martin Company is considered the outstanding source for the Apollo 

prime contractor. Martin not only rated fi rst in Technical Approach, a very close 

second in Technical Qualifi cations, and second in Business Management, but also 

stood up well under the further scrutiny of the board.

The Martin Company appears to be well prepared to undertake the 

Apollo effort. This was evidenced by a Technical Proposal that was complete, well 

integrated with balanced emphasis in all areas, and of high overall quality with a 

minimum amount of superfl ous material. Martin’s proposal was fi rst in fi ve of the 

eleven major Technical Approach areas including Technical Development Plan, 

Flight Mechanics, Onboard Systems, Manufacturing, and Ground Operational 

Support Systems and Operations. Martin, therefore, scored high in planning, 

design, manufacturing and operations, refl ecting the quality across the complete 

scope of the job.

Martin has experience in large technically complex systems such as Titan 

and Vanguard. The personnel proposed and company have a general background 

of manned aircraft experience, as well as varied background of experience 

including airplanes (B-5l and B-57), missiles (Titan, Matador, Mace, Bullpup, and 

Pershing), and space vehicles (Vanguard). Their inhouse experience in many of 

the required technical areas results in a high confi dence as to their capability 

as a systems integrator. The individual key technical personnel Martin proposed 

to assign to the project were evaluated as excellent both in competence and 

experience. Martin’s proposed management arrangement of a prime contractor 

with subcontractors appears technically to be the most sound both as far as 

reaching technical decisions quickly and properly and also for implementing 

these decisions. Short lines of communications involved in their proposed 

arrangement will minimize interface problems and required documentation and 

thereby result in fewer opportunities for error.

Martin proposed a strong project organization for Apollo. They would 

create a Project Apollo Division managed by a Vice President who reports directly 

to the President of the company. The parent company would put under the direct 

control of this [14] division the necessary resources of manpower and facilities 

for this job.

Martin’s cost proposal compared well with the others. Their cost estimate 

was considered to be both realistic and reasonable.

North American Aviation, Inc. is considered the desirable alternate source 

for the Apollo spacecraft development. It rated highest of all proposers in the 

major area of Technical Qualifi cations. North American’s pertinent experience 

consisting of the X-15, Navajo, and Hound Dog coupled with an outstanding 

performance in the development of manned aircraft (F-1OO and F-86) resulted 

in it being the highest rated in this area. The lead personnel proposed showed 

a strong background in development projects and were judged to be the best of 

any proposed. Like Martin, NAA proposed a project managed by a single prime 

contractor with subsystems obtained by subcontracting, which also had the good 
Exploring the Unknown 557

features described for the Martin proposal. Their project organization, however, 

did not enjoy quite as strong a position within the corporate structure as Martin’s 

did. The high Technical Qualifi cations rating resulting from these features of the 

proposal was therefore high enough to give North American a rating of second 

in the total Technical Evaluation although its detailed Technical Approach was 

assessed as the weakest submitted. This relative weakness might be attributed to 

the advantage of the McDonnell Aircraft Corporation’s Mercury experience, and 

the other three proposers’ experience on the Apollo study contracts. The Source 

Evaluation Board is convinced that NAA is well qualifi ed to carry out the assignment 

of Apollo prime contractor and that the shortcomings in its proposal could be 

rectifi ed through further design effort on their part. North American submitted 

a low cost estimate which, however, contained a number of discrepancies. North 

American’s cost history was evaluated as the best.

The remaining three companies, General Dynamics/Astronautics, 

General Electric Company, and McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, were not 

considered to be as desirable as Martin and NAA as a source for Apollo. 

These offerors supplemented their skills and resources with those of one or 

more additional companies in order to create a team prepared to carry out 

the Apollo effort. While the board found that these teams did indeed show 

adequate, or more than adequate, resources for the job, it was also apparent that 

the ramifi cations of a large team were serious. The communications problems 

created by geographical locations, the complex coordination required which 

leads to slow process of actions, the overlapping and similar capabilities of 

several team members which may lead to disagreement, and the committee 

approach [15] to project decision all tend to detract from the desirability of the 

team approach. There was also an apparent relation between high project cost 

and the two large teams.

It should be pointed out that the same degree of management diffi culty 

is not inherent in the three team offerors. GD/A with only one team associate 

should be expected to suffer very little in this respect. MAC showed awareness 

of the problem and attempted to invest adequate control responsibility in a 

strong Project Manager, who is also properly located at a high level in the MAC 

corporate structure. GE’s proposal is particularly vulnerable to this criticism since 

it emphasizes councils and committees. GE was also found in many important 

technical respects to be weaker than its other team members. Consequently, it may 

prove to be in a poor position to direct its team’s effort in confl icting situations.

General Dynamics/ Astronautics rated third in Technical Approach and 

last in Technical Qualifi cations. They rated excellently in big systems experience 

of an advanced technological nature (Atlas), but exhibited no manned aircraft 

or spacecraft experience in the Astronautics Division and their experience was 

not broad being limited to Atlas and Centaur. Relative to the other companies 

proposing, GD/A did not rate highly in facilities. While enjoying excellent 

conventional laboratories, no evidence of large-scale simulation or environmental 

equipment was noted. The personnel proposed were relatively shy in total 

experience and project experience.
558 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

GD/A submitted a cost proposal that was considered best. Like Martin, 

its estimate of cost was considered both realistic and reasonable. Although 

they clearly made the best business management proposal, the other offerors 

all rated suffi ciently high in this area to lead the board to the conclusion that 

the technical aspects should be the controlling consideration. With the weakest 

technical showing, GD/A is not considered a desirable source.

General Electric Company was rated fourth overall resulting from a third 

place rating in Business Management and fourth place ratings in both Technical 

Approach and Qualifi cations. GE’S middle rating in Business resulted from having 

excellent facilities and a willingness to invest heavily of company funds. The GE/

MSVD experience in managing systems of the scope of Apollo was lacking, and 

their management and program organizations were considered weaker than top 

proposers. GE made the highest cost proposal. This was considered by the board 

to be a true refl ection of the [16] layering of fees, the duplication of effort, and 

the extra, complexity associated with the far-fl ung large team organization they 

proposed. For this reason, the GE team was not considered a desirable source.

McDonnell Aircraft Corporation rated lowest in overall rating. Although 

MAC rated a close second in Technical Approach, it rated third in Technical 

Qualifi cations. MAC proposed the second highest cost. With a team approach 

quite similar to that of GE’s, MAC was also considered by the board to be a high 

cost producer. For these reasons, MAC did not appear to be a desirable source 

despite its high relative rating in the Technical Approach area.

Document II-21

Document Title: Joseph F. Shea, Deputy Director for Systems, Offi ce of Manned 

Space Flight, to Director of Aerospace Medicine and Director of Spacecraft and 

Flight Missions, “Selection and Training of Apollo Crew Members,” 29 March 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

As NASA began detailed scientifi c planning for Apollo, one issue was whether to expand the 

astronaut corps, which to that point had been limited to accomplished test pilots, to include 

professional scientists as astronauts. This memorandum solicits the views of key NASA human 

spacefl ight offi ces on this question. NASA decided to recruit scientist astronauts for Apollo, but 

only one, Dr. Harrison Schmitt, fl ew, on Apollo 17, the fi nal Apollo mission to the Moon.

To: Director of Aerospace Medicine March 29, 1962

Director of Spacefl ight & Flight Missions

From: Joseph F. Shea

Re: Selection and Training of Apollo Crew Members

At the request of the Offi ce of Systems, the NASA Space Science 

Steering Committee has established an ad hoc group to recommend scientifi c 
Exploring the Unknown 559

tasks to be performed on the moon by Apollo crew members. This group, under 

the chairmanship of Dr. Sonnett, will include scientifi c consultants as well as 

representatives from appropriate NASA groups.

Dr. Sonnett has asked the OMSF to present a briefi ng to this group at its 

fi rst formal meeting, establishing a context and the ground rules within which 

they are to perform their task. One of the topics to be covered is the possible use 

of one or more professional scientists as crew members on lunar missions.

To assist in the preparation of this briefi ng, it would be helpful if you 

furnished this offi ce with memoranda, no later than April 16, directed to the 

following two questions:

1. Is there any fundamental reason which would prevent the use of one 

or more professional scientists as crew members?

2. What serio us practical problems would result if such personnel were 

included in the selection [and] training program?

It is assumed that the NH [Aerospace Medicine] memorandum will cover 

these questions from the viewpoint of medical selection, and that MS 

[Spacefl ight & Flight Missions] will consider the problem in terms of 

background skills and training requirements.

Joseph F. Shea

Deputy Director for Systems

Offi ce of Manned Space Flight

Document II-22

Document Title: Owen E. Maynard, Spacecraft Integration Branch, NASA 

Manned Spacecraft Center, Memorandum for Associate Director, “Comments on 

Mr. Frank Casey’s visit to J.P.L. to discuss Ranger and follow-on programs which 

could provide information pertinent to Apollo missions,” 1 February1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Since the beginning, it had been clear to those planning for human missions to the Moon 

that they would need information from robotic lunar missions. Those missions were under 

the management of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), a Federally-Funded Research and 

Development Center operated for NASA by the California Institute of Technology. JPL’s 

mission designs were aimed at answering scientifi c questions, not providing support for 

human spacefl ight missions, and JPL was rapidly developing within NASA a reputation for 

excessive independence from the rest of NASA. This was proven after a visit to JPL to see 

if the lunar hard landing Ranger missions and potential follow-on robotic missions (which 
560 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

became the Surveyor program) could contribute to the planning for Project Apollo. It is 

interesting to note that in this early stage of planning for Apollo, the Sea of Tranquility had 

already been identifi ed as a potential lunar landing site.

At this point in the evolution of Apollo, the program was divided into three elements: Apollo 

A, Earth-orbital tests of the Apollo spacecraft; Apollo B, fl ights around the Moon; and Apollo 

C, fl ights to land on the Moon.

NASA – Manned Spacecraft Center

Langley AFB, Virginia

February 1, 1962

MEMORANDUM for Associate Director

Subject: Comments on Mr. Frank Casey’s visit to J.P.L. to discuss Ranger and follow-on 

programs which could provide information pertinent to Apollo missions.

1. During a recent visit to J.P.L. at Pasadena, California, a group of 

NASA employees from Langley Research Center, Ames Research Center and 

Manned Spacecraft Center had an opportunity to discuss the Ranger program 

and its follow-on programs with the J.P.L. staff. The purpose of this meeting was 

to determine if the present series of Ranger payloads and the follow-on payloads 

could be of value to the Apollo mission.

2. Since both the time and experiments available for obtaining further 

engineering data for design of Apollo systems and components is limited when 

viewed in terms of the unknowns, the following question was posed within the 

NASA group as a basis [sic] criterion for the planning of payloads to obtain further 

information on environmental data for the Apollo program:

“What are the environmental parameters for which additional data must 

be obtained before the Apollo missions will be attempted”?

In consideration of three Apollo phases, this criterion leads to the 

following conclusions:

Apollo Phase A No further environmental data required 

Apollo Phase B Possibly additional data on radiation and 

meteoroids in cis-lunar and lunar space

Apollo Phase C The above comments on radiation and 

meteoroids is [sic] appropriate. In addition, 

more defi nite data on both the large and small 

scale lunar surface features, the existence and 

nature of lunar surface dust, and the physical 

properties of the lunar surface which constitute 

its ability to support a vehicle.
Exploring the Unknown 561

3. It was recognized that the limits, accuracy and coverage of 

environmental data to better establish the physical nature of the lunar surface in 

terms of Apollo missions requirements are incomplete, and that further inputs 

should be reminded of this need and attempts should be made to supply available 

information to plan instrumentation of Ranger follow-on payloads. 

[2]

4. On the basis of current knowledge and thinking relative to the nature 

of the lunar surface environment, and the need for engineering data for the 

design of Apollo systems and sub-systems, it appears that the selection of Ranger 

follow-on payloads should be directed primarily on the ability of these payloads to 

yield data which would permit a better evaluation of: 

a. The large scale features of the lunar surface such as the 

locations, magnitude, and slopes of mountains, craters, and 

protuberances;

b. The existence and distribution of small scale features of the 

lunar surface such as roughness, slopes, faults, sharpness, and 

vesicularity which will aid in the evaluation of the extent to 

which the Apollo vehicle must be able to hover and translate 

prior to landing;

c. The existence of a dust layer on the lunar surface and the 

properties of this layer which will permit it to be entrained 

in the jet exhaust and form clouds which may foul systems 

components and obstruct optical and R.F. transmission from 

the vehicle to the surface and from the vehicle to space and 

the earth;

d. The ability of the lunar surface to support the Apollo vehicle 

including the existence and bearing strength of dust layers 

in excess of six inches in depth and the bearing strength and 

hardness of sub-surface material.

Secondary consideration should be given to the measurement of 

meteoroid and radiation parameters.

5. In consideration of the diffi culty associated with obtaining 

environmental information over a substantial portion of the lunar surface to 

the accuracy required by Apollo C missions, it would be extremely helpful in the 

selection of Ranger and follow-on experiments if MSC and J.P.L. could agree on 

the landing site. It is not possible to get Ranger payloads over to the western 

limb of the moon where the Sea of Tranquility is located. This would allow the 

maximum Ranger payload weight to be used to advantage.

6. Since the design freeze date for Apollo occurs in 1964 it is imperative 

that lines of communication be established immediately if Apollo is to have an 

input from Ranger and follow-on programs in time to be used as design.
562 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

7. J.P.L. is presently investigating the problems of conducting 

experiments to obtain direct design data for Apollo. They will investigate [3] 

launch vehicle capabilities to implement the investigations and report their 

fi ndings to NASA Headquarters about February 8, 1962.

Owen E. Maynard

Spacecraft Integrating Branch 

Document II-23

Document Title: Letter to the President from James E. Webb, 13 March 1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

In this letter, NASA Administrator Webb asks the president to assign the highest national 

priority to Project Apollo. Such a priority meant that Apollo would get preferred treatment in 

the allocation of scarce resources. President Kennedy approved this request.

R 13 1962 [stamped]

The President

The White House

Washington, D. C,

My Dear Mr. President:

Programs that enjoy the highest (DX) national priority attain this stature 

only on approval of the President. In order to meet the objectives of the Nation’s 

space program as stated by you and endorsed by the Congress, I consider it 

essential that Project Apollo -- to effect a manned lunar landing and return in this 

decade -- receive such a priority.

Accordingly, I hereby recommend that the highest national priority be 

assigned to Project Apollo and in order to assure that you have the advice of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Council, I have addressed a memorandum, copy 

attached, to the Vice President asking the Council to consider this matter.

Respectfully yours,

James E. Webb

Administrator

Attachment

[2]
Exploring the Unknown 563

Memorandum for the Chairman, National Aeronautics and Space Council

Subject: Request for Highest National Priority for the Apollo Program

1. The programs that now enjoy the highest (DX) national priority 

are: Atlas, Titan, Minuteman, Polaris, BMES, SAMOS, Nike-Zeus, Discoverer, 

Mercury, and Saturn. Of these, the fi rst eight are managed by the Department of 

Defense, and the last two by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

The prescribed criteria under which the President has made these determinations 

is that these programs have objectives of key political, scientifi c, psychological or 

military import.

2. The NASA is requesting that the Apollo program be added to this 

list. Recognizing the need to restrict the number of projects on the list to the 

absolute minimum, NASA is prepared to drop Project Mercury from the list by 

the end of Calendar Year 1962, at which time its mission should be essentially 

complete. NASA will also expect to drop the Saturn vehicle project from the list 

except insofar as it pertains to the Apollo mission. In adding Apollo, the NASA 

would be requesting a DX priority for all of these elements of the Apollo program 

that are essential to its ultimate mission: to effect a manned lunar landing and 

return in this decade. The essential elements of the Apollo program would 

include development of the spacecraft and launch vehicles as well as the facilities 

which are required for their development, testing and use. Elements of certain 

other name projects would thus be included, such as Saturn and Gemini, but only 

insofar as they are directly applicable to the manned lunar landing.

3. Decisions on the assignment of highest national priority are made by 

the President and in the case of space program projects, he takes into consideration 

the advice of the National Aeronautics and Space Council. Therefore, I ask that 

this matter be placed before the Council at an early date.

4. I shall be pleased to supply any further information you think is 

essential to the Council’s consideration.

James E. Webb

Administrator

Document II-24

Document Title: Ted H. Skopinski, Assistant Head, Trajectory Analysis Section, 

NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center, to Chief, Systems Integration Division, “Selection 

of lunar landing site for the early Apollo lunar missions,” 21 March 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
564 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

There were discussions in 1962 about selecting a single site on the Moon for the initial lunar 

landing, with the selection being made primarily on the scientifi c interest of that particular 

location. Ted Skopinski, assistant head of the Trajectory Analysis section at the Manned 

Spacecraft Center, questioned this approach as he outlined the mission operations criteria for 

a lunar site. Skopinski’s letter highlighted the fact that landing sites were to be determined 

not only by scientifi c interest, but by other factors such as the need for daylight operations and 

facilitating the return to Earth. He suggested the desirability of adding to JPL’s planned lunar 

missions a lunar orbiter that could obtain high quality photographs of the lunar surface. This 

suggestion was accepted and led to the Lunar Orbiter program, which was managed by the 

Langley Research Center and built by the Boeing Company using a camera modifi ed from its 

original mission as part of a highly classifi ed intelligence satellite called SAMOS.

NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center 

Langley Station, Hampton, Va. 

March 21, 1962

MEMORANDUM for Chief, Systems Integration Division

Subject: Selection of lunar landing site for the early Apollo lunar missions

References: (a) Memorandum for Chief, Flight Operations Division by John 

E. Dornbach, dated Jan. 23,1962, re meeting on circumlunar 

photographic experiment

(b) Memorandum for Associate Director by Owen E. Maynard, 

dated Feb. 1, 1962, re comments on Frank Casey’s visit to 

J.P.L. to discuss Ranger and follow-on programs which could 

provide information pertinent to Apollo missions

1. The need for obtaining both [sic] photographic, cartographic, and 

geologic information about the lunar surface in order to select a land ing site for 

the Apollo lunar mission is defi ned in references (a) and (b). A recommendation 

was made in reference (b) that MSC and JPL agree on a landing site because of 

the diffi culty of obtaining desired environ mental data over a substantial portion 

of the lunar surface. At the present time JPL has defi ned their prime area of 

interest for unmanned lunar impacts as approximately 8oN to 8oS latitude and 

from 25o to 45oW longitude.

2. The purpose of this memorandum is to see if a single lunar landing 

site is compatible with the techniques which reduce the need of plane changes 

near the moon. The JPL direct ascent and impact type of trajectories differ from 

the Apollo trajectories in that the following mission rules have to be adhered to in 

the selection of the Apollo tra jectories:

a. return to the continental U.S.A. or Australia

b. daylight reentry and a.
Exploring the Unknown 565

c. lunar landing in earth refl ected or direct sunlight and b.

d. mission design for immediate insertion checking by tracking

e. allowance for solar interference with deep space tracking and c.

[2]

f. adequate tracking immediately prior and subsequent to reentry 

and follow-up to landing to ensure minimum recovery time.

The above rules have been investigated by the Operational Analysis Section 

of the Mission Analysis Branch, FOD, to see how they affect the Apollo launch 

window. These same mission rules will also infl uence the selection of possible 

lunar landing sites.

3. Taking into account the mission rules stated in paragraph 2, the 

following disadvantages for the selection of a single lunar landing site are noted:

a. Mission rule of a single lunar landing site imposes a severe 

restraint on the launching day and time because of its dependency on 

the lunar declination.

b. A single lunar landing site is not compatible with the variable 

launch azimuth and parking orbit scheme which opens the launch 

window and thus eliminates the need of major plane changes.

c. Without an extensive investigation this extra restraint might be 

too restrictive because not knowing the fi nal design weights the amount 

of fuel needed to make a necessary plane change may be prohibitive. Any 

plane changes in the vicinity of the moon must result in suitable earth 

return trajectories compatible with 2f.

d. The photographic and geophysical data obtained from the 

Ranger and Surveyor programs and the Apollo manned lunar missions 

may drastically alter present day concepts of the lunar surface, the single 

landing site selected now could therefore be worthless.

4. The present day thinking is to restrict the landing site to a belt 

approximately 10 degrees on either side of the lunar equator and on the front side 

of the moon. If this will be true a few years from now then the following suggestions 

of obtaining lunar surface data prior to manned lunar landings could be followed.

a. Obtain USAF lunar charts 1:1,000,000 scale of the landing area 

belt that are based on today’s state of the cartographic art using lunar 

telescopic photography taken on earth.

b. Augment the JPL Ranger and Surveyor programs to include 

several landing sites in the +10 degree latitude belt on the front side of 

the moon. 

[3]
566 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

c. Launch a circumlunar photographic satellite with a recoverable 

package to obtain high quality photographs of the lunar surface in the 

area of interest.

d. Expect the information obtained from the manned lunar orbit 

reconnaissance missions to be the most reliable and after comparing it 

with the data obtained from all other sources select several landing sites 

for the fi rst Apollo manned lunar landing missions.

[signed]

Ted H. Skopinski

Asst. Head, Trajectory Analysis Section

Copies to: J.P. Mayer

 M.V. Jenkins

P.F. Weyers, Apollo Project Offi ce 

R.O. Piland, Apollo Project Offi ce

C.C. Johnson, Apollo Project Offi ce

O.E. Maynard, Spacecraft Int. Branch

J.E. Dornbach, Space Physics Div.

Document II-25

Document Title: Memorandum to Administrator from Robert C. Seamans, Jr., 

Associate Administrator, “Location of Mission Control Center,” 10 July 1962.

Source: NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Although the decision to locate a new Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas had 

been made in September 1961, it was not decided at that time whether to move the Mission 

Control Center to Houston or to keep it close to the launch site in Florida, as was being done 

for Project Mercury. This memorandum records the reasoning behind the decision to move the 

Mission Control Center to Houston.

MEMORANDUM for Administrator

Subject: Location of Mission Control Center

1. One of the facilities for which NASA has required funds in our FY 

1963 Budget Request is the Mission Control Center. The Mission 

Control Center would be use to control Gemini and Apollo operations 

in a similar manner to the control of Mercury operations by the 

Mercury Control Center. In the FY1963 Budget Request, the Mission 

Control Center is listed in the section titled “Various Locations”. 
Exploring the Unknown 567

Considerable thought has been given to the proper geographical 

location for this most important facility. It is the purpose of this 

memorandum to advise you of the recommended location and to 

request your concurrence.

2. The factors which were determined to be of prime importance in 

selecting the site are:

 a. The Center should be co-located with the Gemini and Apollo 

Project Offi ces (so that project personnel would be available for advice and 

consultation during its construction and during operations. Project personnel 

would be needed, in case of an emergency situation on-board the spacecraft, to 

provide immediate and detailed information about the spacecraft.)

 b. The Center should be co-located with the Flight Operations 

Division (so that the Flight Operations personnel can guide the construction of 

the Facility and have the Facility readily available for training and operation.)

 c. The Center should be co-located with the astronauts (so that 

the facility is readily available for their training, as well as their advice during an 

operation.)

d. The Center must have good communications (in order to link the 

Center with the world-wide facilities and forces involved in an operation.)

[2]

e. The Center must be able to keep completely abreast of the status 

of preparations for an operation (in order to have the information required to 

make operational decisions.)

3. The choice of sites narrowed rapidly to either Cape Canaveral or 

Houston. Both sites have good communication capabilities. At the 

Cape it is a little easier to keep abreast of preparation for a launch, 

although good communications between the Cape and Houston 

reduces this Cape advantage. However, the overriding factor in 

recommending a specifi c site is the existing location of the Project 

personnel, the Astronauts and the Flight Operations personnel at 

Houston. Therefore, after a careful consideration of pertinent factors 

and extensive consultation and coordination, it is recommended 

that Mission Control Center be located in Houston.

4. It is planned to control the Gemini rendezvous fl ights, all manned 

orbital Apollo fl ights, and all subsequent Gemini and Apollo 

fl ights from this Center. Thus the schedule requires the Center 

to be operational in April, 1964. To keep this schedule, a vigorous 

development effort must be initiated and maintained. Procurement 

actions must be undertaken immediately, in which, to provide 

proper guidance for bidders, it must be stated that this Center will 

be located in Houston. Therefore, your early concurrence on the 

Houston location for the Mission Control Center is requested.
568 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

 [signed]

Robert C. Seamans, Jr.

Associate Administrator

Concurrence___[signed]________ Date_July 10, 1962

 James E. Webb

 Administrator 

cc: M/Holman

 MS/Low

 MSC/Gilruth

MP-Lilly (handwritten)

Document II-26

Document Title: Memorandum from Donald Hornig, Chairman, Space Vehicle 

Panel, President’s Scientifi c Advisory Committee, to Dr. Jerome Wiesner, 

“Summary of Views of Space Vehicle Panel,” 11 July 1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

Document II-27

Document Title: Letter to James Webb from Jerome Wiesner, 17 July 1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

Document II-28

Document Title: Letter from James Webb to Jerome Wiesner, 20 August 1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.
Exploring the Unknown 569

Document II-29

Document Title: Letter to Jerome Wiesner from James E. Webb with attached Offi ce 

of Manned Space Flight, NASA, “Manned Lunar Landing Mode Comparison,” 24 

October 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Document II-30

Document Title: “Memorandum to Dr. (Jerome) Wiesner from McG.B. (McGeorge 

Bundy),” 7 November 1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

Document II-31

Document Title: Letter from James E. Webb to the President, (no day) November 

1962.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

After its key centers and the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight had agreed that the lunar orbit 

rendezvous (LOR) approach was NASA’s preferred choice for sending people to the Moon, 

NASA scheduled a 11 July 1962 press conference to announce that choice. However, President 

Kennedy’s science advisor, Jerome Wiesner, and the Space Vehicle Panel of the president’s 

Science Advisory Committee came to the conclusion that the LOR choice was ill-conceived, 

and insisted that NASA carry out additional studies before fi nalizing its selection of the 

LOR mode. Wiesner and the Space Vehicle Panel were infl uenced in their belief by a senior 

staff person in Wiesner’s offi ce, Nicholas Golovin, who had left NASA at the end of 1961 on 

unfriendly terms and almost immediately gone to work for Wiesner.

NASA did carry out several additional studies during the summer of 1962, but their results 

did not change the Agency’s thinking. Wiesner and his associates also did not change their 

position, and the dispute fl ared into the open as President Kennedy visited the Marshall 

Space Flight Center on 11 September 1962. Wiesner and Webb got into a somewhat heated 

discussion in front of the President as the nearby press watched. 

After this public confl ict, the argument between NASA and the president’s science advisor 

continued through the rest of September and October. Webb on 24 October transmitted what 

he hoped would be a fi nal comparison of the various ways of accomplishing the lunar 

landing mission to the White House Offi ce of Science and Technology. It arrived in the midst 
570 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

of the tense week that has come to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. In his letter Webb 

challenged science advisor Wiesner to either accept NASA’s decision or force the president to 

decide between NASA’s views and those of Wiesner’s offi ce. Despite lingering misgivings, 

Wiesner did not accept this challenge, and President Kennedy decided that the choice was 

ultimately NASA’s responsibility. The memorandum from McGeorge Bundy, the president’s 

National Security Advisor, to Jerome Wiesner, indicated how the president wanted to bring 

the controversy to a close. (PSAC is the President’s Scientifi c Advisory Committee.) Webb 

responded a few days later with the requested letter. NASA announced its fi nal choice of the 

LOR mode on 7 November 1962.

Document II-26

July 11, 1962

MEMORANDUM FOR

Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner

SUBJECT: Summary of Views of Space Vehicle Panel

The purpose of this memorandum is to summarize for you somewhat 

informally the Space Vehicle Panel’s views as presented during discussions with 

NASA management on July 6, 1962. A somewhat more detailed Panel report is 

being prepared for submission to the PSAC.

The Panel has now spent a total of 10 days in meetings trying to 

understand the Manned Lunar Landing mission and its problems. In particular, 

we have recently concentrated on the question of which mode of approach offers 

the previous promise of getting us to the moon (and back) at a very early date and 

which also contributes most to the development of the national space capability.

One of the early ground rules for the competition was that it would be 

wise to have three men on the mission, traveling in a “shirt-sleeve environment.” 

No rigorous justifi cation has been made for this requirement, but if it can be met, 

it is reasonable. However, it is clearly subject to re-examination.

This requirement leads to an estimated weight for a landing and return 

spacecraft, which, if it is used on a direct ascent mission, approximately size a 

NOVA rocket. It was realized, and we concur, that the step to such a rocket was 

too large a single step to be the basis of a sound national program. In fact, it was 

judged that a rocket of the size of the C-5, which is fi ve times the size of the C-1 

and employs previously untried large main engines (F-1) plus large hydrogenoxygen engines (J-2) in its upper stage, was about as large a development step 

beyond the C-1 as was reasonable to undertake next. With this conclusion we are 

also in general agreement. 
Exploring the Unknown 571

[2] Consequently, a second ground rule has been that the mission should start 

with a C-5. Since the C-5 is incapable of carrying out the originally contemplated 

direct mission, this condition implies steps such as:

a. Assembly of components in space, fueling in space, or other means 

of effectively enlarging the rocket, e.g., EOR.

b. Cutting the payload by one means or another, e.g., C-5 direct.

c. Devising more effi cient staging arrangements, e.g., LOR. Actually, 

although rockets larger than C-5 can be built, the prospect of long-range growth 

solely through bigger and bigger rockets, using bigger and bigger launch facilities, 

is not an attractive one. Hence, there has been insistent pressure that techniques 

for orbital assembly, orbital fueling etc., be developed as an integral part of the 

route to space stations, eventual planetary exploration, and the development 

of a military space capability. So the present context, such arguments led to 

the proposal of the EOR mode which Mr. Webb has supported and justifi ed so 

eloquently in many speeches.

The modes which were analyzed and presented to us were:

1. EOR, 3-man crew, 14 days total capability (up to 4 on 

moon), storable propellant for lunar landing and takeoff.

2. LOR, 2-plus man crew, 14 day total (1 max. on moon), 

storables.

3. C-5 direct, 3-man-crew, 10 day (4 on moon), hydrogenoxygen for landing and takeoff.

In the analysis (as presented) all three can carry out the mission. However, 

in LOR only two-plus men are involved in the most diffi cult phases of the mission 

as compared to three in the others, and the stay time is signifi cantly shorter. It 

is presumably for this reason, that MSFC has insisted that the choice of LOR be 

accompanied by the development of a direct ascent C-9 “logistics” vehicle. It was not 

evident to the Panel that there was any signifi cant difference in the development 

diffi culties which could be anticipated for EOR and LOR. It appeared possible 

that the direct mode would involve the fewest new developments. 

[3] The analysis of inherent probabilities of mission success, of disasters, and 

of disasters per success appeared to be carefully done, but offered no basis for 

distinction within the probable uncertainty of results obtained. As a matter of 

fact, if one counts critical operations, such as staging and rendezvous, the order of 

choice from most reliable to least would be: (1) Direct, (2) EOR, and (3) LOR. In 

addition, a factor which is hard to weigh quantitatively is the fact that all the most 

diffi cult operations in the LOR mode take place far from the earth where two of 

the men have no (earth) abort capability.
572 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

And to cost and schedule, it is clear that EOR requires more C-5 vehicles. 

Hence, if vehicles are, indeed, the pacing item, the EOR approach is more costly 

and, according to NASA schedule, at least fi ve months slower. It also requires more 

extensive launch facilities. These conclusions are modifi ed, of course, if a “logistic” 

vehicle capable of near simultaneous launching is needed to support LOR.

Lastly, the analysis of payload margins also offered no signifi cant basis 

for choice. LOR is a very ingenious idea which has a fundamental advantage in 

that the heat shield and re-entry mechanism need not be carried to the lunar 

surface. However, it must pay the price of carrying an entire life support system, 

communications system, and navigation (for rendezvous) system. The most recent 

detailed studies indicate that there is no resultant payload advantage for LOR, 

and that there is probably a disadvantage if the landing is made more than a few 

degrees from the moon’s equator or the stay time is increased because of the 

plane change which is introduced as the moon rotates. 

The clearest point which came out is that the comparison on all scores 

involved a mission in which two men stayed on the moon a very short time (LOR) 

with missions involving three men for longer times. With this background of 

experiences gained from studies already made, it should be possible to estimate 

the perturbation on the existing estimates if a two-man capsule were employed 

for EOR or direct ascent in a very short time, say two to three weeks. It is most 

strongly recommended that this be done. If possible, optimum trajectories should 

be considered for each mode since there appears to be no need for lunar orbit 

in the EOR or Direct modes. It is our guess that EOR will then show a substantial 

payload margin, and that it will be possible to employ earth storable propellants 

for the lunar liftoff stages.

[4] Our further thinking has converged on the following conclusions:

1. LOR is an extremely ingenious but highly specialized mode which 

does not appear to occupy a central role in the development of a 

continuing national space program -- at least as compared to orbital 

fueling of large vehicles.

2. LOR appears to have the largest number of critical operations which 

must be carried out far from the earth after a period of extreme 

crew stress.

3. We, therefore, feel that at the present time we would choose the EOR 

mode with a two-man capsule. It ought to be possible then to gain a 

substantial weight margin.

4. The history of all ICBM systems has been one of upgrading, even 

early in their careers. The “offi cial” escape rating of C-5 has already 

grown from 68,000 lbs. to 90,000 lbs. Consequently, we would press 

efforts to upgrade C-5 in parallel with its present development. 

Several possibilities are clearly open. With reasonable success in 

upgrading, the same (item 3) two-man capsule might be carried on 
Exploring the Unknown 573

a Direct Ascent with C-5, using storable propellants for lunar landing 

and takeoff. Alternatively, hydrogen-oxygen technology may reach 

the point where it is suffi ciently reliable to use for landing. In either 

case, the way would be open when we are farther down-stream to 

substitute the Direct Ascent for EOR (although we would not gamble 

on it alone at the present time). One would thus have alternatives 

without setting up a full backup program.

5. The LOR is an isolated development from which experience and 

hardware cannot be so readily transferred to the direct ascent mode.

6. If, nevertheless, LOR is adopted, we feel strongly that the C-5 “Logistic” 

support vehicle should be carried through in parallel and that studies 

be promptly instituted on its use as a potential manned vehicle.

[5]

We also have a few other observations:

1. A unmanned lunar orbiter from which the moon’s gravitational 

fi eld can be accurately determined must have very high priority. 

Otherwise it is impossible to seriously discuss lunar orbits as low 

as those proposed for LOR.

2. None of the modes should rely on their own reconnaissance 

of the lunar surface. Unmanned reconnaissance of the lunar 

surface should have very high priority.

3. Since the mission will be carried out near in time to the other 

solar fl are maximum in 1970, we were distressed at not fi nding 

any hard consideration of the radiation problem and its effect on 

mode selection. This problem requires urgent attention.

Finally, it has been noted that MSFC, MSC, and the Offi ce of Manned 

Space Flight have all concurred in the choice of the LOR mode. We are impressed 

by this fact. We can only note that the Panel was originally widely divided in its 

opinions, but that after hearing and discussing the evidence presented to us, there 

is no dissent in the Panel to the views presented here.

Donald J. Hornig, Chairman

Space Vehicle Panel 
574 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-27

July 17, 1962

Dear Jim:

As I agreed to do during our recent meeting, I am forwarding Don 

Hornig’s informal summary of the Space Vehicle Panel’s views as presented to 

you and your staff at that time. I would also like to take this opportunity to put 

down, more or less systematically, the substance of my own ideas: these overlap in 

some respects there of the Panel, and have been at least in part passed on to you 

verbally during the last two weeks. 

First, I think that the fi nal lunar mode choice must provide suffi cient 

payload margins to have a reasonable chance of coping with realistic shielding 

requirements to meet solar fl are radiation hazards which will be approaching 

their cyclical peak at about the same time that the manned lunar mission will be 

attempted unless other means are developed to cope with this serious problem. 

Also, it is possible that exposure to zero-g conditions for the time intervals in 

this mission may be found to present serious crew problems. Clearly, a mission 

mode choice at this time must assume that this may turn out to be so, and should, 

therefore, not exclude suffi cient growth capability to offer some chance of dealing 

with such a diffi culty. Accordingly, I feel that both of these potential problem 

areas should be as thoroughly explored as present scientifi c knowledge makes 

possible. It seems to me that a combination of Jim Van Allen’s group and of STL 

could supply a competent team to survey the fl are hazard problem. 

The matter of which mission mode is most consistent with the main 

stream of our national space program, and therefore the one most likely to be 

useful in overtaking and keeping ahead of Soviet space technology, is also one 

that I believe requires further consideration. For example, if LOR is chosen and 

the NOVA slipped by two years, then the U.S. will most likely not have an escape 

capability signifi cantly above 90,000 pounds until 1971 or 1972 at the earliest. 

With LOR and C-5 Direct, on the other hand, a capability of 160,000 pounds to 

escape will be available in 1966 or early 1967. Which of these situations, broadly 

considered, is best for the [2] U.S. posture in space? Similarly, the question of 

which mode is likely to be most suitable for enhancing our military capabilities in 

space, if doing so should turn out to be desirable, should be reviewed with care. 

The Space Vehicle Panel considered this item only casually and, as far as I know, 

your mode studies had no inputs at all from the DOD in this area. Accordingly, I 

see a need for an appropriate team of engineers and scientists to explore this area 

on a time scale compatible with the LOR proposal period.

Thirdly, neither the Space Vehicle Panel nor your staffs, insofar as the 

data presented to us is made clear, delved adequately into the likely effects of 

environmental stresses on the crew during the journey, and therefore with the 

effects on crew capabilities to cope either with the normal or the conceivable 

emergency conditions to be encountered during various phases of each mode. I 

would certainly recommend that these matters be reexamined in greater technical 
Exploring the Unknown 575

depth before you allow fi nal commitment to a mode choice. If you like, we can 

have the PSAC Bioastronautics Panel assist your staffs in dealing with this job. I 

might also add that with added time the quantitative analyses of mission mode 

success probability, and of crew safety, might well be carried to substantially higher 

level of detail in equipment and crew functional sequencing. 

Finally, as has been emphasized by the Space Vehicle Panel, the NASA 

studies of mission modes did not present the relative advantages and defects of 

each as a valid basis for comparison principally because some modes involved 

the use of three men in critical mission phases while others used only two. 

Payload margins and crew survival probability for the various alternatives are 

both likely to change substantially, in the Panel’s opinion, if the LOR and Direct 

modes are carried out doing a crew of only two men. Studies along these lines 

should probably be conducted as direct extensions of previous work at Ames, 

STL, and MSFC. 

I have reported the results of our discussion to the President and assured 

him that there is ample time to make the additional studies we have agreed upon 

before the contracts for the lunar landing vehicle need be awarded.

[3]

In closing, you should know that I have instructed the Space Vehicle 

Panel, as well as my staff, to remain in close touch with the Manned Lunar Landing 

Program and to be available to you for any purpose you may desire. Since the 

Panel’s future usefulness as to the PSAC, as well as to your agency, will both largely 

depend on the currency and completeness of their knowledge of the program, I 

am sure your organizational elements and contractors will do their utmost to be 

helpful in this regard as they have in the past. 

My best wishes to you in your vast and vital undertaking.

Sincerely,

Jerome B. Wiesner

Attachment

Honorable James E. Webb

Administrator

National Aeronautics and Space

 Administration

Washington 25, D.C.
576 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-28

Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner, Chairman

President’s Science Advisory Committee

Executive Offi ce Building

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Jerry: 

I was pleased to receive your letter of July 17, 1962, summarizing your 

thoughts on the lunar mission mode. We are, as I have already told you, conducting 

several system investigations related to the suggestions of the Space Vehicle Panel. 

The specifi c studies currently underway are: 

1. An analysis of the North American Aviation studies on the C-5 direct 

mode, including consideration of a two-man capsule; 

2. Continuation of the Space Technology Laboratory effort on a direct 

ascent utilizing a smaller three-man capsule and a two-man capsule 

based on the same design approach;

3. Preliminary design by McDonnell Aircraft of a two-man lunar mission 

capsule.

The results of these studies will be available before the end of September, 

and their impact on both the C-5 direct and EOR mission profi les will be evaluated 

by our Offi ce of Manned Space Flight and compared to our current planning of the 

LOR mode based on the proposal submissions of the Lunar Excursion Module.

We have a continuing concern about the specifi c items you mentioned. 

The solar fl are radiation problem has been much discussed, and although some 

data is available, we are keeping in close touch with those performing studies 

in this area, including Dr. Van Allen. Indeed, data from Dr. Van Allen’s latest 

work is being factored into our radiation hazard effort at Houston. The potential 

problems from prolonged exposure to [2] zero-g can represent a major problem 

for any of the modes. Both the mechanization of the spacecraft and the payload 

requirements of the booster will be seriously affected if artifi cial gravity is required. 

As you know, we consider that the Gemini program will be a basic source of 

information in this area. However, our present feeling is that weightlessness, per 

se, will not be a limiting problem, and we are not presently compromising the 

system design to accommodate the generation of artifi cial gravity. 

The implications of the mode decision on our national space capability 

has been one of our major concerns. We believe that our program provides the 

basis for a national capability in three major areas:

1. Booster payload capability, both to earth orbit and escape.

2. General spacecraft technology.
Exploring the Unknown 577

3. Operational capability in space. 

It is our considered opinion that the LOR mode, which requires the 

development of both the C-5 launch vehicle and the rendezvous technique, 

provides as comprehensive a base of knowledge and experience for application to 

other possible space programs, either military or civilian, as either the EOR mode 

or the C-5 direct mode. The decision to delay Nova vehicle is dictated as much 

by economic considerations, both fi scal and manpower, as by the technical need. 

The realities of our budget do not allow for the almost simultaneous development 

of two major launch vehicles. In addition, the redefi nition of the Nova for payload 

capability considerably in excess of the C-5 will, I am convinced, provide us with a 

better national capability in the long run. 

The question of evaluating the effects of environmental stress in the 

various mission modes is a diffi cult one. This area is one in which there has been 

considerable debate, and we are attempting to place the comparative data on 

a more sound scientifi c basis. I doubt, however, that this can be accomplished 

in time to contribute signifi cantly to our present deliberations. Again, it is the 

considered opinion of our people that there are no signifi cant differences between 

the modes in the area of stress on the astronauts. 

[3] I appreciate the interest you and your panels continue to show in our 

program. I have passed your comments and the Report of the Space Vehicle Panel 

of July 26, 1962, on to Mr. Holmes and Dr. Shea for their consideration. This 

constructive criticism by eminently qualifi ed men is of tremendous value, and I 

am looking forward to further discussions with you as the results of our present 

studies begin to crystallize.

Sincerely,

[signed]

James E. Webb

Administrator

Document II-29

October 24, 1962

Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner

Director

Offi ce of Science and Technology

Executive Offi ce Building

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Jerry:
578 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

In accordance with our conversation, I enclose herewith two copies of 

our confi dential report entitled “Manned Lunar Landing Mode Comparison.” 

My understanding is that you and such members of your staff as you choose will 

examine this and that you will let me know your views as to whether we should ask 

for an appointment with the President.

My own view is that we should proceed with the lunar orbit plan, should 

announce our selection of the contractor for the lunar excursion vehicle, and 

should play the whole thing in a low key.

If you agree, I would like to get before you any facts, over and above 

the report, perhaps in a thorough briefi ng, which you believe you should have 

in order to put me in position to advise Mr. O’Donnell that neither you nor the 

Defense Department wishes to interpose a formal objection to the above. In that 

case, I believe Mr. O’Donnell will not feel it wise to schedule the President’s time 

and that the President will confi rm this judgment.

With much appreciation for your assistance, believe me,

Sincerely yours,

James E. Webb

Administrator

Enclosed: two copies of report

Dated October 24, 1962

MANNED LUNAR LANDING MODE COMPARISON

OFFICE OF SYSTEMS

OFFICE OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON 25, D.C.

OCTOBER 24, 1962
Exploring the Unknown 579

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................I

II. MANNED LUNAR LANDING MODE COMPARISON ................................ 1

III. APPENDIX A - FEASIBILITY OF TWO-MAN DIRECT

FLIGHT AND EOR MANNED LUNAR MISSIONS ..................................A-1

IV. APPENDIX B - DETAILED RELIABILITY AND SAFETY 

CALCULATIONS FOR LOR, TWO-MAN EOR, AND 

TWO-MAN C-5 DIRECT FLIGHT MODES ...............................................B-1

V. APPENDIX C - INDEPENDENT MODE COMPARISONS 

BY SEVERAL AEROSPACE COMPANIES ..................................................C-1

VI APPENDIX D - MODE COMPARISON OF POSSIBIE CREW 

PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION WITH TIME ......................................D-1

VII. APPENDIX E - EFFECTS OF THE APOLLO MODE CHOICE 

ON NATIONAL SPACE CAPABILITY ........................................................ E-1

 [i]

INTRODUCTION

On July 11, 1962, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

announced its decision to base its studies, planning and procurement for lunar 

exploration primarily on the lunar orbit rendezvous mode while con tinuing 

studies on the earth orbital and direct fl ight modes, subject to confi rmation at 

the time industry proposals to build the Lunar Excursion Module were fi nally 

evaluated. Certain additional studies were also to be completed by that time.

This report summarizes the result of recent studies of the possible 

application of a 2-man capsule to the earth orbit rendezvous and direct -fl ight 

modes. It is concluded that the lunar orbit rendezvous mode is the best choice 

for achieving a manned lunar landing mission before the end of the decade.

[no page number]

MANNED LUNAR LANDING MODE COMPARISON

One of the major factors in the selection of a mode for the manned lunar 

landing program is a comparison of the several modes being considered with a 
580 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

series of technical criteria which establish mission feasibility and identify unique 

considerations. The prime technical criteria are physical realizability [sic], mission 

safety and mission success probability. These technical criteria must be balanced 

against time and cost to arrive at the mission objectives. The mode selection study 

of July 301

 demonstrated that both the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) and Earth 

Orbit Rendezvous (EOR) modes were feasible with adequate weight margins, and 

that the 3-man C-5 direct ascent mode was undesirable because of small per formance 

margins and high developmental risks. Subsequent studies have been conducted 

on 2-man capsules which might be used in either the C-5 direct fl ight or the EOR 

mode. Results of these studies (summarized in Appendix A) show that the 2-man C-5 

direct fl ight mode is only feasible with cryogenic propulsion systems in all spacecraft 

stages, or with smaller performance margins than we deem desirable at this point in 

a program. The 2-man capsule would either increase the weight margins for EOR 

or allow simpler propulsion systems to be utilized throughout the spacecraft. These 

improvements are not suffi cient to make EOR the preferred mode.

All of the sub-systems required to implement each mode can be developed 

within the scope of the manned lunar program. Estimates of the degree of 

developmental diffi culty which might be encountered are qualitative, varying 

with the past experience of those conducting the analysis.

Comparisons of the 2-man lunar mission capsules with the present LOR 

approach lead to the conclusion that LOR is the preferred mode on the basis of 

technical simplicity, scheduling and cost considerations.

Mission Safety and Success Probabilities

The Mode Selection Report of July 30 demonstrated only minor 

differences in mission safety probabilities between EOR and LOR. Although LOR 

showed a higher probability of mission success than EOR (0.43 for LOR vs. 0.30 

for EOR), the number of disasters per mission success for LOR was found to be 

slightly higher than the EOR fi gure (0.23 for LOR vs. 0.21 for EOR).

[2] A subsequent analysis was conducted in greater detail, considering the 

LOR, EOR and C-5 direct fl ight modes. These studies (summarized in Appendix 

B) [not provided] show that the overall mission success probability for EOR is 

0.30, for C-5 direct 0.36, and for LOR 0.40. The number of disasters per mission 

success for EOR is 0.38, for C-5 direct 0.46, and the LOR 0.37. In particular, 

analysis has shown that LOR has the highest safety probability for operations in 

the vicinity of the moon. We believe that LOR is at least as safe as EOR while still 

enjoying a considerably higher overall mission success probability.

It could be stated that the LOR mode appears preferable based upon the 

calculated mission safety and success probabilities. However, the analyses leading 

to these results involve the estimation of the inherent reliability levels which will 

be reached by the individual sub-systems, and the detailed mechanization of the 

particular mode with respect to redundancy. These relia bility predictions are not 

exact during the period when the detailed mechani zation of the modes is still 

evolving. The relative results of both the mission success and safety probability 

1. Manned Lunar Landing Program Mode Comparison Report. OMSF, 7/30/62 (CONFIDENTIAL)
Exploring the Unknown 581

calculations are suffi ciently sensitive that the assumptions related to equipment 

performance can change the order of the results.

This leads to the conclusion that the difference between the modes from 

a mission safety standpoint as known at this point in time is the same order of 

magnitude as the uncertainty of the analysis. Reliability calculations, per se, are 

therefore not an adequate basis for choosing among the modes.

Major Differences Between Modes

The major technical differences between the modes lie in the following 

areas:

1. Cryogenic vs. storable stages in space;

2. Weight margin;

3. Lunar landing confi gurations;

4. Rendezvous.

These differences will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Cryogenic vs. Storable Stages. The question of cryogenic vs. storable 

stages in space has two aspects: the reliability of the engines, and the storability of 

the stage. Most propulsion experts agree that a hypergolic, pressure-fed engine 

is simpler and, by implication, inherently more reliable than a pumped, regenerative cryogenic engine. Study of engine design confi rms this. However, it is also 

agreed that engines reach inherent reliability only after an extended development program. The RL-10 hydrogen-oxygen engine has been in development 

for about four years; the storable engines are just starting their development 

cycle. [3] Hence, at the time of the fi rst lunar missions the cryogenic engine 

(if the RL-10 could be used in all space stages) might be closer to its inherent 

reliability than the storable engine. Judgment is again involved. The above 

arguments nonwithstanding [sic], it is believed that storable engines will have 

reached a higher reliability than cryogenic engines at the time of the initial 

manned lunar attempts.

Space storability depends on the detailed thermal design of the stage. 

In space, the cryogenic fuels must be insulated to prevent excessive boil-off, the 

storable fuels insulated to prevent freezing. On the lunar surface, both cryogenic 

and storables are subject to boil-off during the lunar day, the problem being more 

severe for the cryogenics. During the lunar night, the cryogenics are subject to 

boil-off, the storables to freezing. Either stage will require careful design to insure 

compatibility with the environment. The problems appear to be more severe for 

the cryogenic fuels, especially since the storable fuels require an environ ment 

more compatible with the rest of the lunar vehicle.

The above considerations have led to the conclusion that storable propellants 

should be used for the Apollo applications. Storables are also the conservative choice 
582 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

on a performance basis, since it is possible from a weight standpoint to convert from 

storables to cryogenics at a later date, but the reverse is not true. Only LOR or 2-man 

EOR are compatible with the choice of storables in all space stages.

Weight Margin. The establishment of a proper weight margin is a factor 

in the realizability of the C-5 direct modes. Our experience has shown that weight 

levels for manned space vehicles have grown approximately 25% over initial “hard” 

estimates. This growth accommodates initial misestimates of hardware weights, 

equipment additions to increase mission capability, and design changes required 

by better defi nition of the environment. As a result of their studies, both Space 

Technology Laboratories and McDonnell Aircraft Corporation concluded that a 

l0% weight margin would be adequate to cover initial weight misestimations. Our 

experience dictates that an additional 15% be included for both increased mission 

capability and design changes which might result from increased environ mental 

knowledge. The requirement for this increased weight margin does affect the 

possibility of using a storable return propulsion system for the 2-man C-5 direct 

mission. Considering all factors, the use of storable return propulsion would not 

provide suffi cient assurance of success for the 2-man C-5 direct mode.

Lunar Landing Confi guration. There are important differences in landing 

confi guration between the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) and the Command 

Module (CM). Although the landing can be achieved with either module, the 

LEM can be “optimized” for the lunar operations more readily than the CM which 

must also accommodate re entry. The main factors are the internal arrangement of 

the capsules, and the degree of visibility provided the astronauts during the lunar 

landing phase. Landing the CM (particularly the 2-man version) would undoubtedly 

require use of television cameras to augment the pilot’s fi eld of view.

[4] In comparing the modes in the vicinity of the moon, both the C-5 direct 

and the EOR fl ight confi gurations must be staged during the terminal descent 

phase to reduce engine throttling requirements and landing gear loads. This 

staging requirement and the less desirable module arrangement are the factors 

in the direct landing mode which must be weighed against the requirement for 

rendezvous in the LOR mode. Continued study of alternate confi gurations has 

indicated that the simplicity of the LOR landing confi guration is most desirable 

for early mission success.

In LOR, the re-entry and fl ight capsule can be separated from the lunar 

landing capsule during the course of the development program. Re-entry and 

fl ight requirements will affect the mass and moment of inertia of the re-entry and 

fl ight capsule, as well as the internal couch arrangement and the pilot displays. 

Astronaut position during lunar landing will affect the internal arrangement of 

the lunar landing capsule, and the visibility requirements can profoundly affect 

both capsule shape and structural integrity.

The industrial fi rms bidding on the LEM concluded that this separation 

of function was highly advantageous. (Their comments are summarized in 

Appendix C.)
Exploring the Unknown 583

Rendezvous. The major concern with respect to the Lunar Orbit 

Rendezvous arises from the requirement for rendezvous during the return phase 

of the mission. The mechanization of rendezvous has been studied in detail, and 

the planned confi guration provides a redundant rendezvous capability within 

the LEM for all equipment failures except those in the main propulsion system. 

A similar capability exists in the command module. Hence the rendezvous 

maneuver is backed up with essentially a fourfold redundant mechanization. The 

duplicate contact, both radar and optical, which can be established between CM 

and LEM before launch from the lunar surface and maintained until docking, 

assures adequate relative velocity and position information between the two craft. 

Although earth tracking will not participate directly in the lunar operation, earthbased antennas will monitor the maneuvers and will aid in certifi cation of the 

ephemeris of the CM lunar orbit. Studies of the rendezvous implementation, and 

simulations conducted at NASA centers and industry facilities, have indicated that 

the rendezvous maneuver is less diffi cult than the lunar landing. Specifi cally, the 

rendezvous in lunar orbit is no more diffi cult than rendezvous in earth orbit. 

Indeed, the confi guration of the LEM may actually make the lunar rendezvous 

easier for the astronauts to execute than an earth orbit rendezvous operation 

involving two C-5 vehicles.

Summary of Technical Considerations. The summation of these 

considerations leads to the conclusion that the conservative approach to the 

manned lunar mission dictates the use of a 25% weight margin for any new capsule 

design and the use of storable engines in space. This conclusion, in conjunction 

with analyses of the several modes, rules out all modes save LOR and 2-man EOR. 

After comparison of landing confi gurations and rendezvous mechanizations, we 

conclude that the technical trade-offs distinctly favor the LOR mode.

[5]

Human Factors

A factor in the LOR mode which has been frequently mentioned is the 

effect of mission duration and stress on crew performance during the rendezvous 

maneuver. Our study of these factors is summarized in Appendix D [not provided], 

which concludes that “pilot performance is not a limiting factor for either direct 

or lunar orbit rendezvous missions” based on a survey of the applicable literature 

and available test data. Another consideration is that the stress which the astronauts 

will undergo during both lunar landing and earth re-entry is at least equivalent 

to that experienced during rendezvous. The time constants for both re-entry and 

landing maneuvers are set by the mission. The time constant for rendezvous is 

at the astronaut’s discretion--several orbits may be used to accomplish the actual 

docking in an extreme case. Based on these considerations, we conclude that 

the human factors implications are not signifi cant for purposes of selecting a 

preferred mode.

National Space Capability

Appendix E [not provided] discusses the implications of the mode choice 

on National Space Capability. The conclusion is that the only payload requirements 
584 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

exceeding the C-5 escape capability of 90,000 pounds which have presently been 

defi ned are for manned space fl ights, and then only if the EOR mode is utilized for 

the lunar mission. The operational techniques and the specifi c hardware developed 

in either the LOR or EOR mode are similar, with the exception of the tanker and 

fueling technology required for EOR. LOR does require crew transfer techniques 

and the development of structural docking mechanisms. The development of fuel 

transfer techniques which may ultimately be required for a wide class of fl uids in 

space (from earth storables to hydrogen), can be most effi ciently carried out in an 

exploratory development program rather than as an in-line element of the manned 

lunar landing program. We conclude that, on balance, there is no sig nifi cant difference between LOR and EOR from a national capabilities viewpoint.

Conclusions

Based on the results of the studies summarized in the Appendices and 

the above discussion, we conclude that:

(1) The C-5 direct fl ight mode requires cryogenic fuels and is marginal, 

even with a two-man capsule;

(2) Both the EOR and LOR modes are feasible;

(3) The reliability differences between LOR and EOR cannot be 

demonstrated conclusively by analysis at this time; however, LOR 

does appear to have higher mission probability of success at less risk 

to the astronauts;

[6]

(4) The capability to design the LEM specifi cally for the lunar landing, 

and the desirability of performing the mission with a single C-5 

launch are important advantages of the LOR mode, offsetting the 

lesser problems associated with lunar rendezvous;

(5) Human factor considerations are not signifi cant in the mode 

selections; the addition of rendezvous to the requirement for lunar 

landing and re-entry does not add appreciably to crew stress or 

fatigue, or to the overall hazards of the mission;

(6) Both EOR and LOR provide the basis for projected national space 

require ments prior to the development of NOVA-class vehicles. The 

C-5 vehicle capability meets estimated payload requirements. LOR 

provides experience in personnel transfer between space vehicles as 

contrasted with fuel transfer in EOR.

The scheduling studies last June demonstrated that the LOR mode could 

accomplish the lunar mission at least six to fi fteen months earlier than the EOR 

mode. The fact that we have pursued the LOR approach during the intervening 

months has widened the schedule difference. The reason for the increased 

schedule difference can be identifi ed in terms of the number of tests which must 

be completed before a lunar mission can be attempted, and the difference in 

fi ring schedules. Because of the requirement for two launchings per mission, 

EOR can only perform a mission every three months. LOR, on the other hand, 
Exploring the Unknown 585

can launch a mission every two months, since it requires only a single C-5 launch. 

We are convinced that the time difference between the EOR and LOR modes is 

now at the very least one year, and most probably in excess of 18 months.

The original mode selection study indicated that the LOR mode was 10 to 

15% less expensive than the EOR approach. This difference arises primarily from 

the extra cost of launch vehicles for the EOR mode. This conclusion is still valid.

In addition to both schedule and cost advantages, the LOR mode provides 

the cleanest management structure within the NASA organization. The interface 

between the spacecraft and launch vehicle is simpler, and the responsibilities of 

the Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston and the Marshall Space Flight Center 

at Huntsville are easily defi ned and provide minimum interfaces between items 

under development at the two Centers.

In conclusion, the studies conducted since June of this year, and the 

additional work done within NASA and industry on the LOR approach, have 

indicated that the LOR mode offers the best opportunity of meeting the U.S. goal 

of manned lunar landing within this decade.

[Appendices not included] 

Document II-30

November 7, 1962

MEMORANDUM TO: Dr. Wiesner

The President’s conclusion on the moon method is that he would like a last letter 

to Webb stating something of the following:

(1) that the choice of a means is obviously a matter of the highest 

importance rendering the most careful technical reviews;

(2) that serious reservations had been expressed by PSAC panel (with 

some discussion of its terms of reference and its competence) and that for that 

reason the President has been glad to know that the matter is being reexamined 

in NASA;

(3) that the President thinks the time is coming for a fi nal recommendation 

and relies on Director Webb to review all the arguments and to produce that 

recommendation.

You may think of other things that should be in such a letter --but what the 

President has in mind is that we should make Webb feel the responsibility for a 

defi nite decision and the importance of weighing all opinions, without trying to 

make his decision for him.

McG. B.
586 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-31

The President

The White House

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Mr. President:

In accordance with Dr. Wiesner’s suggestion that your fi le on the Lunar Orbit 

Rendezvous selection might well contain a letter summarizing the action taken 

and the reasons therefor [sic], the following is set forth.

Early in November, NASA announced that it was reaffi rming an earlier tentative 

decision of July 1962 which selected Lunar Orbit Rendezvous as the mode this nation 

would adopt in accomplishing the fi rst manned lunar landing. A detailed report on 

the numerous studies that led to this decision has been submitted previously to the 

offi ce of your Scientifi c Advisor and is attached for your fi le. [not included]

The decision to adopt the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous mode was based on major 

systems and engineering studies which involved over a million man-hours of effort 

on the part of government and contractor personnel. Despite the very extensive 

study efforts, however, we are dealing with a matter that cannot be conclusively 

proved before the fact, and in the fi nal analysis the decision has been based upon 

the judgment of our most competent engineers and scientists who evaluated the 

studies and who are experienced in this fi eld. Because we are dealing in an area 

where judgment is an important factor, we have held several meetings with Dr. 

Wiesner and his staff to ensure that their views and opinions could be given 

most careful consideration. These meetings were constructive and assisted in 

sharpening the critical factors which would determine the fi nal decision.

Following are the most important conclusions which led to the decision to adopt 

Lunar Orbit Rendezvous:

a. Using the Advanced Saturn C-5, the largest booster which will be 

available in this decade, the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) and 

Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR) approaches are technically feasible 

and both can be conducted with three-man crews. The direct fl ight 

mode would require cryogenic fuels for the lunar landing (which we 

consider less reliable), and would be marginal with regard to weight 

limitations even using a two-man capsule.

[2]

b. By adopting LOR, the mission can be accomplished at least one year 

earlier in comparison with the EOR mode.
Exploring the Unknown 587

c. The cost will be 10% to 15% less than for the EOR approach. 

If it were feasible, a two-man direct mode could be conducted at 

approximately the same cost as LOR.

d. Although our studies show a slight advantage for LOR in terms 

of reliability, there was not suffi cient difference in the safety and 

mission success calculations for each mode to consider that this 

factor could signifi cantly infl uence mode selection.

e. Touch down on the Moon is the most diffi cult maneuver of the 

entire mission. Since the LOR mode is the only one which includes 

a vehicle which will be used for the lunar landing without having to 

consider earth re-entry problems, it will be possible to design the 

lunar excursion vehicle to maximize the probability of success in the 

lunar touch down operation.

f. The techniques and the spacecraft which will be developed for EOR 

and LOR are similar with the exception that refueling technology 

is required for the earth orbital mode and a crew transfer for the 

lunar orbital mode. On balance, there appears to be no signifi cant 

difference between these modes from a national capability viewpoint. 

The third mode, a two-man direct ascent, would not provide an 

opportunity for testing space rendezvous and docking techniques.

If future missions are undertaken which would require a longer stay on the lunar 

surface, it is probable that a lunar logistics system would be required regardless of 

the mode chosen for the initial landings. We are well along in the study phase of 

this supporting system and believe it holds promise as a backup mode for the LOR 

in a later time period. Successful development of this backup potential depends 

heavily on whether suffi cient weight reductions can be made in the spacecraft 

system to permit a direct ascent fl ight using the Advanced Saturn C-5.

The decision on the mode to be used for the lunar landing had to be made at this 

time in order to maintain our schedules, which aim at a landing attempt in late 

1967. We are confi dent that the decision is the correct one, but recognize that in 

any matter in which judgment plays an important role, we must be prepared to 

change our concepts in the light of convincing new evidence. For this reason, we 

are conducting the program in a manner which will permit us to react promptly 

to any new factors introduced by the new information we are gaining every day.

[3] We intend to drive forward vigorously on every segment of the manned lunar 

landing program. To do so, we have marshaled a major segment of this country’s fi nest 

resources for the effort. We have working with us a group of outstanding industrial 

fi rms. Additionally, we are being supported by many of our fi nest universities as well 

as by the Department of Defense and other government agencies. Within NASA, 

the three fi eld centers you visited this past September--the Marshall Space Flight 

Center under Dr. von Braun; the Manned Spacecraft Center under Dr. Gilruth; and 

the Launch Operations Center under Dr. Debus--devote their full capabilities to this 

task. We believe that this team, under the leadership of Mr. Holmes, the Director 

of Manned Space Flight, provides a cohesive network of research and development 

resources which can achieve the objective you have established.
588 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Respectfully yours,

[signed]

James E. Webb

Administrator 

Document II-32

Document Title: Letter from James E. Webb, NASA Administrator, to President 

John F. Kennedy, 29 October 1962.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-33

Document Title: Transcript of Presidential Meeting in the Cabinet Room of the 

White House, 21 November 1962.

Source: http://history.nasa.gov/JFK-Webbconv/ (accessed 29 January 2007).

Document II-34

Document Title: “Memorandum to President from Jerome Wiesner Re: 

Acceleration of the Manned Lunar Landing Program,” 10 January 1963.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

During his 11 though 12 September visit to the three NASA installations most involved in Project 

Apollo, there were suggestions made to President Kennedy (apparently by manned spacefl ight 

head Brainerd Holmes) that the fi rst lunar landing, at that point tentatively scheduled for late 

1967, might actually be accomplished up to a year earlier if additional funds were provided to 

the Apollo program. Holmes and NASA Administrator James Webb disagreed on the wisdom of 

seeking additional funds from Congress, but Webb told the president in a 29 October letter that 

with additional funding it might indeed be possible to accelerate the Apollo program.

However, Webb did not press aggressively enough for such an increase to satisfy Holmes. 

Tensions between him and Webb had been festering since at least August 1962, when Holmes 

was featured on the cover of Time magazine and labeled “Apollo czar.” Another Time story 

appeared on 19 November, this time suggesting that the program was in trouble and badly 

needed the extra funds. Holmes was the apparent source of the story.

Following Webb’s 29 October letter, the president had asked his Bureau of the Budget to take 

a careful look at the fi nancial and schedule aspects of Apollo. The results of that review were 

sent to the president by budget director David Bell on 13 November (Volume I, Document 
Exploring the Unknown 589

III-13). The White House called a 21 November meeting in the Cabinet room to try to 

understand exactly what was going on at NASA. Like some other White House meetings 

during the Kennedy presidency, this meeting was secretly recorded; the John F. Kennedy 

Presidential Library released a copy of the recording in 2001, and space historian Dwayne 

Day later prepared a transcript of the tape.1

As he left the 21 November meeting, President Kennedy asked James Webb to prepare a letter 

summarizing Webb’s view on the appropriate position that the White House should take 

on Apollo and the NASA program overall. Webb did so, and sent Kennedy the letter on 30 

November (Volume I, Document III-14).

Kennedy’s interest in accelerating the date for the fi rst lunar landing continued even after 

the 21 November meeting and Webb’s response. During an 8 December visit to Los Alamos 

National Laboratory, he asked his science advisor Jerome Wiesner to look again into the 

potential for a lunar landing earlier than NASA was planning. 

Document II-32

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington 25, D.C.

October 29, 1962

Offi ce of the Administrator

The President

The White House

Washington 25, D.C.

Dear Mr. President:

In accordance with the request you made during your recent tour 

of selected NASA installations, a preliminary analysis has been completed to 

determine the feasibility and the resources implications of accelerating the 

manned lunar landing program in order to establish a target date for the fi rst 

landing in late 1966, one year earlier than the present target.

The late 1967 target date is based on a vigorous and driving effort, but 

does not represent a crash program. A late 1966 target would require a crash, 

high-risk effort. The nature of a development program such as the manned lunar 

landing, however, makes the possibility of achieving target dates set this far in 

advance no better than fi fty-fi fty. In contrast, the odds that we can accomplish 

the landing within this decade are excellent. You might, therefore, think of this 

matter of target dates as one in which we fi x a date which is diffi cult, but not 

1. The tape of the meeting can be found at John F. Kennedy Library, President’s Offi ce fi les, 

Presidential recordings collection tape #63.
590 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

impossible to attain. We schedule the work against this date and thereby insure a 

driving effort. However, until later in the development cycle, target dates cannot 

be viewed as certain forecasts of when the mission will be accomplished.

The depth of this special analysis on a late 1966 target date is in no way 

comparable with the detailed analysis which formed the basis of the operating plan 

for a late 1967 target date. A defi nitive study of time and resources requirements 

for the many sequential events involved in the accomplishment of this mission 

by late 1966 would necessitate a much more intensive and detailed review by the 

NASA headquarters and fi eld centers, our prime contractors and the principle 

subcontractors. However, the preliminary analysis which follows permits a gross 

evalu ation of the possibilities currently available.

Current Plan - Mission in late 1967

The NASA operating plan of $3.7 billion for FY 1963 and the requested 

budget level of $6.2 billion for FY 1964 are aimed at the target date of late 1967 

for the manned lunar landing. Within these budget levels, the amounts planned 

for the manned lunar landing are $2.4 billion in FY 1963 and $4.2 billion in FY 

1964. These funds include $2.0 billion and $3.4 billion respectively for propulsion 

systems, launch vehicles, spacecraft, facilities, and fl ight operations; and $.4 billion 

and $.8 billion respectively for necessary supporting effort in unmanned scientifi c 

investigations, advanced technology, and improvements to the tracking network. 

These funds do not cover the personnel costs of NASA employees or amounts for 

the operation of the NASA centers for which the totals are $446 million in FY 1963 

and $579 million in FY 1964.

The major program segments are funded at the following rate under this 

plan:

(In Billions)

1963 1964

Spacecraft and Flight Missions $ .7 $1.5

Development of Launch Vehicle and Propulsion Systems .7 1.0

Facilities, Launch Operations, Integration and Checkout, 

Systems Engineering and Aerospace Medicine .6 .9

$2.0 $3.4

Alternative Plan - Mission in mid-1967

In preparing an operating plan for FY 1963 based on Congressional 

appropriations, it was estimated from detailed studies that the fi rst landing might 

be possible six months earlier if an additional $427 million were available early 

in FY 1963. Thus, the late 1967 target date in the current plan is six months later 

than a date possible with optimum FY 1963 funding. The additional funds in FY 

1963 would provide (1) heavier contractor effort on launch vehicles at Chrysler, 
Exploring the Unknown 591

Boeing, North American Aviation, and Douglas (2) procurement of hardware 

associated with Apollo spacecraft which is now deferred until FY 1964, and (3) 

accomplishment of the Gemini rendezvous mission nine months earlier than the 

current plan with resulting benefi t to Apollo. The revised program would then 

be as follows:

(In Billions)

1963 1964

Spacecraft and Flight Missions $ .9 $1.5

Development of Launch Vehicle and Propulsion 

Systems .8 1.0

Facilities, Launch Operations, Integration and 

Checkout, Systems Engineering and Aerospace 

Medicine

 .7 .9

$2.4 $3.4

Analysis indicates that if a mid-1967 target date were approved and the 

additional $427 million were made available in a FY 1963 supplemental appropriation 

in the early days of the 88th Congress, NASA could revise its target date to mid-1967. 

NASA would also require defi ciency authority to cover total agency operations until 

receipt of the supplemental, since it would be necessary to commence operation at 

a higher level immediately in order to attain this schedule.

Alternative Plan - Mission in late 1966

In analyzing the actions which would be necessary to establish a target 

date for manned lunar landing in late 1966, the following major milestone 

changes would have to be accomplished relative to the current plan:

1. Advance the fi rst manned Apollo command module fl ight on the 

Saturn launch vehicle six months to November 1964 from May 1965.

2. Move the fi rst manned Apollo command and service module fl ight 

on the Saturn C-1B launch vehicle forward seven months to October 

1965 from May 1966.

3. Accelerate the fi rst Advanced Saturn development fl ight seven 

months to September 1965 from April 1966.

4. Change the fi rst manned Apollo command and service module fl ight 

on Advanced Saturn 12 months to June 1966 from June 1967.

If these new milestones could be achieved, the fi rst manned lunar landing 

would be late 1966. To achieve these milestone changes, a number of departures 

would have to be made from the present develop ment plan. (1) The extremely 

tight schedule would require heavy sub -system effort very early in the development 

cycle and would leave no room for any signifi cant test or fl ight failures. (2) Parallel 

testing of all stages and an increased rate of development on the Advanced Saturn 
592 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

fi rst stage would be necessary. (3) Concurrent development would have to be 

initiated on alternative components and subsystems to give better assurance that 

schedules could be met. (4) The current contractor overtime rate and amount of 

double and triple shifting would be markedly increased and extensive overtime and 

multiple shift ing would be necessary. (5) A crash contractor manpower buildup and 

heavy NASA effort would be required to reschedule and execute the new plan.

The runout cost from FY 1965 through FY 1967 for the late 1966 target date 

is estimated to be 10-15% higher than the funds required for a late 1967 date. The 

funds required in FY 1963 and FY 1964 to meet this schedule are approximately $900 

million and $800 million more respectively than the current FY 1963 availability and 

FY 1964 budget request. The total would be distributed as follows:

(In Billions)

1963 1964

Spacecraft and Flight Missions $1.1 $1.9

Development of Launch Vehicle and Propulsion 

Systems 1.0 1.2

Facilities, Launch Operations, Integration and 

Checkout, Systems Engineering and Aerospace 

Medicine

 .8 1.1

$2.9 $4.2

Summary

On the basis of our current analysis, we believe that we can maintain the 

late 1967 target date for the manned lunar landing with $3.7 billion in FY 1963 

funds and $6.2 billion in FY 1964. A budget increase of $427 million to $4.1 billion 

in FY 1963 and $6.2 billion in FY 1964 is required for a mid-1967 target date; and 

total resources of $4.6 billion in FY 1963 and $7.0 billion in FY 1964 are required 

for a late 1966 target date.

Let me emphasize again the preliminary nature of our conclusion that a 

target date of late 1966 could be established for the manned lunar landing with the 

indicated funding levels. This conclusion is not based on detailed programmatic 

plans. With this qualifi cation, however, we are prepared to place the manned 

lunar landing program on an all-out crash basis aimed at the 1966 target date if 

you should decide this is in the national interest.

Respectfully yours,

[Signed James E. Webb]

James E. Webb 

Administrator
Exploring the Unknown 593

Document II-33

Present at the meeting:

President John F. Kennedy

James Webb, NASA Administrator

Dr. Jerome Wiesner, Special Assistant to the President for Science and 

Technology 

Edward Welsh, Executive Secretary, National Aeronautics and Space Council

David E. Bell, Director, Bureau of the Budget

Dr. Hugh Dryden, Deputy Administrator, NASA

Dr. Robert Seamans, Associate Administrator, NASA

Dr. Brainerd Holmes, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA

Elmer Staats, Deputy Director, Bureau of the Budget

Willis H. Shapley, Deputy Division Chief, Military Division, Bureau of the Budget

President Kennedy: What I understand, it is a question of whether we need four 

hundred million dollars more to maintain our present schedule, is that correct?

James Webb: Well, it’s very hard to say what our present schedule is. I think the 

easiest way to ... to understand what has happened is to say that we started out 

after you made the decision in May to come forward with a driving program. We 

used the best information we had and we settled on late ‘67 or early ‘68 as the 

landing date. We wanted to have some leeway within the decade. Now this was a 

target date-we recognized we might have some slippage. We had some fi nancial 

estimates at that time, which have proved to be too small, that the...the increased 

cost estimated by the contractor is partly because each of them has added to the 

cost that he submitted on his contract proposals to us. And second, we have added 

requirements to each of these vehicles.

[2] Now the combination of the increased cost now estimated by the contractors, 

plus our own increased knowledge as result of about a year’s work, has led us fi rst 

to confi rm the fact that the late ‘67 or ‘68 date is a good date for us to have as our 

target date.

Second, that to accomplish that now and to run that kind of program that you 

want run, we have to go through a real strong, vigorous management period to 

shake down these things. Obviously you can make it an Apollo that would include 

a tremendous number of things that would cost a lot of money and probably are 

not necessary. On the other hand, you could make one that was too marginal and 

that we would not want to entrust [unknown]. We have to fi nd a place in between 

as we go along with these projects.

[Additional discussion not included]

 [3] President Kennedy: Now, let me just get back to this, what is your ... uh, your 

view is we oughta spend this four hundred forty million?

Brainerd Holmes: My view is that if can strictly spend, it would accelerate the 

Apollo schedule, yes, sir. Let me say I was very ... I oughta add that I’m very sorry 
594 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

about this ... I have no disagreement with Mr. Webb ... he says with the policy, oh, 

I think my job is to say how fast I think we can go for what dollars.

James Webb: Well, I think it’s fair to say one other thing, Mr. President, that after 

your visit when you were saying how close this was, the speech you made. I think 

Brainerd and Wernher von Braun and Gilruth all felt, “We’ve got to fi nd out 

how fast we can move here. The President wants to move.” So they went to the 

contractors and said, “How fast can you move, boys, if money were not a limit?” 

Now, this sort of got cranked up into a feeling that this money was going to be 

made available, that a policy decision had already been [4] made to ask for the 

supplemental. And I think, to a certain extent, then, the magazines like Time, they 

picked this up in order to make a controversy.

President Kennedy: Well, as I at least hear, it wasn’t so much that we wanted to 

speed it up as it was how much we were gonna slip ... you don’t like that word, but 

that’s what we’re talking about.

James Webb: Well, no, sir, I don’t think so. The reason I don’t like the word is that 

those schedules were never approved by Dryden, Seamans, or me. They were not 

offi cially scheduled fl ights in the Agency. But they were tagged as the schedule in 

order to ask the contractors how much they could do, for Brainerd to ... to really 

get moving. When he came into this program.

President Kennedy: Are you saying that these dates were not ever set?

James Webb: They were not offi cially set by me or Dryden or Seamans....

President Kennedy: Were set....

James Webb: We were waiting to determine what the Budget Director was going 

to give us on the ‘64 budget to defi nitely set our dates. Because this made a big 

difference.

President Kennedy: You mean, what part of ‘67 was never set?

James Webb: Well, the ‘67 date has been set. And we’re going to make it.

President Kennedy: What part of ‘67 was never set, is that correct?

James Webb: We talk all the time of late ‘67 or early ‘68.

Hugh Dryden: You never set a month....

James Webb: That’s right.

President Kennedy: So now, when we talk about four hundred million, well now, tell 

me what’s happened here. You had a date in your mind which unless you get the 

four hundred million you feel that’s a good chance it’ll go back to the end of until 

about six months. And, ah, Mr. Webb says that there was [n]ever a date in ‘67.
Exploring the Unknown 595

Brainerd Holmes: What’s happened is this, I think. First of all, we didn’t have a 

defi nitized program; we had to decide what size booster it would be, for instance, 

at the very end last year. So as soon as we could, we’d defi nitize all of the elements 

of the program but then still until one decides the mission which you are going 

to go you couldn’t [5] interweave these schedules, you couldn’t decide really what 

kind of a program you’re gonna have and what kind of funding you’re gonna 

have. So once we assumed what the mission would be in June going with this 

LOR, and I am not here talking about one mission versus another, but a mission 

to justify schedules. So I’m gonna put down all the details hundreds of schedules 

that interweave, we came up with costs associated with those schedules, and 

these costs and dates came out to be this fi rst schedule which appears to be a not 

unreasonable schedule done on a crash basis. Further than that, just as Mr. Webb 

has said, the contractor estimates were low; our estimates of what they required 

were low; all that information was pouring in. We put the two together to go 

versus this time with these dollars that we had as estimates, it came out that we 

were short in Fiscal ‘63. So we didn’t know that before that.

James Webb: So then we started talking to the Budget Director.

[Many people talking all at once.]

Unknown speaker: August and September.

Hugh Dryden [?]: Mr. President, may I say one more thing which I think you 

should keep in mind. Practically every program at this point that we’ve ever had 

has grown by a factor between two and three in cost from the beginning to end. 

The Mercury was what? About two and a half ... three. I think you have to bear 

in mind that these program costs are still going to grow. I’m not sure that Jim or 

Brainerd will agree with me. On any schedule you pick, you’re going to have to 

face increasing cost year after year, in my opinion. And if we fi nd some trouble, 

which undoubtedly we’re going to fi nd, intangibles stretch and go up in cost. And 

depending on the level you select now, the rate in which the costs are going to 

accelerate on you in the future years will be determined.

Unknown speaker: Mr. President....

Unknown speaker: Compared to future years....

Hugh Dryden: I think we learned a great deal from Mercury. As far as the so-called 

increase in Mercury. For the [honest] defi nition of what Mercury included. We 

started an estimate of what the McDonnell contract would be to build a capsule. 

But Mercury involves not only the capsule, it involves a worldwide tracking 

network; it involves ground support equipment for handling the capsule on the 

ground, check-out equipment. And we were learning with Mercury we kept adding 

new elements, new revisions to the cost, so that it did wind up Mercury cost fi ve 

hundred million dollars all total. Two dollars and a quarter for each person in 

the United States, seventy-fi ve cents a year for three years, if you want to look at it 

that way. And there’s no question that it cost a large sum. Now in this analysis, the 

number of man-hours and years is inexpensive; again working out these numbers, 

it looks fantastic compared with the corresponding fi gures on Mercury. 
596 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[6] James Webb: We know a great deal more.

Unknown speaker: I think this is a much sounder basis. I would be surprised if 

the cost went up by three...

Robert Seamans: I would be surprised if it went up more than sixty percent.

Unknown speaker: But that’s still a lot of money!

James Webb: Well, let me make a statement on that I have made to the Budget 

Director. You remember when I fi rst talked to you about this program, the fi rst 

statement I made to Congress was that the lunar program would cost between 

twenty and forty billion dollars. Now I am able to say right now it’s going to be 

under the twenty billion, under the lower limit that we used. The question is how 

rapidly do you spend the money and...and how effi ciently you manage this so as 

to get the most possible for the money. This can be speeded up at the expense 

of...of certain things which I outlined in this letter to you. It can be slowed up if, 

a year from now, we fi nd that we don’t have to proceeded at this basis. But this is 

a good, sound, solid program that would keep all of the governmental agencies 

and the contractors and the rest moving ahead. But we’re prepared to move if 

you really want to put it on a crash basis.

President Kennedy: Do you put.... Do you put this program.... Do you think this 

program is the top-priority of the Agency?

James Webb: No, sir, I do not. I think it is one of the top-priority programs, but I 

think it’s very important to recognize here...and that you have found what you 

could do with a rocket as you could fi nd how you could get out beyond the Earth’s 

atmosphere and into space and make measurements. Several scientifi c disciplines 

that are the very powerful and being to converge on this area.

President Kennedy: Jim, I think it is the top priority. I think we ought to have that 

very clear. Some of these other programs can slip six months, or nine months, 

and nothing strategic is gonna happen, it’s gonna... But this is important for 

political reasons, international political reasons. This is, whether we like it or not, 

in a sense a race. If we get second to the Moon, it’s nice, but it’s like being second 

any time. So that if we’re second by six months, because we didn’t give it the kind 

of priority, then of course that would be very serious. So I think we have to take 

the view that this is the top priority with us.

James Webb: But the environment of space is where you are going to operate 

Apollo and where you are going to do the landing.

[7] President Kennedy: Look, I know all these other things and the satellite and 

the communications and weather and all, they’re all desirable, but they can wait.

James Webb: I’m not putting those.... I am talking now about the scientifi c 

program to understand the space environment within which you got to fl y Apollo 

and make a landing on the Moon.
Exploring the Unknown 597

President Kennedy: Wait a minute-is that saying that the lunar program to land 

the man on the Moon is the top priority of the Agency, is it?

Unknown speaker: And the science that goes with it....

Robert Seamans: Well, yes, if you add that, the science that is necessary....

President Kennedy: The science.... Going to the Moon is the top-priority project. 

Now, there are a lot of related scientifi c information and developments that will 

come from that which are important. But the whole thrust of the Agency, in my 

opinion, is the lunar program. The rest of it can wait six or nine months.

James Webb: The trouble ... Jerry is holding up his hand.... Let me say one thing, 

then maybe you want to [unknown] the thing that troubles me here about making 

such a fl at statement as that is, number one, there are real unknowns as to whether 

man can live under the weightless condition and you’ll ever make the lunar landing. 

This is one kind of political vulnerability I’d like to avoid such a fl at commitment to. 

If you say you failed on your number-one priority, this is something to think about. 

Now, the second point is that as we can go out and make measurements in space 

by being physically able to get there, the scientifi c work feeds the technology and 

the engineers begin to make better spacecraft. That gives you better instruments 

and a better chance to go out to learn more. Now right all through our universities 

some of the brilliant able scientists are recognizing this and beginning to get into 

this area and you are generating here on a national basis an intellectual effort of 

the highest order of magnitude that I’ve seen develop in this country in the years 

I’ve been fooling around with national policy. Now, to them, there is a real question. 

The people that are going to furnish the brainwork, the real brainwork, on which 

the future space power of this nation for twenty-fi ve or a hundred years are going 

be to made, have got some doubts about it and....

President Kennedy: Doubts about what, with this program?

James Webb: As to whether the actual landing on the Moon is what you call the 

highest priority.

President Kennedy: What do they think is the highest priority?

[8] James Webb: They think the highest priority is to understand the environment 

and ... and the areas of the laws of nature that operate out there as they apply 

backwards into space. You can say it this way. I think Jerry ought to talk on this 

rather than me, but the scientists in the nuclear fi eld have penetrated right into 

the most minute areas of the nucleus and the subparticles of the nucleus. Now 

here, out in the universe, you’ve got the same general kind of a structure, but you 

can do it on a massive universal scale.

President Kennedy: I agree that we’re interested in this, but we can wait six months 

on all of it.

James Webb: But you have to use that information to....
598 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

President Kennedy: Yeah, but only as that information directly applies to the 

program. Jim, I think we’ve gotta have that....

[Unintelligible.]

Jerome Wiesner: [Unintelligible -- ‘If you got enough time?”] Mr. President, I 

don’t think Jim understands some of the scientifi c problems that are associated 

with landing on the Moon and this is what Dave Bell was trying to say and what I’m 

trying to say. We don’t know a damn thing about the surface of the Moon. And 

we’re making the wildest guesses about how we’re going to land on the Moon and 

we could get a terrible disaster from putting something down on the surface of 

the Moon that’s very different than we think it is. And the scientifi c programs that 

fi nd us that information have to have the highest priority. But they are associated 

with the lunar program. The scientifi c programs that aren’t associated with the 

lunar program can have any priority we please to give ‘em.

Unknown speaker: That’s consistent with what the President was saying.

Robert Seamans: Yeah. Could I just say that I agree with what you say, Jerry, that 

we must gather a wide variety of scientifi c data in order to carry out the lunar 

mission. For example, we must know what conditions we’ll fi nd on the lunar 

surface. That’s the reason that we are proceeding with Centaur in order to get 

the Surveyor unmanned spacecraft to the Moon in time that it could affect the 

design of the Apollo.

President Kennedy: The other thing is I would certainly not favor spending six 

or seven billion dollars to fi nd out about space no matter how on the schedule 

we’re doing. I would spread it out over a fi ve- or ten-year period. But we can 

spend it on.... Why are we spending seven million dollars on getting fresh water 

from saltwater, when we’re spending seven billion dollars to fi nd out about space? 

Obviously, you wouldn’t put it on that priority except for the defense implications. 

And the second point is the fact that the Soviet Union has made this a test of the 

system. So that’s why we’re doing it. So I think we’ve got to take the view that 

this is the key program. The rest of this ... we can fi nd out all about [8] it, but 

there’s a lot of things we can fi nd out about; we need to fi nd out about cancer and 

everything else.

James Webb: But you see, when you talk about this, it’s very hard to draw a line 

between what....

President Kennedy: Everything that we do ought to really be tied into getting onto 

the Moon ahead of the Russians.

James Webb: Why can’t it be tied to preeminence in space, which are your 

own....

President Kennedy: Because, by God, we keep, we’ve been telling everybody we’re 

preeminent in space for fi ve years and nobody believes it because they have the 

booster and the satellite. We know all about the number of satellites we put up, 
Exploring the Unknown 599

two or three times the number of the Soviet Union ... we’re ahead scientifi cally. 

It’s like that instrument you got up at Stanford which is costing us a hundred and 

twenty-fi ve million dollars and everybody tells me that we’re the number one in 

the world. And what is it? I can’t think what it is.

Interruption from multiple unknown speakers: The linear accelerator.

President Kennedy: I’m sorry, that’s wonderful, but nobody knows anything 

about it!

James Webb: Let me say it slightly different. The advanced Saturn is eighty-fi ve 

times as powerful as the Atlas. Now we are building a tremendous giant rocket 

with an index number of eighty-fi ve if you give me Atlas one. Now, the Russians 

have had a booster that’ll lift fourteen thousand pounds into orbit. They’ve been 

very effi cient and capable in it. The kinds of things I’m talking about that give you 

preeminence in space are what permits you to make either that Russian booster 

or the advanced Saturn better than any other. A range of progress possible it is so 

much different [unknown].

President Kennedy: The only.... We’re not going to settle the four hundred million 

this morning. I want to take a look closely at what Dave Bell.... But I do think we 

ought get it, you know, really clear that the policy ought to be that this is the toppriority program of the Agency, and one of the two things, except for defense, 

the top priority of the United States government. I think that that is the position 

we ought to take. Now, this may not change anything about that schedule, but at 

least we ought to be clear, otherwise we shouldn’t be spending this kind of money 

because I’m not that interested in space. I think it’s good; I think we ought to 

know about it; we’re ready to spend reasonable amounts of money. But we’re 

talking about these fantastic expenditures which wreck our budget and all these 

other domestic programs and the only justifi cation for it, in my opinion, to do 

it in this time or fashion, is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that 

starting behind, as we did by a couple years, by God, we passed them. 

[9] James Webb: I’d like to have more time to talk about that because there is a 

wide public sentiment coming along in this country for preeminence in space.

President Kennedy: If you’re trying to prove preeminence, this is the way to prove 

your preeminence.

James Webb: It’s not if you’ve got an advanced Saturn rocket ... [unintelligible].

President Kennedy: We do have to talk about this. Because I think if this affects in 

any way our sort of allocation of resources and all the rest, then it is a substantive 

question and I think we’ve got to get it clarifi ed. I’d like to have you tell me in a 

brief ... you write me a letter, your views. I’m not sure that we’re far apart. I think 

all these programs which contribute to the lunar program are ... come within, or 

contribute signifi cantly or really in a sense ... let’s put it this way, are essential, put 

it that way...are essential to the success of the lunar program, are justifi ed. Those 
600 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

that are not essential to the lunar program, that help contribute over a broad 

spectrum to our preeminence in space, are secondary. That’s my feeling.

James Webb: All right, then let me say this: if I go out and say that this is the 

number-one priority and that everything else must give way to it, I’m going to lose 

an important element of support for your program and for your administration.

President Kennedy [interrupting]: By who? Who? What people? Who?

James Webb: By a large number of people.

President Kennedy: Who? Who?

James Webb: Well, particularly the brainy people in industry and in the universities 

who are looking at a solid base.

President Kennedy: But they’re not going to pay the kind of money to get that 

position that we are [who are] spending it. I say the only reason you can justify 

spending this tremendous ... why spend fi ve or six billion dollars a year when all 

these other programs are starving to death?

James Webb: Because in Berlin you spent six billion a year adding to your military 

budget because the Russians acted the way they did. And I have some feeling that 

you might not have been as successful on Cuba if we hadn’t fl own John Glenn and 

demonstrated we had a real overall technical capability here.

President Kennedy: We agree. That’s why we wanna put this program.... That’s the 

dramatic evidence that we’re preeminent in space.

[10] James Webb: But we didn’t put him on the Moon ... [unintelligible].

Unknown speakers: [Unintelligible] ... we did what we needed to do.

David Bell: I think, Mr. President, that you’re not as far apart as this sounds. 

Because the budget that they have submitted, 464....

President Kennedy: I know we’re not far apart, I’m sure, and the budget we may 

not be apart at all. But I do think at least we’re in words somewhat apart. And I’d 

like to get those words just the same.

James Webb: It’s, it’s perfectly fi ne. I think....

President Kennedy: How about you writing me and telling me how you assign 

these priorities. And perhaps I could write you my own....

James Webb: But I do think it ... it certainly doesn’t hurt us to have this Time article 

that shows we are really going ahead with the program. I don’t think that hurts 
Exploring the Unknown 601

the Agency; I don’t think it hurts at all. You have tried several times to say that’s 

number one. But I also think that as Administrator, I’ve got to take a little broader 

view of all the budgets here including those that are [unintelligible] appropriation 

in the Congress. I don’t think we’ve got to use precisely the same word.

Robert Seamans: Could I state my view on this? I believe that we proceeded on 

Mercury, and we’re now proceeding on Gemini and Apollo as the number-one 

program in NASA. It has a DX priority. Nothing else has a DX priority.

James Webb: And recommended four-point-seven billion funds for it for 1962! 

That’s a....

Robert Seamans: At the same time, when you say something has a top priority, in my 

view it doesn’t mean that you completely emasculate everything else if you run into 

budget problems on the Apollo and the Gemini. Because you could very rapidly 

completely eliminate you[r] meteorological program, your communications 

program, and so on. If you took that to too great of an extreme....

James Webb: And the advanced technology on which military power is going to 

be based.

Hugh Dryden: Mr. President, I think this is the issue. Suppose Apollo has an 

overrun of fi ve hundred million dollars, to reprogram fi ve hundred million dollars 

for the rest of the space program would just throw the whole thing all away. And I 

think this is the worry in Jim’s mind about top priority.

[11] President Kennedy: Listen, I think in the letter you ought to mention how 

the other programs which the Agency is carrying out tie into the lunar program, 

and what their connection is, and how essential they are to the target dates we’re 

talking about, and if they are only indirectly related, what their contribution is to 

the general and specifi c things [unknown-possibly “we’re doing”] in space. Thank 

you very much.

[Kennedy gets up to leave the room.]

[Rest of discussion not included].

Document II- 34

January 10, 1963

MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT

Subject: Acceleration of the Manned Lunar Landing Program

On the recent trip to Los Alamos I agreed to look further into the possibility of 

speeding up the manned lunar program. We have done this and are convinced 
602 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

that approximately 100 million dollars of the previously discussed 326 million 

dollar supplementary could have a very important effect on the schedule, but that 

to do so it would have to be available in the very near future.

The November 28, 1962 NASA letter to the Director of the Bureau of the Budget 

specifi ed Fiscal Year 1963 supplemental appropriations which could be utilized to 

accelerate the Apollo Program. The data contained in this letter, as well an [sic] 

additional information obtained subsequently from the NASA Offi ce of Manned 

Space Flight, suggest the following estimates of possible schedule changes and 

associated funding requirements--assuming that the additional funds would 

become available for obligation beginning January 1, 1963:

Without 

Supplemental For 

FY 1963

With FY 1963 

Supplemental 

Available Jan. 1. 

1963

Apollo Spacecraft Available at 

AMR for the fi rst manned fl ight November 1964 September1964

First Manned Flight -C-1 February 1965 December 1964

First C-1B Launch August 1965 April 1965

First C-5 Launch March 1966 October 1965

First Lunar Landing Attempt October 1967 May 1967

[2] Supplemental funds required for the above:

(In millions of dollars)

Apollo $125.2

C-l 23.4

C-1B 27. 2

C-5 103.8

Construction of Facilities 47.1 

Total-- $326.7

I have reviewed the arguments contained in NASA’s November 28 letter, as well as 

the general technical situation in the over-all Manned Lunar Landing Program. 

My principal conclusions are as follows:

 1. Although some doubts are present that additional funds at this time will 

expedite the Apollo system proper, there is no doubt that the date of the fi rst lunar 

landing attempt can be accelerated only if C-5 rocket availability is advanced.

 2. The C-5 has been under development for a longer time than any other 

major system in the Manned Lunar Landing Program and estimates for what 

additional funds could or could not do for it are, therefore, more likely to be realistic 
Exploring the Unknown 603

than for other systems. The estimate that an additional $103.8 million, available 

beginning January 1, 1963, could advance the date of the fi rst C-5 launch by some 

fi ve months, appears well founded. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that the 

Marshall Space Flight Center has been relieved in recent month of responsibilities 

for several vehicles and may be expected, therefore, to exercise effective technical 

and managerial control over the C-5 development and its funding.

 3. In view of the many engineering uncertainties with respect to the 

eventual reliability of systems as complex as the C-5, any advancement in the date 

of fi rst launch will enable more extensive testing, and therefore earlier elimination 

of design inadequacies and faster growth in the reliability of the vehicle to be used 

for the fi rst manned lunar landing attempt.

 4. Although it cannot be argued at this time that an advance in the C-5 

launch schedule will necessarily result in an earlier date for the fi rst lunar landing 

attempt, it is quite certain that time lost now on the C-5 cannot be regained later. 

Accordingly, if future successes in the spacecraft development program should 

promise earlier availability of the Apollo system, it would be possible to take 

advantage of this only if earlier availability of the C-5 has been previously assured.

 [3] In view of the above, it appears to be important to proceed immediately 

with the acceleration of the C-5 development and to provide the $103.8 million 

in FY 1963 supplemental appropriations as soon as possible. As I point out earlier, 

this step would only be effective if it can be taken very soon. If authorized these 

funds would be used by the NASA as follows:

(In millions of dollars)

First Stage (S-1C at Boeing) $ 25.8

Second Stage (S-II and F-1, J-2 

engines at NAA)

$68.0

Guidance, ground support, 

etc.

 10.0

Total — $103.8

Jerome B. Wiesner

Document II- 35

Document Title: “Letter to James Webb from Vannevar Bush,” 11 April 1963.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Dr. Vannevar Bush was the head of the World War II Offi ce of Scientifi c Research and 

Development and in 1945 authored the seminal report “Science: the Endless Frontier,” which 

was the charter for the post-war involvement of the Federal Government in the support of 
604 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

research. He was thus for many years one of the leaders of the U.S. scientifi c community. 

Bush and Webb knew each other well, dating back to their work together during the Truman 

administration. This 1963 letter expressed Bush’s misgivings about the commitment 

to sending Americans to the Moon; during 1963, similar criticism of the lunar landing 

program emerged from within the scientifi c community and from those who have preferred 

that money being spent on space would instead be allocated to other social priorities.

11 April 1963

Mr. James E. Webb

Administrator

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

3200 Idaho Avenue

Washington 16, D.C.

Dear Jim:

I have pondered the subject of this letter for a long time. Now I think I 

should write it out for you.

Early in the space program, I testifi ed to a Senate Committee. As was my 

duty, I gave my considered judgment, critical of the program.

But since then I have made no public statements. This has been due to a 

number of reasons. First, I have felt that, being nearly alone in criticism, I would 

be regarded as an old fogy who could not appreciate the efforts of young men. 

More important, I hesitated to oppose a program ordered by the President after 

full advice.

You and I understand this well. During the war I took the position strongly 

that my job was to transmit to the President the best scientifi c advice available, and 

to carry out his orders loyally and without question. I know you have this point of 

view intensely, for I have seen you respond to the President’s wishes many times 

when it involved hardship or risk on your part.

A part of this attitude has been involved in my relations at M.I.T. There I 

have taken the point of view that, when duly constituted government called for aid 

on a program, which aid only M.I.T. because of its unique position could supply, 

there was a duty to respond, and that my personal estimate of the advisability of 

the program should not interfere with it doing so.

Now the scene is changing. There are an increasing number of critical 

editorials and articles. It could change abruptly.

[2] No great program of this sort can proceed without occasional disasters. 

We have been lucky, and very careful thus far. But, some one of these days, a 

couple of young attractive men are going to be killed, with the eyes of millions 

upon them. Worse, they may be caught in space to die, still talking to us, who are 

helpless to aid them.
Exploring the Unknown 605

It is often said the public is fi ckle. It is also said that there is, unfortunately, 

a measure of bull fi ght complex in the peoples’ following of fl ights. I mean 

something deeper than either of these. The American public often fails for a long 

time utterly to grasp a situation, and, when it fi nally does, its reversal of attitude 

can be sobering or terrifying. A prime example is the prohibition experiment. 

A better example is the attitude in 1916. At fi rst unconcerned about a war in 

Europe, electing a president who would keep us out of war, it suddenly reversed 

itself and plunged in to halt the Kaiser.

Thus far the public attitude has been one of national pride, enthusiasm 

over a good show, wonder at the accomplishments of science. It has been 

uninformed on, or has chosen to ignore, the adverse aspects. It can change its 

attitude in a month’s time. When it does it can be utterly unreasonable, and it can 

be cruel. I do not know when this will occur; I do not even know that it will occur. 

But I fear it.

Now do not misunderstand me. If I were sure the program were sound I 

would applaud your driving it forward in spite of any amount of criticism, or any 

amount of personal risk. And I know you well enough to be sure that is just what you 

would do. The diffi culty is that the program, as it has been built up, is not sound.

The sad fact is that the program is more expensive than the country can 

now afford; its results, while interesting, are secondary to our national welfare. 

Moreover the situation is one on which the President, and the people, cannot 

possibly have adequate unbiased advice.

Our national budget has been unbalanced for many years. We have a 

serious problem in the outfl ow of gold. Our taxes are so high that they impede 

commercial vigor, [3] and our rate of growth is hence low compared to recovered 

nations with which we compete. We have by no means halted the wage-price spiral. 

We have genuine danger of infl ation. The strength of the dollar is questioned. This 

calls for vigorous, courageous measures to avert disaster. I will not comment here 

on the nature of the measures I would advocate. But I believe it is crystal-clear that 

this is no time at which to make enormous - and unnecessary - expenditures.

While the scientifi c results of an Apollo program would be real, I 

do not think that anyone would attempt to justify an expenditure of 40 or 50 

billion dollars to obtain them. The Academy report was weak on this point. The 

justifi cations given are of quite a different nature. First, it is said we are in a race 

and our national prestige is at stake. I believe we can disregard the matter of race. 

I do not know whether there is a race to the moon or not; I doubt it. But national 

prestige is a far more subtle thing than this. The courageous, and well conceived, 

way in which the President handled the threat of missiles in Cuba advanced our 

national prestige far more than a dozen trips to the moon. Having a large number 

of devoted Americans working unselfi shly in undeveloped countries is far more 

impressive than mere technical excellence. We can advance our prestige by many 

means, but this way is immature in its concept.

I hear that the program will be justifi ed by its by-products. We might get a 

billion dollars worth of benefi t that way. I doubt if it would exceed this.
606 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

I also hear, and some of my good friends advance this argument in all 

seriousness, that the program is inspiring the youth of the country, and spurring 

us on to great accomplishment. It inspires youth all right, and it also misleads them 

as to want is really worthwhile in scientifi c effort. In fact, it misleads them as to 

what science is. It is well to inspire a child, and the use of fairy tales is legitimate as 

this is done. But when a child becomes a man he should be inspired to judge and 

choose soundly, to avoid being carried away by mass enthusiasms, to understand 

the tough world in which he will play his part, technically and economically. It is 

wrong to inspire him to have an exciting adventure at his neighbors’ expense.

I also hear that this is a form of pump priming, that it is a shot in the arm 

to industry. Anyone who still [4] believes in pump priming should read again 

about the 1929 debacle, and the sorry following years when we long failed to 

emerge from the resulting depression.

In other words, I hear excuses and rationalization, not cold analysis.

A most serious point about this whole affair is that the people of this 

country, and the President with his appalling responsibilities, cannot possibly 

have adequate sound scientifi c, engineering, and economic advice regarding it. 

This is due to the very vast size of the project. Nearly every man who could speak 

with authority on the subject has a confl ict of interest. Now do not misinterpret 

this to mean that the scientists of the country are all feeding at the trough, and 

so selfi sh they would subordinate their judgment as to what is true to what is 

advantageous to them. There are some of these of course. I even hear rumors of 

artifi cial pressures being brought to bear on individuals and companies to ensure 

conformity, but such rumors always fl oat about when there are great undertakings, 

and in any very large organization there are always subordinates of little sense, as 

we have seen exemplifi ed often.

I do not mean this sort of thing at all. The scientist or engineer in a 

university or a company is in a diffi cult quandary. He may honestly believe the 

program as a whole is highly fallacious. But it has been decided upon at the top level 

of government. It is supported by his colleagues, many of whom have enthusiasm. 

His organization has been urged to participate. Who is he to stand out against this 

powerful trend? He consoles himself by Cromwell’s admonition, “I beseech you, 

bethink you that you may be mistaken”, and sides along with the crowd.

We pride ourselves that, in this democracy, the minority has opportunity 

to speak. Yet it takes courage and an unusual sort of detachment, to stand against a 

nearly unanimous opinion of friends and colleagues, and to risk one’s reputation 

in a futile attempt to halt an avalanche. I know this whole program has never been 

evaluated objectively by an adequately informed and disinterested group, and I 

fear it never will be.

The whole problem is in the hands of the President, and he has many 

problems on his mind today. He leans on [5] you, to steer him straight. As we 

now go there is danger ahead for the program, and danger to his prestige. I hope 

he will alter his handling of this whole affair before a balky Congress, or public 

opinion, forces him to do so.
Exploring the Unknown 607

You and I think alike on the tough problem of the relation to the President 

of a man on his team; we have discussed it a number of times. Your creed and 

mine depends on two main principles. First, the President on a problem should 

have the best advice this country can afford, with differences of opinion where 

there are any faithfully transmitted, and it is the job of the man who reports to 

him in an area to see that he gets it. Second, when the President, with full grasp 

of a subject and thus advised, makes a decision and issues an order, it is the job 

of his lieutenant on a subject to carry it out loyally and effectively whether or not 

he agrees with it. This is especially true in time of war, but it is also true of a key 

subject in time of cold war. The only exception would be a situation in which 

the lieutenant’s disagreement was so complete that he found himself unable to 

perform well, in which case he should step aside, and, incidentally, say nothing.

I believe the President could alter his attitude and his orders without a 

reversal of form which would embarrass him.

I know what I think should be done. As a part of lowering taxes and putting 

our national fi nancial affairs in order, we should have the sense to cut; back severely, 

on our rate of expenditure on space. As a corollary they could remove all dates 

from plans for a trip to the moon; in fact, he could announce that no date will be 

set, and no decision made to go to the moon, until many preliminary experiments 

and analyses have rendered the situation far more clear than it is today. He could 

lop off, without regret, marginal programs that cannot be soundly supported, and 

continue only where results are clearly attainable and worthwhile, in weather and 

communication satellites for example. He could order experimentation concerned 

with long space fl ights confi ned to those features which are clearly central and 

determining, avoiding hardware except where it is necessary. Then, after a year or 

so, the entire program could be reviewed through a professional dis-[6]interested 

board, made up of scientists, engineers, economists, fi nancial men, and men with 

keen judgment of public attitudes here and abroad.

By so doing, he could reduce the rate of current expenditure at a time 

when any such cutback would help him in his tax program. He could avoid 

commitment to vast expenditures until such time as economic prosperity justifi ed 

them, and thorough analysis had shown them to be warranted. And I believe he 

could do this without real damage to an overall logical sound space program.

There were times when you and I both reported to the President, and we 

worked closely together in so doing, even when we did not totally agree. Today 

you are still doing so while I have dropped out of the active picture.

But, whatever you do, and however the program may work out, you have 

my best wishes, my deep personal regard.

Cordially yours,

[Signed]

V. Bush
608 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-36

Document Title: John Disher and Del Tischler, “Apollo Cost and Schedule 

Evaluation,” 28 September 1963.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-37

Document Title: Clyde B. Bothmer, “Minutes of Management Council Meeting, 

October 29, 1963, in Washington, D.C.” 31 October 1963.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-38

Document Title: George E. Mueller, Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned 

Space Flight, NASA, to the Directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center, Launch 

Operations Center, and Marshall Space Flight Center, “Revised Manned Space 

Flight Schedule,” 31 October 1963.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

When George Mueller joined NASA in September 1963, replacing D. Brainerd Holmes, he 

was concerned that the existing schedule for Project Apollo would not result in an initial 

lunar landing before the end of the decade, the goal that had been set by President Kennedy. 

Mueller asked two veteran NASA engineers, John Disher and Del Tischler, to conduct a 

two-week assessment of the situation. The two presented their fi ndings to Mueller on 28 

September. Their fi ndings, as presented in the excerpts from their briefi ng included here, 

were troubling. After he had heard their briefi ng, Mueller took the two to present it to NASA 

Associate Administrator Robert Seamans. According to a 22 August 1976 hand-written 

note by NASA Historian Eugene Emme on the copy of the briefi ng sent to the NASA History 

Division, Seamans asked that all copies of the Disher/Tischler briefi ng be “withdrawn”; some 

accounts suggest that because the fi ndings were so at variance with the offi cial schedule that 

Seamans suggested that all copies of the briefi ng be destroyed. This briefi ng was a catalyst to 

Mueller’s rethinking of the Apollo schedule that led to the “all-up” testing concept, in which 

the Saturn 1B and Saturn V launch vehicles would be tested with all of their stages active, 

rather than the stage-by-stage testing that was then the plan.

The “all-up” approach was fi rst announced by Mueller at a management meeting on 

29 October 1963; more details were provided in a teletyped memorandum two days later. 
Exploring the Unknown 609

Mueller’s approach was strongly resisted by both the Marshall Space Flight Center and the 

Manned Spacecraft Center, but Mueller, who soon after this memorandum was written 

became Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, was a strong-willed individual 

whose views eventually prevailed. The “all-up” decision is regarded by many as key to the 

United States being able to reach the Moon “before this decade is out.”

Document II-36

APOLLO SCHEDULE AND COST EVALUATION

OBJECTIVES

• PROVIDE A REALISTIC ESTIMATE WITH MODERATE CONFIDENCE 

(~50%) OF THE EARLIEST DATE FOR THE FIRST LUNAR LANDING 

ATTEMPT

• PROVIDE A CORRESPONDING PROGRAM COST ESTIMATE

• ASSESS TIME AND COST INCREASES REQUIRED TO RAISE 

CONFIDENCE TO A HIGH LEVEL (~90%)

• ESTIMATE ADDITIONAL COSTS OF WORK WHICH COULD 

INCREASE CONFIDENCE LEVEL OF EARLIEST DATE

APOLLO SCHEDULE AND COST EVALUATION GROUND RULES

• NO BASIC CHANGE IN TECHNICAL CONCEPT OR APPROACH

• PERSONNEL CEILING FIXED AT FY 65 LEVEL

• FY 64 AND FY 65 FUNDING AT GUIDLINE LEVELS

• FY 66 AND SUBSEQUENT R&D FUNDING CEILING OF $3.00 BILLION 

PER YEAR (INCLUDES ADVANCED PROGRAM)

• CONTINUATION OF DX PRIORITY

• NORMAL PROCUREMENT LEAD TIMES

• TWO SCHEDULED FLIGHTS REQUIRED FOR ACCOMPLISHMENT 

OF EACH FLIGHT MISSION

• MAXIMUM FREQUENCY FOR MANNED FLIGHTS OF FOUR PER YEAR

• INFLATION FACTORS NOT CONSIDERED

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• If funding constraints assumed herein prevail, lunar landing cannot likely 

be attained within the decade with acceptable risk.

• First attempt to land men on moon is likely about late 1971 under study 

guideline funding and constraints.

• Program cost through initial lunar landing attempt will approximate 24 

billion dollars (R&D Direct only)

• Progress on program inadequate to provide schedule associated with 

90% confi dence.

• Projection of lunar landing attempt on early manned Saturn V unrealistic 

in terms of probable technical problems.
610 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

• Late manned spacecraft availability, plus resource diversion to Saturn I from 

IB and V would strongly indicate cancellation of Saturn I manned fl ights.

• Funding increases of $400M to $700M in FY 65 and $700M to $1100M 

each in FY 66 and 67 could accelerate the program by one to two years 

with a decrease in total program cost.

Document II-37

October 31, 1963

MEMORANDUM FOR DISTRUBUTION LIST

Subject: Management Council Meeting, October 29, 1963 in Washington, D.C.

The subject meeting convened at 8:30 a.m. All members were present 

with the exception of Mr. Elms.

The Program Review portion of the meeting was conducted from 8:30 a.m. 

- 2:40 p.m. as scheduled, and the action minutes for that portion of the session are 

attached. [not included]

The following additional items were considered outside the Program 

Review.

 1. Dr. Mueller stressed the importance of a philosophical approach to 

meeting schedules which minimizes “dead-end” testing, and maximized “allup” systems fl ight tests. He also said the philosophy should include obtaining 

complete systems at the Cape (thus minimize “re-building” at the Cape), and 

scheduling both delivery and launch dates. (In explaining “dead-end” testing he 

referred to tests involving components or systems that will not fl y operationally 

without major modifi cation.)

[remainder of minutes not included]

Document II-38

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON 25, D.C.

IN REPLY REFER TO:

M-C M 9330.186

OCT 31, 1963 [stamped]
Exploring the Unknown 611

TO: Director, Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston 1, Texas

Director, Launch Operations Center

Cocoa Beach, Florida

Director, Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, Alabama

FROM: Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned

Space Flight

SUBJECT: Revised Manned Space Flight Schedule

Recent schedule and budget reviews have resulted in a deletion of the 

Saturn I manned fl ight program and realignment of schedules and fl ight mission 

assignments on the Saturn IB and Saturn V programs. It is my desire at this time 

to plan a fl ight schedule which has a good probability of being met or exceeded. 

Accordingly, I am proposing that a fl ight schedule such as shown in Figure 1 [not 

included], with slight adjustments as required to prevent “stack-up,” be accepted 

as the offi cial launch schedule. Contractor schedules for spacecraft and launch 

vehicle deliveries should be as shown in Figure 2.[not included] This would allow 

actual fl ights to take place several months earlier than the offi cial schedule. The 

period after checkout at the Cape and prior to the offi cial launch date should be 

designated the “Space Vehicle Acceptance” period.

With regard to fl ight missions for Saturn 1, MSC [the Manned Spacecraft 

Center] should indicate when they will be in a position to propose a fi rm mission 

and spacecraft confi guration for SA-10. MSFC [The Marshall Space Flight Center] 

should indicate the cost of a meteoroid payload for that fl ight. SA-6 through SA-9 

missions should remain as presently defi ned.

[2] It is my desire that “all-up” spacecraft and launch vehicle fl ights be 

made as early as possible in the program. To this end, SA-201 and 501 should 

utilize all live stages and should carry complete spacecraft for their respective 

missions. SA-501 and 502 missions should be reentry tests of the spacecraft at 

lunar return velocity. It is recognized that the Saturn IB fl ights will have CM/SM 

[Command Module/Service Module] and CM/SM/LEM [Command Module/

Service Module/Lunar Excursion Module] confi gurations.

Mission planning should consider that two successful fl ights would be 

made prior to a manned fl ight. Thus, 203 could conceivably be the fi rst manned 

Apollo fl ight. However, the offi cial schedule would show the fi rst manned fl ight as 

207, with fl ights 203-206 designated as “man-rating” fl ights. A similar philosophy 

would apply to Saturn V for “man-rating” fl ights with 507 shown as the fi rst 

manned fl ight,

I would like your assessment of the proposed schedule, including any 

effect on resource requirements in FY 1964, 1965 and run-out by November 11, 

1963. My goal is to have an offi cial schedule refl ecting the philosophy outlined 

here by November 25, 1963.
612 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

George M. Low [signed for] 

George E. Mueller

Deputy Associate Administrator 

for Manned Space Flight 

Enclosures:

Figure 1

Figure 2

Document II-39

Document Title: Letter to Representative Albert Thomas from President John F. 

Kennedy, 23 September 1963.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

Document II-40

Document Title: Memorandum from Jerome B. Wiesner to the President, “The 

US Proposal for a Joint US-USSR Lunar Program,” 29 October 1963.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

Speaking before the United Nations General Assembly on 20 September 1963, President 

Kennedy suggested that the United States and the Soviet Union might cooperate in a “joint 

mission to the moon.” Given that Project Apollo originated in 1961 in a desire to beat the 

Soviet Union to the Moon, and that the president had reiterated in 1962 that this was 

his primary motivation for funding the undertaking at a high level, this proposal came 

as a surprise to many. But President Kennedy had been interested in space cooperation 

with the Soviet Union since he had come to the White House, and according to his top 

advisor, Theodore Sorenson, he would have preferred to cooperate with the Soviet Union 

rather than compete with them. The reaction to the 12 April 1961 Soviet launch of Yuri 

Gagarin, however, suggested to Kennedy that competition was his only option. When he 

suggested cooperation to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at a June 1961 summit meeting, 

Khrushchev rebuffed the idea, and this reinforced Kennedy’s belief that competition was the 

only path open to him. By September 1963, Kennedy tried once again to raise the possibility 

of cooperation.

 Kennedy’s proposal angered those in the Congress who had been strongest in support of Apollo as 

a competitive undertaking. In a letter to Representative Albert Thomas, who chaired the House 

Appropriations Subcommittee that controlled the NASA budget, Kennedy explained how his 

proposal was consistent with a strong Apollo effort. There were also a number of suggestions that 

Kennedy’s proposal was primarily a public relations move, or a way of gracefully withdrawing 

from the M oon race after the U.S. success during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Balanced against 
Exploring the Unknown 613

such suggestions are a memorandum from Kennedy’s science advisor, Jerome Wiesner, suggesting 

a detailed approach to cooperation, and a 12 November 1963 National Security Action 

Memorandum signed by Kennedy asking NASA to take the lead in developing an approach to 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation in missions to the Moon (Volume II, Document I-42).

Document II-39

THE WHITE HOUSE

September 23, 1963

Dear Al:

I am very glad to respond to your letter of September 21 and to state my position 

on the relation between our great current space effort and my proposal at the 

United Nations for increased cooperation with the Russians in this fi eld. In my 

view an energetic continuation of our strong space effort is essential, and the 

need for this effort is, if anything, increased by our intent to work for increasing 

cooperation if the Soviet Government proves willing.

As you know, the idea of cooperation in space is not new. My statement of our willingness 

to cooperate in a moon shot was an extension of a policy developed as long ago as 

1958 on a bipartisan basis, with particular leadership from Vice President Johnson, 

who was then the Senate Majority Leader. The American purpose of cooperation in 

space was stated by the Congress in the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, 

and reaffi rmed in my Inaugural Address in 1961. Our specifi c interest in cooperation 

with the Soviet Union, as the other nation with a major present capability in space, 

was indicated to me by Chairman Khrushchev in Vienna in the middle of 1961, and 

reaffi rmed in my letter to him of March 7, 1962, which was made public at the time. 

As I then said, discussion of cooperation would undoubtedly show us “possibilities 

for substantive scientifi c and technical cooperation in manned and unmanned space 

investigations.” So my statement in the United Nations is a direct development of 

policy long held by the United States government.

Our repeated efforts of cooperation with the Soviet Union have so far produced 

only limited responses and results. We have an agreement to exchange 

certain information in such limited fi elds as weather observation and passive 

communications, and technical discussions of other limited possibilities are 

going forward. But as I said in July of this year, there are a good many barriers of 

suspicion and fear to be broken down before we can have major progress in this 

fi eld. Yet our intent remains: to do our part to bring those barriers down.

At the same time, as no one knows better than you, the United States in the last 

fi ve years has made a steadily growing national effort in space. On May 25, 1961, 

I proposed to the Congress and the nation a major expansion of this effort, and I 

particularly emphasized as a target the achievement of a manned lunar landing in 

the decade of the 60’s. I stated that this would be a task requiring great effort and 

very large expenditures’ the Congress and the nation approved this goal; we have 
614 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

been on our way ever since. In a larger sense this is not merely an effort to put a 

man on the moon; it is a means and a stimulus for all the advances in technology, 

in understanding and in experience, which can move us forward toward man’s 

mastery of space.

This great national effort and this steadily stated readiness to cooperate with others 

are not in confl ict. They are mutually supporting elements of a single policy. We do 

not make our space effort with the narrow purpose of national aggrandizement. 

We make it so that the United States may have a leading and honorable role in 

mankind’s peaceful conquest of space. It is this great effort which permits us now 

to offer increased cooperation with no suspicion anywhere that we speak from 

weakness. And in the same way, our readiness to cooperate with others enlarged the 

international meaning of our own peaceful American program in space.

In my judgment, therefore, our renewed and extended purpose of cooperation, 

so far from offering any excuse for slackening or weakness in our space effort, is 

one reason the more for moving ahead with the great program to which we have 

been committed as a country for more than two years.

So the position of the United States is clear. If cooperation is possible, we mean 

to cooperate, and we shall do so from a position made strong and solid by our 

national effort in space. If cooperation is not possible—and as realists we must 

plan for this contingency too—then the same strong national effort will serve all 

free men’s interest in space, and protect us also against possible hazards to our 

national security. So let us press on.

Let me thank you again for this opportunity of expressing my views.

With warm personal regards,

Sincerely,

/s/

John F. Kennedy

The Honorable Albert Thomas

House of Representatives

Washington, D/C.

Document II-40

October 29, 1963

MEMORANDUM FOR

 The President

Subject: The US Proposal for a Joint US-USSR Lunar Program
Exploring the Unknown 615

I believe that Premier Khrushchev’s statement of October 26 that the 

USSR does not plan to land a man on the moon gives us a unique opportunity 

to follow through on your UN proposal for a joint US-USSR program in a way 

that will not only be in accord with U.S. objectives for peaceful cooperation if 

accepted by the USSR, but will also decisively dispel the doubts that have existed 

in the Congress and the press about the sincerity and feasibility of the proposal 

itself. Specifi cally, I would propose a joint program in which the USSR provides 

unmanned exploratory and logistic support for the U.S. Apollo manned landing. 

I believe such a program would utilize the combined resources of US and USSR 

in a technically practical manner and might, in view of Premier Khrushchev’s 

statement, be politically attractive to him.

The manned lunar program encompasses much more that the manned 

landing vehicle itself. The PSAC space panels have consistently emphasized the 

importance of the unmanned lunar exploration program to develop technical 

information about the lunar surface. This information appears critical to a 

successful manned landing. The U.S. unmanned program hinges around 

the Surveyor program which at best is a marginal one. At the present time its 

estimated payload has dropped to 65 pounds and its schedule is unreliable. The 

Soviet Union, however, apparently has a substantial capability at this time for this 

type of exploratory mission. A joint program which would use this capability 

would be very valuable to us.

More directly involved with the manned landing itself is a vehicle and 

spacecraft for placing a large stock of supplies and equipment at [2] the site of the 

manned landing. NASA and the PSAC space panels all agree that the 24-48 hours 

staytime provided by Apollo does not permit the astronauts to conduct signifi cant 

scientifi c exploration. It is agreed that to make Apollo a useful scientifi c endeavor 

an additional 7000 pounds of equipment and supplies must be landed at [t]his 

site to permit him 5 to 7 days of useful scientifi c exploration before he returns 

to earth. This logistic support requires another large vehicle and spacecraft to 

be available on about the same time schedule as Apollo. The U.S. development 

program to provide this capability has not yet been initiated. If the Soviet 

Union could be convinced that the logistical support was indeed an essential 

and integral part of the manned landing and persuaded to provide this support 

system, the resulting program would again result in an effective use of combined 

resources. The Apollo program would remain a purely U.S. technical program 

without modifi cation of present plans. A Russian could easily be included as a 

member of the landing team without complicating the engineering effort. In 

addition, the proposal would have the practical value of minimizing requirements 

for complicated joint engineering projects and launching operations and would 

emphasize the exchange of plans, information and possibly people.

If we assume that Premier Khrushchev is telling the truth (and I believe 

that he is), this proposal will give the USSR the opportunity of sharing the credit 

for a successful lunar mission without incurring major expenditures much 

beyond those that they probably plan to undertake as a part of their present 

space program. By not including joint engineering and launching activities, the 

proposal minimizes the security impact on the USSR that undoubtedly acts as a 
616 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

restraint on joint activities because of the close association of the Soviet space and 

military missile programs.

It is true that the above proposal assumes that the USSR would be willing 

to follow the now well established U.S. operational plan for manned lunar 

exploration. This did seem reasonable as long as it appeared likely that Russia 

has a well developed program of her own. Now, however, Premier Khrushchev’s 

statement, whether it is true or not, makes such a proposal by the United States 

reasonable from [3] every standpoint. The proposal now not only offers a program 

which truly enhances the manned lunar exploration effort while leaving the 

Apollo program intact, but also one which ought to be acceptable to the USSR.

It might be extremely advantageous for you to publicly offer this plan 

to the USSR as a specifi c proposal for a joint program, formulated in the light 

of Premier Khrushchev’s statement and designed to effectively combine the 

resources of both countries. The effectiveness of the offer would be enhanced 

if it were made while Khrushchev’s statement is still fresh in the mind of the 

public. If the proposal is accepted we will have established a practical basis for 

cooperative program. If it is rejected we will have demonstrated our desire for 

peaceful cooperation and the sincerity of our original proposal.

If you believe this proposal has merit, I suggest that you request that NASA 

prepare as soon as possible a specifi c plan along these lines for your consideration.

Jerome B. Wiesner

Document II-41

Document Title: Memorandum to Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned Spacecraft 

Center from Verne C. Fryklund, Jr., Acting Director, Manned Space Sciences 

Division, Offi ce of Space Sciences, NASA Headquarters, “Scientifi c Guidelines 

for the Project Apollo,” 8 October 1963.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The National Academy of Sciences Space Science Board held a 1962 summer study on the 

campus of the University of Iowa to address all issues of space science (Volume V, Document 

I-22). Two working groups, one on lunar and planetary exploration and the other on the 

scientifi c role of humans in space, addressed the scientifi c aspects of the Apollo missions. The 

latter group recommended that astronomical observations from the Moon be relegated to later 

fl ights. These views were adopted by NASA as the basic scientifi c guidelines for early Apollo 

fl ights to the Moon. The Apollo Logistics Support System was a proposed extension of the basic 

Apollo capabilities to enable more extensive exploration of the Moon; it was never developed.
Exploring the Unknown 617

[stamped “OCT 8 1963”]

To: Director, Manned Spacecraft Center 

Attention: Robert R. Gilruth 

From: SH/Acting Director, Manned Space Sciences Division 

Offi ce of Space Sciences 

Subject: Scientifi c Guidelines for the Apollo Project

Reference: Scientifi c Guidelines for Apollo Logistic Support System

The following general and preliminary guidelines are being used by the Offi ce 

of Space Sciences and should be used by the Manned Spacecraft Center in the 

consideration of scientifi c investigations to be done by means of the Apollo project. 

As defi ned herein, Apollo refers only to the approved project with restricted stay 

time. The guidelines for the Apollo Logistic Support Systems (ALSS) previously 

Sent to MSFC are enclosed for your information.[not included]

These guidelines, unless modifi ed in writing, should be followed in the preparation 

of your plans.

The Offi ce of Space Sciences has established that the primary scientifi c objective 

of the Apollo project is acquisition of comprehensive data about the Moon. The 

steps that resulted in this decision are, I am sure, of interest to you. The Offi ce 

of Space Sciences formed the Ad Hoc Working Group on Apollo Experiments 

and Training at the request of the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight in March 1962. 

This working group issued a draft report (the Sonett Report) on July 6, 1962, 

that was immediately made available to the various subcommittees of the Iowa 

Summer Study, which was sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences. The 

reviews of the Subcommittees were extensive and though the general conclusions 

of the Sonett Report were accepted, the fi nal report of the Iowa Summer Study 

(“A Review of Space Research” National Academy of Sciences-National Research 

Council Publication 1079) recommends that the scope of Apollo scientifi c 

investigations be more restricted that those proposed in the Sonnet [2] Report. 

The Offi cer of Space Sciences has concurred with the recommendations of the 

Academy and they are incorporated in those guidelines.

As the moon itself is the primary subject of observation, it follows that the structure 

of the moon’s surface, gross body properties and large-scale measurements of 

physical and chemical characteristics, and observation of whatever phenomena 

may occur at the actual surface will be prime scientifi c objectives.

The guidelines that follow are intended to place some specifi c constraints on 

studies in keeping with the paragraphs above.

Guidelines:

1. The principal scientifi c activity will be observation of the moon.

2. The use of the moon as a platform for making astronomical and other 

observations is, in general, not a function of the Apollo project. (See ALSS 

Guidelines for additional comment on this subject.)
618 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

3. We may assume that Apollo activities will be largely reconnaissance in nature. 

The intention is to acquire knowledge of as large an area as possible, and by as 

simple a means as possible, in the limited time available.

4. The three functional scientifi c activities listed in order of decreasing 

importance, will be:

a. Comprehensive observation of lunar phenomena;

b. Collection of representative samples; and

c. Replacement of monitoring equipment.

5. Quantitative analytical chemistry will not be done on the moon by the Apollo 

project.

6. Qualitative and semi-quantitative analytical chemistry should be planned 

for, though there is not yet an obvious need for such data to be obtained on the 

moon by the Apollo project. 

[3] 7. Seismometers, scintillometers, and magnetometers, among other 

instruments intended to determine the physical properties of the moon, will be 

studied for inclusion in payloads.

8. Sample collecting, for geological and biological purposes, will be an important 

activity and possible special equipment requirements should be studied.

Verne C. Fryklund, Jr.

Document II-42

Document Title: Bureau of the Budget, “Special Space Review,” Draft Report, 

29 November 1963.

Source: Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas.

 This draft report summarizes a 1963 “special review” of the U.S. space program that began 

under President John F. Kennedy and continued after his assassination under President 

Lyndon Johnson. This report suggests that consideration was being given, at least within 

the Bureau of the Budget staff, to “backing off from the manned lunar landing goal.” How 

seriously this possibility was taken at this point in time is not clear from the historical record. 

This report was a draft; there were no recommendations in it, since they would have had 

to come from senior offi cials. It is not clear whether a fi nal version of this report, with such 

recommendations, was ever prepared, or whether any thought of not following through on the 

goal that had been set by President Kennedy was quickly abandoned after his death.
Exploring the Unknown 619

SPECIAL SPACE REVIEW

DRAFT REPORT

Bureau of the Budget 

November 29, 1963

[2]

SPECIAL SPACE REVIEW - 1965 BUDGET

INTRODUCTION

This report summarizes the principal results of the special review of the goals, 

nature, and pace of the space programs in the light of 1964 and 1965 budget 

pressures, which has been undertaken by the Bureau of the Budget in conjunction 

with the 1965 budget review and in response to the decisions at the October 8, 

1963, meeting of the Secretary of Defense, the Administrator of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Special Assistant to the President 

for National Security Affairs.

The purposes of the review have been to consider the goals of the space programs 

and the minimum requirements of a national program to achieve them, and to 

identify the policy questions, alternatives, and other major issues to be dealt with 

in the 1965 budget decisions.

The draft report has been prepared by Bureau of the Budget staff in consultation 

with senior representatives of NASA and the Department of Defense, and others, 

on the basis of information submitted by the agencies and discussions with 

agency offi cials in 1965 budget reviews now in process. The views expressed in 

the draft are necessarily those of the Bureau of the Budget staff. It is expected 

that the recommendations of the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, and the 

concurrences or[hand-written] differing views of the Secretary of Defense; the 

Administrator, NASA; the Director of OST; and the Executive Secretary of the 

NASC will be inserted as appropriate after discussion.

Section I covering the Manned Lunar Landing Program and Section II 

covering Military Space Objectives (including the proposed manned earth orbit 

experiments) are attached. Problems relating to communications satellites, 

meteorology, geodesy, space sciences, and technological development are being 

handled separately. 

[3]

[budget table omitted]

[4]
620 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

I. MANNED LUNAR LANDING PROGRAM

A. STATEMENT OF PRESENT GOAL:

To attempt to achieve a manned lunar landing and return by the end 

of this decade, on a high priority but not “crash” basis, with prudent regard for 

the safety of the astronauts, for the principal purposes of (a) demonstrating 

an important space achievement ahead of the USSR, (b) serving as a focus for 

technological developments necessary for other space objectives and having 

potential signifi cance for national defense, and (c) acquiring useful scientifi c 

and other data to the extent feasible.

B. QUESTIONS, DISCUSSION, ALTERNATIVES, AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

 1. Should consideration be given at this time to backing off from the 

manned lunar landing goal?

Discussion: The review has pointed to the conclusion that in the absence 

of clear changes in the present technical or international situations, the only 

basis for backing off from the MLL objective at this time would be an overriding 

fi scal decision either (a) that the budgetary totals in 1965 or succeeding years are 

unacceptable and should be reduced by adjusting the space program, or (b) that 

within present budgetary totals an adjustment should be made shifting funds 

from space to other programs.

Alternatives

a. Adhere to the present goal as stated above. The arguments supporting 

this alternative include:

(1) That the reasons for adopting the manned lunar landing goal are 

still valid;

[5]

(2) That in the absence of clear and compelling external 

circumstances a change in present policies and commitments would involve an 

unacceptable “loss of face” both domestically and internationally; and

(3) That it is doubtful if budgetary reductions in the manned lunar 

program would in fact reduce criticism of the total magnitude of the budget or 

increase support for other meritorious programs to which the funds might be 

applied.

b. Decide now to abandon current work directly related to the manned 

lunar landing objective but to continue development of the large launch vehicle 

(Saturn V) so that it will be available for future space programs. It is estimated 

that cancellation in January 1964 of Apollo and other programs supporting the 

manned lunar landing only would result in NOA and expenditure savings in FY 

1965 of about $1 billion, less amounts required for any new objectives that might 

be substituted. The arguments supporting this alternative could include:

(1) The overriding need for economy in the 1965 budget;

(2) The doubts that Congress will provide adequate support for the 

manned lunar landing program in 1965 and succeeding years, regardless of the 

administration’s recommendations; and

(3) The apparent absence of a competitive USSR manned lunar 

landing program at this time.
Exploring the Unknown 621

c. Decide now to abandon both current work toward the manned lunar 

landing objective and the development of the Saturn V large launch vehicle. 

If the programs involved are cancelled or adjusted in January 1964, savings 

approaching $2.5 billion in 1965 NOA and expenditures could be anticipated. 

The arguments supporting this alternative could include, [6] in addition to those 

for alternative “b” above:

(1) That proceeding with development of the Saturn V launch 

vehicle is not justifi ed in the absence of approved goals requiring its use; and

(2) That an adequate continuing space program can be built 

around the use of the Saturn IB (and perhaps the Titan III) launch vehicle.

Recommendations

(Recommendation of Director, Bureau of the Budget, and concurrences 

or differing recommendations of Secretary of Defense; Administrator, NASA; 

Director, OST; and Executive Secretary, NASC, to be inserted after discussions)

* * * * * * * * *

2. Does the present-program represent the minimum necessary for 

achieving the_MLL goal?

Discussion: The review has pointed to the conclusions:

a. That the elements comprising the present program (with Saturn I 

manned fl ights eliminated) are required for achieving the goal (recognizing 

the somewhat indirect contribution of the Gemini program), except for certain 

construction and other relatively minor items in which adjustments are under 

consideration in the regular budget review; and

b. That the current NASA 1964 and 1965 estimates represent the 

minimum funding level required to continue the program on the schedule now 

planned, except for the possible adjustments being considered in the regular 

budget review.

[7]

Alternatives

a. Approve the program and cost estimates as submitted by NASA, 

subject to separate resolution of the adjustments under consideration in the 

budget review. (The question of a 1964 supplemental estimate is considered in 

Item 3 below.)

b. Decide now that the program should be geared to a schedule slipping 

the fi rst manned lunar landing attempts one or two years later than now planned 

to the very end of the decade (i.e., end of CY 1969 or l970, depending on the 

defi nition of “decade”). This alternative might permit reductions in the range 

of $100 to 200 million in the 1965 budget. Other things being equal, the total 

cost of the MLLP to the achievement of the fi rst manned lunar landing would 

probably be greater by at least $200 million because of the need to maintain 

the same engineering and other overhead costs over a longer period. However, 

this would probably not mean a corresponding increase in total annual budgets 

over what they would be under the present schedule, since expected successor 

programs would then consume the funds that would otherwise go for completing 

the stretched out MLLP.

In support of this alternative it could be argued that it would recognize 

the need for minimizing outlays in the 1965 budget without necessitating a 
622 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

decision at this time to abandon the goal of attempting to achieve manned lunar 

landing in this decade.

Opposing it, the point can be made that some degree of slippage in 

present schedules is recognized to be inevitable, so that eliminating the present 

margin between the current scheduled fi rst manned lunar landing [8] attempts 

(late CY 1968) and the end of the decade would be tantamount to and generally 

recognized as an admission that achievement of the goal has been deferred 

beyond the end of the decade.

Recommendations

(Recommendation of Director, Bureau of the Budget, and concurrences 

or differing recommendations of Secretary of Defense; Administrator, NASA; 

Director, OST; and Executive Secretary, NASC, to be inserted after discussions)

* * * * * * * * *

3. Should a 1964 supplemental estimate be submitted to Congress 

in January for restoration in part or in full of the $250 million congressional 

reductions below the total legislative authorizations for NASA in 1964?

Alternatives

a. Decide to submit a 1964 supplemental in the amount required to keep 

the MLLP on the current schedules. Arguments that can be made for this course 

include:

(1) That restoration of 1964 funds is necessary to avoid forced 

slippage in the program; and

(2) That submission of a supplemental estimate would once again place 

the question of maintaining the pace in the MLLP squarely before Congress.

b. Decide not to submit a 1964 supplemental estimate to Congress, 

and accept as the will of Congress whatever slippage in the MLLP is caused by 

insuffi cient funds in 1964. Arguments for this course include:

(1) It would avoid placing the administration in the untenable 

[9] budgetary posture of seeking restoration of the NASA reduction so soon 

after congressional action without making similar requests for other important 

programs reduced by Congress;

(2) There is no reason to believe that the Congress will look with 

more favor on a supplemental estimate than it did on the regular 1964 request;

(3) The outcome of a supplemental request is likely to be uncertain 

for several months, and the uncertainty will create operating diffi culties which will 

tend to offset the advantages even if the supplemental is ultimately approved; and

(4) Congress has taken the responsibility for slippage in the MLLprogram because of insuffi cient funds in 1964.

c. Decide not to submit a 1964 supplemental estimate but to seek to make 

up in the 1965 budget the amounts required to adhere to the current MLLP 

schedules insofar as practicable. The arguments for this alternative are:

(1) It avoids the problems of a 1964 supplemental estimate referred 

to above [Items (1), (2), and (3) under “b” above];

(2) It offers a possibility of minimizing the impact of congressional 

1964 reductions on the MLLP through adjustments in the timing of obligations 

between 1964 and 1965; and
Exploring the Unknown 623

(3) It may be feasible without increasing previously expected 1965 

budget totals for NASA because of possible offsetting 1965 reductions that have 

been identifi ed in the regular budget review, as follows:

[9]

(NOA in millions)

NASA estimates: MLLP All Other Total NASA

1964 4,129.7 1,220.3 5,350.0

1965 4,197.5 1,377.5 5,575.0

Total 8,327.2 21,597.8 10,925.0

Adjustments:

Possible 1965 adjustments in

Budget review –88.4* –313.8* –402.2*

Congressional 1964 

reductions –190.0* –60.0* –250.0

Restoration in 1965 for 

MLLP +190.0* - +190.0*

Revised totals:

1964 3,939.7* 1,160.3* 5,100.0

1965 4,299.1* 1,063.7* 5,362.8*

Total 8,238.8* 2,224.0* 10,462.8*

________________________________________________________________

*Tentative numbers; subject to change in fi nal budget recommendations.

Recommendations

(Recommendation of Director, Bureau of the Budget, and concurrences 

or differing recommendations of Secretary of Defense; Administrator, NASA; 

Director, OST; and Executive Secretary, NASC, to be inserted after discussions)

* * * * * * * * *

4. Should our posture on the manned lunar landing program attribute a 

greater degree of military signifi cance to the program?

Discussion: The review points to the conclusions that: 

a. The facts of the situation justify the position that the launch vehicle, 

spacecraft, facilities, and general technology being developed by NASA in the 

MLLP do have important potential future military signifi cance; 
624 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[11] b. That overplaying this point unduly could have the effects of 

undercutting the general peaceful image of the program, jeopardizing possibilities 

for international cooperation, or calling into question the need for a large-scale 

NASA non-military space program; and

c. That the question of public posture on potential military signifi cance 

is separable from, but must be considered in relation to the questions of the 

composition of the NASA and Defense programs and of possible transfers of 

projects from NASA to Defense or vice versa.

Alternatives

a. Decide (1) to place greater stress on the potential military signifi cance 

of the capabilities being developed in the MLLP in domestic public statements, 

exercising due restraint to avoid undesirable international effects; (2) to emphasize 

that NASA programs are being relied on by Defense for general technological 

capabilities and developments; and (3) to point to Defense use of Gemini (on 

whatever basis is decided separately below)_as a tangible example of how NASA 

technological advances contribute to potential Defense needs. The principal 

advantage of this alternative is that if properly handled it would permit greater use 

of potential military applications in securing and maintaining congressional and 

public support for the administration’s manned lunar landing program without 

creating demands for an unwarranted expansion in military space programs in 

addition to or in lieu of the approved NASA programs.

b. Decide (1) to play down the potential military signifi cance of the 

capabilities being developed in the MLLP; (2) to emphasize that all clearly 

established military requirements are being met by Department of [12] Defense 

programs coordinated with NASA and drawing on NASA’s experience; and (3) to 

point to the DOD use of Gemini (on whatever basis is decided separately below) 

as indicating that prompt attention is being given to the exploitation of possible 

military uses of space. The advantage of this alternative is that it would avoid 

possible international complications and unwarranted demands for a larger 

military space program that might result from too much stress on the potential 

military signifi cance of the MLLP,

Recommendations

(Recommendation of Director, Bureau of the Budget, and concurrences 

or differing recommendations of Secretary of Defense; Administrator, NASA; 

Director, OST; and Executive Secretary, NASC, to be inserted after discussions)

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

5. What should be the posture with respect to a joint effort with the 

USSR?

Discussion: The review points to the conclusion that in the present 

situation we must necessarily take the posture that we are prepared to enter into 

any constructive arrangement which will not jeopardize vital national security 

interests and which will not delay or jeopardize the success of our MLL program. 

We will necessarily have to wait to see what proposals, if any, the USSR may make, 

and then expect an extended series of negotiations.

Recommendation: That the posture be as indicated above.

(remainder of document not provided)
Exploring the Unknown 625

Document II-43

Document Title: “Oral History Interview w/Theodore Sorensen,” 26 March 1964.

Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

A few month after President John F. Kennedy’s assassination, his top advisor, Theodore 

Sorenson, was interviewed by Carl Kaysen, another Kennedy associate who had worked 

for the National Security Council during the Kennedy presidency. Sorenson provides a 

fascinating insider’s view of the space issues facing President Kennedy.

Oral History Interview

with

THEODORE C. SORENSEN

March 26, 1964

By Carl Kaysen

For the John F. Kennedy Library

KAYSEN: Ted, I want to begin by asking you about something on which the 

President expressed himself very strongly in the campaign and early in his 

Administration, and that is space. What signifi cance, in your mind, did the 

President attach to the space race in terms of, one, competition with the Soviet 

Union and, two, the task which the United States ought to do whether or not the 

element of competition with the Soviet Union was important in it?

SORENSEN: It seems to me that he thought of space primarily in symbolic 

terms. By that I mean he had comparatively little interest in the substantive gains 

to made from this kind of scientifi c inquiry. He did not care as much about 

new breakthroughs in space medicine or planetary exploration as he did new 

breakthroughs in rocket thrust or humans in orbit. Our lagging space effort 

was symbolic, he thought, of everything of which he complained in the [Dwight 

D.] Eisenhower Administration: the lack of effort, the lack of initiative, the lack 

of imagination, vitality, and vision; and the more the Russians gained in space 

during the last few years in the fi fties, the more he thought it showed up the 

Eisenhower Administration’s lag in this area and damaged the prestige of the 

United States abroad.

[2] KAYSEN: So that your emphasis was on general competitiveness but not 

specifi c competitiveness with the Soviet Union in a military sense. The President 

never thought that the question of who was fi rst in space was a big security issue 

in any direct sense.
626 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

SORENSEN: That’s correct.

KAYSEN: Now the fi rst big speech and the fi rst big action on space was taken 

in a special message on extraordinary needs to the Congress in May. What 

accounted for this delay? What was the President doing in the period between his 

inauguration and May? He didn’t really say much about space in the State of the 

Union message. He mentioned the competition with the Soviet Union in his State 

of the Union message, but he didn’t really say much or present any programs. 

What was going on in this period between the inauguration and the inclusion 

of space in a message which was devoted to extraordinary, urgent was the word, 

urgent national need?

SORENSEN: There was actually a considerable step-up in our space effort in the 

fi rst space supplementary budget which he sent to the Congress. You can check that 

against the actual records, but my recollection is that it emphasized more funds for 

the Saturn booster. Then came the fi rst Soviet to orbit the earth -- [Yuri] Gargarin, 

I believe that was -- and the President felt, justifi ably so, that the Soviets had scored 

a tremendous propaganda victory, that it affected not only our prestige around the 

world, but affected our security as well in the sense that it demonstrated a Soviet 

rocket thrust which convinced many people that the Soviet Union was ahead of 

the United States militarily. First we had a very brief inquiry -- largely because the 

President was being interviewed by Hugh Sidey of Time magazine and wanted to 

be prepared to say where we stood, what we were going to do, what we were unable 

to do, how much it would cost and so on--in which he asked me and [Jerome B.] 

Wiesner and others to look into our effort in some detail.

I do not remember the exact time sequence, but I believe it was shortly 

after that he asked the Vice President, as the chairman of the Space Council, to 

examine and to come up with the answers to four or fi ve questions of a similar 

nature: What were we doing that was not enough? what could we be doing 

more? [3] where should we be trying to compete and get ahead? what would 

we have to do to get ahead? and so on. That inquiry led to a joint study by the 

Space Administration and the Department of Defense. Inasmuch as that study 

was going on simultaneously with the studies and reviews we were making of the 

defense budget, military assistance, and civil defense, and inasmuch as space, like 

these other items, obviously did have some bearing upon our status in the world, 

it was decided to combine the results of all those studies with the President’s 

recommendations in the special message to Congress.

KAYSEN: Was the moon goal chosen as the goal for the space program because 

it was spectacular, because it was the fi rst well-defi ned thing which the experts 

thought we could sensibly say we ought to pick as a goal we could be fi rst in, 

because it was far enough away so that we could have a good chance of being fi rst? 

What reason did we have for defi ning this as the goal of the space program and 

making it the center of the space element of the message?

SORENSEN: The scientists listed for us what they considered to be the next 

series of steps to be taken in the exploration of space which any major country 

would take, either the Soviet Union or the United States. They included manned 

orbit, two men in orbit, laboratory in orbit, a shot around the moon, a landing 

of instruments on the moon, etc. In that list, then, came the sending of a man, 
Exploring the Unknown 627

or a team of men, to the moon and bringing them back safely. After that was 

exploration of the planets and so forth.

Looking at that list, the scientists were convinced--on the basis of what 

they assumed to be the Russian lead at that time -- that with respect to all of the 

items on the list between where we were then, in early 1961, and the landing of 

a man on the moon, sometime in the late 1960’s or early 1970’s, there was no 

possibility of our catching up with the Russians. There was a possibility, if we put 

enough effort into it, of being the fi rst to send a team to the moon and bringing 

it back. And it was decided to focus our space effort on that objective.

KAYSEN: Now, as early as the inaugural message, the President talked about 

making space an area of cooperation instead of confl ict. He repeated this notion 

[4] in his speech to the U. N. September ‘61, although with a rather narrow set of 

specifi cs on weather and communications satellites and things like that. At various 

times in the course of ‘61 and ‘62, I think the record suggests that there was a 

division of emphasis between the competitive element with the Soviet Union and 

the notion of offering to cooperate in space in the President’s 1963 speech to the 

U.N., he made a specifi c suggestion that we cooperate in going to the moon. Do you 

think this represented a change in emphasis, do you think it represented a change 

in the assessment of our relations with the Soviets, or do you think it represented a 

change in the assessment of the feasibility and desirability of trying to meet the goal 

set of getting to the moon in 1970 and being the fi rst on the moon?

SORENSEN: I don’t believe it represented the latter. It may have had an element 

of the fi rst two in it. I think the President had three objectives in space. One was 

to assure its demilitarization. The second was to prevent the fi eld from being 

occupied by the Russians to the exclusion of the United States. And the third was 

to make certain that American scientifi c prestige and American scientifi c effort 

were at the top. Those three goals all would have been assured in a space effort 

which culminated in our beating the Russians to the moon. All three of them 

would have been endangered had the Russians continued to outpace us in their 

space effort and beat us to the moon. But I believe all three of those goals would 

also have been assured by a joint Soviet-American venture to the moon.

The diffi culty was that in 1961, although the President favored joint effort, 

we had comparatively few chips to offer. Obviously the Russians were well ahead of 

us at that time in space exploration, at least in terms of the bigger, more dramatic 

efforts of which the moon shot would be the culmination. But by 1963, our effort 

had accelerated considerably. There was a very real chance that we were even 

with the Soviets in this effort. In addition, our relations with the Soviets, following 

the Cuban missile crisis and the test ban treaty, were much improved -- so the 

President felt that, without diminishing our own space that effort, and without 

harming any of those three goals, we now were in a position to ask the Soviets to 

join with us and make it more effi cient and economical for both countries.

[5]

KAYSEN: In this last element, was the President persuaded, as some people 

argued, that the Soviets weren’t really in the race; that, for example, we were 

developing the Saturn, our intelligence suggested to us that the Soviets had no 

development of comparable thrust and character; and that, in a sense, we were 
628 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

racing with ourselves, and we’d won, because once we’d make the commitment 

to develop the Saturn and it looked as if this was feasible, although maybe the 

schedule wasn’t clear, that we could do it and the Soviets really didn’t have 

anything that could match that; and that, therefore, the psychological moment 

had come to sort of make it clear to them that we knew it?

SORENSEN: I don’t know if that was in his mind. I did not know that.

KAYSEN: Now, this is a speculative question, but do you think once an offer of 

cooperation that was more than trivial, that went beyond the kind of things we 

had agreed, about exchange of weather information or other rather minor and 

technical points about recovery of parts and all that kind of thing, that once any 

offer of cooperation of that sort was made and accepted and some cooperation 

actually started to take place, do you think space would have become politically 

uninteresting?

SORENSEN: Politically, in domestic politics?

KAYSEN: Yes.

SORENSEN: It probably would have been less interesting, that’s right.

KAYSEN: I’m assuming, and I take it you’re assuming, that in the initial 

exchanges there’d be static and the right wing of the Republicans would shout 

and so on, but I’m assuming we’d get past all that and some actually useful 

cooperation would result?

[6]

SORENSEN: I think it would be less interesting. Even though the President 

would stress from time to time that the idea of a race or competition was not our 

sole motivation, there was no doubt that that’s what made it more interesting to 

the Congress and to the general public.

KAYSEN: Was there any indication that you are aware of that in ‘63, that in the 

process of assembling the budget for ‘63, at the time of the fi rst review, midyear 

review -- that is, I’m talking about the ‘65 budget, of course, which took place in 

‘63--just the size of this program and its rate of growth were beginning to worry 

the President, and that he was more eager to stress the cooperative issue because 

he was dubious about either the wisdom or the possibility of maintaining the kind 

of rate of increase in this program that NASA [National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration] talked about?

SORENSEN: I think he was understandably reluctant to continue that rate of 

increase. He wished to fi nd ways to spend less money on the program and to cut 

out the fat which he was convinced was in the budget. How much that motivated 

his offer to the Russians, though, I don’t know.

KAYSEN: What would you assign it to? You’d say that the political interest in 

trying to fi nd positive things we could do together was much more important than 
Exploring the Unknown 629

any budgetary concern about the space program or any feeling that this was not 

the most important effort that ought to be maintained.

SORENSEN: Right.

KAYSEN: Let me ask a couple more, rather narrower questions. What led the 

President to pick [James E.] Jim Webb as administrator of NASA? What kind of a 

man was the President looking for, and two years later did he think he’d gotten 

the kind of man he was looking for in this rather diffi cult area?

SORENSEN: My recollection here is not very good, and I’m sure my participation 

in that decision was remote. I believe that Webb was highly recommended, not 

only [7] by the Vice President and, I would assume, by Senator [Robert S.] Kerr 

and others who knew him well, but also by [David E.] Dave Bell and Elmer Staats 

who had known him when he’d been in the government previously. I also have a 

dim recollection that the President had tried to get others to take the job although 

I do not now remember any names, whom he tried or why they turned it down.

The President never expressed any specifi c dissatisfaction with Webb as 

space administrator. I think Webb was not what we would call a Kennedy type 

individual. He was inclined to talk at great length, and the President preferred 

those who were more concise in their remarks. He was inclined to be rather vague, 

somewhat disorganized in-his approach to a problem, and the President preferred 

those who were more precise. From time to time, the President would check with 

him on progress he was making --whether the President’s own commitments would 

be upheld. The President was willing to see a large chunk of the space program 

developed within the Department of Defense, undoubtedly because he had more 

confi dence in [Robert S.] McNamara’s managerial ability than he did in Webb’s. 

But even taking all of these qualifi cations, I don’t know that the President ever 

regretted his appointment of Webb, or wished that he had named someone else.

[rest of discussion omitted, not related to space]

Document II-44

Document Title: Letter to J. Leland Atwood, President, North American Aviation, 

Inc. from Major General Samuel C. Phillips, USAF, Apollo Program Director, 

with attached “NASA Review Team Report,” 19 December 1965. 

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

In late 1965, at the request of NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight 

George Mueller, Major General Samuel Phillips, Apollo Program Director at NASA 

Headquarters, initiated a review of the work of North American Aviation, Inc. (referred to in 

this document as NAA) to determine why the company was behind schedule and over budget 

on both the Apollo Command and Service Module and the second (S-II) stage of the Saturn 

V launch vehicle. This highly critical review was transmitted to North American’s president 

Lee Atwood on 19 December. The review took on added signifi cance in the aftermath of the 
630 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

fatal Apollo 204 fi re on 27 January 1967 when it was discovered that NASA Administrator 

James E. Webb was apparently unaware of its existence.

IN REPLY REFER TO: MA December 19, 1965

Mr. J. L. Atwood

President

North American Aviation, Inc. 

1700 E. Imperial Highway 

El Segundo, California

Dear Lee:

I believe that I and the team that worked with me were able to examine the 

Apollo Spacecraft and S-II stage programs at your Space and Information Systems 

Division in suffi cient detail during our recent visits to formulate a reasonably 

accurate assessment of the current situation concerning these two programs.

I am defi nitely not satisfi ed with the progress and outlook of either 

program and am convinced that the right actions now can result in substantial 

improvement of position in both programs in the relatively near future. 

Enclosed are ten copies of the notes which was [sic] compiled on the basis 

of our visits. They include details not discussed in our briefi ng and are provided 

for your consideration and use.

The conclusions expressed in our briefi ng and notes are critical. Even 

with due consideration of hopeful signs, I could not fi nd a substantial basis for 

confi dence in future performance. I believe that a task group drawn from NAA at 

large could rather quickly verify the substance of our conclusions, and might be 

useful to you in setting the course for improvements.

[2] The gravity of the situation compels me to ask that you let me know, by 

the end of January if possible, the actions you propose to take. If I can assist in any 

way, please let me know.

Sincerely,

SAMUEL C. PHILLIPS

Major General, USAF

Apollo Program Director

[Attachment p. 1]

NASA Review Team Report

I. Introduction

This is the report of the NASA’s Management Review of North American 

Aviation Corporation management of Saturn II Stage (S-II) and Command 

and Service Module (CSM) programs. The Review was conducted as a 
Exploring the Unknown 631

result of the continual failure of NAA to achieve the progress required to 

support the objective of the Apollo Program.

The scope of the review included an examination of the Corporate 

organization and its relationship to and infl uence on the activities of S&ID 

[Space and Information Systems Division of North American Aviation], 

the operating Division charged with the execution of the S-II and CSM 

programs. The review also included examination of NAA offsite program 

activities at KSC and MTF [Mississippi Test Facility].

The members of the review team were specifi cally chosen for their 

experience with S&ID and their intimate knowledge of the S-II and 

CSM programs. The Review fi ndings, therefore, are a culmination of the 

judgements [sic] of responsible government personnel directly involved 

with these programs. The team report represents an assessment of the 

contractor’s performance and existing conditions affecting current and 

future progress, and recommends actions believed necessary to achieve 

an early return to the position supporting Apollo program objectives.

The Review was conducted from November 22 through December 6 and 

was organized into a Basic Team, responsible for over-all [3] assessment of 

the contractor’s activities and the relationships among his organizational 

elements and functions; and sub-teams who [sic] assessed the contractor’s 

activities in the following areas:

Program Planning and Control (including Logistics)

Contracting, Pricing, Subcontracting, Purchasing

Engineering

Manufacturing

Reliability and Quality Assurance.

Review Team membership is shown in Appendix 7. [not provided]

Team fi ndings and recommendations were presented to NAA Corporate 

and S&ID management on December 19.

II. NAA’s Performance to Date-Ability to Meet Commitments

At the start of the CSM and S-II Programs, key milestones were agreed 

upon, performance requirements established and cost plans developed. 

These were essentially commitments made by NAA to NASA. As the 

program progressed NASA has been forced to accept slippages in key 

milestone accomplishments, degradation in hardware performance, and 

increasing costs.

A. S-II

1. Schedules

As refl ected in Appendix VI [not provided] key performance 

milestones in testing, as well as end item hardware deliveries, 

have slipped continuously in spite of deletions of both 

hardware and test content. The fact that the delivery [4] of 
632 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

the common bulkhead test article was rescheduled 5 times, 

for a total slippage of more than a year, the All System fi ring 

rescheduled 5 times for a total slippage of more than a year, 

and S-II-1 and S-II-2 fl ight stage deliveries rescheduled several 

times for a total slippage of more than a year, are indicative 

of NAA’s inability to stay within planned schedules. Although 

the total Apollo program was reoriented during this time, 

the S-II fl ight stages have remained behind schedules even 

after this reorientation.

2. Costs

The S-II cost picture, as indicated in Appendix VI, [not 

provided] has been essentially a series of costs escalations 

with a bow wave of peak costs advancing steadily throughout 

the program life. Each annual projection has shown either 

the current or succeeding year to be the peak. NAA’s estimate 

of the total 10 stage program has more than tripled. These 

increases have occurred despite the fact that there have been 

reductions in hardware.

3. Technical Performance

The S-II stage is still plagued with technical diffi culties 

as illustrated in Appendix VI. [not provided] Welding 

diffi culties, insulation bonding, continued redesign as a result 

of component failures during qualifi cation are indicative 

of insuffi ciently aggressive pursuit of technical resolutions 

during the earlier phases of the program.

[5] B. CSM

1. Schedules

A history of slippages in meeting key CSM milestones is 

contained in Appendix VT. [not provided] The propulsion 

spacecraft, the systems integration spacecraft, and the 

spacecraft for the fi rst development fl ight have each slipped 

more than six months. In addition, the fi rst manned and the 

key environmental ground spacecraft have each slipped more 

than a year. These slippages have occurred in spite of the 

fact that schedule requirements have been revised a number 

of times, and seven articles, originally required for delivery 

by the end of 1965, have been eliminated. Activation of two 

major checkout stations was completed more than a year late 

in one case and more than six months late in the other. The 

start of major testing in the ground test program has slipped 

from three to nine months in less than two years.

2. Costs

Analysis of spacecraft forecasted costs as refl ected in 

Appendix VI [not provided] reveals NAA has not been able 

to forecast costs with any reasonable degree of accuracy. 

The peak of the program cost has slipped 18 months in two 

years. In addition, NAA is forecasting that the total cost of 

the reduced spacecraft program will be greater than the cost 

of the previous planned program.
Exploring the Unknown 633

[6] 3. Technical Performance

Inadequate procedures and controls in bonding and 

welding, as well as inadequate master tooling, have delayed 

fabrication of airframes. In addition, there are still major 

development problems to be resolved. SPS engine life, RCS 

performance, stress corrosion, and failure of oxidizer tanks 

has resulted in degradation of the Block I spacecraft as well 

as forced postponement of the resolution of the Block II 

spacecraft confi guration.

III. NASA Assessment-Probability of NAA Meeting Future Commitments 

A. S-II

Today, after 4 1/2 years and a little more than a year before 

fi rst fl ight, there are still signifi cant technical problems and 

unknowns affecting the stage. Manufacture is at least 5 months 

behind schedule. NAA’s continued inability to meet internal 

objectives, as evidenced by 5 changes in the manufacturing 

plan in the last 3 months, clearly indicates that extraordinary 

effort will be required if the contractor is to hold the current 

position, let alone better it. The MTF activation program is 

being seriously affected by the insulation repairs and other 

work required on All Systems stage. The contractor’s most 

recent schedule reveals further slippage in completion 

of insulation repair. Further, integration of manual GSE 

has recently slipped 3 weeks as a result of confi guration 

discrepancies discovered during engineering checkout of 

the system. Failures in timely [7] and complete engineering 

support, poor workmanship, and other conditions have also 

contributed to the current S-II situation. Factors which have 

caused these problems still exist. The two recent funding 

requirements exercises, with their widely different results, 

coupled with NAA’s demonstrated history of unreliable 

forecasting, as shown in Appendix VI, [not provided] 

leave little basis for confi dence in the contractor’s ability to 

accomplish the required work within the funds estimated. 

The team did not fi nd signifi cant indications of actions 

underway to build confi dence that future progress will be 

better than past performance.

B. CSM

With the fi rst unmanned fl ight spacecraft fi nally delivered to 

KSC, there are still signifi cant problems remaining for Block 

I and Block II CSM’s. Technical problems with electrical 

power capacity, service propulsion, structural integrity, weight 

growth, etc. have yet to be resolved. Test stand activation and 

undersupport of GSE still retard schedule progress. Delayed 

and compromised ground and qualifi cation test programs 
634 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

give us serious concern that fully qualifi ed fl ight vehicles will 

not be available to support the lunar landing program. NAA’s 

inability to meet spacecraft contract use deliveries has caused 

rescheduling of the total Apollo program. Appendix VI [not 

provided] indicates the contractor’s schedule trends which 

cause NASA to have little confi dence that the S&ID will meet 

its future spacecraft commitments. While our management 

review indicated that some progress is [8] being made to 

improve the CSM outlook, there is little confi dence that NAA 

will meet its schedule and performance commitments within 

the funds available for this portion of the Apollo program. 

[9] IV. Summary Findings

 Presented below is a summary of the team’s views on those program 

conditions and fundamental management defi ciencies that are impeding 

program progress and that require resolution by NAA to ensure that the CSM 

and S-II Programs regain the required program position. The detail fi ndings and 

recommendations of the individual sub-team reviews are Appendix to this report.

A. NAA performance on both programs is characterized by continued failure 

to meet committed schedule dates with required technical performance 

and within costs. There is no evidence of current improvement in NAA’s 

management of these programs of the magnitude required to give 

confi dence that NAA performance will improve at the rate required to 

meet established Apollo program objectives.

B. Corporate interest in, and attention to, S&ID performance against 

the customer’s stated requirements on these programs is consider[ed] 

passive. With the exception of the recent General Offi ce survey of selected 

functional areas of S&ID, the main area of Corporate level interest 

appears to be in S&ID’s fi nancial outlook and in their cost estimating and 

proposal efforts. While we consider it appropriate that the responsibility 

and authority for execution of NASA programs be vested in the operating 

Division, this does not relieve the Corporation of its responsibility, and 

accountability to NASA for results. [10] We do not suggest that another 

level of program management be established in the Corporate staff, but 

we do recommend that the Corporate Offi ce sincerely concern itself with 

how well S&ID is performing to customer requirements and ensure that 

responsible and effective actions are taken to meet commitments.

C. Organization and Manning

 We consider the program organization structure and assignment of 

competent people within the organization a prerogative of the manager 

and his team that have been given the program job to do. However, in 

view of what we consider to be an extremely critical situation at S&ID, 

one expected result of the NASA review might be the direction of certain 

reorganizations and reassignments considered appropriate, by NASA, 

to improve the situation. While we do have some suggestions for NAA 

consideration on this subject, they are to be accepted as such and not 

considered directive in nature. We emphasize that we clearly expect 

NAA/S&ID to take responsible and thoroughly considered actions on the 
Exploring the Unknown 635

organization and assignment of people required to accomplish the S-II 

and CSM Programs. We expect full consideration, in this judgement [sic] 

by NAA, of both near and long term benefi ts of changes that are made. 

Frankly stated-we fi rmly believe that S&ID is overmaned [sic] and that the 

S-II and CSM Programs can be done, and done better, with fewer people. 

This is not to suggest that an arbitrary [11] percentage reduction should 

be applied to each element of S&ID, but we do suggest the need for adjustments, based on a reassessment and clear defi nition of organizational 

responsibilities and task assignments.

It is our view that the total Engineering, Manufacturing, Quality, and Program Control functions are too diversely spread and in too many layers 

throughout the S&ID organization to contribute, in an integrated and effective manner, to the hard core requirements of the programs. The present proliferation of the functions invites non-contributing, “make-work” 

use of manpower and dollars as well as impediments to program progress. 

We question the true strength and authority of each Program Manager 

and his real ability to be fully accountable for results when he directly 

controls less that 50% of the manpower effort that goes into his program. 

This suggests the need for an objective reappraisal of the people and 

functions assigned to Central versus Program organizations. This should 

be done with full recognition that the Central organization’s primary reason for existence is to support the requirements of the Program Managers. Concurrently, the Program Manager should undertake a thorough 

and objective “audit” of all current and planned tasks, as well as evaluate 

the people assigned to these tasks, in order to bring the total effort down 

to that which truly contributes to the program.

[12] It is our opinion that the assignment of the Florida Facility to the Test 

and Quality Assurance organization creates an anomaly since the Florida 

activities clearly relate to direct program responsibilities. We recognize 

that the existence of both CSM and S-II activities at KSC may require the 

establishment of a single unit for administrative purposes. However, it is our 

view that the management of this unit is an executive function, rather than 

one connected with a functional responsibility. We suggest NAA consider a 

“mirror image” organizational relationship between S&ID and the Florida 

operation, with the top man at Florida reporting to the S&ID President and 

the two program organizations reporting to the S&ID Program Managers.

D. Program Planning and Control

 Effective planning and control from a program standpoint does not 

exist. Each organization defi nes its own job, its own schedules, and 

its own budget, all of which may not be compatible or developed in a 

manner required to achieve program objectives. The Program Managers 

do not defi ne, monitor, or control the interfaces between the various 

organizations supporting their program.

 Organization-S&ID’s planning and control functions are fragmented; 

responsibility and authority are not clearly defi ned.
636 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[13] Work Task Management-General Orders, task authorizations, product 

plans, etc., are broad and almost meaningless from a standpoint of 

defi ning end products. Detailed defi nitions of work tasks are available at 

the “doing level”; however, these “work plans” are not reviewed, approved, 

or controlled by the Program Managers.

 Schedules-Each organization supporting the programs develops its 

own detailed schedules; they are not effectively integrated within an 

organization, nor are they necessarily compatible with program master 

schedule requirements.

 Budgeting System-Without control over work scope and schedules, the 

budget control system cannot be effective. In general, it is an allocation 

system assigning program resources by organizations.

 Management Reports-There is no effective reporting system to 

management that evaluates performance against plans. Plans are changed 

to refl ect performance. Trends and performance indices reporting is 

almost nonexistent.

E. Logistics

 The CSM and S-II Site Activations and Logistic organizations are 

adequately staffed to carry out the Logistics support. The problems in 

the Logistics area are in arriving at a mutual agreement, between NAA 

and NASA, clearly defi ning the tasks required to support the programs. 

The areas requiring actions are as follows:

[14] 1. Logistics Plan

2. Maintenance Manuals

3. Maintenance Analysis

4. NAA/KSC Relationship

5. Common and Bulk Item Requisitioning at KSC

6. Review of Spare Parts, Tooling, and Test Equipment Status

F. Engineering

 The most pronounced defi ciencies observed in S&ID Engineering are:

1. Fragmentation of the Engineering function throughout the S&ID 

organization, with the result that it is diffi cult to identify and place 

accountability for program-required Engineering outputs.

2. Inadequate systems engineering job is being done from interpretation 

of NASA stated technical requirements through design release.

3. Adequate visibility on intermediate progress on planned engineering 

releases is lacking. Late, incomplete, and incorrect engineering 

releases have caused signifi cant hardware delivery schedule slippages 

as well as unnecessary program costs.

[15] 4. The principles and procedures for confi guration management, as 

agreed to between NAA and NASA, are not being adhered to by the 

engineering organizations. 
Exploring the Unknown 637

G. Cost Estimating

The “grass roots” estimating technique used at S&ID is a logical step in 

the process of arriving at program cost estimates and developing operating budgets. However, there are several aspects of the total process that 

are of concern to NASA:

1. The fi rst relates to the inadequate directing, planning, scheduling, 

and controlling of program work tasks throughout S&ID. While the 

grass roots estimates may, in fact, represent valid estimates (subject to 

scrubbing of “cushion”) of individual tasks by working level people, 

we believe that the present defi ciencies in Planning and Control 

permit, and may encourage, the inclusion in these estimates of work 

tasks and level of efforts that are truly not required for the program.

2. The second concern is that the fi nal consolidation of grass roots 

estimates, developed up through the S&ID organization in parallel 

through both Central functional and Program organizations, does 

not receive the required [16] management judgements [sic], at 

successive levels for (a) the real program need for the tasks included 

in the estimate, or (b) adequate scrubbing and validation of the manhours and dollars estimates.

3. The third concern, which results from I and 2 above, is that the fi nal 

estimate does not represent, either in tasks to be done or in resources 

required, the legitimate program requirements as judged by the 

Program Manager, but represents total work and dollars required to 

support a level of effort within S&ID.

Several recommendations are made in the appended reports for correcting 

defi ciencies in the estimating process. The basic issue, however, is that 

an S&ID Management position must be clearly stated and disciplines 

established to ensure that the end product of the estimating process be 

only those resources required to do necessary program tasks. In addition, 

the Program Management must be in an authoritative position that allows 

him to accept, reject, and negotiate these resource requirements.

H. Manufacturing Work Force Effi ciency

There are several indications of less than effective utilization of the 

manufacturing labor force. Poor workmanship is evidenced by the continual 

high rates of rejection and MRB actions which result in rework that would 

not be necessary if the workmanship [17] had been good. This raises a 

question as to the effectiveness of the PRIDE program which was designed to 

motivate personnel toward excellence of performance as a result of personal 

responsibility for the end product. As brought out elsewhere in this report, 

the ability of Manufacturing to plan and execute its tasks has been severely 

limited due to continual changing engineering information and lack of 

visibility as to the expected availability of the engineering information. 

Recognizing that overtime shifts are necessary at this time, it is our view that 

strong and knowledgeable supervision of these overtime shifts is necessary, 

and that a practical system of measuring work accomplished versus work 

planned must be implemented and used to gauge and to improve the 

effectiveness of the labor force. The condition of hardware shipped from 

the factory, with thousands of hours of work to complete, is unsatisfactory 

to NASA. S&ID must complete all hardware at the factory and further 
638 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

implement, without delay, an accurate system to certify confi guration of 

delivered hardware, properly related to the DD 250.

I. Quality

NAA quality is not up to NASA required standards. This is evidence[d] by 

the large number of “correction” E.O.’s and manufacturing discrepancies. 

This defi ciency is further compounded [17] by the large number of 

discrepancies that escape NAA inspectors but are detected by NASA 

inspectors. NAA must take immediate and effective action to improve the 

quality of workmanship and to tighten their own inspection. Performance 

goals for demonstrating high quality must be established, and trend 

data must be maintained and given serious attention by Management to 

correct this unsatisfactory condition.

J. Following are additional observations and fi ndings that have resulted 

from discussions during the Review. Most of them are covered in most 

detail in the appended sub-team reports. They are considered signifi cant 

to the objective of improving NAA management of our programs and are 

therefore highlighted in this section of the report:

1. S&ID must assume more responsibility and initiative for carrying out 

these programs, and not expect step-by-step direction from NASA.

2. S&ID must establish work package management techniques that 

effectively defi ne, integrate, and control program tasks, schedules, 

and resource requirements.

3. S&ID must give concurrent attention to both present and downstream 

tasks to halt the alarming trend of crisis operation and neglect of 

future tasks because of concentration on today’s problems.

4. A quick response capability must be developed to work critical 

“program pacing” problems by a short-cut route, with follow-up to 

ensure meeting normal system requirements.

[19] 5. S&ID must maintain a current list of open issues and unresolved 

problems, with clear responsibility assigned for resolving these and 

insuring proper attention by Program and Division Management.

6. Effort needs to be applied to simplify management systems and 

end products. There must be greater emphasis on making today’s 

procedures work to solve today’s problems, and less on future, 

more sophisticated systems. The implementation and adherence to 

prescribed systems should be audited.

7. NAA must defi ne standards of performance for maintaining contracts 

current then establish internal disciplines to meet these standards. 

Present undefi nitized subcontracts and outstanding change orders 

on the S-II prime contract must be defi nitized without delay.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The NASA Team views on existing defi ciencies in the contractor’s 

management of the S-II and CSM Programs are highlighted in this section of 

the report and are treated in more detail in the appended sub-team reports. The 

fi ndings are expressed frankly and result from the team’s work in attempting to 
Exploring the Unknown 639

relate the end results we see in program conditions to fundamental causes for 

these conditions.

[20] In most instances, recommendations for improvement accompany the 

fi ndings. In some cases, problems are expressed for which the team has no specifi c 

recommendations, other than the need for attention and resolution by NAA.

It is not NASA’s intent to dictate solutions to the defi ciencies noted in 

this report. The solution to NAA’s internal problems is both a prerogative and a 

responsibility of NAA Management, within the parameters of NASA’s requirements 

as stated in the contracts. NASA does, however, fully expect objective, responsible, 

and timely action by NAA to correct the conditions described in this report.

It is recommended that the CSM incentive contract conversion proceed 

as now planned.

Incentivization of the S-II Program should be delayed until NASA is 

assured that the S-11 Program is under control and a responsible proposal is 

received from the contractor.

Decision on a follow-on incentive contract for the CSM, beyond the 

present contract period, will be based on contractor performance.

It is recommended that NAA respond to NASA, by the end of January 

1966, on the actions taken and planned to be taken to correct the conditions 

described in this report. At that time, NAA is also to certify the tasks, schedules, 

and resource requirements for the S-II and CSM Programs.

[21] It is further recommended that the same NASA Review Team revisit NAA during March 1966 to review NAA performance in the critical areas 

described in this report.

Document II-45

Document Title: Memorandum to Assistant Administrator, Offi ce of Planning, 

from William E. Lilly, Director, MSF Program Control, “Saturn Apollo Applications 

Summary Description,” 3 June 1966.

Source: Folder 18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Beginning in 1964, NASA began planning for missions to follow a lunar landing using 

the systems developed for Apollo. This program started out with a great deal of ambition, as 

this document suggests, but neither President Lyndon B. Johnson nor President Richard M. 

Nixon was willing to provide the funding needed to implement NASA’s ideas. The program 

was formally named the Apollo Applications Program in 1968. Ultimately, only one Apollo 

Applications mission was fl own, the interim space station known as Skylab.
640 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Willis Shapley was a policy advisor to NASA Administrator James Webb; PSAC was the acronym 

for the President’s Science Advisory Committee; OSSA, for NASA’s Offi ce of Space Science and 

Applications; and OART, NASA’s Offi ce of Advanced Research and Technology. 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 

MEMORANDUM

Dir., Offi ce of 

Program Review

DATE: Jun 3, 1966

TO : P/Assistant Administrator

 Offi ce of Programming

From : MP/Director, MSF Program Control

Subject: Saturn Apollo Applications Summary Description

Attached per Mr. Shapley’s request of May 31 is a summary description 

for PSAC of current Saturn Apollo Applications planning as refl ected 

in the May 1966 NASA submission to the Bureau of the Budget. This 

paper has been coordinated with and included inputs from OSSA 

(Mr. Foster) and OART (Mr. Novik).

/Signed/

William E. Lilly

Attachment:

Saturn Apollo Applications

Summary Description (CONFIDENTIAL) [DECLASSIFIED]

3 copies

[2]

June 9, 1966

SATURN APOLLO APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

SUMMARY DESCRIPTION

SCOPE

This document summarizes the assumptions, objectives, program 

content, hardware availability and fl ight schedules for the proposed Saturn 

Apollo Applications program, as currently planned and as refl ected in the May 

1966 NASA submission to the Bureau of the Budget. The plans described in 

this document are under active consideration within NASA but have not been 

approved at this time and are subject to further review and change.

PROGRAM ASSUMPTIONS
Exploring the Unknown 641

1. Prior to 1970, the Gemini and Apollo programs, building on results 

of Mercury and Saturn I, will have provided:

a. The capability to explore space out to 250,000 miles from 

earth and to conduct manned operations and experi ments 

on fl ights of up to two weeks duration.

b. The Saturn IB and Saturn V boosters, which will have 

injected 20 and 140 tons of payload per launch, respectively, 

into near-earth orbit. The Saturn V will have sent 48 tons to 

the vicinity of the moon.

c. The Apollo spacecraft, which will have sustained a threeman crew for two weeks in a two-compartment, modular, 

[3] maneuverable vehicle and will have landed two men 

on the moon and returned them, with samples of lunar 

material, to earth.

d. A U.S. manned space fl ight log of over 500 man days in space, 

during which data and experience will have been acquired 

from approximately 100 in-fl ight experiments in response to 

the needs of the scientifi c and technological communities. 

(To date, U.S. astronauts have logged approximately 75 

man-days in space.)

2. The currently approved Apollo mission objectives can be 

accomplished with the currently funded fl ight vehicles.

a. If the approved Apollo objectives can be achieved with 

fewer fl ights, the remaining fl ight vehicles can be used 

for alternate missions during 1968-71. Follow-on missions 

requiring procurement of fl ight hardware beyond that now 

funded would continue the manned space fl ight effort, 

based on Apollo systems, beyond that time.

b. If all of the presently funded hardware is required for the 

basic Apollo lunar missions, the program content of the 

alternate missions can be appropriately phased into the 

follow-on period.

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

The basic purposes of the Saturn Apollo Applications Program are to 

continue without hiatus an active and productive [4] post Apollo Program of 

manned space fl ight and to exploit for useful purposes and further develop the 

capabilities of the Saturn Apollo System. The major fl ight mission objectives of 

the proposed Saturn Apollo Applications fl ight program fall into two principal 

categories of essentially equal importance as follows:

A. Long Duration Flights
642 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

1. Man

2. Systems

B. Space fl ight experiments in the following areas:

1. Life Sciences (both biomedical and bioscience/technology)

2. Astronomy and space physics

3. Extended Lunar Exploration 

4. Applications (including meteorology, communica tions, earth 

resources)

5. Technology (spent stage utilization, advanced EVA, propellant 

handling in space, orbital assembly and maintenance, etc.)

A careful review of future mission requirements in rela tion to long range 

objectives has shown that extended duration manned fl ight experience as early 

as possible is required to establish the basic capabilities required for any of the 

projected next generation of manned space fl ight goals (earth orbital space 

station, lunar station or manned planetary [5] exploration). Flights of up to 

a year’s duration would be attained in Apollo Applications through the use of 

modifi ed Apollo hardware with resupply. Such an adaptation of Apollo hardware 

might be used as a long duration Manned Orbital Research Facility.

The experiments in the areas listed above would be responsive to specifi c 

needs, as defi ned by the scientifi c and engineering communities and as reviewed 

and approved by the Offi ce of Space Science and Applications in the case of scientifi c 

or applications experiments; by the Offi ce of Advanced Research and Technology 

in the case of technology experiments, and by the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight 

in the case of operations experiments and experiments on biomedical effects on 

man. All experiments proposed for fl ight on manned missions will be reviewed 

and approved by the joint NASA/DOD Manned Space Flight Experiments Board.

Experiment areas two and three above would support the National 

Astronomical Observatories objectives proposed in the 1965 Woods Hole 

Summer Study and extended lunar exploration as recommended at the 1965 

Falmouth Summer Study.

PROGRAM CONTENT

Attachment 1 summarizes the Saturn Apollo Applications mission 

objectives and indicates the planned target dates for fl ights to meet these objectives. 

The black triangular symbols represent planned missions, each of which requires 

one or more Saturn Apollo launches. Most of the missions [6] are planned to 

accomplish more than one objective, as indicated by the vertical alignment of the 

mission symbols for the same launch date. The following paragraphs summarize 

current plans for each of the objectives listed on Attachment 1.

The long duration fl ight objectives are (1) to measure the effects on men 

and on manned systems of space fl ights of increasing duration, (2) to acquire 
Exploring the Unknown 643

operational experience with increasingly longer manned space fl ights, and (3) 

to accomplish this (a) through modifi cations and adaptations of existing systems 

without a major new launch vehicle or spacecraft development, and (b) in such a 

way that the equip ment used as modifi ed for this program can serve as important 

elements of the systems that would be required for one or more of the projected 

next generation of manned space fl ight goals.

During 1968-69, extended mission duration can be achieved by adding 

expendable supplies to each fl ight and by rendezvous resupply using a second 

spacecraft launched two to four weeks after the fi rst launch. By this means, 

missions of up to 56 days duration are possible in 1968-69, each consisting of two 

fl ights employing the basic Apollo 14-day spacecraft. Beginning in 1970, up-rated 

Apollo spacecraft subsystems (primarily electrical fuel cells and cryogenic oxygen 

and hydrogen storage tanks) are planned to provide a 45-day capability for a 

single fl ight. (Attachment 2 describes the various extended Apollo spacecraft 

capabilities planned for the Saturn Apollo Applications missions.) During 1970, 

a [7] double-rendezvous mission involving three 45-day spacecraft is planned to 

achieve a total mission duration of approximately 135 days. In 1971, the objective 

is a one-year mission involving a Saturn V launch of a crew module derived from 

the Saturn S-IVB stage, with re-supply by up-rated Apollo spacecraft launched on 

Saturn IB’s. The objectives for 1972-73 are missions of greater than one year’s 

duration as precursors of later earth orbital space stations or manned planetary 

fl ights. Suitable biomedical instrumentation is planned to monitor the effects on 

the crews of these long duration fl ights.

The same series of fl ights that is planned for these long duration fl ight 

objectives will be used for important space fl ight experiments in a variety of fi elds. 

The present planning for the experiments is discussed below.

Life sciences experiments during 1968-69 will concentrate on the 

biomedical effects of long duration fl ight on men, as discussed above. A 

biomedical laboratory is planned for fl ight in 1970 in conjunction with the 

135-day mission. This laboratory will consist of an Apollo spacecraft module 

equipped with biomedical and behavioral apparatus to test and record human 

responses to various stresses (e.g., physical exercise, variable gravity, complex task 

performance, etc.) during long duration space fl ights. During 1971-72, bioscience 

and biotechnology laboratories are planned to extend earlier investigations on 

various sub-human life forms, ranging from simple cells to primates. In these 

laboratories, [8] greater stresses can be applied to sub-human life specimens than 

are normally planned for human subjects, and the results can benefi t both the 

bio-scientifi c community and later manned spacefl ight technology.

Orbital astronomy mission objectives are planned around use of the 

Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) concept during 1968-72 (see Attachment 3). 

During the 1968-70 period of maximum solar activity, emphasis will be on solar 

astronomy using the ATM in low altitude earth orbit. These fi rst ATM missions, in 

addition to providing valuable scientifi c data, will provide an experimental basis 

for developing the techniques of manned astronomical observations in space 

and assessing their value and possibilities. Stellar astronomy missions are being 

studied for the 1971-73 period. Based on experience gained from the early ATM 

fl ights, an orbital astronomy mission involving a large aperture telescope (60” to 
644 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

100”) is scheduled for late 1973. This may be a test of a large mirror leading to 

development of the National Astronomical Observatories.

Space physics experiments are planned generally for fl ight on astronomy 

missions. During 1968-69, instrumentation fl own on the 1966-67 short duration 

Apollo earth orbital missions will be refl own to acquire more extensive data in 

such fi elds as X-ray astronomy, ultra-violet spectroscopy, ion wake physics and 

investigations of particles and fi elds. Beginning in 1971, advanced space physics 

experiments are planned.

[9] The extended lunar exploration missions planned for Saturn Apollo 

Applications include both orbital mapping missions and extended lunar surface 

explorations. The objective is to extend knowledge of the moon beyond that 

achievable in the earlier Ranger, Surveyor, unmanned Lunar Orbiter and early 

Apollo missions, and to provide the basis for possible establishment in the mid 

or late 1970’s of semi-permanent or permanent manned stations on the moon. 

The lunar orbital missions are planned to acquire high quality mapping and 

survey photography from polar or near-polar lunar orbits for study of geological 

features over wide areas of the lunar surface exploration missions. The lunar 

surface missions surface, and to aid in selection of sites for extended duration 

are planned to provide up to two weeks stay at selected exploration. Equipments 

planned for these missions include lunar sites for extensive geological, 

geophysical and biological small, wheeled vehicles to permit traverses within 

line-ofsight of the landed spacecraft; drills for sub-surface sampling and vertical 

profi le measurements; and instrumentation for acquiring geophysical data to 

be transmitted back to earth by RF link for up to a year after departure of the 

astronauts. One such lunar surface mission per year is planned, beginning in 

1970. For the 1973 mission, an objective is to provide optical and radio telescopes 

to evaluate the lunar surface environment for astronomical experiments.

[10] Applications experiments are planned to develop techniques and 

to measure the effectiveness of man’s participation in such fi elds as orbital 

meteorology (see Attachment 4), communications, and remote sensing of 

earth resources. Low altitude orbits at medium and high inclinations have 

been studied for meteorology and natural resources missions during 1969-70. 

An initial synchronous orbit mission is planned to test man’s ability to operate 

effectively in that environment and to test operational techniques for linking 

low altitude manned spacecraft to central ground control stations. The later 

synchronous orbit missions are planned for continued operational use as well as 

for possible experiments in astronomy, space physics, meteorology and advanced 

communications techniques.

Technology experiments planned for Saturn Apollo Applica tions missions 

are focused generally toward the development of equipment and techniques 

which appear fundamental to the accomplishment of the next generation of 

post-Apollo space fl ight missions. During 1968-69, emphasis will be placed on 

the use as an orbital laboratory of the spent S-IVB stage, which injects an Apollo 

spacecraft into orbit. Advanced EVA experiments are planned, for example, to 

retrieve micrometeorite panels from a Pegasus spacecraft orbited in 1965 by a 

Saturn I vehicle. Resupply and crew transfer techniques are planned, both to 
Exploring the Unknown 645

extend mission duration, rotate crews, and to test orbital rescue operations. An 

orbital fl uids laboratory is [11]scheduled for fl ight in 1970 to extend knowledge 

of propellant behavior and transfer techniques under zero gravity conditions. 

Orbital assembly of complex structures and in fl ight maintenance of vehicles 

and experiment apparatus are planned. Most of the technology experiments are 

integrally combined with experiments planned to meet other objectives. 

HARDWARE AVAILABILITY AND FLIGHT SCHEDULES

The reference baseline for Saturn Apollo Applications mission planning is 

the fl ight hardware delivery schedule which has been established to meet the 

requirements of the Apollo lunar landing program. This schedule provides for 

delivery of 12 Saturn IB’s, 15 Saturn V’s, 21 Command and Service Modules and 

15 Lunar Excursion Modules for launch during 1966 through early 1970. 

Attachments 5 and 6 depict the two alternate Saturn Apollo Applications 

launch schedules for the period 1968-73 which formed the basis for NASA’s 

May 1966 submission to the Bureau of the Budget. Both cases are based on the 

assumption that the last four Saturn IB’s (AS 209-212) and the last six Saturn V’s 

(AS 510-515) with their associated spacecraft from the approved Apollo program 

might become available for alternate missions as the initial phase of the Saturn 

Apollo Applications fl ight program. Both in Case I (Attachment 5) and in Case 

II (Attachment 6), the launch dates for these alternate missions using approved 

Apollo vehicles are planned to occur as much as one year later than the launch 

date scheduled for those vehicles under the basic Apollo program. This stretchout of launch schedules [12] for the early Saturn Apollo Applications missions 

allows time for development and integration of suitable experiment apparatus 

under the limited funding available in FY 1966-67.

Case I differs from Case II primarily in the rate at which follow-on Saturn 

IB vehicles are delivered for launch to meet the Saturn Apollo Applications 

mission objectives. It represents the lowest rate of follow-on vehicle deliveries 

which could permit accomplishing the basic program objectives, and it would 

require phasing down both production and launch operations activity during 

1969-70, followed by a partial build-up of both activities beginning in 1971. Case 

I (Attachment 5) provides for carrying out the experiments discussed previously 

on approximately the schedule shown in Attachment 1, although the Saturn IB 

missions (low altitude earth orbit) after AS 212 would be delayed from 3 to 9 

months. Funding estimates associated with Case I make no provision prior to FY 

1972 for developing post-Apollo space vehicles or modules for the next generation 

of manned space fl ight objectives.

Case II, starting from the same baseline of approved Saturn Apollo fl ight 

vehicles, provides for earlier delivery of follow-on vehicles, and the associated 

funding estimates would permit a start in FY 1969 on the development of next 

generation subsystems and modules for fl ights beyond 1971 on the schedule 

shown on Attachment 6. Because of the earlier delivery of follow-on vehicles, the 

Saturn IB missions planned for 1969 and beyond can be scheduled from 3 to 9 

months earlier in Case II than in Case I. Thus, Case II has been planned to [13] 

permit an early and extensive utilization of Saturn Apollo capabilities, with an 
646 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

earlier focus on a post-Apollo national space objective involving the development 

of new space modules (such as a prototype of a space station or a planetary mission 

module) for initial earth orbital fl ight in the early 1970’s.

Attachment 7 lists the objectives of planned Saturn Apollo Applications 

missions scheduled on the fl ight indicated on Attachment 6. These missions 

are under continual study to identify and trade-off alternative modes of 

accomplishing the mission objectives. Approximately two years prior to the 

scheduled launch date for each mission, the objectives and fl ight assignments for 

that mission to be fi rmly established and a period of intensive mission planning 

must begin throughout the NASA organization and its contractors. The Saturn 

Apollo Applications missions planned for 1968-69 will enter this two-year mission 

preparation phase during FY 1967, while the post-1969 missions will be the subject 

of further defi nition studies and long lead item development effort. The total 

process of identifi cation, defi nition, selection, hardware development, fl ight 

qualifi cation and procurement of experiments can take a total of 3 to 4 years 

and must be initiated long enough in advance to be in phase with the schedule 

requirements for detailed mission planning and launch. Similarly, adequate lead 

times must be allowed for procurement of basic space vehicle hardware.

[14] Attachments: [not provided]

1. Saturn Apollo Applications Mission Objectives

2. Extended Capability of Apollo Space Vehicles Planned for Saturn

 Apollo Applications Missions 

3. Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) Concept

4. Applications A Experimental System (AAP A)

 (Primarily Meteorology)

5. Saturn Apollo Applications Launch Schedule, Case I 

6. Saturn Apollo Applications Launch Schedule, Case II 

Document II-46

Document Title: Letter from Thomas Gold to Harold Urey, 9 June 1966.

Source: Archives of the Royal Society, London, England (reprinted with 

permission).

Professor Thomas Gold was a well-known astronomer at Cornell University, noted for his 

unconventional views. Gold had suggested that the lunar surface was covered with a deep 

layer of fi ne dust, and thus might not support the weight of a landing spacecraft with 

astronauts aboard. In this letter to equally well-known astronomer Harold Urey, Gold refl ects 

of the results of the Surveyor 1 mission, which landed on the moon on 2 June 1966.
Exploring the Unknown 647

June 9, 1966

Dr. Harold C. Urey

School of Science and Engineering

University of California

La Jolla, California

Dear Harold:

Thank you for your nice letter. I completely agree with you that the Surveyor 

results are quite incompatible with a frozen lava explanation of the surface. 

Not only is the imprint of the foot clearly visible and I believe about fi ve inches 

deep despite the fact that the peak impact loading seems to have been no more 

than about four pounds per square inch, there apparently is even a detailed fi ne 

structure visible in the imprint matching precisely the corrugation on the side of 

the foot. It is therefore a compressible and slightly cohesive material which one 

can mold. That is of course just what we have always said it would be, and I recall 

we had given such examples as that one could build igloos with it by cutting it like 

chunks of snow with a knife.

Many of the objects that are seen on the surface -- the so called rocks -- very 

likely are rocks or harder material, but they are evidently not mostly lying on the 

surface. In several cases one can clearly see that the contact line with the surface 

is about the largest perimeter that the object possesses, a very unlikely situation 

for a stone lying on the surface. One of the objects is a neat pyramid and reminds 

one of the New Yorker cartoon of the two archaeologists in the middle of the 

desert who had just brushed away the sand from the tiniest little peak of a pyramid 

sticking out and one says to the other, “Well, there’s no telling how much work 

it’s going to be”. It is clear the majority of these objects are mainly submerged 

with just the tops sticking out. The shore line around each such object meets 

up with it quite neatly, which it would of course not do if it were merely thrown 

into a softish material and [2] partly submerged. It will then have a trench some 

places around it just like the foot of the Surveyor does. This is not the case. The 

only explanation that I can see for that is to suppose that the fi ller material fi lls 

in fl at gradually over the course of time and while this is occurring stones of 

various sizes are thrown by major explosions so that they accumulate at the same 

time as the fi ne stuff sediments. I would guess that such chunks are distributed 

throughout the interior of the sediment and the radar evidence in fact has been 

in favor of a substantial amount of scattering being derived from many feet below 

the surface.

I want to emphasize again that I have always said that I believe the fi ne particles to 

be very considerably cohesive, especially in the lunar conditions (most fi ne dust 

is already quite cohesive on the earth, too) and that I regarded the material as 

crunchy and certainly not as fl owing. I have also never said that I believed it would 

not hold the Surveyor or the Apollo, but only that this was uncertain, while of 

course all the lava experts never even contemplated the possibility it could sink in 
648 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

at all. I regard the amount of sinkage that has occurred as quite within the range 

of slightly cemented powders.

You mention the word “sand” in your letter. From the pictures of course one 

cannot directly tell the grain size, but one does see little crumbles thrown out 

from the foot. Dry sand would not go in crumbles and the chunks that you see are 

certainly too big to be the individual particles. A slightly cohesive powder on the 

other hand is well known to result in just such crumbs. Also, a sand could not be 

cohesive enough to maintain the vertical surface, though of course a sand mixed 

with a lot of much smaller particles could, as could an aggregate of small particles 

only. I personally think that the majority of the particles will in fact be very small 

since I know that the packing fraction must be rather low; not much more than 

one- third of the volume can be occupied by pieces. If there is a great spread in 

the size of the particles then usually denser packing results. Yet the radar and the 

thermal evidence are quite clear about the lower packing that is required. For 

that reason I believe that the small stuff is all in particle sizes of not much more 

than a few microns and in that case I can understand as I have always stressed 

that there are ways in which they can be deposited fl at. Sand particles could be 

[3] scattered among all this but it would be very hard to fi nd any mechanism that 

would tend make them bed down fl at in the absence of wind and water.

I have just read again what I have said in the past on this subject to see why everyone 

keeps assuming that a deep deposit of dust would make everything disappear out 

of sight. I fi nd that I have always stressed in print, already in 1956, that vacuum 

welding will be important and that such a material will not fl ow. However, that I am 

not quite sure that it will everywhere be strong enough to suppor [sic] the weights 

and that I would still maintain now. I quite agree with you that there are many 

signs of subterranian [sic] holes into which overburden has fallen and I would still 

be very worried about that also. The plain fact of the matter is that while on earth 

wind and water has tested most areas of ground and human interference is only a 

trivial addition, this is not so on the moon. Just like on a glacier after fresh snow, 

there can easily be structures that are weak and untested as yet.

I expect to be coming out to Los Angeles next week, possibly also to take part in 

the CBS program to be taped on the Saturday. I understand you will be present 

there, too. I am looking forward to seeing you there and having a little more 

discussion on the side.

With best regards,

Yours sincerely,

T. Gold

TG:vs
Exploring the Unknown 649

Document II-47

Document Title: Memorandum to Dr. Wernher von Braun, Director of NASA 

Marshall Space Flight Center, from James E. Webb, NASA Administrator, 17 

December 1966.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

After its budget peaked in 1965, the Apollo Program had to fi ght in the White House 

and Congressional budget processes for the funds needed to make sure that both President 

Kennedy’s “end of the decade goal” was met and the program could be carried through to its 

planned conclusion. NASA had estimated in 1962 that 15 Saturn V launchers would be 

needed to ensure this outcome. 

Perhaps the most recognizable personality within NASA during the development phase of 

Apollo was Wernher von Braun. He was an optimist by nature, and was frequently sought 

out by the media for comments on Apollo’s progress. In a late 1966 interview with the 

magazine U.S. News and World Report, von Braun suggested that the fi rst lunar landing 

might come relatively early in the Saturn V sequence, with the implication that Apollo’s 

objectives might be accomplished with the use of less than the 15 vehicles that had been 

ordered. NASA Administrator James E. Webb, who was working hard in Washington to 

sustain support for Apollo, was not happy with von Braun’s remarks.

December 17, 1966

MEMORANDUM FOR: Dr. Wernher von Braun

Director, Marshall Space Flight Center

THROUGH: Dr. Seamans / AD

Dr. Mueller / M

Following our recent Program Review and the exchange I had with Joe Shea about 

the diffi culty our senior offi cials are having sustaining the credibility of their 

public statements and the Congressional testimony we gave last year when those 

responsible for program management were giving optimistic statements about 

the time when 504 might “well go to the Moon,” I thought we had pretty well 

established the policy that we would not make those kinds of statements. I had 

this in mind particularly because I testifi ed last year that we had no extra vehicles 

in the program, and I made the strongest representation I know how to make in 

the Bureau of the Budget this year that we should not cancel any of the 15 Saturn 

V’s with the high risk of this program. Therefore, you can imagine my surprise 

when I read the U.S. News and World Report statements in your interview. While 

I recognize that they overplayed your statements, it does seem to me that your 

answers to the questions made it possible for them to do so and that you could 

have given answers which would have made the situation clearer.
650 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

In any event, I have now examined the Apollo program adjustments established 

on December 7 by George Mueller and they clearly indicate that there is certainly 

a very, very low possibility that complete Saturn V systems will be available for 

fl ights out as far as the Moon in 1968. Under these circumstances, it seems to 

me that you will need to be very careful in dealing with the press not to return to 

the kind of statements you made in the U.S. News and World Report interview. I 

hope you can fi nd a way to backtrack to a position that is more consistent with the 

offi cial estimate established by George Mueller in these recent adjustments.

[2]

Even this series of adjustments does not, in my view, take account of all the 

diffi culties we are likely to encounter in this very complex Saturn V-Apollo system, 

particularly as we are now so hemmed in, have so little room to make adjustments, 

and have no fi nancial margins. We could lose several hundred million dollars of 

badly needed funds for 1968 under conditions as they exist. I know you don’t 

want to contribute to this.

While we have been talking about the SII stage as the pacing item, I understand 

there is even doubt as to whether the complete LEM system test can take place on 

AS-206. If the complete test has to go over to 209, and this is not fl own until late 

1967, it would certainly not seem realistic to take any position publicly that did 

not indicate we are going to have very great diffi culty making the lunar landing in 

this decade – within the last quarter of 1969.

I know you will understand I am writing in this detail because it is of deep concern 

to me that statements such as your own in the interview mentioned do have an 

impact on the credibility of the offi cial statements Seamans and I have made and 

will have to make again in our Congressional testimony. I know you do not wish 

to undermine the credibility of those of us who are working so hard to get the 

money to continue this program and to avoid having the vehicles now approved 

(15 Saturn V’s) deleted from the program on the basis that they are not needed 

to accomplish the mission.

One possible course you could take in future statements is the same which I took 

last year before Congress when asked if we had closed the gap with the Russians 

during the year. You will remember this came about when Congressman Davis 

asked if I expected to fi nd “Russians” on the Moon when we arrived, as predicted 

sometime ago by Edward Teller. I stated that a year ago I had felt we would be 

there fi rst but that during the year I had developed more doubts and now felt 

much less assurance about it. You might recede from the positions you have 

taken publicly by saying at the next opportunity, and then repeating in the future, 

the fact that up until recently you thought we would be able to have the Saturn 

V-Apollo system so perfected and tested that the experience from the Saturn 

I-B program added in would permit early Saturn V fl ights to be released toward 

the Moon with a good chance that one of the early ones would land, but that 

the diffi culties encountered have now caused you to have much more concern 

and doubt as to whether this will be possible. If you do not have these doubts, 

Wernher, than I think Mueller, Seamans, and I should get together and fi nd out 

how your own views could differ so markedly from our own.
Exploring the Unknown 651

[Signed James E. Webb]

James E. Webb

Administrator

Enclosure:

 Excerpt, 1967 House Authorization Hearings

Document II-48

Document Title: Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, “Memorandum 

for the Apollo 204 Review Board,” 28 January 1967.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-49

Document Title: NASA, Offi ce of the Administrator, “Statement by James E. 

Webb,” 25 February 1967. 

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-50

Document Title: Apollo 204 Review Board, “Report of Apollo 204 Review 

Board to the Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,” 

5 April 1967.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

A 27 January 1967 fi re during a launch pad spacecraft test resulted in the deaths of 

astronauts Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee. NASA Administrator 

James Webb was able to convince President Lyndon B. Johnson that NASA could and should 

conduct an objective review of what came to be known as the Apollo 204 accident. On 28 

January, NASA constituted an internal Review Board for the accident investigation after 

Administrator Webb convinced the White House that NASA could conduct its own review on 

an impartial basis. The Review Board was chaired by the Director of the Langley Research 

Center, Floyd Thompson, to investigate the accident and suggest remedial measures. During 

the investigation, NASA hoped to damp down Congressional criticism by sharing with the 
652 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Congress information on the progress of the review. The report of the Apollo 204 Review 

Board was released on 5 April 1967.

Document II-48

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington D.C. 20546

Offi ce of the Administrator January 28, 1967

MEMORANDUM For the Apollo 204 Review Board

1. The Apollo 204 Review Board is hereby established in accordance 

with NASA Management Instruction 8621.1, dated April 14, 1966, to 

investigate the Apollo 204 accident which resulted in the deaths of 

Lt. Col. Virgil I. Grissom, Lt. Col. Edward H. White and Lt. Cmdr. 

Roger B. Chaffee on Launch Complex 34, on January 27, 1967.

2. The Board will report to the Administrator of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration.

3. The following are hereby appointed to the Board:

Dr. Floyd L. Thompson, Director, Langley Research Center,

 NASA, Chairman

Lt. Col. Frank Borman, Astronaut, Manned Spacecraft 

 Center, NASA

Maxime Faget, Director, Engineering & Development,

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA

E. Barton Geer, Associate Chief, Flight Vehicles & 

 Systems Division,

Langley Research Center, NASA

George Jeffs, Chief Engineer, Apollo, North 

American Aviation, Inc.

Dr. Frank A. Long, PSAC Member, Vice President for Research 

and Advanced Studies, Cornell University

Col. Charles F. Strang, Chief of Missiles & Space Safety Division

Air Force Inspector General

Norton Air Force Base, California
Exploring the Unknown 653

George C. White, Jr., Director, Reliability & Quality, Apollo Program

 Offi ce, Headquarters, NASA

John Williams, Director, Spacecraft Operations, 

Kennedy Space Center, NASA

[2]

4. George Malley, Chief Counsel, Langley Research Center, will serve as 

counsel to the Board.

5. The Board will:

a. Review the circumstances surrounding the accident to establish 

the probable cause or causes of the accident, including review 

of the fi ndings, corrective action, and recommendations being 

developed by the Program Offi ces, Field Centers, and contractors 

involved.

b. Direct such further specifi c investigations as may be necessary.

c. Report its fi ndings relating to the cause of the accident to the 

administrator as expeditiously as possible and release such 

information through the Offi ce of Public Affairs.

d. Consider the impact of the accident on all Apollo activities 

involving equipment preparation, testing, and fl ight operations. 

e. Consider all other factors relating to the accident, including 

design, procedures, organization, and management.

f. Develop recommendations for corrective or other action based 

upon its fi ndings and determinations.

g. Document its fi ndings, determinations, and recommendations 

and submit a fi nal report to the Administrator which will not be 

released without his approval.

6. The Board may call upon any element of NASA for support, assistance, 

and information.

Document II-49

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

WASHINGTON. D.C. 20546

OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR February 25, 1967
654 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

STATEMENT BY

JAMES E. WEBB

NASA is releasing today a third interim report on the work of the Apollo 

204 Review Board resulting from two days of meetings with the Board by Deputy 

Administrator Robert Seamans at Cape Kennedy. These meetings took place on 

February 23 and 24.

This statement and Dr. Seamans’ third interim report have been reviewed 

with Chairman Clinton Anderson and Senior Minority Committee Member Senator 

Margaret Chase Smith and with Congressman George Miller. In continuation of 

the Senate Committee’s review of the Apollo 204 accident. Senator Anderson 

has announced that the Senate Committee will hold an open hearing on the 

preliminary fi ndings of the Board and actions to be taken by NASA at 3 p.m., 

Monday, February 27.

In addition to the information set forth by Dr. Seamans in his three interim 

reports, I have had the benefi t of a review by three members of the Board – the 

Chairman, Dr. Floyd Thompson, Astronaut Frank Borman, and Department of 

Interior combustion expert Dr. Robert Van Dolah. This included the preliminary 

views of the Board as to the most likely causes of ignition, the contributing factors 

in the rapid spread of the fi re, the inadequacy of the means of emergency egress 

for the astronauts, and the need to recognize that all future such tests be classifi ed 

as involving a higher level of hazard.

The following emerges from the preliminary views of the Board and the 

Board’s preliminary recommendations:

(1) The risk of fi re that could not be controlled or from which escape 

could not be made was recognized when the procedures for the conduct of the 

test were established. Our experience with pure oxygen atmospheres included 

not only the successful Mercury and Gemini fl ights but a number of instances 

where a clearly positive source of ignition did not result in a fi re. In one such 

instance an electric bulb was shattered, exposing the incandescent element to the 

oxygen atmosphere without starting a fi re.

(2) Our successful experience with pure oxygen atmospheres in Mercury 

and Gemini, our experience with the diffi culty of storing and using hand–held 

equipment under zero–gravity conditions, and our experience with the diffi culty of 

making sure before fl ight that no undiscovered items had been dropped or found 

their way into the complex maze of plumbing, wiring, and equipment in the capsule, 

led us to place in the Apollo 204 capsule such items as Velcro pads to which frequently 

used items could be easily attached and removed, protective covers on wire bundles, 

nylon netting to prevent articles dropped in ground testing from being lost under 

or behind equipment in the capsule, and a pad or cushion on which, in the planned 

escape exercise, the hatch could be placed without damage to the hatch itself or 

to the equipment in the spacecraft. While most of these were constructed of lowcombustion-potential material, they were not so arranged as to provide barriers to the 

spread of a fi re. Tests conducted in an Apollo-type chamber since the accident have 
Exploring the Unknown 655

shown that an oxygen fi re in the capsule will spread along the surface of Velcro and 

along the edges of nylon netting much faster than through the material itself.

[2] (3) Soldered joints in piping carrying both oxygen and fl uids were 

melted away, with resultant leakage contributing to the spread of the fi re.

(4) The bursting of the capsule happened in such a way that the fl ames, 

as they rushed toward the rupture and exhausted through it, traveled over and 

around the astronauts’ couches. Under these conditions, and with just a few 

seconds of time available, the astronauts could not reach the hatch and open it.

(5) This fi re indicates that a number of items to the design and 

performance of the environmental control unit will require the most careful 

examination and may require redesign.

Astronaut Borman, in commenting on his reactions to the conditions 

surrounding the Apollo 204 test and the subsequent knowledge he has gained 

as a result of serving on the Review Board, stated to Dr. Seamans, Dr. Thompson, 

and to me that he would not have been concerned to enter the capsule at the 

time Grissom, White and Chaffee did so for the test, and would not at that time 

have regarded the operation as involving substantial hazard. However, he stated 

that his work on the Board has convinced him that there were hazards present 

beyond the understanding of either NASA’s engineers or astronauts. He believes 

the work of the Review Board will provide the knowledge and recommendations 

necessary to substantially minimize or eliminate them.

Dr. Thompson, Astronaut Borman, and Dr. Van Dolah have returned 

to Cape Kennedy are proceeding with the work of the Board. This will require 

several weeks to complete.

Chairman George Miller, of the House Committee on Science and 

Astronautics, has announced that as soon as the Board’s work is complete, the 

Committee’s Oversight Subcommittee, chaired by Congressman’s Olin Teague, will 

conduct a complete investigation of all factors related to the accident and NASA’s 

actions to meet the conditions disclosed. Chairman Teague spent Friday and Saturday 

at Cape Kennedy with members of the Manned Space Flight Subcommittee, of which 

he is also Chairman, reviewing progress in the Apollo Program. Dr. Seamans, Dr. 

George Mueller, and I will report further to him at 10 a.m., Monday, February 27.

Document II-50

REPORT OF

APOLLO 204

REVIEW BOARD
656 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

TO

THE ADMINISTRATOR

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

[Following text in Box on Un-numbered Page]

APOLLO SPACECRAFT

The spacecraft (S/C) consists of a launch escape system (LES) assem bly, command 

module (C/M), service module (S/M) and the spacecraft/lunar module adapter 

(SLA). The LES assembly provides the means for rapidly separating the C/M 

from the S/M during pad or suborbital aborts. The C/M forms the spacecraft 

control center, contains necessary auto matic and manual equipment to control 

and monitor the spacecraft systems, and contains the required equipment for 

safely and comfort of the crew. The S/M is a cylindrical structure located between 

the C/M and the SLA. It contains the propulsion systems for attitude and velocity 

change maneuvers. Most of the consumables used in the mission are stored in 

the S/M. The SLA is a truncated cone which connects the S/M to the launch 

vehicle. It also provides the space wherein the lunar module (L/M) is carried on 

lunar missions.

TEST IN PROGRESS AT TIME OF ACCIDENT

Spacecraft 012 was undergoing a “Plugs Out Integrated Test” at the time of the 

accident on January 27, 1967. Operational Checkout Procedure, designated 

OCP FO-K-0021-1, applied to this test. Within this report this procedure is often 

referred to as OCP-0021.

TESTS AND ANALYSES

Results of tests and analyses not complete at the time of publication of this report 

will be contained in Appendix G, Addenda and Corrigenda.[not provided]

CONVERSION OF TIME

Throughout this report, time is stated in Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). To 

convert GMT to Eastern Standard Time (EST), subtract 17 hours. For example, 

23:31 GMT converted is 6:31 p.m. EST.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

APOLLO 204 REVIEW BOARD

IN REPLY REFER TO April 5, 1967
Exploring the Unknown 657

The Honorable James E. Webb

Administrator

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D. C. 20546 

Dear Mr. Webb:

Pursuant to your directive as implemented by the memorandum of February 

3,1967, signed by the Deputy Administrator, Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., the 

Apollo 204 Review Board herewith transmits its fi nal, formal report, each member 

concurring in each of the fi ndings, determinations, and recommendations.

Sincerely,

/Signed/

Dr. Floyd L. Thompson

Chairman

/Signed/ /Signed/

Frank Borman, Col., USAF Dr. Robert W. Van Dolah

/Signed/ /Signed/

Dr. Maxime A. Faget George C. White, Jr.

/Signed/ /Signed/

E. Barton Geer John J. Williams

/Signed/

Charles F. Strang, Col., USAF

[Parts 1-5 of report not included]

[6-1]

Part VI BOARD FINDINGS, DETERMINATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this Review, the Board adhered to the principle that reliability of the 

Command Module and the entire system involved in its operation is a requirement 

common to both safety and mission success. Once the Command Module has left 

the earth’s environment the occupants are totally dependent upon it for their 

safety. It follows that protection from fi re as a hazard involves much more than quick 

egress. The latter has merit only during test periods on earth when the Command 

Module is being readied for its mission and not during the mission itself. The 

risk of fi re must be faced; however, that risk is only one factor pertaining to the 

reliability of the Command Module that must received adequate consideration. 

Design features and operating procedures that are intended to reduce the fi re 

risk must not introduce other serious risks to mission success and safety.
658 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

1. FINDING:

a. There was a momentary power failure at 23:30:55 GMT.

b. Evidence of several arcs was found in the post fi re investigation. 

c. No single ignition source of the fi re was conclusively identifi ed.

DETERMINATION:

The most probable initiator was an electrical arc in the sector between 

the -Y and +Z spacecraft axes. The exact location best fi tting the total 

available information is near the fl oor in the lower forward section of 

the left-hand equipment bay where Environmental Control System (ECS) 

instrumentat ion power wiring leads into the area between the Environmental Control Unit (ECU) and the oxygen panel. No evidence was discovered that suggested sabotage.

2. FINDING:

a. The Command Module contained many types and classes of 

combustible material in areas con tiguous to possible ignition sources.

b. The test was conducted with a 16.7 pounds per square inch absolute, 

100 percent oxygen atmos phere.

DETERMINATION:

The test conditions were extremely hazardous.

RECOMMENDATION:

The amount and location of combustible materials in the Command 

Module must be severely restricted and controlled.

3. FINDING:

a. The rapid spread of fi re caused an increase in pressure and 

temperature which resulted in rupture of the Command Module and creation 

of a toxic atmosphere. Death of the crew was from asphyxia due to inhalation of 

toxic gases due to fi re. A contributory cause of death was thermal burns.

b. Non-uniform distribution of carboxyhemoglobin was found by autopsy.

DETERMINATION: 

Autopsy data leads to the medical opinion that unconsciousness occurred 

rapidly and that death followed soon thereafter.

4. FINDING:

Due to internal pressure, the Command Module inner hatch could not 

be opened prior to rupture of the Command Module.

DETERMINATION:

The crew was never capable of effecting emergency egress because of the 

pressurization before rupture and their loss of consciousness soon after rupture.

RECOMMENDATION:

The time required for egress of the crew be reduced and the operations 

necessary for egress be simplifi ed.

5. FINDING

Those organizations responsible for the planning, conduct and safety of this 

test failed to identify it as being hazardous. Contingency preparations to permit escape 

or rescue of the crew from an internal Command Module fi re were not made.

a. No procedures for this type of emergency had been established either 

for the crew or for the spacecraft pad work team.

b. The emergency equipment located in the White Room and on the 

spacecraft work levels was not [6-2] designed for the smoke condition resulting 

from a fi re of this nature.

c. Emergency fi re, rescue and medical teams were not in attendance.
Exploring the Unknown 659

d. Both the spacecraft work levels and the umbilical tower access arm 

contain features such as steps, sliding doors and sharp turns in the egress paths 

which hinder emergency operations.

DETERMINATION:

Adequate safety precautions were neither established nor observed for 

this test. 

RECOMMENDATIONS:

a. Management continually monitor the safety of all test operations and 

assure the adequacy of emergency procedures.

b. All emergency equipment (breathing apparatus, protective clothing, 

deluge systems, access arm, etc.) be reviewed for adequacy

c. Personnel training and practice for emergency procedures be given 

on a regular basis and reviewed prior to the conduct of a hazardous operation.

d. Service structures and umbilical towers be modifi ed to facilitate 

emergency operations.

6. FINDING:

Frequent interruptions and failures had been experienced in the overall 

communication system during the operations preceding the accident.

DETERMINATION:

The overall communication system was unsatisfactory.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

a. The Ground Communication System be improved to assure reliable 

communications between all test elements as soon as possible and before the next 

manned fl ight.

b. A detailed design review be conducted on the entire spacecraft 

communication system.

7. FINDING:

a. Revisions to the Operational Checkout Procedure for the test were 

issued at 5:30 pm EST January 26, 1967 (209 pages) and 10:00 am EST January 27, 

1967 (4 pages). 

b. Differences existed between the Ground Test Procedures and the InFlight Check Lists.

DETERMINATION:

Neither the revision nor the differences contributed to the accident. The 

late issuance of the 

revision, however, prevented test personnel from becoming adequately 

familiar with the test procedure prior to its use.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

a. Test Procedures and Pilot’s Checklists that represent the actual 

Command Module confi guration be published in fi nal form and reviewed early 

enough to permit adequate preparation and participation of all test organization.

b. Timely distribution of test procedures and major changes be made a 

constraint to the beginning of any test.

8. FINDING:

The fi re in Command Module 012 was subsequently simulated closely by 

a test fi re in a full-scale mock-up.

DETERMINATION:

Full-scale mock-up fi re tests can be used to give a realistic appraisal of fi re 

risks in fl ight-confi gured spacecraft.
660 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

RECOMMENDATION:

Full-scale mock-ups in fl ight confi guration be tested to determine the risk 

of fi re.

9. FINDING:

The Command Module Environmental Control System design provides a 

pure oxygen atmosphere.

DETERMINATION:

This atmosphere presents severe fi re hazards if the amount and location 

of combustibles in the Com mand Module are not restricted and controlled.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

a. The fi re safety of the reconfi gured Command Module be established 

by full-scale mock-up tests. 

b. Studies of the use of a diluent gas be continued with particular 

reference to assessing the problems of gas detection and control and the risk of 

additional operations that would be required in the use of a two gas atmosphere.

[6-3] 10. FINDING:

Defi ciencies existed in Command Module design, workmanship and 

quality control, such as:

a. Components of the Environmental Control System installed in 

Command Module 012 had a history of many removals and of technical diffi culties 

including regulator failures, line failures and Environmental Control Unit failures. 

The design and installation features of the Environmental Control Unit makes 

removal or repair diffi cult.

b. Coolant leakage at solder joints has been a chronic problem.

c. The coolant is both corrosive and combustible.

d. Defi ciencies in design, manufacture, installation, rework and quality 

control existed in the electrical wiring.

e. No vibration test was made of a complete fl ight-confi gured spacecraft.

f. Spacecraft design and operating procedures currently require the 

disconnecting of electrical con nections while powered.

g. No design features for fi re protection were incorporated.

DETERMINATION:

These defi ciencies created an unnecessarily hazardous condition and 

their continuation would im peril any future Apollo operations.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

a. An in-depth review of all elements, components and assemblies of 

the Environmental Control System be conducted to assure its functional and 

structural integrity and to minimize its contribution to fi re risk.

b. Present design of soldered joints in plumbing be modifi ed to increase 

integrity or the joints

be replaced with a more structurally reliable confi guration.

c. Deleterious effects of coolant leakage and spillage be eliminated.

d. Review of specifi cations be conducted, 3-dimensional jigs be used in 

manufacture of wire bundles and rigid inspection at all stages of wiring design, 

manufacture and installation be enforced.

e. Vibration tests be conducted of a fl ight-confi gured spacecraft.

f. The necessity for electrical connections or disconnections with power 

on within the crew com partment be eliminated.
Exploring the Unknown 661

g. Investigation be made of the most effective means of controlling and 

extinguishing a spacecraft fi re. Auxiliary breathing oxygen and crew protection 

from smoke and toxic fumes be provided.

11. FINDING:

An examination of operating practices showed the following examples of 

problem areas:

a. The number of the open items at the time of shipment of the 

Command Module 012 was not known. There were 113 signifi cant Engineering 

Orders not accomplished at the time Command Module 012 was delivered to 

NASA; 623 Engineering Orders were released subsequent to delivery. Of these, 22 

were recent releases which were not recorded in confi guration records at the time 

of the accident.

b. Established requirements were not followed with regard to the pre-test 

constraints list. The list was not completed and signed by designated contractor 

and NASA personnel prior to the test, even though oral agreement to proceed 

was reached.

c. Formulation of and changes to pre-launch test requirements for the 

Apollo spacecraft program were unresponsive to changing conditions.

d. Non-certifi ed equipment items were installed in the Command 

Module at time of test.

e. Discrepancies existed between NAA and NASA MSC specifi cations 

regarding inclusion and pos itioning of fl ammable materials.

f. The test specifi cation was released in August 1966 and was not 

updated to include accumulated changes from release date to date of the test.

DETERMINATION:

Problems of program management and relationships between Centers 

and with the contractor have led in some cases to insuffi cient response to changing 

program requirements.

RECOMMENDATION:

Every effort must be made to insure the maximum clarifi cation and 

understanding of the responsi bilities of all the organizations involved, the 

objective being a fully coordinated and effi cient program.

Document II-51

Document Title: Letter to Senator Clinton P. Anderson from James E. Webb, 

NASA Administrator, 8 May 1967.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The attempt by NASA Administrator James E. Webb to limit congressional and public 

criticism of NASA following the Apollo 204 fi re by carrying out a thorough internal 

investigation was not totally successful. On 27 February, in testimony before the Senate 

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, the existence of the critical review of North 

American Aviation carried out by Apollo Program Manager General Sam Phillips was 

brought to Webb’s attention; he had apparently not been previously aware of its existence. 
662 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Later testimony before the same committee did not reassure the Committee’s chair, Senator 

Clinton Anderson, that NASA was being totally forthcoming. Webb valued his credibility 

with Congress very highly, and in this letter suggested an approach to rebuilding confi dence 

between members of the Committee and NASA.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D.C. 20546

Offi ce of the Administrator

May 8, 1967

Honorable Clinton P. Anderson

United States Senate 

Washington, D. C. 20510

Dear Mr. Chairman:

I am deeply troubled by your statement to me last Saturday that members of the 

Committee are not satisfi ed with our testimony on NASA’s actions in follow-up of 

the defi ciences [sic] found by the management review team headed by General 

Phillips at North American Aviation in 1965. Your statement that members of 

the Committee believe NASA is endeavoring to put a disproportionate part of 

the blame for the Apollo 204 accident on North American Aviation and avoid its 

proper acceptance of blame troubles me even more.

On April 13, 1967, General Phillips testifi ed before your Committee and 

summarized the actions of his team and the responses made by North American 

Aviation during the following several months. He answered all questions that were 

asked. The Oversight Subcommittee of the House Committee on Science and 

Astronautics, because it had not pressed this line of questioning, immediately 

asked for a summary of the team report, which was furnished to Chairman Teague 

on April 15, 1967, and publicly released by him.

Over the past six years, NASA has placed contracts with American industry for 

more than 22 billion dollars of work. To do this kind of advanced aeronautical 

and space research and build fl ight hardware, American industry has had to 

introduce new, very diffi cult fabrication and test capabilities. It has had to learn 

to use new management systems. In this process, NASA has provided a technical 

interface and technical monitoring function as an addition to the normal or 

standard process of contract monitoring, much of which is performed for us 

by the Department of Defense contract administration service. In cases where 

contractors have encountered serious technical or management difftcu1ties, it 

has been our policy [2] to assist them to develop strengths they did not have and 

to utilize our knowledge of the factors which brought success to one contractor 

to help others take advantage of this experience. We and most of our contractors 

have cooperated fully in approaching problems in whatever manner was best 

calculated to solve them and get on with the work, rather than to try to fi x blame. 

At the same time, we have had to fi nd new ways to reward effi ciency and penalize 
Exploring the Unknown 663

poor performance. We and our contractors have placed a high premium on selfanalysis and self-criticism, as painful as it has had to be in many cases.

The plain fact is that our U.S. industrial system has in the past generally made its 

profi ts from large-scale production and the initial learning period on complex 

space development projects has not had the incentive of anticipated profi ts from 

large production orders. However, after six years, the process we have developed 

is in its fi nal stages and demonstrating effi ciency in most companies with large 

contract obligations to NASA.

In Apollo, we are very near to a fl ight demonstration of all the equipment that 

will prove that six large companies could take contracts for major segments and 

that the resulting vehicle pro vides for this country the space capability we have 

needed since the USSR fl ew Sputnik in 1957 and Gagarin in 1961. In the Saturn 

V Apollo system, Boeing makes the fi rst stage, North American the second, 

Douglas the third, International Business Machines the instrumentation unit, 

Grumman the lunar excursion module, and North American the command and 

service module. The General Electric Company provides the automated checkout 

equipment. Even the small est of these projects runs into tens or hundreds of 

millions of dollars.

Almost without exception each company has encountered serious diffi culties at 

one time or another. Many NASA management review teams have had to work 

with prime or sub-contractors to move the work ahead. The end result is going to 

be success for Apollo, but it is going to be much harder to achieve if every detail 

of every diffi culty is now to be put on the public record as a failure of either the 

contractor or NASA.

It is a hard fact of life in this kind of research and development that success 

cannot be achieved without a certain amount of experimentation in design to 

fi nd the limits that can be safely reached. This means a high initial rate of failure 

on inspection and test, [3] and consequent redesign. We are still in or near many 

areas of the unknown.

As I have pondered the meaning of your statements to me on Satur day, I have tried 

to think of ways through which the Committee could reestablish the confi dence 

in NASA it formerly had and in the system we are using. I have tried to fi nd some 

way this could be done without violating the basic commitments we have made 

to individuals and companies to regard information given as confi den tial and 

also without having the Committee undertake the enormous task of forming a 

judgment about at least a sample of the manage ment review criticisms we have 

recorded with respect to every major unit in the program.

With the pressure of time to get the program moving, now that we have established 

a basic plan which will bring us to the next manned fl ight at an early date, which 

we will be presenting to your Committee tomorrow, May 9, and with the limited 

investment of time which the Committee is able to make in understanding the 

complexities which alone permit valid judgments, I can think of nothing better 

than to request an executive session of the Committee, to which I would bring 

General Phillips and all the members of the review team which made the study of 
664 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

North American Aviation in December of 1965. In such major matters, it is our 

practice to include on a management review team a knowledgeable senior person 

from outside NASA. In this case, the member was General G. F. Keeling of the Air 

Force Systems Command. The NASA members, other than General Phillips, are 

Dr. J. F. Shea, Dr. E. F. M. Rees, and General E. F. O’Connor.

In such an executive session, this group can lay on the table all of the documentation 

which it used in its analysis of the situation at NAA and the six volumes of 

responses made by North American. These responses show the actions taken by 

North American between December 1965 and April 1966. In an executive session, 

General Phillips and other appropriate offi cials will also be prepared to present 

and answer questions on the actions taken by both North American and NASA 

in the 1966-1967 period following the April re views. Statements of most of these 

actions will be referenced to the management review team materials. Examples 

are enclosed in order that you may see that NASA and NAA have continued to 

take vigorous action in the period since the management review.

[4] To answer the questions you have raised, there is no way to exclude from the 

documentation we are prepared to present in executive session such business 

confi dential data on North American as indirect cost rates, burden rates, direct 

and indirect employees, general and administrative expenses, bidding expense, 

independent research and development expense, and other similar information. 

This material falls within the purview of section 1905 of Title 18, United States 

Code, which means that the Committee must restrict this information to use by 

Committee members.

At the end of your executive session, it will be my purpose to gather up the 

materials referred to above and return them to NASA fi les, unless the Committee 

takes action to the contrary.

Through the expenditure of about 25 billion dollars over the last six years, NASA 

has brought the efforts of over 400,000 men and women working in American 

laboratories and factories into the development of the space capabilities 

our nation needs. Our suc cess is shown by the fact that we are now laying off 

from this work force 5,000 workers per month. We have utilized the American 

industrial system fl exibly and in ways that have added vast new strengths that have 

permeated practically every segment of our national economy. We have created 

within NASA’s developmental centers such as Huntsville, Houston, and Cape 

Kennedy, an ability to work with contractors to do new and almost impossible 

tasks. To make public every detail of the diffi culties we have encountered out of 

the context of the total program efforts involved will do grave injustice to many 

individuals in private life and many out standing industrial units, and undoubtedly 

will destroy our ability to continue this system on the cooperative basis essential 

to its success. However, after you have inspected the attached materials and we 

have answered your questions in executive session, that decision must become the 

responsibility of the Committee. I can only give you my judgment as to what is in 

the best interests of the country.

Because time is so short, I am sending you suffi cient copies of this letter to permit 

distribution to the members of the Committee should that be considered desirable.
Exploring the Unknown 665

Sincerely yours,

[Signed James E. Webb]

James E. Webb

Administrator

Enclosure

Document II-52

Document Title: Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, “Quarantine 

Schemes for Manned Lunar Missions,” no date, but probably August 1967. 

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-53

Document Title: NASA, “Policy Directive RE Outbound Lunar Biological 

Contamination Control: Policy and Responsibility,” 6 September 1967.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-54

Document Title: Letter to Thomas Paine, Administrator , NASA, from Frederick 

Seitz, President, National Academy of Sciences, 24 March 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-55

Document Title: Letter from Senator Clinton Anderson, Chairman, Committee on 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, U.S. Senate, to Thomas Paine, Administrator, 

NASA, 15 May 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
666 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-56

Document Title: Letter to Senator Clinton Anderson, Chairman, Committee on 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, from Homer Newell, Acting Administrator, 

NASA, 4 June 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

During the early years of the Apollo program NASA recognized that planetary protection, 

particularly protection against back contamination of Earth by hypothetical lunar organisms, 

was a critical issue that had to be addressed before lunar landing missions could go forward. In 

1966, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination (ICBC) was established to determine 

what measures were needed to preserve public health and protect agricultural and other resources 

against the possibility of contamination by lunar organisms conveyed in returned sample material 

or other material exposed to the lunar surface (including astronauts), and to preserve the biological 

and chemical integrity of lunar samples and scientifi c experiments with minimal compromise to 

the operating aspects of the program. This report summarizes the conclusions of the ICBC with 

respect to quarantine requirements for both returning astronauts and lunar samples.

The contamination of the lunar surface during visits by Apollo astronauts was also of 

concern, and NASA in September 1967 adopted a policy in this regard.

As the fi rst lunar landing attempt grew closer, concerns were raised about both the readiness of 

the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) at the Manned Spacecraft Center to receive the Apollo 

astronauts and the material they would return from the Moon and the adequacy of the measures 

being taken to ensure that the astronauts and their spacecraft would not carry back alien 

organisms to Earth. In particular, NASA a few months before the Apollo 11 mission decided 

that the astronauts would leave the command module shortly after it landed in the ocean, rather 

than stay aboard the capsule until it was placed in quarantine aboard the recovery aircraft 

carrier. Concerns that this approach would undercut other quarantine measures were brought to 

the attention of Congress in May 1969. NASA was able to convince most members of Congress 

and scientists that the protections it had put in place were adequate, but even up to a few days 

before the mission was launched on 16 July 1969 there were a few individuals seeking to delay the 

launch until more stringent protections were put in place.

Document II-52

QUARANTINE SCHEMES 

FOR 

MANNED LUNAR MISSIONS
Exploring the Unknown 667

BY: INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE

ON BACK CONTAMINATION [TABLE OF CONTENTS IMAGE]

QUARANTINE SCHEMES FOR MANNED LUNAR MISSIONS

Introduction

Presented herein are the fundamental quarantine and sample release 

plans for manned lunar missions as established by the Interagency Committee on 

Back Contamination. Obviously, the scheme does not contain all possible fi nite 

technical details about quarantine test methods and containment provisions, but 

it provides the necessary framework for action by the Interagency Committee 

on Back Contamination and substantive methods for satisfying the quarantine 

requirements of the Regulatory Agencies.*

_____________________________________________________________________

*In this document the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, the U. S. Department of 

Agriculture, and the U. S. Department of the Interior are referred to as the Regulatory Agencies.
668 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

It is, of course, impossible in any set of quarantine plans to anticipate 

every eventuality. Therefore, it is necessary that the schemes include a contingency 

provision that gives the Interagency Committee and the Regulatory Agencies 

adequate opportunity to provide requirements and suggestions for situations not 

covered in the formal plans. It is likewise necessary to emphasize that in spite of 

efforts being made to assure aseptic collection and return of lunar samples, there 

is no certainty of the complete absence of earth microbial contaminants. And 

certainly, the potential of earth contaminants in returned lunar samples will be 

signifi cantly greater after the fi rst Apollo mission.

Astronaut Release Scheme

Table I provides the general scheme for the quarantine and release of the 

astronauts and medical support personnel in the Crew Reception Area (CRA) of 

the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL). The scheme covers three possible results 

and indicates the course of action for each. Implicit in each is an appropriate 

review by the Interagency Committee and the accomplishment of any formal 

action and recommendation that might be required.

Proposition I is the most likely with release of the astronauts and medical 

support personnel from the CRA after approximately 21 days. This action will 

accrue if there are no alterations in the general health of the quarantined people 

and no other indications of infectious disease due to lunar exposure.

[2] Should a defi nite alteration in the health of one or more persons in the 

CRA occur (Proposition II), release of the people would probably not be delayed 

if the alteration is diagnosed as non infectious or is of terrestrial origin. If the 

source of the alteration cannot be readily diagnosed, however, some prolongation 

of the quarantine may be necessary. In either case, under Proposition II, review of 

the data and recommenda tions by the Interagency Committee are required.

Proposition III establishes the requirement that laboratory personnel 

from the sample laboratory of the LRL be housed in the CRA following a severe 

rupture of a cabinet system containing lunar material suspected of containing 

harmful or infectious materials. While precise specifi cation of events for 

Proposition III are not outlined in Table I, the NASA medical team should consider 

all available information and make recommendations concerning release of the 

laboratory people. These recommendations should be reviewed and approved 

by the Interagency Committee. If it is decided that the laboratory personnel must 

undergo quarantine, the medical observations would identify Propositions I or 

II in Table 1. It must be recognized that this situation could result in prolonged 

quarantine of the astronauts.

Phase I Sample Release Scheme

The scheme outlined in Table II provides a general plan for each of 

three sets of circumstances resulting from quarantine testing of lunar samples. 

Examination and review of the quarantine data by the Inter agency Committee 

before release or non release of the sample is provided in each case. In other words, 
Exploring the Unknown 669

in each case the Interagency Committee would have identifi ed an appropriate 

time for coordinating their position and making their recommendations to the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Proposition I of Table II shows the course of action for what should be 

the most probable result of sample quarantine testing, the situation in which 

the protocol is carried out in the LRL with completely negative results: no viable 

organisms being isolated and no pathogenic effects being noted in the animals 

and plant systems tested. For this eventuality, Proposition I calls for the Interagency 

Committee to meet, examine, and review the quarantine data, and if satisfi ed as 

to its validity and reliability, recommend to NASA the release of samples from that 

returned mission. Formal clearance by the Regulatory Agencies is effected as a 

part of this plan.

Proposition II of Table II prescribes the course of action to be followed in 

the event that a replicating organism is detected in the lunar sample without any 

deleterious effects being noted on the life systems or terrestrial niches tested in the 

LRL. Should this result materialize, the aim of the fl ow chart under Proposition II 

is to [3] determine: (1) if the organism isolated is of terrestrial origin, unmodifi ed 

by any lunar exposure and generally considered as “non pathogenic”, or (2) if the 

organism is not readily classifi ed as being of terrestrial origin and therefore or 

potential hazard to terrestrial ecology.

In regard to statement (1) above, demonstration that the organism in 

question is identical with organisms collected from the spacecraft, from spacecraft 

equipment, or from the astronauts during prefl ight sampling, or classifi cation 

of the organism as a harmless terrestrial microbe would be adequate reason 

for neither extending nor expanding the quarantine. The inability to recover 

a common, identifi able, and non pathogenic organism a second time from a 

duplicate lunar sample would further in dicate that an earth contaminant rather 

than an organism indigenous to the lunar sample was involved. In this same 

regard, lunar sample contamination could result following a break in the primary 

barrier of the LRL. If the organism isolated cannot be readily classifi ed or otherwise shown to be of terrestrial origin, there then would be the need for initiation 

of a contingency quarantine plan.

Under Proposition II, Table II, the scheme requires review by the Interagency 

Committee at the points indicated. Adequate demonstration that the organisms 

are terrestrial, unchanged, and usually regarded as “non pathogenic” would be 

considered by the Interagency Committee as suffi cient reason for not requiring 

challenge of additional terrestrial niches before sample release. Failure of the 

protocol tests to provide this information about organisms isolated from the lunar 

sample, however, would signal the need for further quarantine testing (indicated 

as Phase II quarantine) and/or release of sample according to conditions* then 

specifi ed by the Regulatory Agencies, and/or release of samples after sterilization.

_____________________________________________________________________

*Release to certain specifi ed laboratories for further study; or steri lization before release, but only 

after consultation with investigators to determine if this is satisfactory to their specifi c experiment; 

or release to the LRL so that visiting scientists (Principal Investigators) can work in the LRL under 

containment conditions to carry out early experiments.
670 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Proposition III of Table II covers the situation where defi nite deleterious 

effects are noted on one or more of the life systems tested in the LRL. Should this 

occur, the effects observed may be due to chemical toxicity rather than to invasion 

by a replicating organism. This would be indicated if sterilized lunar material (the 

control) produced the same deleterious effects and if no replicating organisms 

were found. It is always possible, however, that replicating contami nants will be 

uncovered along with a toxic chemical. In such cases,

[4] it will be necessary to identify the organisms as of terrestrial origin and to 

classify them as “harmless” in order to avoid testing additional terrestrial niches 

or life systems.

Finally, if replicating organisms are indicated as the cause of defi nite 

deleterious effects on tested life systems, Phase II quarantine will be indicated 

with the possibility of a subsequent conditional release and/or only sterilized 

samples will be released. Under Proposition III appropriate places for review and 

action by the Inter agency Committee are indicated.

Phase II Sample Release Scheme

The probability is very remote of a contingency quarantine of a lunar 

sample due to the presence of unidentifi ed replicating organisms or because of 

non-explained deleterious effects on life systems that are not due to chemical 

toxicity. Nevertheless, it is necessary that the prevention of possible terrestrial 

back contamination be specifi c with regard to these remote probabilities in order 

that the intent of the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination Terms of 

Reference* be ful fi lled and that the legal requirements of the Regulatory Agencies 

be satisfi ed. The Phase II quarantine scheme for these eventualities is specifi ed 

in Table III.

______________________________________________________________________

*Interagency Agreement between the National Aeronautics and Space Admin istration, the Department 

of Agriculture, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, the Department of the Interior, and 

the National Academy of Sciences on the protection of the Earth’s biosphere from lunar sources of 

contamination: Attachment A: Interagency Committee on Back Contamination Terms of Reference.

Phase II requires a prolongation of the quarantine for an un specifi ed 

time interval. However, even at the outset of Phase II, the Interagency Committee 

could recommend release of some portions of the lunar samples to non-biological 

institutions under specifi c conditions of handling. The conditions would, for the 

most part, relate to the use of the sample inside biological barriers.

Otherwise, Phase II quarantine involves continued testing of animal and 

plant species in the LRL. As indicated in Table III, the scheme could also provide for 

conditional release of cultures isolated in the LRL or specimens to certain biological 

laboratory institutions in the United States for more detailed study of possible 

pathogenic effects. These laboratories, however, must meet existing specifi cations 

of the Regulatory Agencies for handling potentially virulent pathogens.

[5] (Phase II quarantine could take advantage of visiting scientists in the LRL 

as bioscience specialists to carry out specifi c tests for patho genicity, should such 

talents be available.)
Exploring the Unknown 671

Contingency Landings

The release schemes outlined above assume that a nominal or near 

nominal landing of the crew, spacecraft, and related equipment has been 

achieved. In the event of a contingency landing -- off nominal -- the details 

and method of quarantine must be adapted to the exigencies of the situation. 

Immediate authoritative decisions must be made as they apply to quarantine and 

back contamination as well as other time critical problems.

For such cases, the quarantine aspects will be represented by a Quarantine 

Control Offi cer.* To the extent possible during a disaster, he will obtain direction 

from the Regulatory members of the Interagency Committee before initiating 

disaster control procedures. Prior to the fi rst returned lunar mission it will be the 

responsibility of the Quarantine Control Offi cer to prepare and have approved 

by the NASA medical team and the Science and Applications Director (Manned 

Spacecraft Center), and the Regulatory Agencies a document outlining typical 

courses of action for several types of contingency landings.

______________________________________________________________________

*Manned Spacecraft Center Management Instruction 8030.1, dated January 9, 1967: Assignment of 

Responsibility for the Prevention of Contamination of the Biosphere by Extraterrestrial Life.

Release of Film and Data Tapes

The fi lm and data tapes will be returned to the LRL in the same manner 

as the lunar samples, admitted to quarantine, and maintained behind a biological 

barrier. The data tapes will then be played through the biological barrier for 

outside processing.

The fi lm will be processed inside the quarantine facility and printed 

through the biological barrier with an optical printer for outside use.

If current studies indicate that ethylene-oxide sterilization of the fi lm 

is possible when the fi lm is contaminated with bacterial spores and that no 

degradation of the fi lm occurs, there is the possibility that immediate release of 

sterilized fi lm will be allowed without printing through the barrier. The statistical 

reliability of the ethylene-oxide process should be such that the treatment will fail 

to give sterility no more than 1 in 10,000 times (P=lx10-4 ).

[6]

Spacecraft Release

The spacecraft will enter the LRL in a sealed confi guration and be placed 

in isolation near the CRA (this area can become a part of the quarantine facility if 

necessary). It will follow the same time con straints as the sample -- 30 days -- prior 

to release if all results are negative. It will, however, be available for additional biosampling if deemed necessary by Quarantine Control Offi cer. At his discretion, it 

may also be, entered for technical inspection provided that it is placed inside the 

biological barrier and the personnel and spacecraft become an integral part of 

the quarantine facility and scheme of release at that time.
672 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Summary

The Interagency Committee has prepared this document in order that 

all agencies and persons involved in returned lunar samples may have a clear 

understanding of the procedures the Interagency Committee feels are necessary 

for the realistic program to protect this planet from possible back contamination. 

Moreover, the Interagency Committee presents this document as one that will 

satisfy the requirements of the Regulatory Agencies of Government without 

undue hardship on NASA. Although the Interagency Committee feels that very 

few alternates to this plan are possible, it wishes to acknowledge a speedy and 

uncondi tional release of the sample; a minimum of expense and delay is highly 

advantageous to the scientifi c community.

The schemes proposed may be summarized as follows:

1. Astronauts and Medical Support Personnel

a. Release after 21 days if no alternations in general health are observed 

and in the absence of an infectious disease attributable to lunar exposure.

b. If signifi cant alterations in general health occur, release is 

still indicated if alterations are diagnosed as of terrestrial origin or as non 

communicable.

c. If alterations are apparent and not diagnosed, some delay in 

release would be indicated with the fi nal action to be recommended by the 

NASA medical team.

[7]

Conditions for Lunar Sample Release

a. It is expected that prompt release of lunar samples after completion 

of the protocol tests can be recommended by the Interagency Committee to the 

Administrator of NASA or NASA’s designated representative. The nominal results 

expected would obviously not impose any unusual conditions upon the release.

b. Interagency Committee conditional release could result if there is 

suffi cient doubt regarding the presence of pathogenic organisms in the lunar 

samples. In this instance, release of sterilized samples would be possible, or 

some samples might be released providing they are used only behind a suitable 

biological barrier. In the case of a conditional release, Phase II quarantine testing 

will proceed as rapidly as possible in an attempt to clarify the data regarding 

possible pathogenic effects.

3. Validity Constraints for Sample Release

It is in the interest of all concerned that the quarantine testing procedures 

be designed to avoid events that would produce invalid results. To insure that 

“lunar pathogens” will not be falsely detected, the sample release scheme contains 

the following constraints.
Exploring the Unknown 673

a. If replicating organisms are found in the sample and no deleterious 

effects are noted in any of the terrestrial niches tested in the LRL, release will 

not be delayed beyond the time needed to identify the organisms as terrestrial 

contaminants.

b. If deleterious effects from lunar material are noted with the 

terrestrial life systems tested in the LRL, release will not be delayed beyond the 

time needed to show that the effects were due to chemical toxicity and that any 

replicating organisms isolated from the sample were of terrestrial origin, harmless, 

and not responsible for the effects.

c. Should Phase I quarantine procedures indicate the presence of a 

substance pathogenic to terrestrial life, Phase II procedures will be initiated to 

verify or more adequately explain the Phase I results.

[8]

INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE ON BACK CONTAMINATION

Membership

Primary Alternate

David J. Sencer, M. D. (Chairman)

National Communicable Disease Center

U.S. Public Health Service

Dr. John Bagby, Jr. (Co-Chairman)

National Communicable Disease Center 

U.S. Public Health Service

Dr. Wolf Vishniac

University of Rochester

(National Academy of Sciences

representative)

Dr. Allan Brown

University of Pennsylvania

Dr. Ernest Saulmon

Department of Agriculture

Dr. A. B. Park

Department of Agriculture

Mr. Howard H. Eckles

Department of the Interior

Dr. John Buckley

Department of the Interior

Dr. Harold P. Klein

Ames Research Center, NASA

Dr. Adrian Mandel

Ames Research Center, NASA

Charles A. Berry, M.D.

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA

Walter W. Kemmerer, M.D.

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA
674 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Dr. Wilmot N. Hess

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA

Mr. Joseph V. Piland

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA

Mr. Lawrence B. Hall

Offi ce of Space Science 

and Applications, NASA

Captain Arthur H. Neill

Offi ce of Space Science 

and Applications, NASA

Dr. James Turnock

Offi ce of Manned Space Flight, NASA

Colonel John E. Pickering

(Executive Secretary)

Offi ce of Manned Space Flight, NASA

Dr. G. Briggs Phillips

U.S. Public Health Service Consultant

[9]
Exploring the Unknown 675

[10] [Table I. Astronaut Quarantine Scheme for Manned Lunar Missions Flow Chart]
676 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[11] [Table II. Quarantine Scheme for Returned Lunar Samples (Phase I) Flow Chart]
Exploring the Unknown 677

Document II-53

Policy Directive

SUBJECT: OUTBOUND LUNAR BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION

CONTROL: POLICY AND RESPONSIBILITY

1. PURPOSE

This Directive establishes the operational responsibilities for manned and 

automated lunar missions with regard to the amount of biological contamination 

and its placement on the lunar surface.

2. SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY

This Directive applies to all NASA Installations with respect to all outbound 

missions intended to or which may encounter the Moon.

3. DEFINITION

For the purpose of this Directive, the Apollo Landing Zone (ALZ) is 

defi ned as that portion of the Moon located between 5° north latitude and 5° 

south latitude, and between 45° east longitude and 45° west longitude.

4. SPACE SCIENCE BOARD-- NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 

RECOMMENDED POLICY

During the early phases of lunar exploration, NASA undertook to minimize contamination on Ranger probes in order to avoid depositing terrestrial organisms on the Moon. Eventually, it became apparent that, although the objective was complete sterility, each probe that impacted on 

the Moon carried a number of microorganisms. In its review of NASA’s 

experience of three years with lunar probe contamination control, the 

Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences made the following pertinent recommendations concerning spacecraft programmed 

to land on the Moon: 

“(i) Minimize contamination to the extent technically feasible. By appropriate 

selection of components (favoring those which are inherently sterile internally) 

and the use of surface sterilants, it should be possible to achieve a cleanliness 

level to approximate that which prevails in most hospital surgery rooms.

[2]

“(ii) Inventory all organic chemical constituents. This will permit the 

interpretation of analytical results from future collections of lunar material.

* * *
678 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

“(iv) Undertake the development of the sterile drilling system to 

accompany an early Apollo mission to return an uncontaminated sample 

of the lunar subsoil. Samples aseptically collected from this subsoil will be 

of both biological and geochemical interest. Should life exist on the Moon, 

it might be expected at some depth below the surface where temperatures 

never exceed 100°C and below the zone of ultraviolet radiation. Every 

effort should be made to keep this level free of contaminants until it can 

be sampled by drilling.”

5. POLICY

a. Landings: Unless otherwise authorized by the Deputy 

Administrator, all manned landings will be confi ned to the Apollo 

Landing Zone.

b. Biological Loading

(1) Contamination of the manned landers will be held to 

the minimum practical level consistent with achieving the 

major mission objectives as specifi ed in the appropriate 

mission assignment document as approved.

(2) Contamination on the surface of automated landers and 

orbi ters will be kept below a level such that, if contamina tion 

is confi ned to an area of 2.59 square kilometers (1 square 

mile) around the lunar impact point, there will not be more 

than one viable organism per square meter.

c. Biological Inventory: An inventory of probable post-landing biological contamination levels at each Apollo and automated landing site 

and a total inventory for the Moon will be obtained and maintained 

for future reference in the event sites are revisited and to aid in the 

interpretation of data obtained in subsequent experiments.

[remainder of document not provided]

Document II-54

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

March 24, 1969

Dr. Thomas O. Paine

Administrator

National Aeronautics and

 Space Administration

Washington, D. C. 20546
Exploring the Unknown 679

Dear Tom:

As you know, Professor Wolf Vishniac serves as our representative on the 

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, which is concerned with precautions to be taken in connection with lunar materials and vehicles returning from 

the moon.

In connection with his responsibilities on this committee, and as noted in 

the enclosed copy of his letter to me, Professor Vishniac has identifi ed appar ent 

weaknesses in the quarantine procedures to be fol lowed at the time of recovery of

the lunar vehicle. Although these have been discussed with representa tives of the 

Public Health Service and the Department of Agriculture, Professor Vishniac feels 

that these questions should be given immediate consideration by the Academy 

and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. I am sure that he will be 

willing to discuss this matter in further detail with you and/or other appropriate 

representatives of the Administra tion.

Sincerely yours,

[signed]

Frederick Seitz

President

Enclosure

THE UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER 

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE

 RIVER CAMPUS STATION

ROCHESTER, NEW YORK 14627

Department of Biology March 5, 1969

Dr. Frederick Seitz

President

National Academy of Sciences

2101 Constitution Avenue

Washington, D.C. 20418

Dear Dr. Seitz:

It is my unpleasant duty to report to you the present unsatisfactory 

status of the quarantine program which has been the concern of the Interagency 

Committee on Back Contamination. At the time of this writing there is a six week 

simulation in progress at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory, previous simulations 
680 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

having shown substantial faults in the functioning of various Lunar Receiving 

Laboratory components. One simulation had to be called off within two days after 

several neoprene gloves in the glove boxes gave way.

On February 12 and 13 the representatives of the Regulatory Agencies 

met at Houston to review the operation of the LRL and the retrieval scheme of the 

Apollo astronauts. I shall not bore you with a long list of technical faults that were 

found in the operation of the LRL, let me just mention a few signifi cant samples. 

It has as yet been impossible to keep colonies of mice alive in the LRL. The mouse 

colonies, being behind biological barrier, are at reduced pressure with respect to 

the atmosphere outside the biological barrier. So far every single mouse colony 

has died, even without being intentionally infected with any pathogenic agent. 

Routine apparatus does not seem to work properly, so for instance autoclaves 

tend to fi ll with water. This was still true on February 27. There seems to be no way 

of carrying out rapid minor emergency repairs. Although there is a list of spare 

parts to be kept at the LRL, no parts are actually available. I could continue this 

unhappy list at great length.

Our major concern which I wish to report is the recurring problem of 

controlling the spacecraft atmosphere after re-entry. When the Interagency 

Committee fi rst met it was presented with a procedure whereby the space craft, 

immediately after splash-down, would be ventilated with fresh air for the necessary 

comfort of the astronauts. Such uncontrolled outventing does not, naturally, 

impose any biological restraint on whatever particles or microorganisms may be 

suspended in the spacecraft atmosphere. At that time the Committee directed 

NASA to investigate the feasibility of installing biological fi lters in the air vents. 

The engineering response was that the installation of fi lters would require larger 

fans and more power to drive them than could be accommodated, and that fi lters 

were therefore not practical.

Meanwhile, calculation had been carried out that the re-cycling of air 

through the barium hydroxide canisters would remove free fl oating particles 

from the atmosphere during the return from the Moon. This calculation has 

since been shown to be in error by several orders of magnitude. Eventually a 

compromise solution was reached whereby the divers, in attaching the fl oatation 

collar around the craft, would place a biological fi lter over the vent holes from 

outside, and also provide a power pack to drive suffi ciently powerful fans. On 

February 13 the members of the regulatory agencies were told that no such 

fi ltration was intended and that upon splash-down the capsule would have to be 

vented without any control. The reaction of the representatives of the various 

agencies was mixed. In the opinion of Dr. Bagby (PHS) this procedure did not 

seem to pose a direct threat to human beings and therefore the Public Health 

Service was not too concerned. Dr. Park (Department of Agriculture) felt that no 

immediate threat to agricultural crops was presented, and therefore he too was 

willing to go along with this procedure or at least not make a strong opposition 

to it.

This left matters up to Mr. Eckles of the Department of the Interior. 

Dr. Eckles would have to answer to his colleagues for the safety of the marine 

environment. Dr. Eckles was most unhappy about this procedure, and repeated 
Exploring the Unknown 681

the frequent complaint voiced by all members of the Interagency Committee, 

that at every meeting the ground rules previously given to us by MSC have been 

changed. Dr. Eckles suggested that a meeting might be arranged with a few 

competent biological oceanographers, in particular he had in mind Dr. Francis 

Haxo of the Scripps Oceanographic Institution, Dr. Luige Provasoli, of Haskens 

Laboratories and Dr. Carl Oppenheimer at Florida State University. My feeling 

is that in such a conference a few experts on atmospheric circulation should also 

be involved. Mr. Eckles feels that he is not in a strong position to object to the 

fl ight of Apollo 11 in its present confi guration nor does he see any way in which 

he could infl uence a change in spacecraft design or recovery procedure. 

My own reaction is based entirely on whether we consider back 

contamination a matter of concern or not. I believe that this question has been 

answered in the affi rmative since NASA has gone to the expense of constructing a 

quarantine facility and working out an elaborate system by which astronauts could 

be transported behind biological barriers from the recovery area to the Lunar 

Receiving Laboratory. Once we have committed ourselves to this course it would 

be irresponsible to leave a large breach in the biological barrier in any part, of 

the recovery procedure. The uncontrolled outventing of the spacecraft is such a 

breach. I do not believe that either the Department of Agriculture or the Public 

Health Service should be as unconcerned about the problem as they appear to be. 

Should pathogenic organisms be brought back, and I will grant readily that the 

likelihood of this event is small, and should they infect organisms in the ocean, 

which is Mr. Eckles’ concern, then there is the same danger that they may spread 

to land and become simultaneously a very great concern to the Public Health 

Service and the Department of Agriculture. If Apollo 11 is allowed to return in 

the currently contemplated manner, and if the atmosphere on the Spacecraft 

is to be vented to the outside without any control or restraint, then I see little 

reason for maintaining the biological isolation garments, the elaborate mobile 

quarantine units, the transport to Ellington Air Force base, and the entire Lunar 

Receiving Laboratory quarantine. If we abandon the entire quarantine then we 

may as well admit that we do so. However, if the quarantine is to be taken seriously 

then it must be enforced at every link in the chain of events. Another breach of 

quarantine appears to be the insistence of spacecraft engineers of entering the 

spacecraft immediately or at least after a very short time, without the three week 

quarantine that had been contemplated for it.

I am frankly at a loss to suggest what should be done at this mement [sic]. 

Clearly the Apollo Program is moving at a pace which we cannot stop. It is equally 

clear that this irresistible progress is being used to brush aside the inconvenient 

restraints which the Interagency Committee has considered to be an essential 

part of the Quarantine Program. The least I can do is to price [sic] you of the 

facts as they stand at the moment and to call them to the attention of the Space 

Science Board.

Sincerely yours,

[signed]

Wolf Vishniac
682 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-55

United States Senate 

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences 

Washington, DC 20510 

May 15, 1969 

The Honorable Thomas O. Paine, Administrator 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 

Dear Dr. Paine: 

 Recent news articles say that NASA is considering plans to relax its precaution 

against the spread of alien organisms that might be brought back from the moon by the 

Apollo 11 space flight because of recommendations made by an interagency committee. 

Under the change, it is my understanding that the Astronauts would be permitted to leave 

the spacecraft while it is still in the water instead of, as previously planned, bringing the 

spacecraft with the Astronauts inside aboard the carrier and releasing them into a 

biologically isolated vehicle. It is said that the changes are being proposed so as to air out 

the aircraft, save the Astronauts some discomfort, and avoid the hazard of bringing the 

tossing capsule near the hull of the carrier. 

 I wonder if it is wise to go to a procedure that can be regarded as having less 

concern for possible contamination of the earth; and hope that you will very carefully 

consider that if the Agency is to err it ought to err on the side of caution. The program has 

come a long way and is about to meet its objective. I would not like to see people start to 

criticize the program on the basis that all necessary and practical caution has not been 

taken to prevent the spreading of any possible harmful pathogens brought back from the 

moon. 

 Sincerely yours, 

 

 Clinton P. Anderson 

 Chairman 

Cc: Mr. Robert Allnutt 
Exploring the Unknown 683

Document II-56

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington 25, D.C.

Jun 4 1969

Honorable Clinton P. Anderson

Chairman

Committee on Aeronautical and

 Space Sciences

United States Senate

Washington, D.C. 20510

Dear Mr. Chairman:

This is further in response to your letter of May 15 regarding the recovery 

procedures for the Apollo 11 mission.

The subject of possible back-contamination of the earth’s biosphere through 

Apollo operations has, of course, received our very serious attention for some 

time. NASA and other agencies of Government have spent considerable effort to 

insure that everything possible is done to prevent such contamination consistent 

with safe accomplishment of the mission. To this end, in 1964 an Interagency 

Committee on Back Contamination (ICBC) was established to provide expert 

guidance to us on all matters concerning possible back-contamination. This 

Committee, composed of members from the Departments of Agriculture, 

Interior, Health, Education, and Welfare (U.S. Public Health Service), National 

Academy of Sciences and NASA, has the responsibility of insuring that our Apollo 

mission plans do no violate the integrity of the Earth’s biosphere. Hence the 

preventive procedures we plan to employ must have the ICBC’s approval before 

implementation.

A very diffi cult problem and decision we and the ICBC have had to resolve is the 

one you mention, that is, all constraints considered, determining the optimum 

recovery procedure which would protect the lives of the returned astronauts while 

at the same time providing the lowest practicable possibility of back-contamination. 

Our efforts have been directed toward both recovery procedures and methods to 

prevent uncontained lunar material from entering and leaving the Lunar Module 

and the Command Module.

The current astronaut-recovery procedure, which has been approved by the ICBC 

for the Apollo 11 mission, involves egressing them from the spacecraft into a raft 

and transferring them by helicopter to the recovery ship where they will enter the 

Mobile Quarantine Facility. The astronauts will don Biological Isolation Garments 

prior to departing the spacecraft if sea conditions permit; otherwise the garments 

will be donned in the life raft.
684 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

We had considered having the astronauts remain inside the Command Module 

while it was hoisted onto the recovery ship. Since this represented a departure 

from the present recovery procedures which have been developed over a period 

of several years and which are based on the cumulative experience of Mercury, 

Gemini, and Apollo, a thorough review was made of the diffi culties involved in 

transferring the Command Module to the carrier deck, particularly in a heavy 

sea. The hazards demonstrated in actual practice led to our decision to transfer 

the astronauts to the carrier deck by helicopter. The current astronaut recovery 

procedures received ICBC approval for the Apollo 11 mission only after the ICBC 

became convinced that (1) there was a real hazard involved in sea retrieval of a 

manned spacecraft and (2) any increased risk of biosphere contamination was 

not signifi cant. The former concern has been validated in both tests and previous 

end-of-mission recoveries. Test data has dictated the installation by a swimmer 

of a recovery loop or sling onto the spacecraft prior to lifting it from the water 

because the integral loop on the Command Module will not accommodate all 

possible recovery loads. Such a procedure is acceptable to us for use only on an 

unoccupied spacecraft. At the conclusion of the Apollo 9 mission, for example, 

the spacecraft was dropped back into the water due to a mechanical failure of 

the crane.

The increase in the contamination potential from extracting the astronauts has 

been minimized by programming improved housekeeping procedures by the 

astronauts and by recognition of the scrubbing action of the Lunar Module and 

Command Module lithium hydroxide (LiOH) canisters on the cabin atmosphere. 

The astronauts will now bag all items exposed to the lunar surface prior to transfer 

to the Command Module. They plan to vacuum the cabin at frequent intervals 

during the return trip from lunar orbit. Of additional signifi cance, however, is 

recently developed data which indicates that the LiOH canisters will remove 

essentially all of the particulate effects of minimizing cabin interior contamination 

and understanding LiOH fi ltering capabilities have led us to conclude, and 

the ICBC to concur, that the recovery procedure described does not materially 

increase the probability of earth contamination.

In these few paragraphs I have not described all the detailed procedural steps we 

plan to take to reduce the possibility of Earth back-contamination. For instance, 

the maximum number of items possible which have contacted the lunar surface 

will either be left on the lunar surface or in the LM. This and many other steps we 

are taking represent a heavy concentration of effort to tighten our procedures to 

minimize the possibility of back-contamination of the earth’s biosphere.

If we can provide any additional information, please let me know.

Sincerely yours,

Homer E. Newell

Acting Administrator 
Exploring the Unknown 685

Document II-57

Document Title: Director of Central Intelligence, “The Soviet Space Program,” 

4 April 1968.

Source: Central Intelligence Agency Historical Review Program.

Throughout the 1960s the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used its various capabilities 

to track the Soviet space program. This update to a November 1967 National Intelligence 

Estimate gives a sense of what the CIA was saying about the Soviet lunar landing program. 

According to this estimate, the United States was well in the lead in achieving the fi rst lunar 

landing. Of particular note , however, is the estimate that the Soviet Union might attempt 

a manned circumlunar fl ight before the end of 1968. Senior NASA offi cials were certainly 

aware of this possibility as they considered whether to approve sending the Apollo 8 mission 

into orbit around the moon in December 1968.

TOP SECRET [DECLASSIFIED]

CONTROLLED DISSEM

[declassifi ed 1/16/1997]

NIE 11-1-67

4 April 1968

TS 0089284/1

MEMORANDUM TO HOLDERS

NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATE

NUMBER 11-1-67

The Soviet Space Program

Submitted by

[Signed Richard M. Helms]

Director of Central Intelligence

Concurred in by the

UNITED STATES INTELLIGENCE BOARD
686 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

As indicated overleaf

4 April 1968

Authenticated

[Signed]

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY USIB Pages 10

[1]

THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM

THE PROBLEM

 To examine signifi cant developments in the Soviet space program since the 

publication of NIE 11-1-67, “The Soviet Space Program,” dated 2 March 1967, 

TOP SECRET, and to assess the impact of those developments on future Soviet 

space efforts with particular emphasis on the manned lunar landing program.

DISCUSSION

 1. In the year since publication of NIE 11-1-67, the Soviets have conducted 

more space launches than in any comparable period since the program began.1

Scientifi c and applied satellites, particularly those having military applications, 

largely account for the increased activity. The Soviets also intensifi ed efforts to 

develop what we believe to be a fractional orbit bombardment system (FOBS).2

The photoreconnaissance program continued at the same high rates of the 

previous two years.

 2. In general, the Soviet space program progressed along the lines of our 

esti mate. It included the following signifi cant developments: new spacecraft 

and launch vehicle development, rendezvous and docking of two unmanned 

space craft, an unsuccessful manned fl ight attempt (which ended in the death of 

Cosmonaut Komarov), the successful probe to Venus, an unmanned circumlunar 

attempt which failed, and a simulated circumlunar mission. Evidence of the past 

year indicates that the Soviets are continuing to work toward more advanced 

missions, including a manned lunar landing, and it provides a better basis for 

estimating the sequence and timing of major events in the Soviet space program.

 3. Considering additional evidence and further analysis, we continue to 

esti mate that the Soviet manned lunar landing program is not intended to be 

competitive with the US Apollo program. We now estimate that the Soviets will 

1 See Annex for a detailed breakdown of launches during the past year.

2 For a discussion of FOBS, see NIE 11-8-67, “Soviet Capabilities for Strategic Attack,” dated 26 

October 1967, TOP SECRET. 
Exploring the Unknown 687

attempt a manned lunar landing in the latter half of 1971 or in 1972, and we 

believe that [2] 1972 is the more likely date. The earliest possible date, involving a 

high risk, failure-free program, would be late in 1970. In NIE 11-1-67 we estimated 

that they would probably make such an attempt in the 1970-1971 period; the 

second half of 1969 was considered the earliest possible time.

 4. The Soviets will probably attempt a manned circumlunar fl ight both 

as a preliminary to a manned lunar landing and as an attempt to lessen the 

psychologi cal impact of the Apollo program. In NIE 11-1-67, we estimated that 

the Soviets would attempt such a mission in the fi rst half of 1968 or the fi rst half 

of 1969 (or even as early as late 1967 for an anniversary spectacular). The failure 

of the unmanned circumlunar test in November 1967 leads us now to estimate 

that a manned attempt is unlikely before the last half of 1968, with 1969 being 

more likely. The Soviets soon will probably attempt another unmanned circumlunar fl ight.

 5. Within the next few years the Soviets will probably attempt to orbit a 

space station which could weigh as much as 50,000 pounds, could carry a crew 

of 6-8 and could remain in orbit for a year or more. With the Proton booster 

and suit able upper staging they could do so in the last half of 1969, although 

1970 seems more likely. Alternatively, the Soviets could construct a small space 

station by joining several spacecraft somewhat earlier—in the second half of 1968 

or 1969—to perform essentially the same functions. We previously estimated that 

the earliest the Soviets could orbit such a space station was late 1967 with 1968 

being more likely.

 6. We continue to believe that the Soviets will establish a large, very long 

duration space station which would probably weigh several hundred thousand 

pounds and would be capable of carrying a crew of 20 or more. Our previous 

estimate, which gave 1970-1971 as the probable date and late 1969 as the earliest 

possible, was based primarily upon launch vehicle capacity. We now believe that 

the pacing item will be the highly advanced life support/environmental control 

technology required, and that such a station will probably not be placed in orbit 

before the mid-1970’s.

[remainder of estimate not provided]

Document II-58

Document Title: Memorandum to Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight 

from James E. Webb, Administrator, “Termination of the Contract for Procurement 

of Long Lead Time Items for Vehicles 516 and 517,” 1 August 1968.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
688 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

To ensure that there were enough heavy-lift boosters to complete the Apollo program, NASA had 

contracted for the elements of 15 Saturn V vehicles. George Mueller, Associate Administrator 

for Manned Spacefl ight, hoped to keep open the various production lines involved in the 

Saturn V program, anticipating that there would be other uses for the giant vehicle— 

extended lunar exploration and launching a space station, for example—that would require 

a heavy-lift capability during the 1970s. The program to carry out such activities was known 

as the Apollo Applications Program. The fi rst step in ensuring that this could be done was to 

contract for those components of the vehicle’s S-IC fi rst stage that required the longest time to 

manufacture. In mid-1968, Mueller requested authorization from James Webb to enter into 

such contracts.

Webb’s answer was negative— no uses for Saturn Vs beyond the original 15 had been 

approved, and the budget outlook for such approval was gloomy. This memorandum, issued 

even before the initial lunar landing, was thus the fi rst step in a process that led to a 1970 

decision to terminate the Saturn V program.

Memorandum to Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight 

SUBJECT: Termination of the Contract for Procurement of Long lead 

Time Items for Vehicles 516 and 517

REFERENCE: M memorandum to the Administrator, dated June 2, 1968, 

same subject 

D memorandum to the Administrator, dated July 31, 1968

AD memorandum to M dated July 13, 1967

After reviewing the referenced documentation and in consideration of 

the FY 1969 budget situation, your request to expend additional funds for the 

procurement of long lead time items for the S-IC stages of the 516 and 517 

vehicles is disapproved. The decision, in effect, limits at this time the production 

effort of Saturn through vehicle 515. No further work should be authorized for 

the development and fabrication of vehicles 516 and 517.

James E. Webb

Administrator

Document II-59

Document Title: Memorandum to Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program from 

Chief, Apollo Data Priority Coordination, “Re: LM rendezvous radar is essential,” 

1 August 1968.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
Exploring the Unknown 689

One of the key managers of Project Apollo at the Manned Spacecraft Center was Howard W. 

“Bill” Tindall. He became famous throughout the program for his “Tindallgrams,” messages 

expressed in direct, often pithy terms. This is an example. The high offi cial referred to was 

George Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight.

TO : PA/Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program DATE: AUG 1 1968

 [stamped]

FROM : PA/Chief, Apollo Data Priority Coordination

SUBJECT: LM rendezvous radar is essential

A rather unbelievable proposal has been bouncing around lately. Because it is 

seriously ascribed to a high ranking offi cial, MSC and GAEC are both on the verge 

of initiating activities - feasibility studies, procedures development, etc. - in accord 

with it. Since effort like that is at a premium, I thought I’d write this note in hopes 

you could proclaim it to be a false alarm or if not, to make it one. The matter to 

which I refer is the possibility of deleting the rendezvous radar from the LM.

The fi rst thing that comes to mind, although not perhaps the most important, is 

that the uproar from the astronaut offi ce will be fantastic - and I’ll join in with 

my small voice too, for the following reason. Without rendezvous radar there 

is absolutely no observational data going into the LM to support rendezvous 

maneuvers. This would be a serious situation both during the major rendezvous 

maneuvers (CSI, CDH, and TPI) and during terminal braking. Please let me 

discuss these separately.

First of all, let it be clearly understood the MSFN cannot support rendezvous 

maneuver targeting during lunar operations. That must be an entirely onboard 

operation due to limitations in MSFN navigation (i.e., orbit determination) 

using short arcs of data on a maneuvering spacecraft and because much of the 

rendezvous is conducted out-of-sight - and - voice of the earth. In other words, we 

couldn’t tell them what to do if we knew!

Therefore, without the LM radar the only source of maneuver targeting is the 

CSM. Using what? A VHF ranging device to be fl own for the fi rst time on the 

lunar mission and a spacecraft computer program (Colossus), which does not 

have the CSI and CDH targeting programs in it. Thus, the CSM pilot would have 

to use charts! I’d like to emphasize the fact, though, that the CSM pilot is so busy 

making sextant observations (which are mandatory - VHF alone is not adequate) 

and performing mirror image targeting, etc. along with routine spacecraft 

management that it has been concluded he can not and will not perform onboard 

chart computations. 

[2] And - even if we were to think negative schedule-wise and assume we will get 

a fl ight qualifi ed VHF ranging device and CSI/CDH targeting in Colossus, Jr. in 

time for the lunar mission, I can’t believe we’d be willing to fl y a rendezvous with 

no backup or alternate data source for comparison. The ΔV margins are too small 

and the consequence of failure is unacceptable!
690 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Now, let me speak of terminal phase braking. Range and range rate information 

are essential for this operation. This can be obtained crudely by visual means and 

without radar that’s the only source. (Lighting conditions must be satisfactory - 

although poor CSI/CDH targeting will cause TPI time slippage almost certain 

to mess it up.) The DSKY displays of range and range rate from the computers 

are based on the state vectors obtained by the rendezvous navigation and they 

degrade badly at close ranges. That is, their usefulness is highly questionable. 

(Unless lunar operations are better than “earthal,” they are worthless; I’m not 

sure if lunar is better or not.) So it’s the eyeballs then and plenty of RCS.

If I sound like I’m on some higher energy level about this, it’s cause I am. I’m 

sure most will agree that a rendezvous radar failure is the worst that can happen 

in the PGNCS (and AGS) during rendezvous since without it all data is lost. 

(For example, the current “D” rendezvous mission rule is that rendezvous radar 

failure dictates aborting the rendezvous exercise, the CSM goes active for TPI and 

midcourse corrections, using the sextant, and whoever can see best will give a try 

at braking.)

Please see if you can stop this if it’s real and save both MSC and GAEC a lot of 

trouble.

[signed]

Howard W. Tindall, Jr.

Document II-60

Document Title: George M. Low, “Special Notes for August 9, 1968, and 

Subsequent,” 19 August 1968.

Source: Papers of George M. Low, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New 

York.

Document II-61

Document Title: Sam C. Phillips, Apollo Program Director, “Apollo Mission 

Preparation Directive,” 19 August 1968. 

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
Exploring the Unknown 691

Document II-62

Document Title: Letter to Robert Gilruth, Director, NASA Manned Spacecraft 

Center, from George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned 

Space Flight, 4 November 1968.

Source: NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Archives.

Document II-63

Document Title: George M. Low “Special Notes for November 10 and 11, 1968,” 

14 November 1968.

Source: Papers of George M. Low, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New 

York.

Document II-64

Document Title: Memorandum to Associate Administrator for Manned Space 

Flight [George Mueller] from Apollo Program Director [Sam C. Phillips], “Apollo 

8 Mission Selection,” 11 November 1968. 

Source: Papers of George M. Low, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New 

York.

Document II-65

Document Title: Memorandum to Associate Administrator for Manned Space 

Flight [George Mueller] from Acting Administrator [Thomas Paine], 18 November 

1968.

Source: Papers of George M. Low, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New 

York.

One of the boldest decisions made during the Apollo program was to send astronauts into 

lunar orbit on the fi rst Saturn V launch with a crew aboard. The result was the 21–27 

December 1968 Apollo 8 mission which carried Frank Borman, James Lovell, and Bill 

Anders into lunar orbit on Christmas eve and produced the iconic “Earthrise” picture of the 

blue Earth rising over the desolate lunar surface.

This series of documents illustrates how this decision was made. Apollo program manager George 

M. Low periodically dictated what he called “special notes” as a chronicle of the Apollo program 
692 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

from his central perspective. These notes, which were supplemented by offi cial documents, form 

an invaluable record of space policy and management actions from 1967 until Low left NASA 

in 1976. In his August and November 1968 notes, Low narrates the series of events and 

decisions that led to the decision to fl y Apollo 8 around the Moon. Perhaps most remarkable 

were the events of 9 August, which began with a brief conversation about the desirability of 

such a decision between Low and the Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center Robert Gilruth 

and, by the time the day was over, involved key Apollo decision makers in Houston, Huntsville, 

and Washington. When NASA Administrator James Webb and Head of Manned Space Flight 

George Mueller, who were attending a United Nations Conference in Vienna, Austria, heard 

of the Apollo 8 plan, they were taken quite aback, and insisted that no decision be announced 

until after the Apollo 7 mission, which was to test the post-fi re Apollo Command and Service 

Modules in Earth orbit. Although fi nal approval of the preliminary decisions taken that day 

would be months in coming, it is remarkable that the basics of such a momentous choice could 

be put in place in just a few hours on one day, and then put in motion a few days later. 

The Apollo 8 lunar orbit mission was designated C’ (C Prime) because it was inserted in 

the previously planned Apollo mission sequence which included the following missions: 

C – test of the Apollo Command and Service module in low Earth orbit; D – test of the 

Apollo Command and Service and Lunar Modules in low Earth orbit; E – test of the Apollo 

Command and Service and Lunar Modules in a mission beyond Earth orbit, but not headed 

to the moon; F – test of all equipment in lunar orbit; and G – lunar landing mission. 

There is no mention in any of these documents of any concern that the Soviet Union might be 

able to fl y a cosmonaut crew around the M oon before the United States was able to send its 

astronauts to the lunar vicinity, even though intelligence estimates and several 1968 fl ights 

of the Soviet “Zond” spacecraft suggested that such a mission might be in preparation. 

In addition to Low’s notes, documents included here are reservations about the wisdom of 

undertaking the mission raised by Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight George 

Mueller, Apollo Program Manager Lieutenant General Sam Phillip’s memoranda making the 

changes in mission plans that would allow the circumlunar choice and formally recommending 

approval of the circumlunar Apollo 8 mission, and NASA Acting Administrator Thomas 

Paine’s memorandum documenting his decision to approve that recommendation.

Document II-60

SPECIAL NOTES FOR AUGUST 9, 1968, AND SUBSEQUENT

Background:

June, July 1968. The current situation in Apollo was that LM - 3 had been 

delivered to KSC somewhat later than anticipated; and CSM 103 would be delivered 

to KSC in late July. Checkout of 101 at KSC was proceeding well, and a launch in 

the Fall of 1968 appeared to be assured. There was every reason to believe that 103 

would also be a mature spacecraft but that for many reasons LM-3 might run into 

diffi culties. Certifi cation tests of LM were lagging; there were many open failures; 

and the number of changes and test failures at KSC was quite large.
Exploring the Unknown 693

It had been clear for some time that a lunar landing in this decade could 

be assured only if the AS 503/CSM 103/LM 3 mission could be fl own before the 

end of 1968. During the June-July time period the projected launch date had 

slipped from November into December, and the December date was by no means 

assured. The over-all problem was compounded by the Pogo anomaly resulting 

from the Apollo 6 mission, and this remained a signifi cant unknown.

In this time period also the possibility of a circumlunar or lunar orbit 

mission during 1968, using AS 503 and CSM 103, fi rst occurred to me as a 

contingency mission to take a major step forward in the Apollo Program.

July 20 to August 5, 1968. By now the Pogo situation looked a lot more 

encouraging. MSFC had demonstrated analytically that a relatively simple launch 

vehicle fi x was available to cure the problem. The results of many tests and analyses 

at MSC led to the general conclusion that the Spacecraft/LM Adapter problem 

would most likely be cured if the launch vehicle Pogo is cured.

In the same time period, work on CSM 103 continued to progress 

somewhat slower than expected but in a satisfactory manner. Delivery of the 

spacecraft to KSC during the second week of August was virtually assured. The 

spacecraft was extremely clean. LM-3, however, required much more work at KSC 

than anticipated. There was a signifi cant number of changes in addition to test 

failures, requiring trouble-shooting, changeouts and re test, and a serious EMI 

problem that continued to persist. The [2] outlook for a 1968 launch, although 

mathematically still possible, appeared to be very dim.

August 6, 1968. Presented a long list of LM changes to the OMSF 

Management Council review in Houston. In collecting this information it had 

become more and more apparent that we still weren’t quite on top of the situation 

and that the list of problems continued to grow instead of decreasing. 

August 7, 1968. With the background of open work and con tinued 

problems on LM-3 and the real concern that the mission might not be able to fl y 

until February or March, 1969, I asked Chris Kraft to look into the feasibility of a 

lunar orbit mission on AS 503 with CSM 103 and without a LM.

August 8, 1968. Spent the day at KSC, reviewing 503 open work and 

schedules with Debus, Petrone, Phillips, Hage, Bolender, and many others. The 

offi cial KSC schedule showed an earliest possible launch date during the fi rst 

week of January, 1969; however, the EMI problem was still open. KSC pointed 

out that the hardware changes were not the real cause of the problem. The 

many retest requirements and checkout problems caused real concern. There 

was little confi dence in the assembled group that the early January launch date 

could be met. In fact, until the EMI problem was solved, things were essentially 

at a standstill.

Steps in Planning the Mission:

August 9, 1968. Met with Gilruth at 0845 and reported to him the detailed 

status of LM-3 and CSM 103 and informed him that I had been considering the 
694 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

possibility of an AS 503 lunar orbit mission. Gilruth was most enthusiastic and 

indicated that this would be a major step forward in the program.

Met with Chris Kraft at 0900, and he indicated that his preliminary studies 

had shown that the mission was technically feasible from the point of view of 

ground control and onboard computer software. (A step of major importance to 

make this possible had been taken several months ago when we had decided to 

use the Colossus onboard computer program for the 103 spacecraft.)

At 0930, I met with Gilruth, Kraft and Slayton. After con siderable 

discussion, we agreed that this mission should certainly [3] be given serious 

consideration and that we saw no reason at the present time why it should not be 

done. We immediately decided that it was important to get both von Braun and 

Phillips on board in order to obtain their endorsement and enthusiastic support. 

Gilruth called von Braun, gave him the briefest description of our considerations, 

and asked whether we could meet with him in Huntsville that afternoon. I called 

Phillips at KSC and also in formed him of our activities and asked whether he and 

Debus could join us in Huntsville that afternoon. Both von Braun and Phillips 

indicated their agreement in meeting with us, and we set up a session in Huntsville 

for 2:30 p.m.

August 9, 1968 - 2:30 p. m. Met in von Braun’s offi ce with von Braun, 

Rees, James and Richard from MSFC; Phillips and Hage from OMSF; Debus and 

Petrone from KSC; and Gilruth, Kraft, Slayton and Low from MSC. I described the 

background of the situation, indicating that LM-3 has seen serious delays and that 

presently we were one week down on the KSC schedule, indicating a 31 December 

launch. I went on to indicate that, under the best of circumstances, given a mature 

spacecraft, we might expect a launch at the end of January; however, with the present 

situation on LM, I would expect that the earliest possible D mission launch date 

would be during the middle of March. It therefore appeared that getting all of the 

benefi ts of the F (lunar orbit) mission before the D mission was both technically and 

programmatically advisable. Under this concept a lunar orbit mission, using AS 503 

and CSM 103, could be fl own in December, 1968. The most signifi cant milestone 

in this plan would have to be an extremely successful C mission, using CSM 101. 

However, if 101 were not completely successful, an alternate to the proposed mission 

would be a CSM alone fl ight, still in December, using AS 503 and CSM 103 in an 

earth orbital fl ight rather than a lunar orbit fl ight. Under this plan the D mission 

would be fl own on AS 504 with CSM 104 and LM-3, probably still in mid-March. In 

other words, we would get an extra mission in ahead of the D mission; would get the 

earliest possible Pogo fl ight; and would get much of the information needed from 

the F mission much earlier than we could otherwise. Chris Kraft made the strong 

point that, in order to gain the F mission fl ight benefi ts, the fl ight would have to be 

into lunar orbit as opposed to circumlunar fl ight.

During the remainder of the meeting in Huntsville, all present exhibited 

a great deal of interest and enthusiasm for this fl ight. 

[4] Phillips outlined on the blackboard the actions that would have to be taken 

over the next several days. Generally, KSC indicated that they could support such 

a mission by December 1, 1968; MSFC could see no diffi culties from their end; 
Exploring the Unknown 695

MSC’s main concern in volved possible differences between CSM 103 and CSM 

106, which was the fi rst one that had been scheduled to leave earth orbit, and 

fi nding a substitute for the LM for this fl ight.

The Huntsville meeting ended at 5 p.m. with an agreement to get together 

in Washington on August 14, 1968. At that time the assembled group planned to 

make a decision as to whether to proceed with these plans or not. If the decision 

was affi rmative, Phillips would immediately leave for Vienna to discuss the plans 

with Mueller and Webb, since it would be most important to move out as quickly 

as possible once the plan was adopted. It was also agreed to classify the planning 

stage of this activity secret, but it was proposed that, as soon as the Agency had 

adopted the plan, it should be fully disclosed to the public.

August 9, 1968 - 8:30 p.m. After returning to Houston, held a meeting 

with Kleinknecht, Bolender, Dale Myers of NR, and George Abbey. We agreed to 

move out as described earlier with a view toward identifying any diffi culties over 

the weekend. Bolender immediately left for Bethpage to discuss the proposal with 

GAEC and to fi nd the best possible LM substitute. Myers returned to Downey to 

work the problem from that end.

August 10, 1968. No diffi culties identifi ed as yet. Kleinknecht is defi ning 

detailed confi guration differences between CSM 103 and 106, and the most 

outstanding diffi culty will probably be in the area of the high gain antenna. 

(This was known at the time the plan was discussed on August 9.) Insofar as a 

LM substitute is concerned, it looks as though LM-2 might be able to support this 

fl ight. Kotanchik, however, made a strong point that we should not fl y a LM but 

install a simple crossbeam instead. He indicated that if a residual Pogo problem 

remained, it would be best not to have a LM on this fl ight; and if Pogo were solved, 

the LM would not be necessary. I dis cussed this with Hage in Washington and 

Richard at MSFC. Both agreed that a high-fi delity LM would not be necessary but 

that a mass representation might be required to avoid Saturn V control systems 

dynamics problems.

I also discussed the proposed mission with Bill Bergen, who appeared less 

receptive than most of the people who had been exposed to this plan. 

[5] August 12, 1968. Held many meetings and telephone con versations on the 

subject of the new mission during the day.

Kraft indicated that the biggest constraint was the launch window; a 

December 20 launch would be required if a daylight launch was desired. (All 

agreed that for the fi rst manned Saturn V fl ight a daylight launch would be a 

requirement.) We thought it would be best to plan for a December 1 launch 

and build in a “hold” period until December 20 to give maximum assurance of 

meeting that date.

In the area of a LM substitute, LTA-B appeared on the scene. This test article 

had been through the dynamic test vehicle program at MSFC and was now stored 

at KSC, ready for an unmanned 503 launch. It has the proper mass distribution 

and is in a fl ight-ready condition. All except Kotanchik agreed that this would be a 
696 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

good choice. Kotanchik made a strong point that we should fl y with a lightweight 

crossbeam in order to get a maximum possible safety factor in the SLA region. 

During several discussions with MSFC we determined that this was not possible for 

the previously stated reasons concerning the launch vehicle dynamics.

GAEC proposed that LM-2 should not be fl own in order to save it for the 

drop test program. They suggested instead that we build an LTA-4, consisting of the 

LM-9 descent stage with LM-8 ascent stage. However, since this would take another 

fl ight LM out of the program, I concluded that LTA-B would be our best choice.

August 13, 1968. Continued working detailed problems in Houston. A 

thorough analysis of confi guration differences between 103 and 106 identifi ed 

the high gain antenna as the most critical item. However, Kraft indicated that 

it would be possible to fl y the mission even if the high gain antenna should fail 

during the fl ight. There were no “show stoppers” in any of the spacecraft systems 

and, in fact, only minor changeouts would have to be made to bring the spacecraft 

into a position to fl y the proposed mission.

Kraft had reviewed all of the operational elements and determined that 

there would be no insurmountable diffi culties. The available launch window will 

be from December 20 to December 26 (with the exception of December 25). In 

early January a launch window with an Atlantic injection would become available, 

and toward the end of January another Pacifi c injection window would open up. 

[6] Slayton had decided to assign the 104 crew to this mission (Borman, 

Lovell and Anders, backed up by Armstrong, Aldrin and Haise) in order to 

minimize possible effects on the D mission. Slayton had talked to Borman on 

Saturday and found him to be very much interested in making this fl ight.

August 14, 1968. Went to Washington with Gilruth, Kraft and Slayton to 

meet with Paine, Phillips, Hage, Schneider and Bowman from Headquarters; von 

Braun, James and Richard from Marshall; and Debus and Petrone from KSC. The 

meeting started with an MSC review of spacecraft, fl ight operations, and fl ight 

crew support for the proposed mission. I reviewed the Spacecraft 103 hardware 

confi guration, the proposed LM substitute, consumable requirements, and the 

proposed alternate mission. Copies of the charts used in this review are attached. 

[not included]

Kraft indicated that there were no major problems with either the MSFN 

or the Mission Control Center and fl ight operations. He discussed the launch 

window constraints and indicated that NASA management would have to get with 

the Department of Defense in order to obtain recovery support. Our conclusion 

was that we should go for the December 20, 1968, launch window with a built-in 

two week hold prior to the launch. Then, if it is logistically possible to shift to the 

Atlantic insertion period, we should try for the January 3, 1969, launch window if 

we miss the December launch window. If this is not feasible, we would have to go 

from the December 20 date to the January 20 date.

MSFC indicated that there were no signifi cant diffi culties with the launch 

vehicle to support this mission. We agreed that LTA-B would be loaded for a total 
Exploring the Unknown 697

payload weight of 85,000 pounds. MSFC also agreed that they could provide 

telemetry for the LTA-B measurements.

Petrone outlined his plans for activities at KSC and indicated that the 

earliest possible launch date would be December 6, 1968. Other dates included 

the fi rst manned altitude chamber run on September 14; the move to the VAB on 

September 28; and move to the pad on October 1.

We also discussed the mission sequence to be followed after the proposed 

mission and proposed that the best plan would be to fl y the D mission next, 

followed by an F mission, which, in turn, would be followed by the fi rst lunar 

landing mission. In other words, the [7] proposed mission would take the place 

of the E mission but would be fl own before D. MSC also proposed that for internal 

planning purposes we should schedule the D mission for March 1, 1969; the F 

mission for May 15, 1969; and the G mission for July or August, 1969. However, 

dates two weeks later for D, one month later for F, and one month later for G 

should be our public commitment dates.

 During the course of the meeting Phillips received a call from George 

Mueller in Vienna. Apparently Phillips had discussed the proposal with Mueller 

on the previous day, and after thinking it over, Mueller’s reception was very cool. 

Mueller was concerned over stating the plan before the fl ight of Apollo 7 and was 

against announcing a plan as we might have to back away from it if 101 did not 

work. He also indicated that Phillips’ arrival and departure in Vienna might create 

problems with the press and therefore urged Phillips not to come. Mueller’s plans 

were to return to the country on August 21 for a speech in Detroit, and he would 

not be able to meet with us in Washington until August 22.

All present indicated that we would have to move out immediately in 

order to meet the December launch window and that a delay until August 22 or 

later would automatically mean the mission would have to slip until January. It was 

also hard for us to believe that Mueller was unwilling to accept the plan which was 

unanimously accepted by all Center Directors and Program Managers. We again 

urged Phillips to review our fi ndings with Mueller and make a strong plea to visit 

Mueller in Vienna immediately, assuming, of course, that it was not possible for 

Mueller to return to this country. We also pointed out that if we were to implement 

our plan with any degree of confi dence, so many people would have to become 

involved that it would be impossible to keep it quiet for very long.

Following the over-all discussions of the mission, Dr. Paine indicated 

that it had not been too long since we were uncertain as to whether the Apollo 

503 mission should even be manned. Now we were proposing an extremely bold 

mission. Had we really considered all of the implications? He specifi cally wanted 

to know whether anyone present was against making this move. In going around 

the table, one by one, the following comments were made:

von Braun: Once a decision has been made to fl y a man on 503, it doesn’t 

matter to the launch vehicle how far we go. From the [8] program point of view, 

this mission appears to be simpler than the D mission. The mission should by all 

means be undertaken.
698 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Hage: There are a number of way stations in the mission. Decision points 

can be made at each of these way stations, thereby minimizing the over-all risk. I 

am all for the mission.

Slayton: This is the only chance to get to the moon before the end of 

1969. It is a natural thing to do in Apollo today. There are many positive factors 

and no negative ones.

Debus: I have no technical reservations; however, it will be necessary to 

educate the public, for if this is done wrong and we fail, Apollo will have a major 

setback. By all means fl y the mission.

Petrone: I have no reservations.

Bowman: It is a shot in the arm for manned space fl ight.

James: Manned safety in this fl ight and in the following fl ights is enhanced. 

The over-all Apollo budget and schedule position is enhanced. An early go-ahead 

is needed.

Richard: The decision to fl y manned has already been made for 503. Our 

lunar capability in Apollo is enhanced by fl ying this mission now.

Schneider: This has my whole-hearted endorsement. There are very valid 

reasons for pressing on.

Gilruth: Although this may not be the only way to make our goal, it 

certainly enhances our possibility. There is always risk in manned space fl ight, but 

this is a path of less risk. In fact, it has a minimum risk of all of our Apollo plans. 

If I had the key decision, I would make it in the affi rmative.

Kraft: Probably the fl ight operations people have the most diffi cult job in 

this. We will need all kinds of priorities. It will not be easy to do, but I have every 

confi dence in our doing it. However, it should be a lunar orbit mission and not 

a circumlunar mission.

[9]

Low: This is really the only thing to do technically in the current state 

of Apollo. Assuming a successful Apollo 7 mission, there is no other choice. The 

question is not whether we can afford to do it, it should be can we afford not to 

do it.

Following this set of comments, Paine congratulated the assembled group 

for not being prisoners of previous plans and indicated that he personally felt that 

this was the right thing for Apollo and that, of course, he would have to work with 

Mueller and Webb before it could be approved. 

Phillips indicated that his conclusion was that this was a technically sound 

thing to do and does not represent a short cut introducing additional risks. Our 
Exploring the Unknown 699

plan would be to meet with Mueller on Thursday, August 22, in Washington. 

Phillips reiterated Mueller’s reservations. These included reservations about 

program risks such as possible questions about irresponsible scheduling, possible 

program impact if the Apollo 7 mission should fail and we could not proceed with 

an announced major step forward, and the question concerning program impact 

of a catastrophic failure on this special mission.

At the conclusion of the meeting we agreed to move out on a limited 

basis. Since the day-by-day timing was critical, Phillips agreed that we should 

involve the next level of people required to carry forward with our plans, giving 

them, of course, proper instructions about the current security classifi cation of the 

mission. At the conclusion of the meeting Phillips indicated the earliest possible 

decision would come in 7 to 10 days under the best of circumstances.

August 15, 1968. Received a call from Phillips while at Bethpage for 

a GAEC CCB. Phillips indicated “we broke the log jam” and that Mueller had 

agreed to our plan. However, he would prefer if publicly we did not commit to 

the total plan but indicate only that AS-503 mission would be fl own without a 

LM; that we were reviewing many objectives for the actual mission; and that these 

objectives included plans for an earth orbital fl ight like the Apollo 7 mission and 

plans for a lunar orbital fl ight; the fi nal mission decision would not be made until 

after the Apollo 7 fl ight. The internal program directive, however, would be that 

we should make our plans for the most diffi cult mission and that our planning 

should proceed for a lunar orbit mission in December.

[10] Later in the day, Phillips and Paine discussed the plan with Webb, who 

apparently had not yet heard from Mueller. (Webb is in Vienna, too.) Webb 

wanted time to think about the plan and requested that information be sent to 

him via diplomatic courier. Paine and Phillips expected a call from Webb and 

Mueller on August 16, 1968.

I discussed our plans with Lew Evans at GAEC. He, of course, had previously 

been informed by Joe Gavin. Evans’ reaction was very favorable, indicating that 

this was the best thing that Apollo could do at this time.

August 16, 1968. No news from Washington today. Apparently Phillips and 

Paine have been in meetings most of the day with some correspondence going back 

and forth to and from Vienna. Late in the day, Phillips called and indicated that he 

and Hage would come to Houston tomorrow to meet with Gilruth, Kraft, Slayton 

and Low to decide how to proceed within the constraints imposed by Mr. Webb.

In the meantime, we worked several of the detailed problems and moved 

out on many of the required spacecraft changes. Kleinknecht asked Arabian to 

be sure that we will have a high-gain antenna. We moved out on several other 

spacecraft changes, without divulging to the people involved why the changes are 

required. (Many of the changes we are authorizing today were fi rmly turned down 

in recent CCB’s.)

August 17, 1968. Phillips and Hage came to Houston to meet with 

Gilruth, Kraft, Slayton and Low. Phillips indicated that we have clear-cut authority 
700 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

from Mr. Webb to prepare for a December 6 fl ight of 103/LTA-B/503; that this 

mission will be known as the C’ [C prime] mission, designated as Apollo 8; that 

the E mission crew will fl y this mission; that this will be an earth-orbital mission 

with basic objectives to mature the CSM and Saturn V systems; and that we may 

proceed with studies and plans to gain the maximum fl exibility when the fi nal C’ 

mission objectives are defi ned after Apollo 7.

Webb also authorized preparation of 104/LM-3/504 for a February 20 

fl ight of the D mission.

A copy of General Phillips’ notes on this subject is attached. Also attached 

is a copy of a telegram from Mr. Webb to Dr. Paine. [not included]

Phillips indicated that the major problem expressed by Dr. Mueller was 

that we could not obtain clearance to proceed with a lunar orbit mission until 

after the results of Apollo 7 were available.

[11]

Phillips indicated that Webb’s initial reaction (on August 15) was one 

of shock and that he was fairly negative to the proposed lunar orbital mission. 

Following this, Paine and Phillips sent a lengthy paper to Vienna, giving the 

rationale for the need to change the mission sequence and proposing that the 

full range of capabilities from earth orbital up to lunar orbit should be authorized 

and discussed publicly. However, for many reasons Webb was unwilling to permit a 

commit ment at this time beyond an earth orbital mission. Phillips was convinced, 

however, that Webb would consider going all the way to a lunar orbital mission 

after Apollo 7, provided, of course, that Apollo 7 was a successful fl ight.

Our challenge, therefore, is to be prepared to carry out a full lunar orbit 

mission without committing the Agency to such a mission at this time. This had 

been our objective as well, even during our initial meeting in Huntsville, but at 

that time we saw no way to achieve this.

We discussed many alternatives, always keeping in mind that we had to be 

completely honest and forthright with Dr. Mueller, Dr. Paine and Mr. Webb, and 

be prepared to fl y an earth orbital mission in December. However, we wanted to 

keep the door open to be able to fl y a lunar orbital mission, should we be ready to 

do so after Apollo 7. At the same time we agreed that whatever we did, we would 

have to be perfectly honest within NASA and with the press in stating what we 

were doing and why we were doing it.

Our fi rst consideration was to determine whether the C’ mission as 

presently defi ned should be like a C mission (low earth orbit) or like an E mission 

(4000 miles apogee). My recommendation was to make it like E, because this 

would give a better public justifi cation for select ing the Borman crew and because 

it would demonstrate a step forward, publicly, beyond the C mission. However, 

since Mr. Webb’s main concern had been that we should not announce and 

implement plans from which we would later have to retrench, Phillips decided it 

would be best to defi ne the C’ mission to be like a C mission, with the Saturn V 
Exploring the Unknown 701

launch vehicle instead of the Saturn I-B.

After much discussion, we fi nally decided that the most important thing 

Apollo can achieve this year is a lunar capability in hardware, software, crew training, 

etc. This, we believe, is necessary whether the C’ mission goes to the moon or not. 

We also agreed that the only [12] way to achieve this lunar capability is to plan 

the mission as though it were going to fl y to the moon. By so doing, all involved 

would, without question, have to face the real issues and make the real decisions 

that would allow us to go to the moon. An earth orbital mission would, of course, 

be a natural fallout because such a mission would have to be an abort option for 

a lunar mission in the event that the S-IVB stage could not make its second burn. 

Therefore, by planning such a mission, we would have, in December, an earth 

orbital capability on the C’ mission while at the same time having completed all 

the planning and preparation that would be necessary should conditions be such 

that we could go to the moon. We would not commit now, either within NASA or 

outside, to do any more than the earth orbital mission.

This plan was adopted, and the over-all program plan can best be 

summarized as follows:

a. AS-503, designated Apollo 8, will be prepared to be ready for launch 

on December 6, 1968. It will consist of CSM 103, LTA-B, and AS-503. The reasons 

for making the change from the previously defi ned mission are that this will give 

us the earliest possible Pogo checkout fl ight and that LM checkout delays have 

prevented us from making an early fl ight with the LM.

b. The mission will be designated as C’. It will be an earth orbital 

mission, including whatever elements of C need to be repeated and elements of 

D, E, F, and G that can be incorporated.

c. Final defi nition of the mission will not come after Apollo 7.

d. The crew will be the E mission crew so that the D mission crew can 

continue its active preparation for that mission.

e. We recognize that after the C’ mission the remaining missions will 

be upon us and that it is essential to bring lunar capability into being while we 

are implementing the C’ mission. This includes lunar capability in hardware, 

software, fl ight operations, and crew operations.

f. This capability can only be brought into being if we plan for it now. 

Therefore, we will do all of our planning for the C’ mission as though it were 

a lunar orbit mission. This will give us maximum fl exibility to fl y the assigned 

earth orbital mission with whatever elements of all other missions, including the 

lunar landing mission, are best to put into that fl ight after the results of Apollo 7 

are known.

[13]
702 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

August 19, 1968. Received a copy of the proposed press release 

and program directive sent from Phillips to Gilruth. (A copy is attached.) A 

supplement to the program directive, which will authorize the planning to obtain 

the capability for a lunar orbit mission, is still in work in Washington.

Held my regular ASPO staff meeting and summarized our proposed 

plans as outlined in the August 16 notes. Dr. Gilruth held a Senior Staff Meeting, 

informing other Center elements of this approach. Phillips held a press conference 

in Washington which, from all reports, also went according to plan. Our job now 

is to implement the C’ mission and, as stated, bring along the lunar capability 

at the same time. These special notes will be discontinued and the effort in 

implementing the C’ mission will be reported in my daily notes to Dr. Gilruth.

Document II-61

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20546

19 August 1968

TO: Director

John F. Kennedy Space Center, NASA

Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899

 Director

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA

Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812

 Director 

Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA

Houston, Texas 77058

FROM: Apollo Program Director

SUBJECT: Apollo Mission Preparation Directive

The following changes will be made in planning and preparation for Apollo 

fl ight missions:

1. Apollo-Saturn 503

a. Assignment of Saturn V 503, CSM 103 and LM-3 to Mission D is 

cancelled.
Exploring the Unknown 703

b. Saturn V 503 will be prepared to carry CSM 103 and LTA B on a 

manned CSM only mission to be designated the C prime mission.

c. The objectives and profi le of the C prime mission will be developed 

to provide the maximum gain consistent with standing fl ight safety 

requirements in maturing of the Apollo-Saturn V space system 

in earth orbital operation. Studies will be carried out and plans 

prepared so as to provide reasonable fl exibility in establishing fi nal 

mission objectives after the fl ight of AS 205.

[2] d. All planning and preparations for the C prime mission will 

proceed toward a launch readiness date of 6 December 1968.

2. Apollo-Saturn 504

a. Saturn V 504, CSM 104, and LM-3 are reassigned to the D Mission.

b. The D Mission will be scheduled for launch readiness no earlier 

than 20 February 1969 with all mission and hardware preparations 

proceeding toward that goal.

3. Crew Assignment

a. The crews now assigned to the D Mission remain assigned to the D 

Mission. The crews currently assigned to the E Mission are reassigned 

to the newly defi ned C prime mission.

4. Crew Training and Equipping and Operational Preparations

b. Training and equipping of the D Mission crews and operational 

preparations will proceed as previously planned but to meet the 

newly established fl ight readiness date.

c. Training and equipping of the C prime crews and operational 

preparations will proceed as required to meet mission requirements 

and to meet the newly established fl ight readiness date.

/Signed/

Sam C. Phillips

Lt. General, USAF

Apollo Program Director

[3]

Proposed Press Release by NASA Headquarters

NASA Acting Administrator Thomas O. Paine announced that Lunar Module 

operations will be dropped from the fi rst manned Apollo-Saturn V fl ight, Apollo 
704 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

8. Dr. Paine also stated that the Offi ce of Manned Space Flight will begin planning 

for an alternate manned Command and Service Module mission for launch in 

December.

Dr. Paine emphasized that no fi nal decision will be made on the precise mission 

plan for the alternate fl ight until after the fi rst manned Apollo fl ight (Apollo 

7) this Fall. Apollo 7 is a mission of up to 10 days duration to complete fl ight 

qualifi cation of the Command and Service Modules.

To assure greatest value from the mission, planning and training for Apollo 

8 must begin in the period before the Apollo 7 mission is fl own but the fi nal 

content of the mission plan will be selected only after the Apollo 7 mission results 

are evaluated.

Lunar Module 3, which has been delayed in checkout, will be fl own next year 

on the fourth Saturn V (AS 504) with Command and Service Modules No. 104. 

This decision is based on preliminary studies which indicate that many Apollo 

program objectives scheduled for later fl ights can be attained by utilizing the 

Apollo 8 Command Service Module mission.

[4]

2. 

General Samuel Phillips, Apollo Program Director, said one very important 

advantage of fl ying Apollo 8 this year is the opportunity for earlier experience 

in the operation of the Saturn V and Command and Service Modules then can 

otherwise be obtained. Two problems previously experienced in the Saturn Apollo 

systems -- vertical oscillation or “POGO effect” in the fi rst stage of the Saturn V and 

the rupture of small propellant lines in the upper stages -- have been corrected 

and the solutions verifi ed in extensive ground tests.

Document II-62

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 20546

November 4, 1968

Dr. Robert R. Gilruth, Director

Manned Spacecraft Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Houston, Texas 77058

Dear Bob:

In inviting the Apollo Executives and their program managers to meet with us on 

November l0, it is with the deepest recognition that the Apollo 8 mission involves 

many issues in addition to the technical capabilities of the Apollo systems. Before 
Exploring the Unknown 705

reaching a decision of such importance to the total national space program, we 

must be sure that we have weighed all the considerations, and evaluated their 

advantages and disadvantages.

There are grave risks to the program as a whole, not just to the Apollo 8 mission, 

in embarking on a lunar orbit mission with the second manned fl ight of the CSM. 

We have to face the possibility that this type of mission could appear to the public, 

and to our peers in government, to be a precipitous, risky venture where the 

propaganda value is the only gain. In assessing the alternatives, I am concerned 

that I have seen no real criticism of a lunar orbit mission. The general reaction 

both inside and outside NASA has been one of enthusiasm and anticipation of 

a major feat. Yet, you and I know that if failure comes, the reaction will be that 

anyone should have known better than to undertake such a trip at this point in 

time. Considering the potential risks to the public acceptance of the program and 

the basic confi dence in future manned space fl ight, the very vital issues are:

1. Does a C’ mission move us measurably towards a lunar landing?

2. Does it enhance the probability of a safe landing in the future?

3. What do we gain in a technical sense from carrying out a C’ mission?

4. What are the consequences of a failure?

[2]

On the pro side, it is quite clear that any vehicle can experience a failure; however, 

it is reasonable to believe that since the fi rst manned CSM, Apollo 7, performed 

well for 10.8 days, the second manned CSM can be just as successful and as safe 

as the third, fourth, or fi fth fl ight. Although different to some extent, each 

lunar-capable CSM is built and checked out to give a consistent performance. 

From the standpoint of the probability of reliable performance, unless basic 

design fl aws are uncovered, each fl ight should be equally likely to succeed. 

The technical advantages of obtaining early information on communications, 

navigation, guidance and control, thermal conditions, and gravitational potential 

at lunar distances are clearly positive gains in increasing the safety and success of 

subsequent missions. Perhaps the greatest single advantage is the motivation that 

the alternate planning for a lunar orbital mission has given to the entire Apollo 

organiza tion. Since the establishment of the lunar orbital mission as an Apollo 8 

alternate three months ago, the Apollo Program has been meeting every one of 

its major milestones.

On the con side, a lunar orbital mission involves a very diffi cult decision in that 

we are dealing with a complex, new vehicle. The paradox between the 501 and 

502 launch vehicle performances illustrates this point. In addition, there is the 

obvious risk of being three days instead of one hour away from land. I must say 

that as far as I can see, and depending on the detailed Apollo 7 results and Apollo 

8 evaluations and reviews, the CSM should perform consistently, and the risks 

from a purely technical aspect are probably reasonable and acceptable. If such a 

mission failed, however, the risks to the program as a whole could be signifi cant.
706 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

I would very much appreciate your thoughtful consideration of these aspects of 

the decision, as well as any other facets of the problem which we may not have 

considered, so that we may benefi t from your views at the meeting on Sunday.

One technique that we have been using in our considerations of the risk involved 

is the Mission Risk Assessment Form. I am sending along a copy of the form and 

an explanation of its use. I have found it helpful in trying to arrive at an assessment 

of how to minimize the overall risk of a lunar landing. If you can fi nd the time to 

complete the form and wish to provide me with a copy, I would be very grateful.

[3]

I am looking forward to our meeting on Sunday. Again, you have my personal 

thanks and appreciation for your willingness to give up so much of your time for 

the progress of the Apollo Program.

Sincerely,

[Signed George]

Associate Administrator

For Manned Space Flight

Document II-63

SPECIAL NOTES FOR NOVEMBER 10 AND 11, 1968

Introduction:

During the period of August 9 to August 19, 1968, I set forth in some 

special notes the activities that took place in that time period concerning the 

Apollo 8 lunar orbit fl ight.

In the intervening time since the middle of August, planning in the 

entire manned space fl ight organization has proceeded in accordance with the 

steps outlined in the earlier notes. Spacecraft checkout went extremely well, and a 

modifi cation period to make those changes that were necessitated by the mission 

reassignment took place in good order. The spacecraft went through its unmanned 

and manned altitude chamber tests, was moved to the VAB, erected on AS 503, and 

moved to the launch pad several days prior to the Apollo 7 fl ight. In the same time 

period, all of the mission planning and fl ight crew training also focused on the 

planned circumlunar fl ight. No new factors came to light that weren’t understood, 

at least in general terms, at the time of the mid-August decisions. 

The Apollo 7 fl ight took place in the period from October 11 to October 22. 

All of the mission objectives were accomplished, and the spacecraft’s performance 

far exceeded my expectations. There were, of course, some anomalies with the 

equipment; but, in general, these were explained either during the fl ight or shortly 
Exploring the Unknown 707

after the fl ight. There was no question in any of our minds after completion of the 

Apollo 7 fl ight that the Apollo 8 fl ight should perform the lunar orbit mission. 

During the fl ight, as well as after the fl ight, we had a series of reviews with Phillips, 

Mueller, and the Management Council, discussing the present status of the hardware, 

mission operations, and crew training, over and over again. If anything, the period 

was marked by so many reviews that many of us felt that we really didn’t have the 

time to do the job at hand. The reviews culminated in two meetings in Washington 

on November 10 and 11, 1968, fi rst with the Apollo Executives and then with NASA 

management. The details of these meetings are as follows:

Apollo Executives Meeting, November 10, 1968

This meeting started with an introduction by Phillips, giving the 

background of the Apollo 8 mission recommendation, the sequence of [2] of 

[sic] fl ight missions, and a summary of the present status. Following Phillips’ 

introduction, Lee James reported on the launch vehicle status, its readiness for 

manned fl ight, and the results of all of the work in connection with POGO.

Following Lee James’ briefi ng, it was my turn to discuss the spacecraft 

situation and our readiness to complete a lunar orbit fl ight. I indicated that the 

pertinent questions were:

a. Is the spacecraft design adequate?

b. Will the systems perform as designed?

c. Are the benefi ts worth the risks?

I felt that it was important to cast the issues in this light, since over the last several 

weeks we have been asked many questions that indi cated that people really didn’t 

understand that the mission we are about to fl y is the design mission for the 

Apollo spacecraft. It is a mission that we would have had to face sooner or later 

anyway, and the risk involved in performing the mission now after a successful 

Apollo 7 fl ight is no greater than it would be a year from now. I went into considerable detail discussing the Apollo design redundancy in critical systems 

such as propulsion, power, environmental control, and com munications. This 

was followed by a review of Apollo 7 anomalies and conclusions concerning the 

benefi ts and the risks of this fl ight. On the latter point, we indicated that the risks 

were no greater than those that are generally inherent in a progressive fl ight test 

program and that we believed that the probability of success of the ultimate lunar 

landing mission would be greatly enhanced.

My briefi ng was followed by a very clear discussion by Chris Kraft concerning the 

fl ight mission operations and a review by Deke Slayton of the fl ight plan, with 

emphasis on the lunar timeline. After Deke’s briefi ng, Petrone reported on the 

checkout readiness status of the space vehicle, indicating that we would be ready 

to launch as early as December 10 or 12 and that he could foresee no problems 

with a launch on December 21 which is the day on which the lunar window opens. 

The work at KSC on AS 503 has been quite remarkable in that the very tight 

schedule which was laid down early in August was met in spite of a great deal of 
708 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

additional work. 

[3] Phillips summed up at the conclusion of our meeting and repeated 

many of the thoughts expressed by all of us during the review. He in dicated 

that he would make a fi rm recommendation on the next day to proceed with 

an Apollo 8 lunar orbit fl ight. Following Phillips’ summa tion, Mueller asked the 

Apollo Executives for their personal views con cerning this fl ight. The following is 

a brief summary of each of the Executive’s opinions and views:

Walter Burke, McDonnell Douglas. The S-IVB is ready to do any of the 

missions listed; however, McDonnell Douglas feels that we ought to fl y a circumlunar 

fl ight instead of a lunar orbit mission in order to minimize the risks.

Hilly Paige, GE. GE would like to go on record that we should go ahead 

with an Apollo 8 lunar orbit fl ight.

Paul Blasingame, AC Electronics. The G&N hardware is com pletely ready. 

Generalizing to the mission as a whole, when we risk the lives of people, we ought 

to get something for this risk. A lunar orbit fl ight looks like the right size of step 

to make.

Stark Draper, MIT. We should go ahead with the mission.

Bob Evans, IBM. The program is in good shape, and the instru mentation 

unit is ready to go.

George Bunker, Martin Marietta. The presentations made a per suasive 

case to fl y a lunar orbit mission. The risk in lunar orbit is certainly greater than in 

earth orbit, but in assessing the risks for a lunar landing mission on a cumulative 

basis, it appears that the lunar orbit mission now will lessen the overall risk. I am 

for a lunar orbit mission.

Wilson, Boeing. There is every indication that the lunar orbit mission is 

the right thing to do.

Lee Atwood, North American Rockwell. As manufacturers of the 

spacecraft, our motivation to take chances is no higher than Frank Borman’s, but 

we are ready to go.

Bob Hunter, Philco-Ford. I have no reservations in supporting the 

complete mission. 

[4] Tom Morrow, Chrysler. We have no hardware on this mission, but we 

wish we had. We strongly feel that we ought to go for it. We must take steps like 

this one. We cannot move forward without pro gressing on each step. I vote yes.

Bill Gwinn, United Aircraft. It is diffi cult to quantify the risks. I am 

impressed by what I heard. The risks appear to be less than I thought before I 

came down here. George Low’s recommendation not to change the fuel cells or 

the components is the right one.1

 I support the recommendation to proceed with 
Exploring the Unknown 709

the mission.

1 As a result of the condenser exit temperature problem on Apollo 7, Pratt & Whitney had fi rst 

recommended that we should replace the fuel cells on Spacecraft 103, and on the morning of 

November 10, recommended that we should change-out the hydrogen pump motors in order to 

install the new higher temperature pinions. Myers and I held a meeting with Pratt & Whitney prior 

to the Executives meeting, and after discussing the whole situation in detail, decided that we should 

not replace these motors. The reasons for this decision were that: (a) The vibration fl ushing of the 

radiators decreased the probability of the prob lem’s recurrence on Apollo 8; (b) Replacement of the 

pinion would only slightly increase the temperature margin, but would not really fi x the problem; 

and (c) Detailed analyses have indicated that, even under the worst-case conditions of recurrence, 

there was no fl ight safety degra dation, and it was unlikely that the mission would be degraded in any 

way. I reported the situation in detail during my briefi ng at the Executives review. Stu Conley, the 

Pratt & Whitney Program Manager, however, still felt that the motors should be replaced. This would 

have required breaking into systems that were already checked out, and KSC felt that they could not 

guarantee that the systems would not be degraded by so doing.

Joe Gavin, Grumman. Since we have no hardware on this fl ight, our interest 

is only with respect to the overall program. The mission makes a lot of sense. If we 

don’t do it on this fl ight, we should do it anyway. I have no reservations.

Bill Bergen, Space Division, North American Rockwell. I agree that there 

are more risks in a lunar orbit mission than in an earth orbit mission. Also, it is 

unlikely that we will have as high performance of [5] our systems as we had on 

Apollo 7, but I am confi dent that our systems will perform satisfactorily. Although 

there would be less risks with a repeat fl ight, there are risks with no gain. We 

should make the lunar orbit fl ight.

George Stoner, Boeing. I endorse the recommendation without any 

reservations.

Gerry Smiley, GE. We have built up a head of steam in Apollo since we 

fi rst started talking about C’. To do anything other than fl y a lunar orbit mission 

now would set the program back.

The meeting was adjourned with the conclusion that a fi rm recommendation to fl y the Apollo 8 mission to lunar orbit would be made the next day 

to the Acting Administrator.

NASA Management Meeting. November 11, 1968

On November 11, 1968, Dr. Mueller, the Center Directors, General Phillips, 

and the Center Program Managers met with Dr. Paine, Dr. Newell, Mr. Shapley, 

Mr. Finger, and a large number of staff members to discuss the Apollo 8 fl ight. The 

briefi ngs were the same as those given to the Apollo Executives. The recommendations 

by Phillips and each of us were to fi rmly commit to a lunar orbit fl ight.

Following the briefi ngs, Dr. Mueller indicated that this situation had 

been discussed with STAC, PSAC, DOD, and the Apollo Executives. He pointed 

out that STAC members had made a penetrating review of the fl ight and clearly 

understood the risks. Their reaction was a posi tive one, with the exception of 
710 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Gordon MacDonald who had reservations in that he believed the risks far 

outweighed the benefi ts.

PSAC was favorably disposed to support the mission, but had no fi rm 

recommendation. DOD also generally favors the mission. The Apollo Executives’ 

reactions have already been reported in previous pages. Dr. Mueller also pointed 

out that Bellcomm had been quite negative. Bellcomm’s reasoning was that the 

risk of a lunar orbit mission is considerably greater than that for an earth orbit 

mission. Bellcomm, therefore, believed that a lunar orbit mission should only be 

fl own if this made it possible to reduce the total number of fl ights in the lunar 

landing program. If this were not possible, then Bellcomm believed the lunar 

orbit mission was not justifi ed. 

[6] Dr. Paine indicated that he had hoped that it would be possible to 

quantify the risks better than had been done in the course of the briefi ngs. Dr. 

Mueller mentioned that we had tried to perform a numerical risk assessment, 

but that this had not turned out to be as positive as he had hoped it would be. 

However, in generalizing the results, he mentioned that the least cumulative risk 

in the lunar landing program resulted from making the minimum number of 

fl ights. Dr. Gilruth rebutted by stating that this is like saying that “the faster you 

drive your car, the safer you are because your exposure is less.” Dr. Paine also felt 

that Dr. Mueller’s statement was not valid since we will be in the fl ying business 

for a long time to come and we will fl y on all Saturn V’s, whether we use them 

in the lunar program or not. The general view expressed by many of us was that 

the highest probability of success for the lunar landing mission would come from 

a progressive buildup of fl ight experience. We felt that although there is risk in 

each manned fl ight, it was impossible to quantify this risk. Instead, the fl ight test 

program should be based on the best available judgment and experience and 

should, of course, be reviewed after each mission. Today’s best indications are that 

the sequence of missions, C’ (lunar orbit), D (earth orbit with LM), F (lunar orbit 

with LM), and G (lunar landing), would give us the best chance at a successful 

lunar landing in this decade.

At the conclusion of these discussions, Dr. Paine convened a smaller 

meeting, involving some of his immediate staff, Dr. Mueller, General Phillips, and 

the Center Directors. This was followed by a third meeting, involving only Paine, 

Newell, and Mueller. At the con clusion of these meetings, Dr. Paine announced 

that the Apollo 8 fl ight would be a lunar orbit mission. This was announced 

publicly in a press conference in Washington on Tuesday, November 12, 1968.

Document II-64

TO : M/Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight

 Date: 11 Nov, 1968

FROM : MA/Apollo Program Director
Exploring the Unknown 711

SUBJECT : Apollo 8 Mission Selection

The purpose of this memorandum is to obtain your approval to fl y Apollo 8 on an 

open-ended lunar orbit mission in December 1968.

My recommendation is based on an exhaustive review of pertinent technical and 

operational factors and also on careful consideration of the impact that either a 

success or a failure in this mission will have on our ability to carry out the manned 

lunar landing in 1969. 

THE APOLLO 8 C’ LUNAR ORBIT MISSION:

Attachment I to this memorandum [not included] contains a detailed description 

of the Apollo 8 lunar orbit mission. Signifi cant features of this mission plan are:

Planned Schedule:

Launch: 0750 EST, 21 December 1968

Translunar Injection: 1040 EST, 21 December 1968

Lunar Orbit Insertion:

LOI1 Initiate: (60X170 NM Orbit) 0457 EST, 24 December 1968

LOI2 Initiate: (60 NM Circular Orbit) 0921 EST, 24 December 1968

Transearth Injection: 0105 EST, 25 December 1968

Landing: 1053 EST, 27 December 1968

Alternate Schedule:

Monthly Launch Windows: 21-27 December 1968 or as soon thereafter 

as possible.

Daily Launch Windows: Approximately 5 hours duration.

Open-Ended Mission Concept:

A large number of abort and alternate mission options are provided for 

in the Mission Plan and associate Mission Rules. Noteworthy examples of 

the way in which this open-ended concept could operate in this mission 

are the following:

A low earth orbital mission in the event of a “no go” in earth orbit 

prior to translunar injection.

[2] Early return to earth in event of certain malfunction condi tions during 

translunar coast. 

A circumlunar mission in event of a “no go” during checkout prior to 

the lunar orbit insertion burn.

APOLLO 8 MISSION SELECTION:
712 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

On August 19, 1968, we announced the decision to fl y Apollo 8 as a Saturn V, 

CSM-only mission. The basic plan provided for Apollo 8 to fl y a low earth orbital 

mission, but forward alternatives were to be considered up to and including a 

lunar orbital mission. Final decision was to be re served pending completion of 

the Apollo 7 mission and a series of detailed reviews of all elements of the Apollo 8 

mission including the space vehicle, launch complex, operational support system, 

and mission planning.

Apollo 7 Mission Results:

An important factor in the total decision process leading to my 

recommendation has been and continues to be the demonstrated performance of the Apollo 7 Command and Service Module (CSM) sub systems, 

and the compatibility of the CSM with crew functions, and the Manned 

Space Flight Network. Comprehensive understanding of all Apollo 7 fl ight 

anomalies and their impact on a lunar mission is fundamental to arriving 

at a proper decision. Attach ment II to this memorandum [not included] 

provides a recap of the Apollo 7 fl ight anomalies, their disposition, and a 

statement of any known risk remaining on the proposed Apollo 8 mission 

together with the actions proposed.

Apollo 4 and Apollo 6 Results:

The results of the Apollo 4 and Apollo 6 missions, in which the 

performance of the 501 and 502 Saturn V launch vehicles was tested, 

have been carefully analyzed. All fl ight anomalies have been re solved. In 

particular, the two most signifi cant problems encountered in Apollo 6--

longitudinal oscillation or “POGO” effect in the fi rst stage of the Saturn 

V and the rupture of small propellant lines in the upper stages--have been 

corrected and the solutions verifi ed in extensive ground tests.

Meetings and Reviews:

The decision process, resulting in my recommendation, [sic] has included 

a comprehensive series of reviews conducted over the past several weeks 

to examine in detail all facets of the considerations in volved in planning 

for and providing a capability to fl y Apollo 8 on a lunar orbit mission. The 

calendar for and purpose of these meetings are presented in Attachment 

III. [not included] An important milestone [3] was achieved with successful 

completion of the Design Certifi cation Review on November 7, 1968. A 

copy of the signed Design Certifi ca tion is appended as Attachment IV. 

[not included]

Pros and Cons of a Lunar Orbital Flight:

My objective through this period has been to bring into meaningful 

perspective the trade--offs between total program risk and gain resulting 

from introduction of a CSM-only lunar orbit mission on Apollo 8 into 

the total mission sequence leading to the earliest possible successful 

Apollo lunar landing and return. As you know, this assessment process is 
Exploring the Unknown 713

inherently judgmental in nature. Many factors have been considered, the 

evaluation of which supports a recommendation to proceed forward with 

an Apollo 8 open-ended lunar orbit mission. These factors are:

PROS:

Mission Readiness:

• The CSM has been designed and developed to 

perform a lunar orbit mission and has performed 

very well on four unmanned and one manned fl ights 

(CSM's 009, 011,017,020, and 101).

• We have learned all that we need in earth orbital 

operation except repetition of performance already 

demonstrated.

• The extensive qualifi cation and endurance-type subsystem ground testing conducted over the past 18 

months on the CSM equipments has contributed to 

a high level of system maturity, as demonstrated by 

the Apollo 7 fl ight.

• Performance of Apollo 7 systems has been thoroughly 

reviewed, and no indication has been evidenced of 

design defi ciency.

• Detailed analysis of Apollo 4 and Apollo 6 launch 

vehicle anomalies, followed by design modifi cations 

and rigorous ground testing gives us high confi dence 

in successful performance of the Apollo 8 launch 

vehicle.

• By design all subsystems affecting crew survival 

(En vironmental Control System, Electrical Power 

System, Reaction Control System, and Guidance and 

Navigation System) are redundant and can suffer 

signifi cant degradation without crew or mission 

loss. The sole exceptions are the injector and thrust 

chamber of [4] the Service Propulsion System. These 

two engine components are of simple, rugged design, 

with high structural and thermal safety margins. (See 

Attachment V) [not included]

• Excellent consumables and performance margins 

exist for the fi rst CSM lunar mission because of the 

reduc tion in performance requirements represented 

by omitting the weight of the lunar module. An 

example of the predicted spacecraft consumables 

usage is pro vided below to illustrate this point:
714 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Consumable Total

Usable 

Total

Used Reserve

Service Module Reaction Control 

System Propellant (Pounds) 1140 294.5 845.5

Command Module Reaction Control 

System Propellant (Pounds) 231.2 29.4 201.8

Service Propulsion System 

Propellant (Pounds) 40,013 28,987 11,026

Cryogenic Oxygen (Pounds) 640 410 230

Cryogenic Hydrogen (Pounds) 56 40 16

PROS:

Effect on Program Progress:

The lunar orbit mission will:

• Provide valuable operational experience on a lunar 

CSM mission for fl ight and ground and recovery 

crews. This will enhance probability of success on 

the subsequent more complex lunar missions by 

permitting training emphasis on phases of these 

missions as yet untried.

• Provide an opportunity to evaluate the quality of MSFN 

and on-board navigation in lunar orbit including the 

effects of local orbit perturbations. This will in crease 

anticipated accuracy of rendezvous maneuvers and 

lunar touchdown on a lunar landing mission.

• Permit validation of Apollo CSM communications 

and navi gation systems at lunar distance.

• [5] Serve to improve consumables requirements 

prediction techniques.

• Complete the fi nal verifi cation of the ground support 

elements and the onboard computer programs.

• Increase the depth of understanding of thermal 

condi tions in deep space and lunar proximity.

• Confi rm the astronauts' ability to see, use, and photograph landmarks during a lunar mission.

• Provide an early opportunity for additional 

photographs for operational and scientifi c uses 

such as augmenting Lunar Orbiter coverage and 
Exploring the Unknown 715

for obtaining data for training crewmen on terrain 

identifi cation under different lighting conditions.

CONS:

Mission Readiness:

• Marginal design conditions in the Block II CSM may not 

have been uncovered with only one manned fl ight.

• The life of the crew depends on the successful 

operation of the Service Propulsion System during 

the Transearth Injection maneuver.

• The three days endurance level required of backup 

systems in the event of an abort from a lunar orbit 

mission is greater than from an earth orbit mission.

CONS:

Effect on Program Progress:

• Validation of Colossus spacecraft software program 

and Real Time Computer Complex ground software 

program could be accomplished in a high earth 

orbital mission.

• Only landmark sightings and lunar navigation 

require a lunar mission to validate.

Impact of Success or Failure on Accomplishing Lunar Landing in 1969:

A successful mission will:

• Represent a signifi cant new international achievement in 

space.

• [6] Offer fl exibility to capitalize on success and advance 

the progress of the total program towards a lunar landing 

without unreasonable risk.

• Provide a signifi cant boost to the morale of the entire Apollo 

program, and an impetus which must, inevitably enhance 

our probability of successful lunar landing in 1969.

A mission failure will:

• Delay ultimate accomplishment of the lunar landing mission.
716 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

• Provide program critics an opportunity to denounce the 

Apollo 8 mission as precipitous and unconservative.

RECOMMENDATION:

In conclusion, but with the proviso that all open work against the Apollo 8 openended lunar orbit mission is completed and certifi ed, I request your approval to 

proceed with the implementation plan required to support an earliest December 

21, 1968, launch readiness date.

/Signed/

Sam C. Phillips

Lt. General, USAF

Document II-65

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20546

[stamped Nov 18, 1968]

MEMORANDUM to : Associate Administration for Manned Space Flight

FROM : Acting Administrator

REFERENCE : a. Memorandum for Acting Administrator from Associate 

for Manned Space Flight from Apollo Director, Subject: 

Apollo 8 Selection, dated November 11, 1968

 b. Memorandum for Acting Administrator from 

Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, dated 

November 11, 1968

 c. Memorandum to Acting Administrator from Associate 

Administrator for Manned Space Flight, Subject: Request 

for Approval to Man the Apollo Saturn V Launch Vehicle, 

dated November 5, 1968

Based on careful consideration and analyses of all of the information, comments, 

results of engineering tests and analysis, etc. provided to me, I approved on 

November 11 Lt. Gen. Samuel C. Phillips’ recommendation (reference a), 

transmitted and agreed to by your memorandum to me (reference b), that the 

Apollo 8 mission be conducted as a manned lunar orbit mission with CSM 103 

on Saturn 503 pending successful accomplishment of all necessary preparation 
Exploring the Unknown 717

and checkout activities for this mission. Included among the various inputs that 

I considered were:

1. The recommendation of Lt. Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, Apollo 

Program Director, with the supporting reasoning attached to his memorandum 

to you dated November 11 (reference a); 

2. The presentations made to me on November 11 by Gen. Phillips, Mr. 

Lee James, Saturn V Program Manager-MSFC, Mr. George Low, Apollo Program 

Manager-MSC, Mr. Christopher C. Kraft, Director of Flight Operations-MSC, Mr. 

Rocco A. Petrone, Director of Launch Operations-KSC;

3. The statements of Mr. Gerald M. Truszynski, Associate Administrator 

for Tracking and Data Acquisition, and Lt. Gen. Vincent Houston, USAF, indication 

the ability of their systems and forces to be ready for such a mission;

[2] 4. The statements supporting a manned lunar orbit mission by each 

of the following (in the separate meeting on November 11, following the formal 

presentation by Gen. Phillips and the Apollo Program Managers listed above):

Mr. Harold B. Finger, Associate Administrator for Organization and 

Management 

Mr. Willis H. Shapley, Associate Deputy Administrator

Mr. Bob P. Helgeson, NASA Safety Director

Mr. Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs

Dr. Kurt H. Debus, Director KSC

Dr. Robert R. Gilruth, Director MSC

Dr. Wernher von Braun, Director MSFC

Dr. Floyd L. Thompson, Special Assistant to the Administrator

Mr. Eberhard F. M. Rees, Deputy Director-Technical, MSFC

5. The information that you provided to me concerning the comments 

of the Science [and] Technology Advisory Committee (STAC), the reactions of 

PSAC, and the comments of the representatives of the industrial organizations 

responsible for various elements in the Apollo program;

6. The separate statements that you and Dr. Newell, Associate 

Administrator, made also supporting this mission;

7. The information provided to me in various briefi ngs and in your 

memorandum of November 5 (reference c) to indicate that the problems or 

anomalies encountered in AS-502 have been solved and proven in analysis and tests;
718 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

8. My telephone conversation with Command Pilot Frank Borman who 

also supports this mission.

It should be made clear to all participating organizational elements throughout 

the Apollo program that any problem encountered during the preparation for 

this mission that may, in any way, increase the potential risk of the mission must 

be made known to all appropriate levels of NASA management as [3] soon as 

the problem is encountered. I will rely on you and those organizations to notify 

me as soon as such a problem is encountered, since my approval was based on 

consideration of the benefi ts to be derived from this mission and the risks involved 

in undertaking it.

/Signed/

T. O. Paine

Document II-66

Document Title: Memorandum from George M. Low, Manager of Apollo 

Spacecraft Program, “Program Plan revision,” 20 August 1968.

Source: NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The tentative decision to transform the Apollo 8 mission into a fl ight into lunar orbit caused 

a signifi cant revision to the previously planned Apollo fl ight schedule. In particular, for 

the fi rst time the third mission after Apollo 8, i.e., Apollo 11, could, if all preceding missions went off without problems, become the fi rst attempt at a lunar landing. The Apollo 8 

lunar orbit mission was designated C’ (C Prime) because it was inserted in the previously 

planned Apollo mission sequence which included the following missions: C—test of the 

Apollo Command and Service module in low Earth orbit; D—test of the Apollo Command 

and Service and Lunar Modules in low Earth orbit; E—test of the Apollo Command and 

Service and Lunar Modules in a mission beyond Earth orbit, but not headed to the moon; 

F—test of all equipment in lunar orbit; and G—lunar landing mission. With the success 

of Apollo 8, the E mission was dropped from NASA’s planning. Apollo 9 fl ew the D mission, 

and Apollo 10 fl ew the F mission, clearing the way for Apollo 11 to fl y the G mission, aimed 

at the fi rst lunar landing.

[CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

DATE: [stamped AUG 20 1968]

TO : See attached list

FROM : PA/Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program
Exploring the Unknown 719

SUBJECT : Program Plan revision

The recent decision to fl y a mission C ‘ (manned CSM on AS 503) prior to the 

fi rst CSM/LM manned mission on AS 504 has resulted in signifi cantprogram 

plan revisions. 

Only the revised assignments, delivery, and launch schedules are provided to you 

at this time in order to expedite distribution of the revisions. I intend to provide 

you with a complete revised program plan during the fi rst week in September.

The offi ces responsible for the timely completion of the Controlled Milestones 

are to notify Mr. C. L. Taylor, Assistant Chief, Program Control Division, immediately whenever a situation exists, or is antici pated to exist, that will impact or 

potentially impact these milestones.

 [Signed George M Low 8-20]

 

 George M. Low

Enclosure

PP3:GHJordan:jt 8-20-68

8-20-68 (Rev. 9)

Attachment A

Page 1 of 2
720 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon SPACECRAFT DELIVERY AND LAUNCH DATES Ø MISSION DESIGNATION MISSION TYPE LAUNCH COMPLEX LAUNCH VEHICLE CSM CSM DELIVERY SLA LM LM DELIVERY LAUNCH SCHEDULE Apollo 4 A 39A 501 017 Dec 22, 1966A 8 10R Sep 20, 1966A Nov 9, 1967A Apollo 5 B 37B 204 --- --- 7 1 Jun 23, 1967A Jan 22, 1968A Apollo 6 A 39A 502 020 Nov 22, 1967A 9 2R Feb 16, 1967A Apr 4, 1968A Apollo 7 C 34 205 101 May 29, 1968A 5 -- --- Oct 11, 1968 Apollo 8 C ‘ 39A 503 103 Aug 12, 1968A 11 LTA B Jan 9, 1968A Dec 6, 1968 D 39B 504 104 Sep 1, 1968 12 3 Jun 14, 1968A Feb 20, 1969 E 39A 505 106 Oct 27, 1968 13 4 Sep 15, 1968 May 1, 1969 F or G 39A 506 107 Jan 6, 1969 14 5 Oct 5, 1968 Jul 10, 1969 G 39A 507 108 Mar 6, 1969 15 6 Nov 27, 1968 Sep 18, 1969 G 39A 508 109 May 7, 1969 16 7 Jan 15, 1969 Nov 27, 1969 G 39A 509 110 Jul 8, 1969 17 8 Mar 15, 1969 Feb 5, 1970

A – Actual
Exploring the Unknown 721

[p. 2 not provided]

Document II-67

Document Title: Memorandum to George Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator 

for Manned Space Flight from Lt. General Sam C. Phillips, Apollo Program 

Director, “Extravehicular Activities for the First Lunar Landing Mission,” 19 

October 1968.

Source: NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC.

As the Earth-orbiting Apollo 7 mission, launched on 11 October 1968, was underway, 

marking the return to fl ight of the redesigned Apollo spacecraft after the 27 January 1967 

Apollo 1 fi re, senior Apollo managers were deciding on the details of the fi rst lunar mission. 

This memorandum lays out the somewhat conservative plans for what the astronauts would 

do as they became the fi rst humans to step onto another celestial body. In fact, this original 

plan called for only one of the two astronauts who landed on the lunar surface to actually 

leave the lunar module, except in an emergency situation. There were a number of subsequent revisions to this original proposal as the fi rst landing mission grew closer.

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

DATE: Oct 19 1968

TO : M/Dr. George E. Mueller

FROM : MA/Lt. General Sam C. Phillips

SUBJECT : Extravehicular Activities for the First Lunar Landing Mission

Since the inception of the Apollo Program the primary objective of the fi rst 

lunar landing mission has been the safe manned lunar landing and return. The 

hardware has, however, been designed and procured to give us the capability to 

conduct signifi cant scientifi c investigations in anticipation of a series of lunar 

missions. Our planning, testing and simulations to date have been such as to 

assure this capability.

In view of our current schedules and mission planning and crew training activities, I believe that it is now necessary to fi rmly commit to the scope of EVA activities for the fi rst lunar landing mission. To this end this mission was reviewed in 
722 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

detail on August 26 and 27, 1968. Based on this review, a proposal was made for 

the EVA activities for the fi rst mission:

1. Plan for one EVA of approximately two hours duration

2. Carry out this EVA with one crewman on the surface and the other in 

the spacecraft on the umbilicals but prepared to carry out rescue.

3. The EVA activity planning to provide for an early contingency sample, 

photography and Lunar Module inspection, and a more extensive second soil sample in that order of importance.

4. The EVA would not include the deployment of the erectable antenna, 

the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) or the Lunar 

Geology Investigation (LGI).

RATIONALE (PRO)

The rationale for this proposal is:

1. On the fi rst lunar landing mission the LM descent, landing, surface 

activities and ascent will be accomplished for the fi rst time under lunar 

conditions. As a result of these many new activities the timelines must be 

scheduled in a conservative manner. A comparison of scheduled times 

for one and two EVA plans is:

Two EVA

Plan

One EVA

Plan

Awakening to touchdown 9 9

Touchdown to sleep 8:20 8:20

Total fi rst day 17:20 hrs 17:20 hrs

Sleep 7 7

Awakening to ascent 10:30 3:30

Ascent to docking 4 4

Total 14:30 hrs 7:30 hrs

Under the two EVA plan the long fi rst day, coupled with the tasks of 

deploying ALSEP and the LGI on the second EVA, could result in added 

risk in the rendezvous phase because of crew fatigue.

2. Safety is increased because of lower probability of random equipment 

failures as the LM is separated from the CSM for a shorter period of 

time. Although weight and consumables margins are not a motivating 
Exploring the Unknown 723

factor, the proposal results in approximately 100 ft/sec increase in LM 

descent ΔV capability, which represents an increase of 30 per cent in the 

propellant budgeted for landing point redesignation and hover during 

descent. The consumables margins could also be increased because of 

the shorter separation time.

3. The fi rst landing mission represents a large step from orbital operations. 

The descent, landing, EVA, and ascent are new operations in a new environment. From a training point of view the crew should concentrate 

on the crucial, necessary tasks to achieve a safe landing and return. By 

not including ALSEP (180 hours of training), the LGI and the erectable 

antenna on the fi rst mission, additional training and concentration on 

the descent, landing and ascent phases can be accomplished.

4. Our Gemini EVA experience showed that a methodical increase in task 

complexity was necessary in order to understand the zero g environment. The 1/6 g lunar surface environment will be a new experience, 

one which cannot be simulated on earth. It seems prudent, therefore, 

to plan the lunar EVA sequence in a methodical fashion in increasing 

complexity. In this light, it appears that the deployment of ALSEP and 

the Lunar Geology Investigation should be deferred to the second mission. Planning to accomplish these tasks on the fi rst mission and failing 

could result in a slower build-up of lunar exploration capability than if 

they were deferred to the second mission.

RATIONALE (CON)

Several arguments have been advanced against the proposal:

1. Scientifi c data from the moon will be lost. The signifi cance of this loss 

can only be judged in the context of the magnitude of the follow-on 

lunar exploration program. If only two additional fl ights are authorized, 

then the loss would be most signifi cant, as a viable seismic net could not 

be established. If there are ten additional fl ights, the loss may not be 

signifi cant.

2. The reduction in scientifi c return will result in some adverse comments. 

The overall signifi cance to manned space fl ight of these comments can 

only be assessed in terms of (1) above.

3. There are serious reservations that, if one one-man EVA is all that we can 

commit based on our current state of knowledge, the second fl ight will 

similarly be limited in scope of scientifi c investigation.

4. The proposed plan may be too conservative at this point in time. If the 

fl ight proves our pessimism was not warranted, then we could be criticized for not being in a position to capitalize on success.
724 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

DISCUSSION

The proposal and rationale were transmitted to the Science and Technology 

Advisory Committee, the Lunar and Planetary Missions Board, the Manned 

Spacecraft Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Kennedy Space Center, and 

Headquarters offi ces for comment. The responses are in general agreement with 

the proposal, with some of the scientifi c community in opposition. Modifi cations 

to the proposal have been suggested:

1. TV on the fi rst mission was accorded increased emphasis especially in 

the area of observing the initial EVA activities. To assure TV, either 

mission planning must be complex, hardware changes must be made, or 

the erecetable antenna must be carried. Studies are in progress to more 

fully understand these alternatives. If a requirement for coverage of 

the fi rst egress is generated, then the LM steerable antenna-Goldstone 

method is the only available path without hardware modifi cations. It was 

recommended that the erecetable antenna be retained until the mission 

constraints on the use of Goldstone are more fully understood.

2. The Kennedy Space Center, the Manned Spacecraft Center, the Apollo 

Lunar Exploration Offi ce and Bellcomm have suggested that if the second EVA period is eliminated, both crewmen should egress during the 

fi rst period, either together or in sequence. LM failure modes should be 

examined to ascertain which would be safer. Other than the safety question, the psychological factor of going to the moon and not egressing 

must be considered. Further, the interaction of the two subjects with the 

lunar surface environment would give us twice the data upon which to 

plan the succeeding mission EVA, hence move the program more rapidly 

toward a scientifi c exploration capability.

3. Several comments have been made with respect to assuring that we are 

moving as rapidly as is prudent towards achieving a scientifi c exploration capability. It seems reasonable, therefore, that for the fi rst mission a 

primary objective should be to obtain data on the capabilities and limitations of the astronaut plus Extravehicular Mobility Unit in the lunar surface environment. This specifi c data gathering should be well planned 

and covered as an approved experiment or Detailed Test Objective for 

the fl ight in order to assure that the full capabilities are achieved on the 

second mission.

4. Total EVA time is limited. We should, therefore, move as rapidly as possible to hardware modifi cations designed to free the crew from mechanical tasks (such as unstowing and transferring equipment from the 

descent stage to the ascent stage) and maximizing the time available for 

science.

5. It appears that a one-man two-hour EVA is the minimum-risk situation, but what is not clear is how the risk changes as the EVA activity is 

increased. It is also not clear as to the relative magnitude of the EVA 

risk to the total mission risk. Two 1.5 hour EVA’s (separate astronauts) 
Exploring the Unknown 725

may involve only a slight increase in total mission risk over one two-hour 

one-man EVA, yet the scientifi c return could be increased signifi cantly. 

If it is planned to have both crewmen egress, it was suggested that it be 

in sequence with one in the LM at all times. This allows the status of the 

LM and the EVA crewman to be monitored at all times, one man is always 

on the LM life support system and the communications to earth (both 

voice and biomedical telemetry) are independent for the two crewmen.

6. If ALSEP and LGI are not carried, several suggestions were made for 

other scientifi c experiments. These included uprating the preliminary 

sample to be of greater scientifi c value, and to examine the possibility of 

including the laser ranging retrorefl ector, a Surveyor seismometer, and 

soil mechanics experiments.

OMSF ACTION

The proposal, comments, and recommendations of the Apollo Program Director 

were presented to the OMSF Management Council on September 11, 1968. The 

Council approved the following:

1. A single EVA period open-ended to three hours will be planned for the 

fi rst mission. The surface traverse will be open-ended to a maximum of 

300 feet from the LM. Training experience, simulations, timeline verifi cation studies and failure mode analyses will be used as the basis for a 

decision between one-man and two-man EVA’s and two one-man EVA’s 

during the period.

2. The ALSEP and LGI will not be carried. A lunar soil sample will be collected in a manner which will maximize the scientifi c value, and other 

candidate scientifi c experiments will be identifi ed and submitted for 

consideration by October 10, 1968.

3. TV will be carried. Planning will be such as to exploit both its operational and public information uses. The MSC will identify changes in 

mission planning and/or hardware necessary to utilize only the LM 

steerable antenna.

4. In order to maximize the scientifi c return from the second mission, a 

Primary Objective of the fi rst mission will be to obtain data to assess the 

capabilities and limitations of the astronaut and his equipment in the 

lunar surface environment. The MSC will plan and implement Detailed 

Test Objectives and experiments for the fi rst lunar landing mission to 

achieve this objective.

5. The MSC should study and schedule recommendations, including cost 

and schedules, to the Apollo Program Director for any changes in hardware for future lunar missions which would increase the percentage of 

EVA time available for scientifi c investigations.
726 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[Signed Sam. C Phillips]

Sam C. Phillips

Lt. General, USAF

Apollo Program Director

Attachments 1-26

Cc: (w/o attachments)

CD/HKDeubs

DIR/WvonBraun

AA/RRGilruth

MA-A/GHHage

MA/WCSchneider

MAO/JKHolcomb

MAL/LRScherer

Document II-68

Document Title: Letter to George M. Low, Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program, 

from Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, 12 March 1969.

Source: Folder #148675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Document II-69

Document Title: Letter to Julian Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public 

Affairs, from George M. Low, Manager, Apollo Spacecraft Program, 18 March 

1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Julian Scheer was one of NASA Headquarter’s “inner circle” during the Apollo program, in 

addition to his role as NASA top public spokesman. In this letter to NASA veteran manager 

of human space fl ight George Low, who assumed responsibility for the Apollo spacecraft 

project after the January 1967 Apollo 1 fi re, Scheer suggested that it would be inappropriate 

to suggest to the Apollo 11 crewmembers what they might say as they reached the Moon. Low’s 

reply indicates that he agreed with Scheer, and that there had been a misunderstanding 

of what actions Low had taken. The “Shapley Committee” was headed by senior NASA 

Headquarters staff member Willis Shapley, who was responsible for NASA’s top-level political 

and budgetary strategy. Simon Bourgin was an employee of the U.S. Information Agency 

with a particular focus on the space program.
Exploring the Unknown 727

Document II-68

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON. D.C 20546

March 12, 1969

Mr. George M. Low

Manager

Apollo Spacecraft Program

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston, Texas 77058

Dear George:

It has come to my attention that you have asked someone outside of NASA to 

advise you on what the manned lunar landing astronauts might say when they 

touch down on the Moon’s surface. This disturbs me for several reasons.

The Agency has solicited from within NASA any suggestions on what materials 

and artifacts might be carried to the surface of the Moon on that historic fi rst 

fl ight. But we have not solicited comment or suggestions on what the astronauts 

might say. Not only do I personally feel that we ought not to coach the astronauts, 

but I feel it would be damaging for the word to get out that we were soliciting 

comment. The ultimate decision on what the astronauts will carry is vested in 

a committee set up by the Administrator; the committee will not, nor will the 

Agency by any other means, suggest remarks by the astronauts.

Frank Borman solicited a suggestion from me on what would be appropriate for 

Christmas Eve. I felt--and my feeling still stands--that his reading from the Bible 

would be diminished in the eyes of the public if it were thought that NASA preplanned such a thing. I declined both offi cially and personally to suggest words to 

him despite the fact that I had some ideas. I believed then [2] and I believe the 

same is true of the Apollo 11 crew that the truest emotion at the historic moment 

is what the explorer feels within himself not for the astronauts to be coached 

before they leave or to carry a prepared text in their hip pocket.

The Lunar Artifacts Committee, chaired by Willis Shapley, asked that all elements 

of NASA consider what might be carried on Apollo 11. I know that General Phillips 

has properly reiterated the request by asking all elements of Manned Flight to 

suggest things, but it was not the desire or intent of the committee to broaden the 

scope of the solicitation to verbal reactions.

There may be some who are concerned that some dramatic utterance may not 

be emitted by the fi rst astronaut who touches the lunar surface. I don’t share 

that concern. Others believe a poet ought to go to the Moon. Columbus wasn’t 

a poet and he didn’t have a prepared text, but his words were pretty dramatic to 
728 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

me. When he saw the Canary Islands he wrote, “I landed, and saw people running 

around naked, some very green trees, much water, and many fruits.”

Two hundred years before Apollo 8, Captain James Cook recorded while watching 

the transit of Venus over the sun’s disk, “We very distinctly saw an atmosphere or 

dusky shade around the body of the planet.”

Meriwether Lewis, traveling with William Clark, recorded, “Great joy in camp. 

We are in view of the ocean, this great Pacifi c Ocean which we have been so long 

anxious to see, and the roreing [sic] or noise made by the waves brakeing [sic] on 

the rockey [sic] shore may be heard distinctly.”

Peary was simply too tired to say anything in 1909 when he reached the North 

Pole. He went to sleep. The next day he recorded in a diary, “The pole at last. 

The [3] prize of three centures [sic]. I cannot bring myself to realize it. It seems 

all so simple and commonplace.”

The words of these great explorers tell us something of the men who explore and 

it is my hope that Neil Armstrong or Buzz Aldrin will tell us what they see and 

think and nothing that we feel they should say.

I have often been asked if NASA indeed plans to suggest comments to the 

astronauts. My answer on behalf of NASA is “no.”

I’d appreciate your comments.

Regards,

[signed]

Julian Scheer

Assistant Administrator 

 for Public Affairs

Document II-69

March 18, 1969

Mr. Julian Scheer

Assistant Administrator

for Public Affairs

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D. C. 20546
Exploring the Unknown 729

Dear Julian:

I have just received your letter of March 12, 1969, which apparently stemmed from 

a misunderstanding. Let me fi rst point out that I completely agree with you that the 

words said by the astronauts on the lunar surface (or, for that matter, at any other 

time) must be their own. I have always felt that way and continue to do so.

I am, of course, aware of the Shapley Committee that was established by Dr. Paine, 

and have also received a copy of a telegram from General Phillips soliciting our 

comments on what should be carried to the lunar surface. I felt that in order to 

respond properly to General Phillips and to the Shapley Committee, I would like 

to seek the advice of Si Bourgin, whose judgment I respect a great deal in these 

matters. As you know, I met Si on our trip to South America and found that he 

offered excellent advice to all of us throughout our trip. I, therefore, called Si 

as soon as he returned from Europe and asked him whether he could offer any 

advice concerning what the astronauts should do (not say) when we have fi rst 

landed on the moon. Si called me back [2] the night before the Apollo 9 launch, 

and we discussed his ideas at some length. We again agreed at that time that it is 

properly NASA’s function to plan what artifacts should be left on the lunar surface 

or what should be brought back, but that the words that the astronauts should say 

must be entirely their own.

Since then, I have had a meeting with Neil Armstrong to discuss with him some of 

our ideas and suggestions, including those of Si Bourgin’s, in order to solicit his 

views. Even though I had not yet received your letter at that time, we also discussed 

the point that whatever things are left on the lunar surface are things that he must 

be comfortable with, and whatever words are said must be his own words.

All of these activities—my discussions with Si, my discussions with Neil, and 

discussions with many others within and outside of NASA—are to gain the best 

possible advice that I can seek for what I consider to be a most important event. 

The result for of all of this will be my input to Dr. Gilruth so that he can forward 

it to the Shapley Committee, should he so desire.

I hope that this clarifi es any misunderstanding that we might have had on this 

matter.

Sincerely yours,

/Signed/

George M. Low

Manager

Apollo Spacecraft Program
730 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-70

Document Title: Memorandum to Dr. [George] Mueller from Willis H. Shapley, 

Associate Deputy Administrator, “Symbolic Items for the First Lunar Landing,” 

19 April 1969.

Document Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-71

Document Title: Memorandum to Dr. (George) Mueller from Willis Shapley, 

NASA Associate Deputy Administrator, “Symbolic Activities for Apollo 11,” 2 July 

1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

As planning for the fi rst lunar landing picked up in intensity, attention turned to the 

symbolic aspects of the mission. Willis Shapley, a veteran Washington bureaucrat who served 

as a policy advisor to the NASA Administrator, chaired a Symbolic Activities Committee 

that was set up to determine what items would be carried to the Moon, and what symbolic 

activities would be carried out on the lunar surface on the Apollo 11 mission. The fi nal 

decisions on these matters were communicated to the Apollo program management just two 

weeks before the 16 July liftoff of the mission.

Document II-70

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 20546

April 19, 1969

MEMORANDUM FOR: M/Dr. Mueller

Subject: Symbolic Items for the First Lunar Landing

This is to advise you, the Apollo Program Offi ce, and MSC of the thinking that has 

emerged from discussions among members of the Symbolic Activities Committee 

to date on symbolic activities in connection with the fi rst lunar landing, including 

articles to be left on the moon and articles to be taken to the moon and returned.
Exploring the Unknown 731

Further discussions will be necessary prior to the time we will make fi nal 

recommendations for decision by the Administrator, and comments and suggestions 

from all members of the Committee and others are still in order. However, in view 

of the general agreement on approach that has been manifested so far and the 

tight deadlines for decisions on matters directly affecting preparations for the 

mission, the approach outlined below should be taken as the basis for further 

planning at this time.

1. Symbolic activities must not, of course, jeopardize crew safety or 

unduly interfere with or degrade achievement of mission objectives. They should 

be simple, in good taste from a world-wide standpoint, and have no commercial 

implications or overtones.

2. The intended overall impression of the symbolic activities and 

of the manner in which they are presented to the world should be to signalize 

the fi rst lunar landing as an historic forward step of all mankind that has been 

accomplished by the United States of America.

3. The “forward step of all mankind” aspect of the landing should 

be symbolized primarily by a suitable inscription to be left on the moon and by 

statements made on earth, and also perhaps by leaving on the moon miniature 

fl ags of all nations. The UN fl ag, fl ags of all other regional or international 

organizations, or other international or religious symbolism will not be used.

4. The “accomplishment by the United States” aspect of the landing 

should be symbolized primarily by placing and leaving a U.S. fl ag on the moon 

in such a way as to make it clear that the fl ag symbolized the fact that an effort by 

American people reached the moon, not that the U.S. is [2] “taking possession” 

of the moon. The latter connotation is contrary to our national intent and would 

be inconsistent with the Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.

5. In implementing the approach outlined above, the following 

primary symbolic articles and actions or their equivalents should be considered 

for inclusion in the mission:

a. A U.S. flag to be placed and left on the moon. The fl ag 

should be such that it can be clearly photographed and televised. If possible, the 

act of emplacing the fl ag by the astronaut, as well as the emplaced fl ag with an 

astronaut beside it, should be photographed and televised. Current thinking is 

that a recognizable traditional fl ag should be emplaced on the moon. The fl ag 

decal on the LM decent stage would not by itself suffi ce unless a fl ag proved to be 

clearly not feasible. Consideration of how best to emplace the fl ag should include 

but not be limited to the following suggestions:

(1) Cloth fl ag on vertically emplaced pole, with astronaut to 

hold fl ag in visible position for photographing.

(2) Cloth fl ag on pole emplaced at an angle so that fl ag is visible 

for photographing.
732 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

(3) An adaptation of the Solar Wind Experiment device in the 

form of a fl ag.

(4) Flag on a pole using the commemorative marker (item b 

below) as a base.

b. A permanent commemorative marker, suitably inscribed, to be 

placed and left on the lunar surface, with photographic and television coverage as 

suggested above for the U.S. fl ag, if possible. Possibilities to be considered should 

include, but not be limited to:

(1) A thin-walled metal pyramid, with inscriptions on each of its 

three or four sides, which could also serve as a sealed repository 

for a set of miniature fl ags of all nations (item c below).

(2) A container of cylindrical or other more convenient shape to 

perform the same function as suggested in (1) above.

(3) A pyramid or other container, as above, which would also serve 

as the base for the U.S. fl ag to be emplaced on the moon.

[3]

c. Miniature fl ags of all nations, one set to be left on the moon 

in a suitable container (see above), and a duplicate set to be returned to earth for 

possible presentation by the President to foreign Chiefs of State. If fl ag container 

is not feasible, the set of fl ags might be left on or in the LM decent stage.

d. One or more U.S. fl ags to be presented to NASA prior to the 

mission by the President and/or other senior offi cials, taken to the moon and 

back, and then suitably displayed, perhaps with photographs of the astronauts 

on the moon, in suitable national locations such as the Capitol, White House, 

National Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Library of Congress, or elsewhere.

6. The LM decent stage itself will be of prime symbolic signifi cance 

since the descent stage will become a permanent monument on the surface of 

the moon. For this reason, the name given to the LM and any inscriptions to be 

placed on it must be consistent with the overall approach on symbolic articles and 

must be approved by the Administrator. The present thinking is that:

a. The name of the vehicle should be dignifi ed and hopefully 

convey the sense of “beginning” rather than “culmination” of man’s exploration 

of other worlds.

b. Assuming that a commemorative marker with inscription is 

carried, inscriptions on the LM should be limited to the present fl ag decal and 

words “United States.”

7. The principal secondary symbolic articles receiving favorable 

consideration so far include the following:
Exploring the Unknown 733

a. A small postage stamp die to be taken to the moon and back 

from which commemorative stamps would be printed. Weight and dimensions 

alternatives are being investigated.

b. A jeweler’s die to be taken to the moon and back from which 

lapel type pins associated with the NASA special “Apollo Achievement Awards” 

now under consideration would be stamped out. Weight and size requirements 

are being investigated.

8. It would be appreciated if any comments, further suggestions, 

or problems you or others receiving copies of this memorandum may have with 

respect to the foregoing tentative plans and conclusions are made known promptly 

to me and the Committee via the secretary, Mr. Daniels.

/Signed/

Willis H. Shapley

Associate Deputy Administrator

Document II-71

[stamped Jul 2 1969]

MEMORANDUM FOR: M/Dr. Mueller

Subject: Symbolic Activities for Apollo 11

As your offi ce has previously been advised, the symbolic articles approved for the 

Apollo 11 mission as of this date are as follows:

A. Symbolic articles to be left on the moon

1. A U.S. fl ag, on a metal staff with an unfurling device, to be 

emplaced in the lunar soil by the astronauts. This will be 

the only fl ag emplanted [sic] or otherwise placed on the 

surface of the moon.

2. A commemorative plaque affi xed to the LM descent stage 

to be unveiled by the astronauts. The plaque will be 

inscribed with:

a. A design showing the two hemispheres of the earth and 

the outlines of the continents, without national boundaries.

b. The words: “Here men from the planet earth fi rst set 

foot upon the moon. We came in peace for all mankind.”
734 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

c. The date (month and year).

d. The signatures of the three astronauts and the President 

of the U.S.

3. A microminiaturized photoprint of letters of good will 

received from Chiefs of State or other representatives of 

foreign nations.

B. Symbolic articles to be taken to the moon and returned to earth

1. Miniature fl ags (1 each) of all nations of the UN, and of 

the 50 states, District of Columbia, and U.S. territories—for 

subsequent presentation as determined by the President. 

“All nations” has been defi ned on the advice of the State 

Department to include “the members of the United 

Nations and the UN Specialized Agencies.” These items 

will be stowed in the LM.

[2]

2. Small U.S. fl ags—for special presentation as determined 

by the President or the Administrator of NASA. These will 

also be stowed in the LM.

3. Stamp die from which Post Offi ce Department will print 

special postage stamps commemorating the fi rst lunar 

landing and a stamped envelope to be cancelled with the 

cancellation stamping device. Cancellation can be done 

as convenient during the mission in the CM. The stamp 

die will be stowed in the LM; the stamping device and 

envelope will be stowed in the CM. These items will not be 

announced in advance.

4. Two full size U.S. fl ags—which have been fl own over the 

Capitol, the House and the Senate, to be carried in CM but 

will not be transferred to the LM.

C. Personal Articles

Personal articles of the astronauts’ choosing under arrangements between 

Mr. Slayton and the fl ight crews.

With respect to all items under categories A and B above, it should be clearly 

understood that the articles are “owned” by the Government and that the disposition 

of the articles themselves or facsimiles thereof is to be determined by the Administrator 

or NASA. The articles returned from the mission should be turned over to a proper 

authority at MSC promptly upon return. In the case of Item B2, the Administrator 

has determined that a reasonable number of small U.S. fl ags will be made available to 

the fl ight crew for presentation as they see fi t, subject to the avoidance of confl ict with 

plans for presentation of these fl ags by the President or the Administrator.
Exploring the Unknown 735

With respect to articles in Category C above, Mr. Scheer should be notifi ed in 

advance of the mission of any items which are or may appear to be duplicates of 

items the President or others might present to Governors, Heads of State, etc. 

The value of these “one-of-a-kind” presentations can be diminished if there is a 

proliferation of such items. Flags and patches particularly fall into this category.

Public announcement has or will be made of all items in Categories A and B in 

advance of the mission except for the items under B3, any release concerning 

which is subject to a separate decision.

[Signed Willis H. Shapley]

Willis H. Shapley

Associate Deputy Administrator

cc: A/Dr. Paine

 AA/Dr. Newell

 F/Mr. Scheer

 C/Mr. Allnutt

I/Mr. Frutkin

Document II-72

Document Title: Letter from Frank Borman, NASA Astronaut, to Paul Feigert, 25 

April 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

For the general public, the two highlights of the Apollo 8 mission at Christmas time 1968 

were the photograph of Earth rising over the desolate lunar surface and the reading of the 

fi rst 10 verses of Genesis from the Bible by the crew on Christmas Eve. 

[stamped April 25, 1969]

Mr. Paul F. Feigert

1702 Terrace Drive 

Lake Worth, Florida 33460

Dear Mr. Feigert:

Dr. Gilruth has asked me to answer your inquiry concerning the reading of the 

fi rst 10 verses of Genesis. 

a. Three small Bibles supplied by the Gideons did accompany us on the 

fl ight.
736 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

b. Because the Bibles were fl ammable, they were sealed in fi reproof plastic 

and not opened during the fl ight.

c. The fi rst 10 verses of Genesis were copied fromthe Bible and printed on 

the fl ame resistant paper of the fi ght plan. 

Thank you for your interest in this matter.

Sincerely,

[Signed Frank Borman]

Frank Borman

Colonel, USAF 

NASA Astronaut

Document II-73

Document Title: “General Declaration: Agriculture, Customs, Immigration, and 

Public Health,” 24 July 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Like all travelers who return to the United States from trips outside the country, the Apollo 

11 crew had to fi le this declaration as the ship carrying them and their cargo reached their 

fi rst port of entry, Honolulu, Hawaii, after their return from the Moon.
Exploring the Unknown 737
738 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Document II-74

Document Title: Memorandum to Captain Lee Scherer from Julian Scheer, NASA 

Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, 24 July 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The Apollo 11 crew brought back 44 pounds of lunar material. While most of this material 

was reserved for scientifi c investigations, a small amount was set aside for more public 

purposes. Lee Scherer was the Director of the Lunar Exploration Offi ce at the Manned 

Spacecraft Center at the time of the Apollo 11 mission.

[ADMINISTRATIVE CONFIDENTIAL] [DECLASSIFIED]

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

Washington, D.C. 20546

Offi ce of the Administrator

[stamped July 24,1969]

MEMORANDUM to Captain Lee Scherer

Mittauer informed me of your preliminary plan of one percent lunar samples for 

“public affairs” purposes. This included suggestion of grains for Nixon to present 

heads of state, rotating exhibit, small rocks for Nixon, Agnew, others personally. 

We approve setting aside of this sample and wish it impounded immediately for 

purposes to be outlined only by Administrator. There should be no discussion of 

possible uses. Administrator emphatic that this sample and no others be used for 

this purpose and no other part or parts of sample be released to anyone for public or 

private giveaways. Suggest that egg-size samples be retained, since they can be used 

as large display or broken into grains, depending on Administrator’s conclusion.

Julian Scheer 

Assistant Administrator 

for Public Affairs
Exploring the Unknown 739

Document II-75

Document Title: Letter to Robert R. Gilruth, Director, Manned Spacecraft 

Center, from George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space 

Flight, 3 September 1969.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

The managers of the Apollo program at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston were 

primarily from an engineering background, and tended to view the Apollo missions as 

engineering achievements rather than expeditions driven by scientifi c requirements. This led 

to continuing tensions between Houston and members of the scientifi c community interested 

in lunar science. This letter refl ects such tensions. Ultimately, NASA decided to fl y a scientistastronaut, geologist Harrison “Jack” Schmitt, on the fi nal Apollo mission, Apollo 17.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Sep 3, 1969

Dr. Robert R. Gilruth

Director

Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston, Texas 77058

Dear Bob,

To the public, the success of Apollo 11 is an historical fact. However, to your Center 

in particular, and to many of the rest of us, the mission is not yet completed and 

will not be for some time to come. As we have discussed informally, completion 

of data analysis, posturing solutions for the minor, yet important anomalies which 

occurred in fl ight, and, provision for adequate and continuing support of the 

science effort are items of priority. The latter item, science support, is of particular 

concern at this time.

Over the past couple of years we have taken steps both here at NASA Headquarters 

and at MSC to establish a science management, administration and support 

capability for the Apollo Program. This has been done with signifi cant sacrifi ce 

to other program areas within a steadily reducing total Manned Flight and NASA 

personnel ceiling. During the pre-Apollo 11 time-period the workload of this 

group increased steadily and it was diffi cult to obtain a commensurate increase 

in the number and appropriate types of personnel to do the many jobs involved. 

Now, with operating experiments on the lunar surface returning data and the 

return of Apollo 11 lunar samples for analysis, the workload has increased many 

fold. The resulting increased interest and direct participation of the scientifi c 

community in Apollo is taxing our capability to the limit. Despite this, we will 
740 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

certainly detract measurably from the success of Apollo 11, and the missions yet to 

be fl own, unless we meet the challenge. Therefore, we must provide the support 

required in the science area.

A problem of immediate concern is prompt and proper distribution of the lunar 

samples to the Principle [sic] Investigators through their home institutions. 

To protect the government and public interest in these materials, contractual 

coverage must be obtained. At the current rate of contract negotiation I am 

concerned that we will have clearance from the ICBC for sample release before 

all of the sample analysis contract processing is completed. I urge you to assign 

whatever resources are necessary to bring completion of contract processing into 

phase with sample release.

[2]The successful accomplishment of the initial Apollo lunar landing was 

necessarily the focus and emphasis in the program for many years. The operational 

complexity of the next few missions will also require concentration on that aspect. 

We will be increasing our capability to do more and more interesting science 

simultaneously. Still, some members of the scientifi c community are impatient 

and as you know, are willing to air their views without necessarily relating those 

views to what is practicable and possible.

Public discussion aside, it is our policy to do the maximum science possible in 

each Apollo mission and to provide adequate science support. For the long 

term we must assure ourselves and the world of science that we are making those 

adjustments which will provide steadily increasing and effective support for the 

science area. Good progress has been made to date, but we must do even better 

to meet the future challenge. I ask your personal involvement in this as well as in 

solving the immediate concerns relating to Apollo 11.

Sincerely yours,

/Signed/

George E. Mueller

Associate Administrator

for Manned Space Flight

Document II-76

Document Title: Space Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, “Report 

of Meeting on Review of Lunar Quarantine Program,” 17 February 1970.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
Exploring the Unknown 741

After two landings on the Moon, Apollo 11, and Apollo 12, and no sign of dangerous life 

forms being returned to Earth, NASA was contemplating the end of the quarantine that 

had been in place for those two missions. The National Academy of Sciences was asked to 

examine the question. This report contains the recommendation of the ad hoc committee set 

up to prepare the Academy’s response. It also provides an overview of the testing for signs of 

life done on the returned lunar samples.

Report of 

Meeting on 

Review of Lunar Quarantine Program

February 17, 1970

At

The Manned Spacecraft Center

National Aeronautical and Space Administration

Houston, Texas

Space Science Board

National Academy of Sciences

2101 Constitution Avenue

Washington, D.C.

PREFACE

On December 24, 1969 the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration requested the President of the National Academy of Sciences 

to form a committee to review the Academy’s 1964 recommendations for a lunar 

quarantine program in light of information acquired from lunar fl ights, Apollos 11 

and 12. The President referred the request to the Space Science Board where it 

was favorably considered at the Board’s meeting on January 12-13, 1970. An ad hoc 

committee was authorized by the Space Science Board to consider new evidence 

accumulated about the earth’s moon since its 1964 conference and to make 

recommendations pertinent to the continuation of the lunar quarantine program.

The ad hoc committee met at the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas on February 17, 

1970. A listing of the participants is shown.

The agenda for the meeting provided for an exchange of views and facts 

in geology, geochemistry, and biology, including microbiology and medicine. We 

believe the varied positions were thoroughly argued.
742 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The recommendations of the ad hoc committee are summarized at the 

beginning of the report and the rationale in arriving at the recommendations 

follows in the body of the report. Minority views are attached in the appendix.

Participants in the Space Science Board’s

Review of the National Academy of Sciences of Lunar

Quarantine Recommendations

Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas

February 17, 1970

Members

Martin Alexander Cornell University

Klaus Biemann Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Allan H. Brown, (Chairman) University of Pennsylvania

Gustave J. Dammin Harvard Medical School 

Paul Gast Columbia University

Lawrence B. Slobodki University of New York at Stony Brook

John Spizizen Scripps Clinic, La Jolla

Wolf Vishniac University of Rochester

Frank G. Favorite Space Science Board, National 

Academy of Sciences

Liaison Representatives and Other Participants

Earl H. Arnold NASA Headquarters, Offi ce of 

 Manned Space Flight

Charles A. Berry NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

Howard H. Eckles NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

Lawrence B. Hall NASA, Headquarters, Offi ce of Space

 Science and Applications

Rufus R. Hessberg NASA Headquarters, Offi ce of

 Manned Space Flight

James W. Humphreys, Jr. NASA Headquarters, Offi ce of

 Manned Space Flight

R. E. Kallio University of Illinois

Walter W. Kemmerer, Jr. NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center
Exploring the Unknown 743

Adrian Mandel NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

John A. Mason NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

Carl Sagan Cornell University

E. E. Salmon U.S. Department of Agriculture

David J. Sencer Department of Health, Education

 and Welfare, Communicable

 Disease Center Atlanta

Gerald R. Taylor NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

Bennic C. Wooley NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center

Summary of Finding and Major Recommendations

Finding

In Apollo 13 the proposed highland landing site and core sample to a depth 

of 8 feet constitute a substantially new lunar environment in comparison to the 

landing sites and sampled areas of Apollo 11 and 12 missions.

Recommendations

Lunar Quarantine Program

A majority recommend continuance of the 3-week lunar quarantine 

period. A minority favor discontinuance of quarantine.

Lunar Samples

We recommend development of procedural changes in the handling of 

lunar samples to preclude alteration of the sample prior to analysis.

Biological Testing Program

We recommend the continued development of a research program within 

the LRL to develop greater confi dence in the adequacy of the test program and 

the validity of both negative and positive fi ndings.

Introduction

Our committee heard from representations of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration’s Offi ce of Manned Space Flight and Manned Spacecraft 

Center, from lunar sample experimenters and from persons responsible for 

operations in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Summaries were presented 

of medical tests on astronauts and other quarantined personnel and of the 

examination of lunar samples including tests for pathogenicity, or toxicity and for 

the presence of life forms.
744 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

We believe that the quarantine policy which has applied to lunar 

samples, spacecraft and astronauts was conscientiously implemented in Apollo 

11 and 12 missions. It was noted that some procedures have been less than ideal. 

Nevertheless, a quarantine policy implementation, beset from the start with severe 

diffi culties of interdisciplinary communication and infl exible schedules, was as 

successful as could have been expected.

It is noteworthy that the Interagency Committee on Back-Contamination 

(ICBC) was effective in formulating the policies and approving the operational 

procedures which guided the implementation of those policies by NASA. We feel 

credit is due, both to the ICBC and to NASA for meeting numerous challenges so 

successfully.

The committee agrees with the wisdom of lunar quarantine as a policy 

of caution, well justifi ed at the time it was established by the potential hazard of 

back-contamination from what was a largely unknown environment. The possibility 

existed that Apollo astronauts, infected with a virulent, contagious, lunar, biological 

agent, would exhibit disease symptoms within the period of quarantine and thus 

alert attending physicians to the need for continued effective containment of 

the infectious agent. A small possibility of this still exists and views expressed by 

qualifi ed persons and groups who have appraised the current status of the subject 

differ chiefl y because everyone cannot agree on the magnitude of this possibility.

It is well recognized that quarantine at best is imperfect protection against 

diseases even of known etiology. Some members of our committee feel that close 

medical surveillance of the returned Apollo astronauts would be quite suffi cient. 

However, the majority feel that astronaut quarantine, employing essentially the 

same procedures as were used on the Apollo 12 mission, ought to be in effect for 

any future missions which may be judged to involve a risk of back-contamination.

Discussion

It seems as it did prior to Apollo 11 that any change in the U.S. Quarantine 

Policy must be based on a revised or more confi dent assessment of the overall backcontamination hazard to man and his environment. Results from Apollo 11 and 

12 missions have made available substantial new information about the moon, and 

some of this is directly relevant to the charge of our committee. Briefl y stated, we 

view the evidence as follows:

Hazard to Human Beings

There have been no medical signs or symptoms of illness among lunar 

astronauts during or subsequent to quarantine which could reasonably be 

attributed to lunar pathogens. Moreover, no such indications of pathology have 

been reported among some 150 individuals who have had at least some contact 

either with Apollo astronauts or with lunar sample material, however, no formal 

medical surveillance of this group has been maintained. We consider these 

negative fi ndings reassuring but not defi nitive. With the relatively short duration 

of exposure and the small number of astronauts involved, lack of observed 

infection is not equivalent to a confi rmed absence of pathogens.
Exploring the Unknown 745

Hazards to Animals and Plants

The lunar sample material was not found to be pathogenic to any of a 

number of test species of plants and animals. Again it is our view that this evidence 

(which pertains to many species) is more reassuring than the absence of evident 

human pathology. Nevertheless, such negative evidence seems insuffi cient to 

warrant the conclusion that no pathogens exist on the moon. It has been noted 

that lunar material under some test conditions is capable of stimulating plant 

growth. It is not yet clear whether such effects are attributable to the direct 

biological action of lunar material or perhaps to nutritional stimulation which in 

this context would be trivial. Until these growth augmentation results, samples 

were biologically inert.

Evidence of Life Forms

No living organisms were detected in lunar sample material. We feel that 

this evidence by itself is inconclusive, partly because there may be some question 

that the biological assay was fully adequate to reveal exotic life forms, but chiefl y 

because the material which has been tested represents a limited sampling of the 

lunar environment. What has been examined so far is essentially surface material 

from two mare sites, largely igneous in origin, predictably sterile, and not for 

certain representative of what may be found, for example, at several meters depth 

in the highland region which will be sampled during the Apollo 13 mission.

We fi nd it exceptionally diffi cult to conceive of an ecological model 

whereby life forms could endure and maintain themselves even in the most 

favorable environment we can imagine which could be compatible with the 

analytical measurements of lunar samples from Apollo 11 and 12. It is this, 

perhaps, even more than the negative results from direct biological testing, which 

constitutes the more persuasive argument against lunar life existing in those 

particular mare sites.

Evidence of Water and Carbon

New chemical evidence of several kinds makes it seem improbable that 

indigenous life could ever have existed in the environment represented by the 

Apollo samples so far obtained. The salient evidence is fi rst, the absence of any 

hydrous minerals in the samples examined (indicating that water was not an 

environmental constituent when crystallization took place, and the preservation 

of delicate glassy surfaces and fi nely divided particles of iron and iron sulfi de 

indicate the samples have not been exposed to water, vapor or liquid since 

crystallization); and second, the extremely low content of organic carbon which 

characterizes the samples.

We recognize that if only a minute quantity of organic material is present, 

but that it includes some living organisms, it is quite reasonable to expect nearly 

all of the organic carbon to be contained in those organisms. The sensitivity of 

testing for such organisms by chemical or physical assays without the benefi t of 

biological amplifi cation (growth) is inadequate. The “noise level” of such test 

procedures would correspond to the carbon content of hundreds or thousands 

of microbial cells.
746 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Lunar “Gardening”

Geological evidence of lunar surface turnover as this applies to Apollo 11 

and 12 sites persuades us against the existence at these places of a protected region 

containing at least some water and organic matter, and therefore a possible abode 

for lunar organisms. Finally, mineralogical fi ndings and evidence from isotope 

dating indicate a kind of sample heterogeneity which could best be explained by 

assuming transport of substantial amounts of material onto the mare, presumably 

from the neighboring highlands. It seems quite possible or even likely that in the 

Apollo 11 and 12 samples, several percent may represent highland material. Even 

so, it would hardly be permissible to generalize from knowledge of these two sites 

to the many particular local environments to be found on the moon. Much of the 

moon is as yet unknown and thus predictions of biological signifi cance about the 

landing site of Apollo 13 may be in error.

Lunar Quarantine Program

We note that the Apollo 11 and 12 samples were in all likelihood from 

the upper surfaces of lava beds. It is therefore not surprising that the samples 

from both areas appear sterile. Any possible pre-existing life would have been 

destroyed by processes which created these formations, and the likelihood of 

reinoculation from other (highland?) areas might have been negligible. On or 

near the surface, radiation and temperature extremes probably preclude growth 

and perhaps even survival of live organisms. In any case, other Apollo landing 

sites are apt to have quite different and new chemical characteristics. Even the 

two mare sites, originally expected to be much the same, have turned out to be 

surprisingly different. It is surely unwise to generalize from this limited Apollo 

sampling and it seems to most of us that the new information gained from past 

Apollo missions is insuffi cient to justify a substantial change in lunar quarantine 

policy applicable to the Apollo 13 mission which is targeted for a highland landing 

site. We therefore endorse the policy established by the ICBC which asserts that 

each time a substantially new type of lunar environment is visited or sampled a 

maximum back-contamination hazard obtains and whatever quarantine measures 

have been agreed upon for that circumstances become fully applicable.

Quarantine of Lunar Samples

The overriding reason for continuing the quarantine of the astronauts 

and the lunar samples returned from the Apollo 13 mission is the possibility that 

materials that have not been exposed on the lunar surface for long periods will be 

returned in the lower portion of a drill core sample. An additional but secondary 

reason for continuing the quarantine is the planned return of materials that differ 

signifi cantly in composition, age and origin from the Apollo 11 and 12 samples. In 

previous missions the sample chosen for the biological protocol was selected to be 

representative of all the returned rocks and soil. Detailed study of these rock and 

soil samples have not shown us that there is little variation among the rock types. 

The requirement of pooled test samples has resulted in severe time constraints in 

the preliminary examinations of the lunar samples. Handling lunar samples in the 

LRL under quarantine restrictions precludes some desirable operations, introduces 

chemical contamination of the samples, and is responsible for harming delicate 
Exploring the Unknown 747

surface features of the rock due to the awkward manipulations which are performed. 

We therefore recommend that Apollo 13 samples used for the biological protocol 

be restricted to a much smaller portion of the returned samples. An aliquot of the 

lower portion of the drill core and one soil sample might be adequate. As presently 

planned, both of these samples could come from the ALSRC containing the drill 

core section. The second ALSRC, and sample returned in other containers, need 

not be involved in the biological protocol. 

Lunar-Planetary Quarantine Relationship

There are important long-range benefi ts to be gained from Apollo 

quarantine experience. Perhaps within two decades manned missions will 

explore Mars and perhaps other space objectives about which we have little 

biologically signifi cant information. At this time it seems advisable for NASA to 

plan to establish and implement a quarantine policy applicable to those more 

ambitions missions on the assumption that the back-contamination risks, with 

respect to Mars at least, will continue to be much greater than was ever thought 

to be the case for the earth’s moon. We believe that the recommendations of the 

1964 Conference on Potential hazards of back-contamination from the Planets 

continue to apply to the planning for a manned Mars mission. In this connection 

it would be valuable for NASA to document its Apollo quarantine experience in 

such a manner that a future generation of planners can benefi t maximally from 

what was learned during Apollo. Substantial savings in the cost of quarantine, 

avoidance of compromises and more effective communication between design 

engineers and those responsible for biomedical aspects of quarantine policy and 

procedures would be facilitated by an enlightened accounting of the many lessons 

which are being learned in the course of the lunar quarantine program. 

*Space Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, 29-30 July 1964. Revised 19 February 1965. 

15pp.

Biological Testing Program

In the course of our meeting we studied the design and results of biological 

tests performed with lunar samples and visited the biological laboratories of the 

Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Each specialist had reason to comment upon the 

design, conduct and results of these biological tests. An absence of direct testing 

methods such as microscopy scanning was noted. We found complete agreement 

with our views by resident scientists. The biological lunar testing program has raised 

many fundamental questions about the selection of host organisms and culture 

media, rout of inoculation with lunar material, incubation period and temperature, 

control samples and test procedures that we feel warrant immediate attention.

We recommend a continuing research effort at LRL to develop a 

wide based biological testing program, expanded to include other competent 

biological laboratories, with suffi cient diversity not only to maximize the chance of 

positive fi ndings but also to validate negative fi ndings through adequate controls, 

particularly those inoculated with material known to be capable of infecting the 

host or culture.
748 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

Appendix

Minority Views

Dr Frank Favorite, Space Science Board

National Academy of Sciences 2101 Constitution Ave Was/DC

I disagree with continuation of lunar quarantine procedure. I recommend a 

post-fl ight isolation of one week for astronauts followed by surveillance of two 

months or longer. Samples should be contained in aseptic manner and released if 

biological testing proves negative after three weeks. Investigation should be made 

in depth, using expert consultants, of the plant stimulation and microbial toxicity 

test. Research on the survival of micro-organisms in lunar environment should be 

conducted as soon as possible. Better methods for detection of organisms should 

be investigated, especially direct methods with electron microscopy.

John Spizizen, Scripps Clinic

Harvard Medical School – Peter Bent Brigham Hospital

February 24, 1970

Memorandum for: Dr. Allan H. Brown, Chairman, ad hoc Committee of 

the Space Science Board in lunar quarantine, National 

Academy of Sciences

From: Gustave J. Dammin, M.D., member, ad hoc, Committee

1. The recommendations pertaining to “Lunar Samples” and “Biological 

Testing Program” contained in the “Summary of Finding and Major 

Recommendations” of the report of the ad hoc Committee, I concur in. 

However, I wish to dissent from the recommendation which calls for the 

continuance of the 3-week lunar quarantine procedure with reference to 

Apollo 13. The evidence gathered before, and the evidence presented at 

our meeting Feb. 17, was not suffi cient in my evaluation to establish a basis 

for suspecting lunar samples might contain agents that would be inimical to 

man, animals or plants.

2. I would recommend, with reference to study of the astronauts, a period 

of isolation following return to earth during which specimens could be 

collected for such purposes as determining possible changes in fl ora, and 

the like. Conceivably no more than 3-4 days might be needed, depending 

upon the details of the protocol.

3. The experience gained with the 21-day quarantine procedure for Apollo 

11 and 12 is indeed valuable. It will be helpful in planning the quarantine 
Exploring the Unknown 749

protocol to be pursued with reference to the Mars exploration. Recording 

of the procedures employed in all their detail is essential since future teams 

of scientists concerned with the quarantine procedure may not include those 

who have profi ted from the recent Apollo experiences.

/Signed/

Gustave J. Dammin, M.D.

Document II-77

Document Title: George Low, Personal Notes No. 30, Interim Operating Budget 

and Apollo Decisions.

Source: Papers of George M. Low, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New 

York.

Document II-78

Document Title: George M. Low, Acting Administrator, Letter to Edward E. 

David, Jr., Science Advisor to the President, “Apollo versus Skylab and Research 

Airplane Programs,” 30 October 1970.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Document II-79

Document Title: James C. Fletcher, Administrator, Letter to Caspar W. Weinberger, 

Deputy Director, Offi ce of Management and Budget, 3 November 1971.

Source: Papers of James C. Fletcher, University of Utah Library, Salt Lake City, UT.

George Low had become NASA Deputy Administrator in December 1969, and Dale Myers 

had replaced George Mueller as NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight 

in early 1970. During 1970, NASA was trying to gain White House approval to begin 

development of both an Earth-orbiting space station and a fully reusable space shuttle to 

service it, while the top White House priority was reducing the NASA budget. The future of 

the remaining Apollo missions and of the interim space station, Skylab, which was based on 

the conversion of the upper stage of an unneeded Saturn V booster, were caught up in the 

confl ict between NASA’s desire to get started on new development programs and the White 

House push for budget limitations.
750 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

NASA Administrator Thomas Paine had announced in early August 1970 his intention to 

resign on September 15. Low became Acting Administrator upon Paine’s departure. Of the 

people mentioned in Low’s note, Peter Flanigan was Special Assistant to President Nixon, 

with responsibility for space matters; Lee DuBridge was the President’s Science Adviser and 

Russ Drew was his top staff person for space; Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders had become 

Executive Secretary of the National Aeronautics and Space Council; George Shultz was 

Director of the Offi ce of Management and Budget.

NASA’s decision to cancel two Apollo missions did not satisfy the White House; there was 

continuing pressure to either cancel additional Apollo missions and/or not fl y the Skylab 

mission, planned for 1973. By the end of October 1970, Edward E. David, Jr. had replaced 

Lee Dubridge as Science Adviser, and he asked George Low to compare the priorities of 

additional Apollo missions and Skylab.

Even after the successful fl ights of Apollo 14 and Apollo 15, the White House gave serious 

consideration to canceling the last two Apollo missions, but ultimately NASA fl ew Apollo 16 

and Apollo 17 in 1972 and launched the Skylab station on 14 May 1973. James Fletcher, 

former President of the University of Utah, became NASA Administrator in May 1971.

Document II-77

September 6, 1970

PERSONAL NOTES NO. 30

Interim Operating Budget and Apollo Decisions

I spent most of the last two weeks in August on vacation, but did return 

to the offi ce on August 24th for a meeting concerning whether we should have 

six additional Apollo fl ights as planned, or should reduce the number to four. 

At the meeting on August 24th, we heard Dale Myers’ proposal to reduce the 

number of fl ights to four, with a saving of approximately $40 million in Fiscal 

Year 1971, but an overall saving over the next four or fi ve years of approximately 

$800 million. Also, Drs. Findlay and Ruby reported the results of the Lunar and 

Planetary Missions Boards meetings and the Space Science Board meetings, 

looking into the question concerning the additional scientifi c aims that could be 

had by maintaining six Apollo fl ights. The scientists’ view was that they strongly 

recommended fl ying out all six remaining missions; but that the loss of one 

mission (Apollo 15 with its lesser capability) would not be nearly as serious as the 

loss of both Apollo 15 and Apollo 19.

In meetings later on August 24th and on August 31st, September 1st and 

September 2nd, we decided to delete two fl ights, Apollo 15 and Apollo 19. (The 

remaining Apollo fl ights would, of course, be redesignated Apollos 14, 15, 16, 

and 17.) At the same time, we developed an interim operating plan which we will 

use until we get a 1971 Appropriations Bill. This plan is based on the Appropriations Bill that was passed by the Congress but was subsequently vetoed by the 
Exploring the Unknown 751

President. It is, therefore, at a level of approximately $64 million less than the 

1971 President’s budget.

In arriving at these decisions, we had invited Flanigan or his representative, 

DuBridge’s representative, and Bill Anders to the August 24th meeting. Anders and 

Russ Drew, representing DuBridge, showed up, but Flanigan did not send anybody. 

Our intention had been to notify the White House and the Offi ce of Management 

and Budget of our decision before making it public on September 1st or September 

2nd. However, prior to our notifi cation, we had a call from Shultz of OMB 

questioning the wisdom of making the decision at this time. His main concern was 

that we might lose additional funding in the Congress if we made the decision now. 

However, after a number of telephone conversations, we were allowed to move out 

with the decision. The interesting part was that the substance of the decision was 

not questioned, but merely our strategy relative to Congress. Shultz made the strong 

recommendation, however, that we do not mention the $800 million saving over a 

number of years. [2] We reluctantly agreed to this approach, which is probably the 

main reason why the publicity on the cancellation of Apollos 15 and 19 was not as 

good as it might have been. THE NEW YORK TIMES editorially stated that we were 

cancelling [sic] the potentially, scientifi cally, most fruitful missions for a relatively 

small amount of $40 million. Had we publicized the $800 million, I would guess that 

they could not have taken this stand.

Document II-78

OCT 30 1970 [stamped]

Honorable Edward E. David, Jr.

Science Advisor to the President

Executive Offi ce Building

Washington, D.C. 20506

Dear Ed:

During our meeting last Monday, we promised to write to you on the following 

subjects: the relative priorities of Apollo and Skylab; and the requirement for the 

research airplane programs proposed in our FY 1972 budget.

Apollo Versus Skylab

Looking fi rst to Apollo, we have already had a successful program that has met 

the fundamental objective laid down in 1961: to prove American technological 

superiority without military confrontation, to build a new level of national pride 

and prestige, and to create a base of science and technology for the future. 

The Apollo 11 and 12 missions have, in addition, opened a new fi eld of lunarrelated science with the return of samples, emplacement of seismic and other 

instruments on the surface, and erection of the laser refl ector. These alone have 

already provided substantial scientifi c return on the nature of the moon and its 

environment, and will continue to do so for many years. Study of the data from 
752 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

these two missions should contribute a great deal to our understanding of the 

origin and evolution not only of the moon, but also of our own earth.

The remaining four Apollo missions will add incrementally to the science base as 

the radius of exploratory activity increases, as the diversity of sites visited enlarges, 

and as the sophistication of surface and orbital instrumentation grows with each 

fl ight. To reduce or constrain the scientifi c returns from Apollo by dropping one 

or more missions would involve very great losses. Moreover, any impression that 

each successive Apollo mission is constantly in jeopardy of being cancelled for 

budget reasons will have serious impact on the technical teams responsible for the 

safety of the fl ights, thereby adding to the existing dangers of the already diffi cult 

remaining missions. It would, of course, also reinforce the sentiment in the scientifi c 

community that the priority of science is decreasing on the national scene. 

[2] Nevertheless, continuing Apollo missions through the next four fl ights, while 

signifi cantly increasing our scientifi c understanding of the Earth-Moon system, 

would in another sense be dead-ended. No new capabilities or techniques 

would be explored that could be further exploited in the conduct of manned or 

unmanned programs; no major new opportunities for international leadership 

and prestige would likely accrue; and the potential of Apollo for international 

cooperation is limited.

A budgetary alternative to cutting back one or more Apollo missions would be 

the cancellation of Skylab. Here the situation differs, in that there has as yet 

been no return from the considerable investment to date; the basic objectives of 

Skylab are yet to be achieved. We simply have no data on man’s ability to live and 

work in space for long periods of time. Our own 14-day and the U.S.S.R.’s 18-day 

manned mission experience is [sic] inadequate as a basis for future decisions. Our 

experience with man as a necessary contributor to science and applications tasks 

is severely limited. Our experience with long-duration habitable space systems is 

non-existent.

Although there are some who question the worth of space stations at this time, 

there is also a body of scientifi c and engineering opinion today that a space station 

will be an important and extremely valuable next step in man’s exploration and 

utilization of space. (In fact, today’s support, by scientists, for the space station 

appears to be greater than their support for Apollo as little as two years ago!) 

With Skylab, we can extend our experience from two weeks to two months; we 

can test realistically man’s contribution to science, applications, and engineering 

functions; and we can develop an understanding of our future options early 

enough to permit the rational, deliberate evolution of our programs.

At the same time, Skylab-borne experiments are of unique scientifi c and technical 

value in themselves. The Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) will, because of its 

capability to use fi lm, have data acquisition rates a million times higher than that 

of the automated Orbiting Solar Observatory; the ATM is therefore ideally suited 

for the very high resolution study of rapidly varying solar phenomena. The earth 

resources survey package will give us the fi rst meaningful intercomparison of 

photographic, infrared, and microwave remote sensors to correlate with aircraft 

ERTS experiments for determination of the next step in this exciting and relevant 
Exploring the Unknown 753

applications area. This package will also provide a special resolution far greater 

than the unmanned ERTS instruments. 

[3] To forego Skylab would have a powerful negative impact on astronomy and earth 

resources surveys. It would leave the U.S. without the data base for any future manned 

mission decisions. It would surrender to the U.S.S.R. the option of having the fi rst 

real space station in orbit. It would leave underdeveloped the desirable precedent 

of openly shared manned fl ight program scientifi c and technical results, a possibility 

currently underscored by the discussions in Moscow on the suggestion that the U.S. 

and U.S.S.R. use common docking hardware in their orbital spacecraft.

On balance, the weight of evidence seems to favor Skylab over Apollo if a choice 

must be made. The scientifi c returns from the single Skylab mission promise to be 

greater than those from a sixth Apollo lunar landing. We have already capitalized 

on our Apollo investment but not yet on that of Skylab; we will have more new 

options better developed stemming from Skylab than from Apollo; and, for this 

increased return, we risk less in earth orbit than at lunar distances.

[remainder of letter not included]

Sincerely yours,

/Signed/

George M. Low

Acting Administrator

Document II-79

PRIVILEGED INFORMATION [DECLASSIFIED]

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

WASHINGTON. D.C, 20546

November 3, 1971

Honorable Caspar W. Weinberger

Deputy Director

Offi ce of Management and Budget 

Executive Offi ce of the President 

Washington, D. C. 20503

Dear Cap:
754 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

In our conversation last week, you indicated that cancel lation of Apollo 16 and 17 was 

being considered by the President and asked for my views on the actions that should 

be taken to offset or minimize the adverse consequences if such a decision is made.

From a scientifi c standpoint these fi nal two missions are extremely important, 

especially Apollo 17 which will be the only fl ight carrying some of the most 

advanced experiments originally planned for Apollos 18 and 19, cancelled last 

year. With what we have learned from Apollo 15 and previous missions, we seem 

to be on the verge of discovering what the entire moon is like: its structure, 

its composition, its resources, and perhaps even its origin. If Apollo 16 and 

17 lead to these discoveries, the Apollo program will go down in history not 

only as man’s greatest adventure, but also as his greatest scientifi c achievement. 

Recognizing the great scientifi c potential and the relatively small saving ($133 

million) compared to the investment already made in Apollo ($24 billion), 

I must as Administrator of NASA strongly recommend that the program be 

carried to completion as now planned.

If broader considerations, nevertheless, lead to a decision to cancel Apollo 16 

and 17, the consequences would be much more serious than the loss of a major 

scientifi c opportunity. Unless compensatory actions are taken at the same time to 

offset and minimize the impact, this decision could be a blow from which the space 

program might not easily recover. As you requested, I will summarize the principal 

adverse conse quences as I see them and then outline my recommendations on 

the compensatory actions necessary. 

[2] PRINCIPAL ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES

1. Negative Effect on Congressional and Public Support.

Without strong compensatory actions, a decision to cancel Apollo 16 and 

17 would undermine the support the space program now enjoys and jeopardize the 

continued support that is re quired over the years to sustain the nation’s position 

in space. Even though enthusiasm for the space program has diminished since 

the fi rst lunar landing, NASA has continued to receive better than 98 percent of 

its budget requests each year (99.94% in FY 1972) because a substantial majority 

has accepted the judgments of the Administration and NASA’s leadership that the 

space program is vital to the United States and that the programs recommended 

each year are neces sary to achieve our goals. Cancellation of Apollo 16 and 17 

would undermine this support in two ways.

First, it would call into question our credibility on this and other major 

elements of the space program since it would be a sudden reversal of the position 

we have so recently strongly supported in defense of our FY 1972 budget.

Second, it would terminate our best known, most visible and most exciting 

program which, in the minds of many in Congress and the public, has been the 

symbol of the space program and its success.

These factors, unless offset by strong positive actions, could result in a 

loss of confi dence and interest that would have a “domino” effect, causing us to 
Exploring the Unknown 755

lose support for the programs which are essential to the long-term future of the 

nation in space.

2. Impact on Science and the Scientifi c Community

At this time, the entire cognizant scientifi c community is strongly in 

favor of Apollo 16 and 17. Cancellation would come as a shock and a surprise 

in view of the strong support these missions have received from the President’s 

Science Adviser, all of NASA’s science advisory groups, NASA manage ment, and 

the Congress. There will be strong and vocal critical reaction.

[3] 3. Impact on Industry.

Taken by itself, the direct impact of the cancellation of Apollo 16 and 17 

would be further reductions in 1972 of over 6,000 aerospace jobs. The hardest hit 

areas would be Southern California, Long Island, Cape Kennedy, and Houston. 

Unless the decision is coupled with commitments and actions to proceed with and 

possibly expedite other programs, like the space shuttle, it will be a devastating 

blow, actually and psychologically, to an already hard-hit industry.

4. Impact on NASA.

The impact on NASA will be felt most strongly at Houston and, to a lesser 

extent, at Huntsville and Cape Kennedy. A major problem will be to hold together 

for over a year the team we will need to rely on to conduct safely the Skylab 

missions in 1973. We will have to deal with the diffi cult and visible problem of the 

futures of the 16 astronauts now assigned to Apollo 16 and 17. The blow to morale 

throughout NASA will be serious unless, again, the decision is coupled with clear 

decisions and commitments on future programs.

5. Impact on the Public.

The large segment of space enthusiasts in the population at large 

would be extremely disappointed by the proposed cancellation. Included in this 

group would be millions who have come to Cape Kennedy, often from very long 

distances, to witness Apollo launches, and the much larger numbers who follow 

each mission closely on TV. These groups may be a minority in the U.S. but they 

are quite vocal and certainly non-negligible in size.

6. Impact Abroad

It is our understanding from USIA reports that the Apollo fl ights have 

been a major plus factor for the U.S. image abroad. The impact of cancelling [sic] 

Apollo 16 and 17 should be assessed in arriving at a decision.

[4] RATIONALE AND ACTIONS REQUIRED

If a decision is made to cancel Apollo 16 and 17, it is essential to provide a clearly 

stated and defensible rationale and take constructive actions to minimize the 

adverse impacts of the cancellation on the space program, the Administration, 
756 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

and the individuals, “communities of interest,” and organizations affected. The 

rationale and actions must make it clear that, in spite of the cancellation, the 

President continues to support a program involving man in space and with strong 

scientifi c content. Specifi cally:

1. The reason given for cancelling [sic] Apollo would be budgetary; 

there are no other limitations to carrying Apollo to completion.

2. The total space program recommended by the President must be 

one that does not put an end to manned space fl ight (or even portends to do so 

in the future) and must, therefore, include Skylab and a real commitment to the 

shuttle with a go-ahead in the spring of 1972, and some earth orbit Apollo (“gapfi ller”) missions between Skylab and the shuttle.

3. The scientifi c content of the space program should be enhanced to 

offset the science lost with Apollo 16 and 17.

4. The total NASA budget should not drop below the essentially 

constant level of FY 1971 and FY 1972 (about $3.3 billion in budget authority) to 

demonstrate the President’s intent to maintain a strong space program.

Rationale

The rationale supporting this position would be as follows: 

“Our space program has three basic purposes: exploration; the acquisition 

of scientifi c knowledge; and practical applications for man on earth. (See 

President’s statement of March 7, 1970.) We must always strive to achieve the 

proper balance among these purposes. 

“Today we must stress two aspects of our space program. We must give a 

top priority to practical applications now possible and press forward with 

[5] the development of earth oriented systems which will enable us to make 

wider and more effective practical uses of space in the future.

“The key to the future in space--in science and exploration as well as 

practical applications--is routine access to space. Space activities will be part 

of our lives for the rest of time. These activities cannot continue, for long, to 

be as complex, as demanding, or as costly as they are today. We must develop 

new, simpler, less expensive techniques to go to space and to return from 

space. This is the goal of the space shuttle program. The sooner we get on 

with this development, the sooner will we be able to turn our knowledge 

gained in space science and space exploration toward helping man on 

earth.

“To operate in space most effectively we must also learn more about how 

man can best live and work in space. So while we are developing the shuttle, 

we must conduct space operations over longer periods of time--with Skylab.
Exploring the Unknown 757

“But to do all these things within limited resources, we must give up 

something. And when all factors are considered, the best project to give up-

-most reluctantly-- is the remainder of Apollo: Apollo 16 and 17. This will for 

a time curtail our program of manned exploration and science.

“But we will, of course, continue exploration deep into space with 

unmanned spacecraft, including a landing on Mars in July 1976 with Viking, 

and the exploration of all the outer planets, Jupiter and beyond, with the 

Grand Tour late in this decade. The unmanned science program, with its 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory and other spacecraft will also continue 

to expand our funda mental knowledge of the universe. It is only manned 

science, and manned exploration, that will be curtailed.

“The United States must continue to fl y men in space. Man will fl y in 

space, and we cannot forego our responsibility--to ourselves and to the free 

world- -to take part in this great venture. But for a time man can devote his 

own efforts, from space, toward practical [6] needs here on earth, while 

leaving exploration beyond the earth to machines.”

I believe that this is the best rationale that can be given, although it is admittedly 

somewhat complex, and neither it nor any other rationale will be accepted by the 

interested scientifi c community.

Actions

The actions required to offset the adverse impact of the cancellation of Apollo 16 

and 17 should include:

1. A commitment to a strong manned space fl ight program including 

Skylab and a good start on the space shuttle.

2. The earth-oriented emphasis of manned space fl ight can be further 

amplifi ed by fl ying “surplus” Apollo space craft in earth orbit in the 1974-76 time 

period, i.e., “gap-fi ller” missions after Skylab and before the shuttle, as proposed 

in the NASA FY 1973 budget submissions. These spacecraft can be equipped with 

sophisticated earth-oriented experiments as precursors to the type of operations 

to be carried out with the shuttle. At the same time, they could provide the 

means for a joint fl ight with the Soviet Union- -a step that has already been hailed 

editorially as one in the right direction for the U.S. space program in that it could 

lead to an ultimate sharing of the expense of space among many nations.

3. Science: NASA needs the support of the “scientifi c community” 

to carry out its programs. And although the impact of this community on the 

Administration as a whole is small, it is important to minimize and divert the 

criticism the Administration will receive as a result of a decision to cancel Apollo 

16 and 17.

Nothing can be done to get general acceptance of a cancellation by the 

lunar scientists. However, the impact on them, as well as criticism by all scientists, 

can be minimized if the following steps are taken:
758 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

a. Announcement of a sound program for the con tinued analysis of 

lunar materials already obtained. Such a [7] program would have a great scientifi c 

value, and would also continue fi nancial support to the scientists involved in lunar 

analysis, who would otherwise be out of a job.

b. Initiation of a small effort toward Jupiter orbiters and probes 

(“Pioneer” class spacecraft). One of the most important concerns of the National 

Academy of Sciences Space Science Board is that NASA’s present plans for the 

Grand Tour missions to the outer planets do not include a parallel program 

for the detailed exploration of Jupiter. The inclusion of a continuing Pioneer 

program, in addition to the Grand Tour, would partially offset the nega tive impact 

of the cancellation of Apollo.

c. Reinstatement of the Orbiting Solar Observatories I, J, and K, 

proposed for deletion in NASA’s FY 1973 budget proposal, and the full funding 

of the High Energy Astronomy Observatory, proposed for reduced funding in 

NASA’s budget, would demonstrate the Administration’s desire to support science 

to a large segment of the space science community.

4. The effectiveness of the above compensatory actions will depend in 

large measure on the total budget level approved for NASA for FY 1973. Unless 

the NASA FY 1973 budget is essentially at or above the FY 1971 and FY 1972 

budget authority level of about $3.3 billion, the decision to cancel Apollo 16 and 

17 will be regarded by the Congress, the public, and the scientifi c community as a 

part of a general backing away from and downgrading of the space program.

Effect of Actions on Budget

The actions discussed above would result in a net reduction in NASA’s FY 1973 

minimum recommended budget estimates but would not take the total estimate 

for budget authority below $3.3 billion, as indicated below.

[8]

(in millions) 

Budget 

Authority

Budget

Outlays

NASA FY 1973 Budget

 Submission—Minimum 

 Recommended Program

$3,385 $3,225

Cancellation of Apollo 

16 & 17 –133 –109 

Start Space Shuttle (no change) (no change)

Reinstate OSO-I, J, K + 20 + 15

Start Pioneer Orbiter/

Probes + 15 + 5
Exploring the Unknown 759

Full Support for HEAO + 26 + 20

1974-1976 Manned 

Orbital Flights + 38 + 30

TOTAL $3,351 $3, 186 

Effect on Employment

If the actions previously discussed--the early go-ahead on the shuttle, the inclusion 

of the gap-fi ller missions, and the augmentation of science missions--are taken, 

then the negative impact on the industry, and on employment, will to some degree 

be alleviated. The effects of these actions on employment during calendar year 

1972, in terms of changes in contractor employment projected under our FY 1973 

budget recommendations, would be approximately as follows:

[9]

Employment

End of 1972 Contractor

Estimated under NASA FY 1973

 Budget Submission (Minimum

 Recommended Program)

109, 200

Cancellation of 

Apollo 16 & 17 - 6,200

Start Space Shuttle (no change)

Reinstate OSO I, J, K + 700

Start Pioneer orbiter/probes (no signifi cant

effect until 1973)

Full support for HEAO + 1,200

1974-1976 manned orbital fl ights + 1,900

TOTAL 106, 800

The net effect on employment will be downward since the decrease would be 

almost immediate but increases due to new programs obviously take a few months 

to materialize.

In a separate exercise, we have provided information to Fred Foy to show how 

employment on the shuttle could be increased above our FY 1973 budget 

recommendations.
760 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

CONCLUSIONS

I recommend against the cancellation of Apollo 16 and 17 because these fl ights 

are scientifi cally important, and because much of the overall support for NASA’s 

space program depends on our actions with respect to these fl ights.

If, nevertheless, for reasons external to NASA, Apollo 16 and 17 must be cancelled, 

then it becomes necessary to:

1. Provide strong backing to the manned earth -oriented space program.

[10] 2. Develop a rationale for the actions taken that is credible and 

supportable.

3. Take compensatory actions that will minimize the impact on the 

remaining NASA programs and their support.

The proposed rationale for the cancellation of Apollo 16 and 17 is that, in these 

times of pressing domestic needs, the manned space program should be earthoriented instead of exploration and science-oriented.

The compensatory actions involve an early go-ahead for the space shuttle, the 

inclusion of “gap-fi ller” missions between Skylab and the shuttle, a number of 

augmented unmanned space science programs, and maintaining a total NASA 

budget at the FY 1971-1972 level of about $3.3 in budget authority.

I would be pleased to discuss these matters with you at your convenience.

Sincerely,

James C. Fletcher 

Administrator

Document II-80

Document Title: Letter to Congressman G. P. Miller, Chairman of the House 

Committee on Science and Astronautics, from 39 Scientists, 10 September 

1970.

Source: Folder #18675, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

NASA announced the cancellation of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions on 2 September 

1970. There was an outcry from the media and many members of the scientifi c community, 

but the decision could not be reversed. This meant that the Apollo lunar landing program 

would end with the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972.
Exploring the Unknown 761

September 10, 1970

Congressman G. P. Miller 

Chairman House Committee on Science

 and Astronautics

House Offi ce Building 

Washington, D. C. 20515

Dear Chairman Miller:

We, the undersigned scientists concerned with the space program, would like 

to express to you our deep misgivings about the NASA decision of cancelling [sic] two 

of the remaining lunar Apollo fl ights, resulting in a severe curtailment of the lunar 

exploration program. In particular, we would like to stress the following points:

1. The Apollo lunar program is intended to supply not merely information 

of interest to scientists, but to give us fi nally a clear understanding of 

the origin of the earth-moon system and with this, an understanding 

of the origin and mode of construction of our earth. The structure 

of the Apollo program is one of increasing capabilities, and the 

two cancelled missions represent much more than one third of the 

planned scientifi c program. With this curtailment, the program may 

fail in its chief pur pose of reaching a new level of understanding.

2. The NASA policy leading to the cancellations appears to be one 

of favoring the early construction of large manned earth orbital 

systems following after Skylab A, and the effort and funds saved by 

the curtailment will probably go towards these. The merit of these 

programs for science or applications should be investigated, and the 

very important decision regarding their funding should in our view 

be made as a separate step. At present, it appears that the approved 

and scientifi cally most fruitful lunar program will suffer in favor of 

an as yet unapproved program for whose scientifi c value there is no 

consensus, and whose purpose is unclear.

3. The majority of the equipment saved by the proposed cancellations 

will in all probability be shelved indefi nitely, since large funds would 

be required for its adaptation to other purposes or its rehabilitation 

at a later date for lunar fl ights, as well as for the re-creation of the 

Apollo launch capability.

We hope that these decisions are not yet fi nal, and that the country will 

not give up a plan of very great signifi cance when the preparation for it is so 

nearly complete.

Yours sincerely,

(See attached pages)
762 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

cc: Congressman Olin E. Teague

House Offi ce Building

Washington, D.C. 20515

[Signed] Dr. M. E. Langseth

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory – 

Columbia University

[Signed] Dr. William M. Kaula

Professor of Geophysics

University of California

[Signed] Dr. Lincoln R. Page

U.S. Geological Survey

[Signed] Dr. William R. Muehlberger

Professor of Geology

University of Texas

[Signed] Dr. Rolf Meissner

Visiting Professor

University of Hawaii

[Signed] Dr. T. W. Thompson

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

[Signed] Dr. Brian H. Mason, Curator

Division of Meteorites

U.S. National Museum

[Signed] Dr. Roman A. Schmitt

Radiation Center

Oregon State University

[Signed] Dr. Ian D. MacGregor

Department of Geology

University of California

[Signed] Professor Thomas Gold

Center for Radio Physics and Space Research –

Cornell University

[Signed] Dr. William W. Ruby, Director

The Lunar Science Institute and

Prof. of Geology, the University

of California, Los Angeles

[Signed] Dr. Leon T. Silver

Division of Geological Sciences

California Institute of Technology
Exploring the Unknown 763

[Signed] S. O’Sullivan

[Signed] Dr. Eugene Schoemaker [sic]

Division of Geological Sciences

California Institute of Technology

[Signed] Dr. Jeffrey L. Warner

Geology Branch

Manned Spacecraft Center

[Signed] Dr. Charles E. Helsley

Acting Head, Geosciences

University of Texas, Dallas

[Signed] Dr. Warren G. Meinschein

Department of Geology

Indiana University

[Signed] Dr. George Wetherill

Department of Planetary and Space Science

University of California

[Signed] Dr. A. G. W. Cameron

Goddard Space Flight Center

Institute for Space Studies

[Signed] Dr. John Wasson

Department of Chemistry

University of California

[Signed] Dr. Bruce Doe

NASA Headquarters

Code MAL

[Signed] Dr. John Wood

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

[Signed] Manuel N. Bass

[Signed] Dr. Harold C. Urey

Department of Chemistry

Revelle College

University of California, San Diego

[Signed] Dr. Robert A. Phinney

Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences

Princeton University

[Signed] Dr. Anthony W. England

Code CB

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center
764 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[Signed] Dr. Harold Masursky

Branch of Astrogeologic Studies

U.S. Geological Survey

[Signed] Dr. Gerald Schubert

Dept. of Planetary and Space Sciences

University of California

[Signed] Dr. Charles Sonnet

NASA Ames Research Center

[Signed] Dr. Geoffrey Eglinton

Organic Geochemistry Unit

School of Chemistry

University of Bristol

[Signed] Dr. N. U. Mayall, Director

Kitt Peak National Observatory

[Signed] Dr. John B. Adams

Carribean Research Institute

College of the Virgin Islands

[Signed] Dr. Thomas B. McCord

Assistant Professor, Planetary Physics

Dept. of Earth & Planetary Sciences

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

[Signed] Dr. J. J. Papike

Dept. of Earth & Space Sciences

State University of New York

[Signed] Mr. Ernest Schonfeld

Geology Branch

Manned Spacecraft Center

[Signed] Dr. George E. Ulrich

U.S. Geological Survey

[Signed] Mr. J. D. Strobell, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey

[Signed] Dr. David S. McKay

[Signed] Dr. John Reynolds

Department of Physics

University of California, Berkeley 
Exploring the Unknown 765

Document II-81

Document Title: Mission Evaluation Team, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, 

“Apollo 11: Mission Report,” 1971.

Source: Johnson Space Center Archives.

This report captures in fl at prose what actually took place during the historic Apollo 11 

lunar landing mission. Included here are a brief mission overview and the crew’s report on 

mission activities. [APOLLO 11 Mission Report Cover follows]
766 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[1-1]

1.0 SUMMARY

The purpose of the Apollo 11 mission was to land men on the lunar 

surface and to return them safely to earth. The crew were Neil A. Armstrong, 

Commander; Michael Collins, Command Module Pilot; and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., 

Lunar Module Pilot.

The space vehicle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 

at 8:32:00 a.m., e.s.t., July 16, 1969. The activities during earth orbit checkout, 

translunar injection, transposition and docking, spacecraft ejection, and 

translunar coast were similar to those of Apollo 10. Only one midcourse correction, 

performed at about 27 hours elapsed time, was required during translunar coast.

The spacecraft was inserted into lunar orbit at about 76 hours, and the 

circularization maneuver was performed two revolutions later. Initial checkout of lunar 

module systems was satisfactory, and after a planned rest period, the Commander and 

Lunar Module Pilot entered the lunar module to prepare for descent.

The two spacecraft were undocked at about 100 hours, followed by 

separation of the command and service modules from the lunar module. Descent 

orbit in sertion was performed at approximately 101-1/2 hours, and powered 

descent to the lunar surface began about 1 hour later. Operation of the guidance 

and descent propulsion systems was nominal. The lunar module was maneuvered 

manually approximately 1100 feet down range from the nominal landing point 

during the fi nal 2-1/2 minutes of descent. The spacecraft landed in the Sea of 

Tranquility at 102:45:40. The landing coordinates were 0 degrees 41 minutes 15 

seconds north latitude and 23 degrees 26 minutes east longitude reference to 

lunar map ORB-II-6(100), fi rst edition, December 1967. During the fi rst 2 hours 

on the lunar surface, the two crewmen performed a postlanding checkout of 

all lunar module systems. Afterward, they ate their fi rst meal on the moon and 

elected to perform the surface operations earlier than planned.

Considerable time was deliberately devoted to checkout and donning 

of the back-mounted portable life support and oxygen purge systems. The 

Commander egressed through the forward hatch and deployed an equipment 

module in the descent stage. A camera in this module provided live television 

coverage of the Commander descending the ladder to the surface, with fi rst contact 

made at 109:24:15 (9:56:15 p.m. e.s.t., July 20, 1969). The Lunar Module Pilot 

egressed soon thereafter, and both crewmen used the ini tial period on the surface 

to become acclimated to the reduced gravity and unfamiliar surface conditions. 

A contingency sample was taken from the surface, and the television camera was 

deployed so that most of the lunar module was included in its view fi eld. The 

crew activated the scientifi c experiments, which included a solar wind detector, 

a passive [1-2] seismometer, and a laser retro-refl ector. The Lunar Module Pilot 

evaluated his ability to operate and move about, and was able to translate rapidly 

and with confi dence. Forty-seven pounds of lunar surface material were collected 

to be returned for analysis. The surface exploration was concluded in the allotted 

time of 2-1/2 hours, and the crew reentered the lunar module at 111-1/2 hours.
Exploring the Unknown 767

Ascent preparation was conducted effi ciently, and the ascent stage lifted 

off the surface at 124-1/4 hours. A nominal fi ring of the ascent engine placed the 

vehicle into a 48- by 9-mile orbit. After a rendezvous sequence similar to that of 

Apollo 10, the two spacecraft were docked at 128 hours. Following transfer of the 

crew, the ascent stage was jettisoned, and the command and service modules were 

prepared for trans earth injection.

The return fl ight started with a 150-second fi ring of the service propulsion 

engine during the 31st lunar revolution at 135-1/2 hours. As in the translunar 

fl ight, only one midcourse correction was required, and passive thermal control 

was exercised for most of transearth coast. Inclement weather necessitated 

moving the landing point 215 miles downrange. The entry phase was normal, 

and the command module landed in the Pacifi c Ocean at 195-1/4 hours. The 

landing coordinates, as determined from the onboard computer, were 13 degrees 

19 minutes north latitude and 169 degrees 09 minutes west longitude.

After landing, the crew donned biological isolation garments. They were 

then retrieved by helicopter and taken to the primary recovery ship, USS Hornet. 

The crew and lunar material samples were placed in the Mobile Quarantine Facility 

for transport to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. The command 

module was taken aboard the Hornet about 3 hours after landing. 

With the completion of Apollo 11, the national objective of landing men 

on the moon and returning them safely to earth before the end of the decade had 

been accomplished.

[Sections 2 and 3 not included]

[4-1]

4.0 PILOTS’ REPORT

4.1 PRELAUNCH ACTIVITIES

 All prelaunch systems operations and checks were completed on time 

and without dif fi culty. The confi guration of the environmental control system 

included operation of the secondary glycol loop and provided comfortable 

cockpit temperature conditions.

4.2 LAUNCH

Lift-off occurred precisely on time with ignition accompanied by a low 

rumbling noise and moderate vibration that increased signifi cantly at the moment 

of hold-down release. The vibration magnitudes decreased appreciably at the time 

tower clearance was verifi ed. The yaw, pitch, and roll guidance-program sequences 

occurred as expected. No unusual sounds or vibrations while passing through the 

region of maximum dynamic pressure and the angle of attack remained near zero. 

The S-IC/S-II staging sequence occurred smoothly and at the expected time.
768 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The entire S-II stage fl ight was remarkably smooth and quiet, and the 

launch escape tower and boost protective cover were jettisoned normally. The 

mixture ratio shift of the was accompanied by a noticeable acceleration decrease. 

The S-II/S-IVB staging sequence occurred smoothly and approximately at the 

predicted time. The S-IVB insertion trajectory was completed without incident 

and the automatic guidance shutdown yielded an insertion-orbit ephemeris, 

from the command module com puter, of 102.1 by 103.9 miles. Communications 

between the crewmembers and the Network were excellent throughout all stages 

of launch. 

4.3 Earth Orbit Coast and Translunar Injection

The insertion checklist was completed, and a series of spacecraft systems 

checks disclosed no abnormalities. All tests of the navigation equipment, 

including alignments and drift checks, were satisfactory. The service module 

reaction control thrusters were fi red in the minimum impulse mode and were 

verifi ed by telemetry.

No abnormalities were noted during preparation for translunar injection. 

Initiation of translunar injection was accompanied by the proper onboard 

indications and the S-IVB propellant tanks were repressurized on schedule.

[4-2] The S-IVB stage reignited on time at 2:44:16 without ignition or 

guidance transients. An apparent 0.50- to 1.5- degree pitch-attitude error on 

the attitude indicators was not con fi rmed by the command module computer, 

which indicated that the attitude and the attitude rate duplicated the reference 

trajectory precisely (see section 8.6). The guided cutoff yielded a velocity very 

close to that expected, as indicated by the onboard computer. The entry monitor 

system further confi rmed that the forward velocity error for the translunar 

injection maneuver was within 3.3 ft/sec.

4.4 Transposition and Docking

The digital autopilot was used for the transposition maneuver scheduled 

to begin 20 seconds after spacecraft separation from the S-IVB. The time delay 

was to allow the command and service modules to drift approximately 70 feet 

prior to thrusting back toward the S-IVB. The separation and the beginning of 

transposition were on time. In order to assure a pitch-up maneuver for better 

visibility through the hatch window, pitch axis control was retained in a manual 

mode until after a pitch-up rate of approximately 1 deg/sec was attained. Control 

was then given to the digital autopilot to continue the combined pitch/roll 

maneuver. However, the autopilot stopped pitching up at this point, and it was 

necessary to reestablish manual control (see section 8.6 for more discussion of this 

subject). This cycle was repeated several times before the autopilot continued the 

transposition maneuver. Consequently, additional time and reaction control fuel 

(18 pounds above prefl ight nominal) were required, and the spacecraft reached 

a maximum separation distance of at least 100 feet from the S-IVB.

The subsequent closing maneuvers were made normally under digital 

autopilot control, using a 2-deg/sec rate and 0.5-degree deadband control mode. 
Exploring the Unknown 769

Contact was made at an esti mated 0.1 ft/sec, without side velocity, but with a 

small roll misalignment. Subsequent tunnel inspection revealed a roll index angle 

of 2.0 degrees and a contact mark on the drogue 4 inches long. Lunar module 

extraction was normal.

4.5 Translunar Coast

The S-IVB was targeted to achieve a translunar injection cut-off velocity 

6.5 ft/sec in excess of that required to place it on the desired free-return trajectory. 

This overspeed was then cancelled by a service propulsion correction of 20 ft/sec 

at 23 minutes after spacecraft ejection.

[4-3] Two periods of cislunar midcourse navigation, using the command 

module computer pro gram (P23), were planned and executed. The fi rst, at 6 

hours, was primar ily to establish the apparent horizon altitude for optical marks 

in the computer. The fi rst determination was begun at a distance of approximately 

30,000 miles, while the second determination, at 24 hours, was designed to 

accurately determine the optical bias errors. Excess time and fuel were expended 

during the fi rst period because of dif fi culty in locating the substellar point of 

each star. Ground-supplied gimbal angles were used rather than those from the 

onboard computer. This technique was devised be cause computer solutions are 

unconstrained about the optics shaft axis; therefore, the computer is unable to 

predict if the lunar module structure might block the line of sight to the star. The 

ground-supplied angles prevented the lunar module structure from oc culting the 

star, but were not accurate in locating the precise substellar point, as evi denced by 

the fact that the sextant reticle pattern was not parallel to the horizon. Additional 

maneuvers were required to achieve a parallel reticle pattern near the point of 

horizon-star superposition.

The second period of navigation measurements was less diffi cult, largely 

because the earth appeared much smaller and trim maneuvers to the substellar 

point could be made much more quickly and economically.

The digital autopilot was used to initiate the passive thermal control mode at 

a positive roll rate of 0.3 deg/sec, with the positive longitudinal axis of the spacecraft 

pointed toward the ecliptic North Pole during translunar coast (the ecliptic South 

Pole was the direction used during transearth coast). After the roll rate was established, thruster fi ring was prevented by turning off all 16 switches for the service 

module thrusters. In general, this method was highly successful in that it maintained 

a satisfactory spacecraft attitude for very long periods of time and allowed the crew 

to sleep without fear of either entering gimbal lock or encountering unacceptable 

thermal con ditions. However, a refi nement to the procedure in the form of a new 

computer routine is required to make it foolproof from an operator’s viewpoint.

[Editor’s note: A new routine (routine 64) was available for Apollo 12.] On several 

occa sions and for several different reasons, an incorrect computer-entry procedure 

was used, resulting in a slight waste of reaction control propellants. Satisfactory 

platform alignments (program P52, option 3) using the optics in the resolved mode 

and medium speed were possible while rotating at 0.3 deg/sec.
770 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

4.6 Lunar Orbit Insertion

The spacecraft was inserted into a 169.9- by 60.9-mile orbit based on the 

onboard computer with a 6-minute service propulsion maneuver. Procedurally, 

this fi ring was the same as all the other service propulsion [4-4] maneuvers, except 

that it was started by using the bank-B propellant valves instead of the bank-A 

valves. The steering of the docked spacecraft was exceptionally smooth, and the 

control of applied velocity change was extremely accurate, as evidenced by the 

fact that residuals were only 0.1 ft/sec in all axes.

The circularization maneuver was targeted for a 66- by 54-mile orbit, 

a change from the 60-mile circular orbit which had been executed in previous 

lunar fl ights. The fi ring was normally accomplished using bank-A propellant 

valves only, and the onboard solution of the orbit was 66.1 by 54.4 miles. The 

ellipticity of this orbit was supposed to slowly disappear because of irregularities 

in the lunar gravitational fi eld, such that the command module would be in a 60-

mile circular orbit at the time of rendezvous. How ever, the onboard estimate of 

the orbit during the rendezvous was 63.2 by 56.8 miles, indicating the ellipticity 

decay rate was less than expected. As a result the rendezvous maneuver solutions 

differed from the prefl ight estimates.

4.7 Lunar Module Checkout

Two entries were made into the lunar module prior to the fi nal activation 

on the day of landing. The fi rst entry was made at about 57 hours, on the day 

before lunar orbit insertion. Television and still cameras were used to document 

the hatch probe and drogue removal and the initial entry into the lunar module. 

The command module oxygen hoses were used to provide circulation in the lunar 

module cabin. A leisurely inspection period confi rmed the proper positioning of 

all circuit breaker and switch set tings and stowage items. All cameras were checked 

for proper operation.

4.8 Descent Preparation

4.8.1 Lunar Module

The crew was awakened according to the fl ight plan schedule. The liquid 

cooling garment and biomedical harnesses were donned. In anticipation, these 

items had been unstowed and prepositioned the evening before. Following 

a hearty breakfast, the Lunar Module Pilot transferred into the lunar module 

to accomp lish initial activation before returning to the command module for 

suiting. This stag gered suiting sequence served to expedite the fi nal checkout 

and resulted in only two crewmembers being in the command module during 

each suiting operation.

[4-5] The sequence of activities was essentially the same as that developed 

for Apollo 10, with only minor refi nements. Numerous Network simulations and 

train ing sessions, including suited operations of this mission phase, ensured the 

completion of this exercise within the allotted time. As in all previous entries into 
Exploring the Unknown 771

the lunar module, the repressurization valve produced a loud “bang” whenever 

it was positioned to CLOSE or AUTO with the cabin regulator off. Transfer of 

power from the command module to the lunar module and then electrical power 

system activation were completed on schedule. 

The primary glycol loop was activated about 30 minutes early, with a 

slow but immediate decrease in glycol temperature. The activation continued to 

progress smoothly 30 to 40 minutes ahead of schedule. With the Commander 

entering the lunar mod ule early, the Lunar Module Pilot had more than twice the 

normally allotted time to don his pressure suit in the command module.

The early powerup of the lunar module computer and inertial 

measurement unit enabled the ground to calculate the fi ne gyro torquing angles 

for aligning the lunar module platform to the command module platform before 

the loss of communications on the lunar far side. This early alignment added 

more than an hour to the planned time available for analyzing the drift of the 

lunar module guidance system.

After suiting, the Lunar Module Pilot entered the lunar module, the 

drogue and probe were installed, and the hatch was closed. During the ascentbattery checkout, the vari ations in voltage produced a noticeable pitch and 

intensity variation in the already loud noise of the glycol pump. Suit-loop pressure 

integrity and cabin regulator repressuri zation checks were accomplished without 

diffi culty. Activation of the abort guidance system produced only one minor 

anomaly. An illuminated portion of one of the data read out numerics failed, and 

this resulted in some ambiguity in data readout (see section 16.2.7).

Following command module landmark tracking, the vehicle was 

maneuvered to ob tain steerable antenna acquisition and state vectors were 

uplinked into the primary guidance computer. The landing gear deployment was 

evidenced by a slight jolt to the vehicle. The reaction control system, the descent 

propulsion system, and the rendez vous radar system were activated and checked 

out. Each pressurization was con fi rmed both audibly and by instrument readout.

The abort guidance system calibration was accomplished at the preplanned 

vehicle attitude. As the command and service modules maneuvered both vehicles 

to the undocking attitude, a fi nal switch and circuit breaker confi guration check 

was accomplished, fol lowed by donning of helmets and gloves.

[4-6] 4.8.2 Command Module

 Activities after lunar orbit circularization were routine, with the time 

being used primarily for photographs of the lunar surface. The activation of 

the lunar module in preparation for descent was, from the viewpoint of the 

Command Module Pilot, a well organized and fairly leisurely period. During the 

abort guidance system calibration, the command module was maintained at a 

fi xed attitude for several minutes without fi ring thrusters. It was easy to stabilize 

the spacecraft with minimum-impulse control prior to the required period so that 

thruster fi rings were needed for at least 10 minutes.
772 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

The probe, drogue, and hatch all functioned perfectly, and the operations 

of closing out the tunnel, preloading the probe, and cocking the latches were 

done routinely. Previous practice with installation and removal of the probe and 

drogue during translunar coast was most helpful.

Two periods of orbital navigation (P22) were scheduled with the lunar 

module attached. The fi rst, at 83 hours, consisted of fi ve marks on the Crater 

Kamp in the Foaming Sea. The technique used was to approach the target area 

in an inertial attitude hold mode, with the X-axis being roughly horizontal when 

the spacecraft reached an elevation angle of 35° from the target, at which point a 

pitch down of approx imately 0.3 deg/sec was begun. This technique was necessary 

to assure a 2-1/2 minute mark period evenly distributed near the zenith, was 

performed without diffi culty.

The second navigation exercise was performed on the following day 

shortly prior to separation from the lunar module. A series of fi ve marks was 

taken on a small crater on the inner north wall of crater 130. The previously 

described technique was used, except that two forward-fi ring thrusters (one yaw 

and one pitch) were inhibited to preclude thrust impingement on the deployed 

rendezvous-radar and steerable antennas. The reduced pitch authority doubled 

the time required, to approximately 3 seconds when using accel eration command, 

to achieve a 0.3 deg/sec pitch-down rate. In both cases, the pitch rate was achieved 

without reference to any on board rate instrumentation by simply timing the 

duration of acceleration-command hand controller inputs, since the Command 

Module Pilot was in the lower equipment bay at the time.

To prevent the two vehicles from slipping and hence upsetting the docked 

lunar module platform alignment, roll thruster fi rings were inhibited after the 

probe preload until the tunnel had been vented to approximately 1 psi. Only 

single roll jet authority was used after the l-psi point was reached and until the 

tunnel pressure was zero.

[4-7]

 4.9 UNDOCKING AND SEPARATION

Particular care was exercised in the operation of both vehicles throughout 

the undocking and separation sequences to ensure that the lunar module guidance 

computer maintained an accurate knowledge of position and velocity.

The undocking action imparted a velocity to the lunar module of 0.4 

ft/sec, as measured by the lunar module primary guidance system. The abort 

guidance system disagreed with the primary system by approximately 0.2 ft/sec, 

which is well within the prefl ight limit. The velocity was nulled, assuming the 

primary system was assumed to be correct. The command module undocking 

velocity was maintained until reaching the desired inspec tion distance of 40 feet, 

where it was visually nulled with respect to the lunar module.

A visual inspection by the Command Module Pilot during a lunar module 

360-degree yaw ma neuver confi rmed proper landing gear extension. The lunar 
Exploring the Unknown 773

module maintained position with respect to the command module at relative rates 

believed to be less than 0.1 ft/sec. The 2.5-ft/sec, radially downward sep aration 

maneuver was performed with the command and service modules at 100 hours to 

enter the planned equiperiod separation orbit.

4.10 LUNAR MODULE DESENT

The fi rst optical alignment of the inertial platform in preparation 

for descent orbit insertion was accomplished shortly after entering darkness 

following separa tion. The torquing angles were approximately 0.3 degree, 

indicating an error in the docked alignment or platform drift. A rendezvous 

radar lock was achieved manually, and the radar boresight coincided with that 

of the crew optical sight. Radar range was sub stantiated by the VHD ranging in 

the command module.

4.10.1 Descent Orbit Insertion

The descent orbit insertion maneuver was performed with the descent 

engine in the manual throttle confi guration. Ignition at the minimum throttle 

setting was smooth, with no noise or sensation of acceleration. After 15 sec onds, 

the thrust level was advanced to 40 percent, as planned. Throttle response was 

smooth and free of oscillations. The guided cutoff left residuals of less than 1 ft/

sec in each axis. The X- and Z-axis residuals were reduced to zero by using the 

reaction control system. The computer determined ephemeris was 9.1 by 57.2 

miles, as compared with the [4-8] predicted value of 8.5 by 57.2 miles. The abort 

guidance system confi rmed that the magnitude of the maneuver was correct. An 

additional evaluation was performed by using the rendezvous radar to check the 

relative velocity between the two spacecraft at 6 and 7 minutes subsequent to the 

maneuver. These values corresponded to the predicted data within 0.5 ft/sec.

4.10.2 Alignment and Navigation Checks

Just prior to powered descent, the angle between the line of sight to the 

sun and a selected axis of the inertial platform was compared with the onboard 

computer prediction of that angle and this provided a check on inertial platform 

drift. Three such measurements were all within the specifi ed tol erance, but the 

0.08-degree spread between them was somewhat larger than expected.

Visual checks of downrange and crossrange position indicated that 

ignition for the powered descent fi ring would occur at approximately the correct 

location over the lunar surface. Based on measurements of the line-of-sight rate of 

landmarks, the estimates of altitudes converged on a predicted altitude at ignition 

52 000 feet above the surface. These measure ments were slightly degraded because 

of a 10 - to 15-degree yaw bias maintained to improve com munications margins.

4.10.3 Powered Descent

Ignition for powered descent occurred on time at the minimum thrust 

level, and the engine was automatically advanced to the fi xed throttle point (max-
774 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

imum thrust) after 26 seconds. Visual position checks indicated the spacecraft 

was 2 or 3 seconds early over a known landmark, but with little cross-range error. 

A yaw maneuver to a face-up position was initiated at an altitude of about 45 900 

feet approximately 4 minutes after ignition. The landing radar began receiving 

altitude data immediately. The altitude difference, as displayed from the radar 

and the computer, was approximately 2800 feet.

At 5 minutes 16 seconds after ignition, the fi rst of a series of computer 

alarms indicated a computer overload condition. These alarms continued 

intermittently for more than 4 minutes, and although continuation of the 

trajectory was permissible, monitoring of the computer information display was 

occasionally precluded (see section 16.2.5).

Attitude-thruster fi rings were heard during each major attitude maneuver 

and inter mittently at other times. Thrust reduction of the descent propulsion 

system occurred nearly on time (planned at 6 minutes 24 seconds after ignition), 

contributed to the prediction that the [4-9] landing would probably be down 

range of the intended point, inasmuch as the computer had not been corrected 

for the observed downrange error.

The transfer to the fi nal-approach-phase program (P64) occurred at the 

predicted time. After the pitch maneuver and the radar antenna position change, 

the control system was transferred from the automatic to the attitude hold mode 

and control response checked in pitch and roll. Automatic control was restored 

after zeroing the pitch and yaw errors.

After it became clear that an automatic descent would terminate in a 

boulder fi eld surrounding a large sharp-rimmed crater, manual control was 

again assumed, and the range was extended to avoid the unsatisfactory landing 

area. The rate-of-descent mode of throttle (program P66) was entered in the 

computer to reduce altitude rate so as to maintain suffi cient height for landingsite surveillance.

Both the downrange and the crossrange positions were adjusted to 

permit fi nal descent in a small, relatively level area bounded by a boulder fi eld 

to the north and sizable craters to the east and south. Surface obscuration 

caused by blowing dust was apparent at 100 feet and became increasingly severe 

as the altitude decreased. Al though visual determination of horizontal velocity, 

attitude, and altitude rate were de graded, cues for these variables were adequate 

for landing. Landing conditions are estimated to have been 1 or 2 ft/sec left, 0 

ft/sec forward, and 1 ft/sec down; no evi dence of vehicle instability at landing 

was observed.

4.11 COMMAND MODULE SOLO ACTIVITIES

The Command Module Pilot consolidated all known documentation 

requirements for a single volume, known as the Command Module Pilot Solo 

Book, which was very useful and took the place of a fl ight plan, a rendezvous 

book, an updates book, a contingency extra vehicular checklist, and so forth. This 

book normally was anchored to the Command Mod ule Pilot by a clip attached 
Exploring the Unknown 775

to the end of his helmet tie-down strap. The sleep period was timed to coincide 

with that of the lunar module crew so that radio silence could be observed. The 

Command Module Pilot had complete trust in the various systems experts on duty 

in the Mission Control Center and therefore was able to sleep soundly.

The method used for target acquisition (program P22) while the lunar 

module was on the surface varied considerably from the docked case. The optical 

alignment sight reticle was placed on the horizon image, and the resulting 

spacecraft attitude was maintained manually at the orbital rate in the minimumimpulse control mode. Once stabilized, the vehicle maintained this attitude 

long enough to allow the Command Module Pilot to [4-10] move to the lower 

equipment bay and take marks. He could also move from the equipment bay to 

the hatch window in a few seconds to cross -check the attitude. This method of 

operation in general was very satisfactory.

Despite the fact that the Command Module Pilot had several uninterrupted 

minutes each time he passed over the lunar module, he could never see the 

spacecraft on the surface. He was able to scan an area of approximately 1 square 

mile on each pass, and ground estimates of lunar module position varied by 

several miles from pass to pass. It is doubtful that the Command Module Pilot 

was ever looking precisely at the lunar module and more likely was observing an 

adjacent area. Although it was not possible to assess the ability to see the lunar 

module from 60 miles, it was apparent there were no fl ashes of specular light with 

which to attract his attention.

The visibility through the sextant was good enough to allow the Command 

Module Pilot to acquire the lunar module (in fl ight) at distances of over 100 

miles. However, the lunar module was lost in the sextant fi eld of view just prior 

to powered descent ini tiation (120-mile range) and was not regained until after 

ascent insertion (at an approx imate range of 250 miles), when it appeared as a 

blinking light in the night sky.

In general, more than enough time was available to monitor systems and 

perform all necessary functions in a leisurely fashion, except during the rendezvous 

phase. During that 3-hour period when hundreds of computer entries, as well as 

numerous marks and other manual operations, were required, the Command 

Module Pilot had little time to devote to analyzing any off-nominal rendezvous 

trends as they developed or to cope with any systems malfunctions. Fortunately, 

no additional attention to these details was required.

4.12 LUNAR SURFACE OPERATIONS

4.12.1 Postlanding checkout

The postlanding checklist was completed as planned. Venting of the 

descent oxidizer tanks was begun almost immediately. When the oxidizer tank 

pres sure was vented to between 40 and 50 psi, fuel was vented to the same pressure 

level. Apparently, the pressure indications received on the ground were somewhat 

higher and they increased with time (see section 16.2.2). At ground request, the 

valves were reopened and the tanks vented to 15 psi.
776 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[4-11]

Platform alignment and preparation for early lift-off were completed on 

schedule without signifi cant problems. The mission timer malfunctioned and 

displayed an impossi ble number that could not be correlated with any specifi c 

failure time. After several unsuccessful attempts to recycle this timer, it was turned 

off for 11 hours to cool. The timer was turned on for ascent, and it operated 

properly and performed satisfactorily for the remainder of the mission (see 

section 16.2.1).

4.12.2 Egress Preparation

The crew had given considerable thought to the advantage of beginning 

the extravehicular activity as soon as possible after landing instead of following the 

fl ight plan schedule of having the surface operations between two rest periods. 

The initial rest period was planned to allow fl exibility in the event of un expected 

diffi culty with postlanding activities. These diffi culties did not materialize, the 

crew were not overly tired, and no problem was experienced in adjusting to the 

1/6-g environment. Based on these facts, the decision was made at 104:40:00 to 

proceed with the extravehicular activity prior to the fi rst rest period.

Preparation for extravehicular activity began at 106:11:00. The estimate 

of the preparation time proved to be optimistic. In simulations, 2 hours had been 

found to be a reasonable allocation; however, everything had also been laid out in an 

orderly manner in the cockpit, and only those items involved in the extravehicular 

activity were present. In fact, items involved in the extravehicular activity were 

present. In fact, there were checklists, food packets, monoculars, and other 

miscellaneous items that interfered with an orderly preparation. All these items 

required some thought as to their possible inter ference or use in the extravehicular 

activity. This interference resulted in exceeding the time line estimate by a 

considerable amount. Preparation for egress was conducted slowly, carefully, and 

deliberately, and future missions should be planned and conducted with the same 

philosophy. The extravehicular activity preparation checklist was adequate and was 

closely followed. However, minor items that required a decision in real time or had 

not been considered before fl ight required more time than anticipated.

An electrical connector on the cable that connects the remote control 

unit to the portable life support system gave some trouble in mating (see section 

16.3.2). This problem had been occasionally encountered with the same equipment 

before fl ight. At least 10 minutes were required in order to connect each unit, and 

at one point it was thought the connection would not be successfully completed.

Considerable diffi culty was experienced with voice communications 

when the extra vehicular transceivers were used inside the lunar module. At times 

communications were good, but at other times they were garbled on the [4-12] 

ground for no obvious reason. Outside the vehicle, there were no appreciable 

communication problems. Upon ingress from the surface, these diffi culties 

recurred, but under different conditions. That is, the voice dropouts to the 

ground were not repeatable in the same manner.
Exploring the Unknown 777

Depressurization of the lunar module was one aspect of the mission that 

had never been completely performed on the ground. In the various altitude 

chamber tests of the spacecraft and the extravehicular mobility unit, a complete 

set of authentic conditions was never present. The depressurization of the lunar 

module through the bacteria fi lter took much longer than had been anticipated. 

The indicated cabin pressure did not go below 0.1 psi, and some concern was 

experienced in opening the forward hatch against this residual pressure. The 

hatch appeared to bend on initial opening, and small particles appeared to be 

blown out around the hatch when the seal was broken (see section 16.2.6).

4.12.3 Lunar Module Egress

Simulation work in both the water immersion facility and the 1/6-g 

environment in an airplane was reasonably accurate in preparing the crew for 

lunar module egress. Body positioning and arching-the-back techniques that were 

required in to exit the hatch were preformed, and no unexpected problems were 

experienced. The forward platform was more than adequate to allow changing the 

body position from that used in egressing the hatch to that required for getting 

on the ladder. The fi rst ladder step was somewhat diffi cult to see and required 

caution and forethought. In general, the hatch, porch, and ladder operation were 

not particularly diffi cult and caused little concern. Operations on the platform 

could be performed without losing body balance, and there was adequate room 

for ma neuvering.

The initial operation of the lunar equipment conveyor in lowering the 

camera was satisfactory, but after the straps had become covered with lunar surface 

material, a problem arose in transporting the equipment back into the lunar 

module. Dust from this equipment fell back onto the lower crewmember and into 

the cabin and seemed to bind the conveyor so as to require considerable force to 

operate it. Al ternatives in transporting equipment into the lunar module had been 

suggested before fl ight, and although no opportunity was available to evaluate these 

techniques, it is believed they might be an improvement over the conveyor.

[4-13]

4.12.4 Surface Exploration

Work in the 1/6-g environment was a pleasant experience. Ad aptation 

to movement was not diffi cult and movement seemed to be natural. Certain specifi c peculiarities, such as the effect of the mass versus the lack of traction, can be 

anticipated but complete familiarization need not be pursued.

The most effective means of walking seemed to be the lope that evolved 

naturally. The fact that both feet were occasionally off the ground at the same 

time, plus the fact that the feet did not return to the surface as rapidly as on earth, 

required some antic ipation before attempting to stop. Al though movement was 

not diffi cult, there was noticeable resistance provided by the suit.

On future fl ights, crewmembers may want to consider kneeling in order 

to work with their hands. Getting to and from the kneeling position would be 
778 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

no problem, and being able to do more work with the hands would increase 

productive capability.

Photography with the Hasselblad cameras on the remote control unit 

mounts produced no problems. The fi rst panorama was taken while the camera 

was hand-held; however, it was much easier to operate on the mount. The handle 

on the camera was adequate, and very few pictures were triggered inadvertently.

The solar wind experiment was easily deployed. As with the other 

operations involv ing lunar surface penetration, it was only possible to penetrate 

the lunar surface material only about 4 or 5 inches. The experiment mount was 

not quite as stable as desired, but it stayed erect.

The television system presented no diffi culty except that the cord was 

continually in the way. At fi rst, the white cord showed up well, but it soon became 

covered with dust and was therefore more diffi cult to see. The cable had a “set” 

from being coiled around the reel and it would not lie completely fl at on the 

surface. Even when it was fl at, however, a foot could still slide under it, and the 

Commander became entangled several times (see section 16.3.1).

Collecting the bulk sample required more time than anticipated because 

the modular equipment stowage assembly table was in deep shadow, and collecting 

samples in that area was far less desirable than taking those in the sunlight. It 

was also desirable to take samples as far from the exhaust plume and propellant 

contamination as possible. An attempt was made to include a hard rock in each 

sample and approximately 20 trips were required to fi ll the box. As in simulations, 

the diffi culty of scooping up the material without throwing it out as the scoop 

[4-14] became free created some problem. It was almost impossible to collect a 

full scoop of material, and the task required about double the planned time.

Several of the operations would have been easier in sunlight. Although it 

was pos sible to see in the shadows, time must be allowed for dark adaptation when 

walking from the sunlight into shadow. On future missions, it would advantageous 

to conduct a yaw maneuver just prior to landing so that the descent stage work 

area would be in sunlight.

The scientifi c experiment package was easy to deploy manually, and some 

time was saved here. The package was easy to manage, but fi nding a level area 

was quite diffi cult. A good horizon reference was not available, and in the 1/6-g 

environment, physical cues were not as effective as in a one-g. Therefore, the 

selection of a deployment site for the experiments caused some problems. The 

experiments were placed in an area between shallow craters in surface material 

of the same consistency as the surrounding area and which should be stable. 

Considerable effort was required to change the slope of one of the experiments. 

It was not possible to lower the equip ment by merely forcing it down, and it was 

necessary to move the experiment back and forth to scrape away the excess 

surface material.

No abnormal conditions were noted during the lunar module inspection. 

The insula tion on the secondary struts had been damaged from the heat, but the 
Exploring the Unknown 779

primary struts were only singed or covered with soot. There was much less damage 

than on the examples that had been seen before fl ight.

Obtaining the core tube sample presented some diffi culty. It was 

impossible to force the tube more than 4 or 5 inches into the surface material, yet 

the material pro vided insuffi cient resistance to hold the extension handle in the 

upright position. Since the handle had to be held upright, this precluded using 

both hands on the hammer. In addition, the resistance of the suit made it diffi cult 

to steady the core tube and swing with any great force. The hammer actually 

missed several times. Suffi cient force was obtained to make dents in the handle, 

but the tube could be driven only to a depth of about 6 inches. Extraction offered 

little or virtually no resistance. Two samples were taken. 

Insuffi cient time remained to take the documented sample, although as 

wide a variety of rocks was selected as remaining time permitted.

The performance of the extravehicular mobility unit was excellent. 

Neither crewman felt any thermal discomfort. The Commander used the minimum 

cooling mode for most of the surface operation. The Lunar Module Pilot switched 

to the maximum diverter valve position immediately after [4-15] sublimator 

startup and operated at maximum position for 42 minutes before switching to the 

intermediate position. The switch remained in the intermediate position for the 

duration of the extravehicular activity. The thermal effect of shadowed areas in 

[sic] versus those areas in sunlight was not detectable inside the suit.

The crewmen were kept physically cool and comfortable, and the ease of 

performing in the 1/6-g environment indicate that tasks requiring greater physical 

exertion may be undertaken on future fl ights. The Commander experienced 

some physical exertion while transporting the sample return container to the 

lunar module, but his physical limit had not been approached.

4.12.5 Lunar Module Ingress

Ingress to the lunar module produced no problems. The capa bility to do 

a vertical jump was used to an advantage in making the fi rst step up the ladder. By 

doing a deep knee bend, then springing up the ladder, the Commander was able 

to guide his feet to the third step. Movements in the 1/6-g environment were slow 

enough to allow deliberate foot placement after the jump. The ladder was a bit 

slippery from the powdery surface material, but not dangerously so.

As previously stated, mobility on the platform was adequate for developing 

alternate methods of transferring equipment from the surface. The hatch opened 

easily, and the ingress technique developed before fl ight was satisfactory. A 

concerted effort to arch the back was required when about half way through the 

hatch, to keep the forward end of the portable life support system low enough 

to clear the hatch. There was very little exertion associated with transition to a 

standing position.

Because of the bulk of the extravehicular mobility unit, caution had to 

be exercised to avoid bumping into switches, circuit breakers, and other controls 
780 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

while moving around the cockpit. One circuit breaker was in fact broken as a 

result of contact (see section 16.2.11).

Equipment jettison was performed as planned, and the time taken 

before fl ight in determining the items not required for lift-off was well spent. 

Considerable weight reduction and increase in space was realized. Discarding 

the equipment through the hatch was not diffi cult, and only one item remained 

on the platform. The post-ingress checklist procedures were performed without 

diffi culty; the checklist was well planned and was fol lowed precisely.

[4-16]

4.12.6 Lunar Rest Period

The rest period was almost a complete loss. The hel met and gloves were 

worn to relieve any subconscious anxiety about a loss of cabin pressure and 

presented no problem. But noise, lighting, and a lower-than-desired temperature 

were annoying. It was uncomfortably cool in the suits, even with the water-fl ow 

disconnected. Oxygen fl ow was fi nally cut off, and the helmets were removed, but 

the noise from the glycol pumps was then loud enough to interrupt sleep. The 

window shades did not com pletely block out light, and the cabin was illuminated 

by a combination of light through the shades, warning lights, and display lighting. 

The Commander rested on the ascent engine cover and was bothered by the light 

entering through the telescope. The Lunar Module Pilot estimated that he slept 

fi tfully for perhaps 2 hours and the Commander did not sleep at all, even though 

body positioning was not a problem. Because of the re duced gravity, the positions 

on the fl oor and on the engine cover were both quite comfortable.

4.13 LAUNCH PREPERATION

Aligning the platform before lift-off was complicated by the limited 

number of stars available. Because of sun and earth interference, only two detents 

effectively remained from which to select stars. Accuracy is greater for stars close 

to the center of the fi eld, but none were available at this location. A gravity/

one-star alignment was suc cessfully performed. A manual averaging technique 

was used to sample fi ve successive cursor readings and then fi ve spiral readings. 

The result was then entered into the com puter. This technique appeared to be 

easier than taking and entering fi ve separate readings. Torquing angles were close 

to 0.7° in all three axes and indicated that the platform drifted. (Editor’s note: 

Platform drift was within specifi cation limits.)

After the alignment, the navigation program was entered. It is 

recommended that future crews update the abort guidance system with the primary 

guidance state vector at this point and then use the abort guidance system to 

determine the command module loca tion. The primary guidance system cannot 

be used to determine the command module range and range rate, and the radar 

will not lock on until the command module is within 400 miles range. The abort 

guidance system provides good data as this range is approached.
Exploring the Unknown 781

A cold-fi re reaction control system check and an abort guidance system 

calibration were performed, and the ascent pad was taken. About 45 minutes 

prior to lift -off, another platform alignment was performed. The landing site 

alignment option at ignition was used for lift-off. The torquing angles for this 

alignment were approxi mately 0.09 degree.

[4-17]

In accordance with ground instructions, the rendezvous radar was placed 

in the antenna SLEW position with the circuit breakers off for ascent to avoid 

recurrence of the alarms experienced during a descent.

Both crewmembers had forgotten to watch for the small helium pressure 

decrease in dication that the Apollo 10 crew experienced when the ascent tanks 

were pressurized, and the crew initially believed that only one tank had been 

pressurized. This oversight was temporary and delayed the crew verifi cation of 

proper pressurization of both tanks.

 4.14 ASCENT

The pyrotechnic noises at descent stage separation were quite loud, but 

ascent-engine ignition was inaudible. The yaw and pitch maneuvers were very 

smooth. The pitch- and roll- attitude limit cycles were as expected and were not 

accompanied by physiological diffi culties. Both the primary and the abort guidance 

systems indicated the ascent to be a duplicate of the planned trajectory. The 

guided cutoff yielded residuals of less than 2 ft/sec; and the inplane components 

were nulled to within 0.1 ft/sec with the reaction control system. Throughout the 

trajectory, the ground track could be visually verifi ed, although a pitch attitude 

confi rmation by use of the horizon in the overhead window was found to be quite 

diffi cult because of the horizon lighting condition.

4.15 RENDEZVOUS

At orbital insertion, the primary guidance system showed an orbit of 

47.3 by 9.5 miles, as compared to the abort guidance system solution of 46.6 by 

9.5 miles. Since radar range-rate data were not available, the Network quickly 

confi rmed that the orbital insertion was satisfactory.

In the prefl ight planning, stars had been chosen that would be in the 

fi eld of view and that would require a minimum amount of maneuvering to get 

through alignment and back in plane. This maintenance of a nearly fi xed attitude 

would permit the radar to be turned on and the acquisition conditions designated 

so that marks for a coelliptic sequence initiation solution would be immediately 

available. For some reason, during the simulations, these preselected stars had 

not been correctly located relative to the horizon, and some time and fuel were 

wasted in fi rst maneuvering to these stars, then failing to mark on them, and 

then maneuvering to an alternate pair. Even with these problems, the alignment 

was fi nished about 28 minutes before coelliptic sequence initiation, and it was 

possible to proceed with radar lock-on.
782 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

[4-18]

All four sources for the coelliptic sequence initiation solution agreed 

to within 0.2 ft/sec, an accuracy that had never been observed before. The 

Commander elected to use the primary guidance solution without any out-ofplane thrusting.

The coelliptic sequence initiation maneuver was accomplished by using 

the plus Z thrusters, and the radar lock-on was maintained throughout the 

fi ring. Continued navigation tracking by both vehicles indicated a plane change 

maneuver of about 2-1/2 ft/sec, but the crew elected to defer this small correction 

until terminal phase initiation. The very small out-of-plane velocities that existed 

between the spacecraft orbits indicated a highly accurate lunar surface alignment. 

As a result of the higher-than- expected ellipticity of the command module orbit, 

backup chart solutions were not possi ble for the fi rst two rendezvous maneuvers, 

and the constant differential height maneuver had a higher-than-expected vertical 

component. The computers in both spacecraft agreed closely on the maneuver 

values, and the lunar module primary guidance computer solution was executed, 

using the minus X thrusters.

During the coelliptic phase, radar tracking data were inserted into the 

abort guid ance system to obtain an independent intercept guidance solution. The 

primary guidance solution was 6-1/2 minutes later than planned. However, the 

intercept trajectory was quite nominal, with only two small midcourse corrections 

of 1.0 and 1.5 ft/sec. The line-of -sight rates were low, and the planned braking 

schedule was used to reach a station keeping position.

In the process of maneuvering the lunar module to the docking attitude, 

while at the same time avoiding direct sunlight in the forward windows, the 

platform inadvertently reached gimbal lock. The docking was completed by using 

the abort guidance system for attitude control.

4.16 COMMAND MODULE DOCKING

Pre-docking activities in the command module were normal in all respects, 

as was docking up to the point of probe capture. After the Command Module Pilot 

ascertained that a successful capture had occurred, as indicated by “barberpole” 

indicators, the CMC-FREE switch position was used and one retract bottle fi red. 

A right yaw excursion of approximately 15° immediately took place for 1 or 2 

seconds. The Command Module Pilot went back to CMC-AUTO and made handcontroller inputs to reduce the angle between the two vehicles to zero. At docking 

thruster fi rings occurred unexpect edly in the lunar module when the retract 

mechanism was actuated, and attitude excursions of up to 15° were observed. 

The lunar module was manually realigned. While [4-19] this maneuver was in 

progress, all 12 docking latches fi red, and docking was completed successfully. 

(See section 8.6.1 for further discussion.)

Following docking, the tunnel was cleared, and the probe and drogue 

were stowed in the lunar module. The items to be transferred to the command 

module were cleaned using a vacuum brush attached to the lunar module suit 
Exploring the Unknown 783

return hose. The suction was low and made the process rather tedious. The 

sample return containers and fi lm magazines were placed in appropriate bags to 

complete the transfer, and the lunar module was confi gured for jettison according 

to the checklist procedure.

4.17 TRANSEARTH INJECTION

The time between docking and transearth injection was more than 

adequate to clean all equipment contaminated with lunar surface material and to 

return it to the command module for stowage so that the necessary preparations 

for transearth injection could be made. The transearth injection maneuver, the 

last service propulsion engine fi ring of the fl ight, was nominal. The only difference 

between it and pre vious fi rings was that without the docked lunar module the 

start transient was apparent.

4.18 TRANSEARTH COAST

During transearth coast, faint spots or scintillations of light were observed 

within the command module cabin. These phenomena became apparent to 

the Commander and Lunar Module Pilot after they became dark-adapted and 

relaxed. [Editor’s note: The source or cause of the light scintillations is as yet 

unknown. One explanation involves primary cosmic rays with energies in the 

range of billions of electron volts, bombarding an object in outer space. The 

theory assumes that numerous heavy and high-energy cosmic particles penetrate 

the command module structure, causing heavy ionization inside the spacecraft. 

When liberated electrons recombine with ions, photons in the visible portion of 

the spectrum are emitted. If a suffi cient number of photons are emitted, a darkadapted observer can detect the photons as a small spot or a streak of light. Two 

simple laboratory experiments were conducted to substantiate the theory, but 

no positive results were obtained in a 5-psi pressure environment because a high 

enough energy source was not available to create the radiation at that pressure. 

This level of radiation does not present a crew hazard.]

[4-20] Only one midcourse correction, a reaction control system fi ring of 

4.8 ft/sec, was required during transearth coast. In general, the transearth coast 

period was character ized by a general relaxation on the part of the crew, with 

plenty of time available to sample the excellent variety of food packets and to take 

photographs of the shrinking moon and the growing earth.

 4.19 ENTRY

Because of the presence of thunderstorms in the primary recovery area 

(1285 miles downrange from the entry interface of 400 000 feet), the targeted 

landing point was moved to a range of 1500 miles from the entry interface. This 

change required the use of computer program P65 (skip-up control routine) in 

the computer, in addition to those programs used for the planned shorter range 

entry. This change caused the crew some apprehension, since such entries had 

rarely been practiced in prefl ight simulations. However, during the entry, these 

parameters remained within acceptable limits. The entry was guided automatically 
784 Project Apollo: Americans to the Moon

and was nominal in all respects. The fi rst acceleration pulse reached approximately 

6.5g and the second reached 6.0g.

4.20 RECOVERY

On the landing, the 18-knot surface wind fi lled the parachutes and 

immediately rotated the command module into the apex down (stable II) 

fl otation position prior to parachute release. Moderate wave-induced oscillations 

accelerated the uprighting sequence, which was completed in less than 8 minutes. 

No diffi culties were encountered in completing the postlanding checklist.

The biological isolation garments were donned inside the spacecraft. 

Crew transfer into the raft was followed by hatch closure and by decontamination 

of the spacecraft and crewmembers by germicidal scrubdown.

Helicopter pickup was performed as planned, but visibility was substantially 

degraded because of moisture condensation on the biological isolation garment 

faceplate. The helicopter transfer to the aircraft carrier was performed as 

quickly as could be expected, but the temperature increase inside the suit was 

uncomfortable. Transfer from the helicopter into the mobile quarantine facility 

completed the voyage of Apollo 11.

[remainder of report not included]
Exploring the Unknown 785

Biographical Appendix 

A

William A. Anders (1933– ) was a career United States Air Force offi cer, although 

a graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy. Chosen with the third group of astronauts 

in 1963, he was the backup pilot for Gemini 9 and lunar module pilot for Apollo 

8. Anders resigned from NASA and the Air Force (active duty) in September 1969 

and became Executive Secretary of the National Aeronautics and Space Council. 

He joined the Atomic Energy Commission in 1973, and became chairman of the 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 1974. He was named U.S. Ambassador to 

Norway in 1976. Later he worked as a Vice-President of General Electric and then 

as Senior Executive Vice President-Operations, Textron, Inc. Anders retired as 

Chief Executive Officer of General Dynamics in 1993, but remained Chairman 

of the Board. See “Anders, W. A.,” biographical file 000082, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, 

DC and (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/anders-wa.html). 

Neil A. Armstrong (1930– ) was the first person to set foot on the Moon on 20 

July, 1969. He became an astronaut in 1962 after having served as a test pilot with 

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1955-1958) and NASA (1958– 

1962). He flew as command pilot on Gemini 8 in March 1966 and commander of 

Apollo 11 in July 1969. In 1970 and 1971 he was Deputy Associate Administrator 

for the office of Advanced Research and Technology, NASA Headquarters. In 1971 

he left NASA to become a professor of aerospace engineering at the University 

of Cincinnati and to work as a private consultant. See Neil A. Armstrong, et al., 

First on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin E. Aldrin, 

Jr. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970); Neil A. Armstrong, et al., The First Lunar Landing: 

20th Anniversary/as Told by the Astronauts, Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, Michael 

Collins (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration EP-73, 

1989); (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/armstrong-na.html). 

William S. Augerson (1929– ) was assigned to the Human Factors Section of 

the NASA Space Task Group in 1958 where he worked on the development of 

Life Systems for Project Mercury. In 1945 he joined the U.S. Navy to serve as 

an electronics technician and the next year entered Bowdoin College where he 

majored in physics and English, graduating with honors in 1949. He continued 

his education at Cornell University where he earned his M.D. in 1955. Dr. 

Augerson then entered active duty in the U.S. Army, interning at Brooke Army 

Hospital, San Antonio, Texas. His other posts included Division Surgeon for the 

4th Infantry in 1957–58 and Army Liaison Offi cer for Bioastronautics Research 

at the U.S. Air Force Aeromedical Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base 

in 1958. He would eventually retire from the Army with the rank of general. See 

“Gen. Augerson, William S.,” biographical file 000118, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

B

McGeorge Bundy (1919–1996) was a professor of government before serving as 

the national security adviser to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson from 1961-1966. 

See Who’s Who in America, 1996 (New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who’s Who, 1995). 
786 Biographical Appendix 

C

Richard L. Callaghan (1925– ) served as NASA’s Assistant Administrator for 

Legislative Affairs from 1963-1967. An Army veteran of the World War II European 

Theatre, he received a B.S. from Georgetown University Foreign Service School 

in 1950 and an LL.B. from the George Washington University Law School in 

1957. While attending law school, Callaghan worked in various legislative offi ces 

in Washington, DC, including that of Montana Senator James E. Murray. He also 

served as the staff director of the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs 

from 1955 until he joined NASA in 1962 as Special Assistant to Administrator 

James E. Webb. In 1968 he received the NASA Exceptional Service Medal for 

his work in the organization. See “Callaghan, R. L.,” biographical fi le 000279, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

M. Scott Carpenter (1925– ) piloted the Mercury 7 mission in 1962, making 

him the second American to orbit Earth. He earned his bachelor’s degree in 

aeronautical engineering from the University of Colorado in 1949, after which 

he was commissioned in the U.S. Navy. Carpenter served in the Korean War as a 

Naval aviator and then served as a test pilot for the Navy from 1954 to 1957. Two 

years later he was selected as one of the original seven astronauts to serve in the 

Mercury program. Upon completion of his mission, Carpenter took a leave of 

absence from NASA and participated in the Navy’s SEALAB II program, thus 

making him the first person to hold both the titles of astronaut and aquanaut. 

After retiring from the Navy in 1969, he finished his distinguished career working 

in the private sector. Carpenter’s awards include the Navy’s Legion of Merit, the 

Distinguished Flying Cross, the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, and the 

Collier Trophy. (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/carpenter-ms.html) accessed 

27 September 2006. 

Michael Collins (1930– ) served as command module pilot on Apollo 11 in 1969, 

remaining in lunar orbit while Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the fi rst 

two people to walk on the Moon. Born in Rome, Italy, Collins graduated from 

high school in Washington, DC and went on to earn a bachelor of science degree 

from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1952. Collins chose an 

Air Force career upon graduation from West Point and served as an experimental 

flight test officer at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He also piloted the 

Gemini 10 mission in 1966 during which he successfully rendezvoused and docked 

with separately launched target vehicles. His awards include the Presidential 

Medal for Freedom in 1969 as well as the NASA Exceptional Service medal. (http:// 

www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/collins-m.html) accessed 2 October 2006. 

L. Gordon Cooper Jr. (1927–2004) piloted the Mercury 9 mission in 1963, which 

concluded the operational phase of Project Mercury. He was commissioned 

into the Air Force after attending three years at the University of Hawaii. After 

serving four years in Munich, Germany, Carpenter came back to the U.S. and 

earned a bachelor of science in aeronautical engineering in 1956 from the 

Air Force Institute of Technology. He spent the next three years as a test pilot 

at Edwards Air Force Base and was then selected as one of the original seven 

Mercury astronauts. After Mercury, Carpenter also served as command pilot of 

the Gemini 5 mission, thus becoming the first person to make two orbital fl ights 
Exploring the Unknown 787

and in the process setting a new space endurance record. He retired from the 

Air Force and NASA in 1970 to finish his career working in private industry. His 

awards include the Air Force Legion of Merit, the Air Force Distinguished Flying 

Cross Cluster, the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, and the 1962 Collier 

Trophy for pioneering piloted spaceflight in the USA. See “Cooper, L. Gordon, 

Jr.,” biographical file 376, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC and (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/ 

htmlbios/cooper-lg.html) accessed 2 October 2006. 

Walter Cunningham (1932– ) was in the third group of astronauts selected by 

NASA in October 1963 and served as the lunar module pilot in the Apollo 7 mission, 

the first piloted flight test of the third generation United States spacecraft. After 

graduating from Venice High School in California, he joined the Navy in 1951 and 

began flight training the following year. In 1953, Cunningham joined a Marine 

squadron where he served on active duty until 1956. He then went on to earn both a 

bachelor’s and a master’s degree in physics at UCLA in 1960 and 1961, respectively. 

After receiving his master’s, Cunningham was employed as a physicist by the Rand 

Corporation where he worked on problems with Earth’s magnetosphere as well 

as projects for the Department of Defense. As an astronaut, he played a key role 

in all aspects of piloted space flight including training, planning, system design, 

public relations, and program management. Cunningham then completed the 

Advanced Management Program at Harvard Graduate School of Business in 1974 

and attained senior executive positions in several highly successful businesses 

over the course of the following decades. (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ 

cunningham-w.html) accessed 2 October 2006. 

D

Kurt H. Debus (1908–1983) earned a B.S. in mechanical engineering (1933), an 

M.S. (1935) and Ph.D. (1939) in electrical engineering, all from the Technical 

University of Darmstadt in Germany. He became an assistant professor at the 

university after receiving his degree. During the course of World War II he 

became an experimental engineer at the A-4 (V-2) test stand at Peenemünde 

(see entry for Wernher von Braun), rising to become superintendent of the test 

stand and test fi ring stand for the rocket. In 1945 he came to the United States 

with a group of engineers and scientists headed by von Braun. From 1945-1950 

the group worked at Fort Bliss, Texas, and then moved to the Redstone Arsenal 

in Huntsville, Alabama. From 1952-1960 Debus was chief of the missile fi ring 

laboratory of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. In this position, he was located 

at Cape Canaveral, Florida, where he supervised the launching of the fi rst 

ballistic missile fired from there, an Army Redstone. When ABMA became part 

of NASA, Debus continued to supervise missile and space vehicle launchings, 

first as director of the Launch Operations Center and then of the Kennedy Space 

Center as it was renamed in December 1963. He retired from that position in 

1974 See “Debus, Kurt H.,” biographical file 000443, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Charles J. Donlan (1916– ) served the United States government for nearly 

38 years in NACA and NASA. After graduating with a bachelor of science in 

aeronautical engineering from MIT in 1938, he joined the research staff of 

NACA’s Langley Aeronautical Laboratory where he worked to improve aircraft 
788 Biographical Appendix 

design, stability, and control. In 1958 Donlan was appointed Associate Director 

of the NASA Space Task Group at Langley to conduct Project Mercury. Three 

years later he became Associate Director of Langley until 1967 when he was made 

Deputy Director of the facility. The following year he was transferred to NASA 

Headquarters to become the Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space 

Flight. In addition to this, he was Acting Director of the Space Shuttle Program 

from 1970 until 1973. Donlan retired from NASA in 1976 and then worked as a 

consultant for the Institute for Defense Analysis where he studied military uses for 

the Shuttle for the next twelve years. His awards include the NASA Distinguished 

Service Medal and the NASA Medal for Outstanding Leadership. See “Donlan, 

Charles J.,” biographical file 000481, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Hugh L. Dryden (1898–1965) was a career civil servant and an aerodynamicist by 

discipline who had also begun life as something of a child prodigy. He graduated 

at age 14 from high school and went on to earn an A.B. in three years from Johns 

Hopkins (1916). Three further years later (1919) he earned his Ph.D. in physics 

and mathematics from the same institution even though he had been employed 

full-time in the National Bureau of Standards since June 1918. His career at the 

Bureau of Standards, which lasted until 1947, was devoted to studying airfl ow, 

turbulence, and particularly the problems of the boundary layer--the thin layer 

of air next to an airfoil that causes drag. In 1920 he became chief of the 

aerodynamics section in the bureau. His work in the 1920s on measuring 

turbulence in wind tunnels facilitated research in the NACA that produced the 

laminar flow wings used in the P-51 Mustang and other World War II aircraft. 

From the mid-1920s to 1947, his publications became essential reading for 

aerodynamicists around the world. During World War II, his work on a glide 

bomb named “the bat” won him a Presidential Certificate of Merit. He capped 

his career at the bureau by becoming its Assistant Director and then Associate 

Director during his final two years there. He then served as Director of the NACA 

from 1947-1958, after which he became Deputy Administrator of NASA under T. 

Keith Glennan and James E. Webb. See Richard K. Smith, The Hugh L. Dryden 

Papers, 1898-1965 [Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Library, 1974] 

and “Dr. Hugh L. Dryden” (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/offi ce/pao/History/Biographies/ 

dryden.html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

E

Donn F. Eisele (1930–1987) served as the command module pilot during the 

Apollo 7 mission in 1968. He earned a bachelor of science degree from the United 

States Naval Academy in 1952 and a master of science degree in astronautics from 

the Air Force Institute of Technology in 1960. Prior to his selection as an Apollo 

astronaut, Eisele served as a project engineer and experimental test pilot at the 

Air Force Special Weapons Center at Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. After 

he retired from both the Air Force and the space program in 1972 he became the 

Director of the U.S. Peace Corps in Thailand. Eisele finished his career working 

in private industry back in the United States. (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/ 

eisele-df.html) accessed 3 October 2006. 
Exploring the Unknown 789

F

Maxime A. Faget (1921–2004) was an aeronautical engineer with a B.S. from 

LSU (1943), joined the staff at Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in 1946 and soon 

became head of the performance aerodynamics branch of the pilotless aircraft 

research division. There, he conducted research on the heat shield of the Mercury 

spacecraft. In 1958 he joined the Space Task Group in NASA, forerunner of the 

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center that became the Johnson Space Center, and 

he became its assistant director for engineering and development in 1962 and 

later its director. He contributed many of the original design concepts for Project 

Mercury’s piloted spacecraft and played a major role in designing virtually every 

U.S.-crewed spacecraft since that time, including the Space Shuttle. He retired 

from NASA in 1981 and became an executive for Eagle Engineering, Inc. In 1982 

he was one of the founders of Space Industries, Inc. and became its president and 

chief executive officer. See “Maxime A. Faget,” biographical fi le 000602, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

G

Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968) was the Soviet cosmonaut who became the fi rst 

human in space with a one-orbit mission aboard the spacecraft Vostok 1 on April 

12, 1961. The great success of that feat made the gregarious Gagarin a global 

hero, and he was an effective spokesman for the Soviet Union until his death 

in an unfortunate aircraft accident. “Gagarin Vostok 1 (1961),” biographical 

file 745, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

John H. Gibbons (1929– ) headed the Office of Technology Assessment under 

Congress for fourteen years before becoming President Clinton’s science advisor 

and head of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy in 1993. 

He received a Ph.D. in physics from Duke University in 1954. See “Gibbons, John,” 

biographical file 5237, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Robert R. Gilruth (1913–2000) was a longtime NACA engineer working at the 

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory from 1937–1946, then as chief of the pilotless 

aircraft research division at Wallops Island from 1946–1952, who had been 

exploring the possibility of human spaceflight before the creation of NASA. He 

served as Assistant Director at Langley from 1952–1959 and as Assistant Director 

(piloted satellites) and head of Project Mercury from 1959–1961, technically 

assigned to the Goddard Spaceflight Center but physically located at Langley. 

In early 1961 Glennan established an independent Space Task Group (already 

the group’s name as an independent subdivision of the Goddard Center) under 

Gilruth at Langley to supervise the Mercury program. This group moved to the 

Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas, in 1962. Gilruth was then director 

of the Houston operation from 1962–1972. See, Henry C. Dethloff, “Suddenly 

Tomorrow Came . . .”: A History of the Johnson Space Center (Washington, DC: NASA 

SP-4307, 1993); James R. Hansen, Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley 

Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917-1958 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4305, 1987), pp. 

386-88. 
790 Biographical Appendix 

John H. Glenn, Jr. (1921– ) was chosen with the first group of astronauts in 1959. 

He was the pilot for the 20 February 1962 Mercury-Atlas 6 (Friendship 7) mission, 

the first American orbital flight. He made three orbits on this mission. He left the 

NASA astronaut corps in 1964 and later entered politics as a senator from Ohio. 

See Lloyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This 

New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4201, 1966) 

and (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/glenn-j.html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

Nicholas Golovin (1912–1969) served on the staff of the White House Offi ce 

of Science and Technology from 1962 to 1968, during which time he played an 

antagonistic role towards NASA and the decision to use the lunar orbit rendezvous 

mode to achieve a piloted lunar landing. Born in Odessa, Russia, but educated in 

this country (Ph.D. in physics, George Washington University, 1955) he worked in 

various capacities for the government during and after World War II, including 

for the Naval Research Laboratory, 1946–1948. He held several administrative 

positions with the National Bureau of Standards from 1949 to 1958. In 1958 he 

was chief scientist for the White Sands Missile Range and then worked for the 

Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1959 as director of technical operations. 

He became a Deputy Associate Administrator of NASA in 1960. He joined 

private industry before becoming, in 1961, the director of the NASA-DOD large 

launch vehicle planning group. He joined the Office of Science and Technology 

at the White House in 1962 as a technical advisor for aviation and space and 

remained there until 1968 when he took a leave of absence as a research associate 

at Harvard and as a fellow at the Brookings Institution. Obituaries, Washington 

Star, 30 Apr. 1969, p. B-6, and Washington Post, 30 Apr. 1969, p. B14. 

A. J. Goodpaster (1915–2005) was a career Army officer who served as defense 

liaison officer and secretary of the White House staff from 1954 to 1961, 

being promoted to brigadier general during that period. He later was deputy 

commander, U.S. forces in Vietnam, 1968–1969, and commander-in-chief, 

U.S. Forces in Europe, 1969–1974. He retired in 1974 as a four-star general but 

returned to active duty in 1977 and served as superintendent of the U.S. Military 

Academy, a post he held until his second retirement in 1981. 

Edward Z. Gray (1915– ) worked for Boeing Co. from 1943–1963 as a design 

engineer for the Boeing jet aircraft series as well as the DynaSoar and Minuteman 

programs. He held a number of positions in systems engineering management, 

the last one being as development program manager of advanced space systems. 

He served on numerous committees for the government and aerospace industry, 

including the NASA research advisory committee on structural loads in 1958– 

1959, of which he was chairman. In 1963 NASA appointed him to the directorship 

of its advanced piloted missions programs. He worked in that position through 

1967, transferred to a position as assistant to the president of Grumman Aircraft 

Engineering Corp. from 1967–1973, and then returned to NASA as Assistant 

Administrator for industry affairs and technology utilization. By 1978 he had 

assumed a position as director of government/industry affairs. In 1979 he joined 

Bendix Corp.’s aerospace-electronics group as director of systems development. 

See “Edward Z. Gray,” biographical file 000871, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 791

Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom (1927–1967) was chosen with the first group of astronauts 

in 1959. He was the pilot for the 1961 Mercury-Redstone 4 (Liberty Bell 7) mission, 

a suborbital flight; command pilot for Gemini 3; backup command pilot for 

Gemini 6; and had been selected as commander of the first Apollo fl ight carrying 

three crew members at the time of his death in the Apollo 1 fire in January 1967. 

See Betty Grissom and Henry Still, Starfall (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1974); 

The Astronauts Themselves, We Seven (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962); 

(http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/grissom-vi.html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

H

James C. Hagerty (1909–1981) was on the staff of the New York Times from 1934 

to 1942, the last four years as legislative correspondent in the paper’s Albany 

bureau. He served as executive assistant to New York Governor Thomas Dewey 

from 1943 to 1950 and then as Dewey’s secretary for the next two years before 

becoming press secretary for President Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961. 

D. Brainard Holmes (1921– ) was involved in the management of high technology 

efforts in private industry and the federal government. He was on the staff of Bell 

Telephone Labs, 1945–1953, and at RCA, 1953–1961. He then became Associate 

Administrator for Manned Space Flight at NASA, 1961–1963. Thereafter he 

assumed a series of increasingly senior positions with Raytheon Corp., and 

since 1982 chairman of Beech Aircraft. See “D. Brainard Holmes” biographical 

file 001048, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC; “Holmes, D(yer) Brainerd,” Current Biography 

1963, pp. 191–92. 

Donald F. Hornig (1920– ), a chemist, was a research associate at the Woods 

Hole Oceanographic Lab, 1943–1944, and a scientist and group leader at the 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 1944–1946. He taught chemistry at Brown 

University starting in 1946, rising to the directorship of Metcalf Research Lab, 

1949–1957, and also serving as associate dean and acting dean of the graduate 

school from 1952–1954. He was Donner Professor of Science at Princeton from 

1957–1964 as well as chairman of the chemistry department from 1958–1964. 

He was a special assistant to the president of the U.S. for science and technology 

from 1964–1969 and president of Brown University from 1970–1976. See Gregg 

Herken, Cardinal Choices: Science Advice to the President from Hiroshima to SDI (New 

York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 

John C. Houbolt (1919– ) was an aeronautical engineer who helped conceptualize 

and was the primary advocate for the idea of lunar orbit rendezvous. He received 

both bachelor and master of science degrees in civil engineering from the 

University of Illinois in 1940 and 1942, and a doctorate in technical sciences 

from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in 1957. He first joined NACA as 

an aeronautical engineer in 1942 before serving in the Army Corps of Engineers 

from 1944 to 1946. In 1949, back at Langley, he was appointed Assistant Chief of 

the Dynamic Loads Division where he pursued research problems in aeroelasticity 

in application to aircraft and space vehicles. In 1961 Houbolt was named Chief 

of the Theoretical Mechanics Division at Langley where he successfully argued 

the case of lunar orbit rendezvous to the NASA Administration. He left NASA in 

1963 to work as a senior vice president and consultant for a private research fi rm, 
792 Biographical Appendix 

but then returned to Langley in 1976 as Chief Aeronautical Scientist. Houbolt 

officially retired from NASA in 1985. See James R. Hansen, Enchanted Rendezvous: 

John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept (Washington, 

DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Monographs in Aerospace 

History No. 4, 1995) and “Houbolt, John C.,” biographical file 001100, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

J

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973) was President of the United States from 1963– 

1969. Johnson was elected to the House of Representatives in 1937 and served 

until 1949. He was a senator from 1949-1961 and then Vice President of the 

U.S. from 1960–1963 under Kennedy. Best known for the social legislation he 

passed during his presidency and for his escalation of the war in Vietnam, he 

was also highly instrumental in revising and passing the legislation that created 

NASA and in supporting the U.S. space program as chairman of the Committee 

on Aeronautical and Space Sciences and of the preparedness subcommittee of 

the Senate Armed Services Committee, then later as chairman of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Council when he was vice president. (On his role in 

support of the space program, Robert A. Divine, “Lyndon B. Johnson and the 

Politics of Space,” in The Johnson Years: Vietnam, the Environment, and Science, 

Robert A. Divine, ed. [Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1987], pp. 217-53; 

and Robert Dallek, “Johnson, Project Apollo, and the Politics of Space Program 

Planning,” unpublished paper delivered at a symposium on “Presidential 

Leadership, Congress, and the U.S. Space Program,” sponsored by NASA and 

American University, March 25, 1993.) 

K

John F. Kennedy (1916–1963) was President of the United States, 1961–1963. In 

1960 John F. Kennedy, a Senator from Massachusetts between 1953 and 1960, ran 

for president as the Democratic candidate with Lyndon B. Johnson as his running 

mate. Using the slogan, “Let’s get this country moving again,” Kennedy charged 

the Republican Eisenhower administration with doing nothing about the myriad 

social, economic, and international problems that festered in the 1950s. He was 

especially hard on Eisenhower’s record in international relations, taking a cold 

warrior position on a supposed “missile gap” (which turned out not to be the case) 

wherein the United States lagged far behind the Soviet Union in ICBM technology. 

On 25 May, 1961, President Kennedy announced to the nation a goal of sending 

an American to the Moon before the end of the decade. The human spacefl ight 

imperative was a direct outgrowth of it; Projects Mercury (at least in its latter 

stages), Gemini, and Apollo were each designed to execute it. On this subject see, 

Walter A. McDougall, . . . The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space 

Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); John M. Logsdon, The Decision to Go to the Moon: 

Project Apollo and the National Interest (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970). 

George Kistiakowsky (1900–1982) was a pioneering chemist at Harvard University, 

associated with the development of the atomic bomb, and later an advocate of 

banning nuclear weapons. He served as science advisor to President Eisenhower 

from July 1959 to the end of the Eisenhower administration. He later served on 
Exploring the Unknown 793

the advisory board to the United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

from 1962 to 1969. See New York Times, December 9, 1982, p. B21 and “George B. 

Kistiakowsky,” biographical file 001200, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

James R. Killian (1904–1988) was president of the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology between 1949 and 1959, on leave between November 1957 and July 

1959 when he served as the first presidential science advisor. President Dwight 

D. Eisenhower established the President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC), 

which Killian chaired, following the Sputnik crisis. After leaving the White 

House staff in 1959, Killian continued his work at MIT but in 1965 began working 

with the Corporation for Public Broadcasting to develop public television. 

Killian described his experiences as a presidential advisor in Sputnik, Scientists, 

and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and 

Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977). For a discussion of the PSAC see 

Gregg Herken, Cardinal Choices: Science Advice to the President from Hiroshima to SDI 

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 

Kenneth Kleinknecht started his career in 1942 at the Lewis Research Center 

after graduating from Purdue University with a B.S. in mechanical engineering. 

In 1951, Kleinknecht transferred to the Flight Research Center in Edwards, CA. 

After NASA formed, he then transferred to the Manned Spacecraft Center in 

Houston in 1959. Before being named the manager of the Mercury project, 

Kleinknecht was active in the National Air Races, served as supervisor for a 

number of avionics tests at Lewis, and was the head of the Project Engineering 

Station for the X-1E. Additionally, Kleinknecht served as the Advanced Projects 

Management Officer on the X-15 project and as the Technical Assistant to the 

Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center. Source: “Kenneth Kleinknecht” 

biographical file 001205, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. (1924– ) was a long-standing official with NASA 

throughout the Apollo program. He received as B.S. in aeronautical engineering 

from Virginia Polytechnic Institute in 1944 and joined the Langley Aeronautical 

Laboratory of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) the 

next year. In 1958, still at Langley, he became a member of the Space Task Group 

developing Project Mercury and moved with the Group to Houston in 1962. 

He was flight director for all of the Mercury and many of the Gemini missions 

and directed the design of Mission Control at the Manned Spacecraft Center 

(MSC), redesignated the Johnson Space Center in 1973. He was named the 

MSC Deputy Director in 1970 and its Director two years later, a position he held 

until his retirement in 1982. Since then he has remained active as an aerospace 

consultant. See “Kraft, Christopher C., Jr.,” biographical file 001237, NASA 

Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) was premier of the USSR from 1958 to 1964 

and first secretary of the Communist party from 1953 to 1964. He was noted for 

an astonishing speech in 1956 denouncing the crimes and blunders of Joseph 

Stalin and for gestures of reconciliation with the West in 1959–1960, ending with 

the breakdown of a Paris summit with President Eisenhower and the leaders of 
794 Biographical Appendix 

France and Great Britain in the wake of Khrushchev’s announcement that the 

Soviets had shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over the Urals 

on 1 May 1960. Then in 1962 Khrushchev attempted to place Soviet medium 

range-missiles in Cuba. This led to an intense crisis in October, after which 

Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles if the U.S. promised to make no more 

attempts to overthrow Cuba’s Communist government. Although he could be 

charming at times, Khrushchev was also given to bluster (extending even to shoepounding at the U.N.) and was a tough negotiator, although he believed, unlike 

his predecessors, in the possibility of Communist victory over the West without 

war. See his Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974); 

Edward Crankshaw, Khrushchev: A Career (New York: Viking, 1966); Michael R. 

Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and The U-2 Affair (New York: Harper 

and Row, 1986); and Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York: 

Oxford University Press, 1981) for further information about him. 

Joachin P. Kuettner (1909– ) served as Chief of the Mercury-Redstone project at 

NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center. Born and raised in Germany, he earned a 

doctorate in law from the University of Breslau at the age of 21 and a doctorate in 

physics and meteorology from the University of Hamburg in 1939. During World 

War II, Dr. Kuettner served as a test pilot and later as the head of a fl ight test 

department for advanced airplanes such as the piloted version of the German 

V-1. He came to the United States in December 1948 and joined the Air Force 

Cambridge Research Center. Here he was in charge of geophysical fl ight research 

using jet aircraft and high-altitude sailplanes. He then worked for the Army 

Ballistic Missile Agency as Director of the agency’s efforts in Project Mercury 

from 1958 until he transferred to NASA and Marshall Space Flight Center two 

years later. After Mercury-Redstone, he was put in charge of the Saturn-Apollo 

Systems Integration at Marshall. Over his long career, Dr. Kuettner published 

many papers in the fields of aeronautics, meteorology, and astronautics and 

holds numerous awards from several different countries. 

L

James A. Lovell, Jr. (1928– ) flew on four space flights and was a member of the 

first crew to circle the Moon. He was selected in the second group of astronauts in 

1962 and flew in the Gemini 7, Gemini 12, Apollo 8, and Apollo 13 missions, thus 

making him the fi rst person to fly twice to the Moon. Following his graduation 

with a bachelor of science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1952, Lovell 

received his flight training and was later assigned as a test pilot at the Naval Air 

Test Center in Maryland. A graduate of the Aviation Safety School of the University 

of Southern California, he also served as a flight instructor and safety engineer 

with Fighter Squadron 101 at the Naval Air Station, Oceana, Virginia. In addition 

to the four missions in which Captain Lovell flew, he also served as backup pilot 

for Gemini 4, backup Commander for both Gemini 9 and Apollo 11. In 1971, 

he was named Deputy Director of Science and Applications at NASA’s Manned 

Spacecraft Center in Houston. In addition to these duties, he was appointed by 

President Lyndon B. Johnson to serve as a consultant for Physical Fitness and 

Sports and was later made Chairman of the Council by President Nixon. Lovell 

retired from the Navy and NASA in1973 to accept a position as Senior Executive 

Vice President in the Bay Houston Towing Company. Among his many honors 

are the Presidential Medal for Freedom, the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, 
Exploring the Unknown 795

and two Navy Distinguished Flying Crosses. See “Lovell, James A., Jr. Apollo 

flights,” biographical file 001350, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC and “James A. Lovell” (http:// 

www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/lovell-ja.html) accessed 31 October 2006. 

George M. Low (1926–1984), a native of Vienna, Austria, came to the U.S. in 1940 

and received an aeronautical engineering degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic 

Institute (RPI) in 1948 and an M.S. in the same field from the same school in 

1950. He joined the NACA in 1949 and at Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory he 

specialized in experimental and theoretical research in several fields. He became 

chief of piloted space flight at NASA Headquarters in 1958. In 1960, he chaired 

a special committee that formulated the original plans for the Apollo lunar 

landings. In 1964 he became deputy director of the Manned Spacecraft Center 

in Houston, the forerunner of the Johnson Space Center. He became Deputy 

Administrator of NASA in 1969 and served as Acting Administrator in 1970–1971. 

He retired from NASA in 1976 to become president of RPI, a position he held 

until his death. In 1990 NASA renamed its quality and excellence award after 

him. See “Low, George M.,” Deputy Administrator file 004133, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 

and “George M. Low” (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/offi ce/pao/History/Biographies/low. 

html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

M

Charles W. Mathews (1921–2001) was NASA’s Associate Administrator for 

Applications from 1971 until 1976. After earning a B.S. in aerospace engineering 

from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1943, he immediately joined the 

engineering staff at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Langley 

Research Center. Here he conducted research on supersonic fl ight, automatic 

control devices and systems for use in the interception of enemy bombers, and 

piloted spacecraft studies. In 1958, Mathews became chief of the NASA Space 

Task Group Operations Division and was responsible for the overall operations 

of Project Mercury. Upon the successful completion of the Mercury program, 

he was named Gemini Program Manager at the Manned Spacecraft Center in 

1963. Following Gemini’s success, Mathews was made the Director of the Skylab 

Program in 1966 and moved to NASA Headquarters. Two years later he became 

the Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight. He retired from 

the organization in 1976 after thirty-three years of government service. See 

“Mathews, Charles W.,” biographical file 001443, NASA Historical Reference 

Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Owen E. Maynard (1924–2000) was responsible for the conceptualization 

and design of the lunar module used in the Apollo program. After serving in 

the Royal Canadian Air Force in World War II, Maynard earned a degree in 

aeronautical engineering from the University of Toronto while working on and 

eventually designing aircraft at Avro Canada. He joined NASA in 1959 to work on 

the Mercury program and first became involved with Apollo the following year. 

Maynard was one of the early supporters of the lunar orbit rendezvous method 

and became the chief of engineering for the lunar module in 1963. He served 

as chief of the systems engineering division in the Apollo Spacecraft Program 

Office from 1964 to 1970, at which time he left NASA to work in the private sector 
796 Biographical Appendix 

for the remainder of his career. See (http://history.nasa.gov/maynard.html) accessed 

27 September 2006. 

James A. McDivitt (1929– ) commanded the Gemini 4 and Apollo 9 missions and 

was the program manager for Apollo 12 through Apollo 16. He earned a bachelor 

of science in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan in 1959, 

graduating fi rst in his class. Before he was selected by NASA as an astronaut in 

1962, McDivitt served in the U.S. Air Force and flew 145 combat missions during 

the Korean War. He is a graduate of both the USAF Experimental Test Pilot 

School and the USAF Aerospace Pilot Research course, after which he served as 

an experimental test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base, California. He left NASA 

and retired from the Air Force with the rank of Brigadier General in 1972 to work 

in leading executive positions in various private firms. McDivitt’s awards include 

two NASA Distinguished Service Medals, four Distinguished Flying Crosses, and 

four Honorary Doctorates in science and law. See (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/ 

htmlbios/mcdivitt-ja.html) accessed 2 October 2006.

George E. Mueller (1918– ) was Associate Administrator for the Office of Manned 

Space Flight at NASA Headquarters, 1963–1969, where he was responsible for 

overseeing the completion of Project Apollo and of beginning the development 

of the Space Shuttle. He moved to the General Dynamics Corp., as senior vice 

president in 1969, and remained until 1971. He then became president of the 

Systems Development Corporation, 1971–1980, and its chairman and CEO, 1981­

1983. He was for a number of years the President of the International Academy 

of Astronautics and a founder of Kistler Aerospace. See “Mueller, George E.,” 

biographical file 001520, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

N

Homer Newell (1915–1983) earned his Ph.D. in mathematics at the University of 

Wisconsin in 1940 and served as a theoretical physicist and mathematician at the 

Naval Research Laboratory from 1944–1958. During part of that period, he was 

science program coordinator for Project Vanguard and was acting superintendent 

of the atmosphere and astrophysics division. In 1958 he transferred to NASA to 

assume responsibility for planning and development of the new Agency’s space 

science program. He soon became deputy director of space flight programs. In 

1961 he assumed directorship of the office of space sciences; in 1963, he became 

associate administrator for space science and applications. Over the course of his 

career, he became an internationally known authority in the field of atmospheric 

and space sciences as well as the author of numerous scientific articles and seven 

books, including Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science (Washington, 

DC: NASA SP-4211, 1980). He retired from NASA at the end of 1973. “Newell 

General,” Deputy Administrator file 4493, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

NASA History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Richard M. Nixon (1913–1994) was president of the United States when the fi rst 

man landed on the Moon, serving between January 1969 and August 1974. Early 

in his presidency, Nixon appointed a Space Task Group under the direction of 

Vice President Spiro T. Agnew to assess the future of spaceflight in the nation. Its 

report recommended a vigorous post-Apollo exploration program culminating 
Exploring the Unknown 797

in a human expedition to Mars. Nixon did not approve this plan, but did decide 

in favor of building one element of it, the Space Shuttle, which was approved on 

January 5, 1972. See Roger D. Launius, “NASA and the Decision to Build the 

Space Shuttle, 1969-72,” The Historian 57 (Autumn 1994): 17–34. 

Warren North (1922– ) earned a B.S. from the University of Illinois in 1947. 

From then until 1955 he was an engineer and test pilot for the Lewis Laboratory. 

From 1956-1959 he served as assistant chief of the aerodynamics branch 

at Lewis. He then transferred to NASA Headquarters, where he took part in 

early planning for Project Mercury, including the selection and training of the 

seven Mercury astronauts. He moved in 1962 to the Manned Spacecraft Center 

(later the Johnson Space Center), where he headed the division responsible 

for training the astronauts for the Gemini rendezvous and docking operations 

and the Apollo lunar landings. He continued to work in the fields of astronaut 

selection and training until he retired in 1985 as special assistant to the director 

of flight operations in planning space shuttle crew training. (“Warren North,” 

biographical file 001608, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.) 

P

Thomas O. Paine (1921–1992) was appointed Deputy Administrator of NASA on 

January 31, 1968. Upon the retirement of James E. Webb on October 8, 1968, he 

was named Acting Administrator of NASA. He was nominated as NASA’s third 

Administrator March 5, 1969, and confirmed by the Senate on March 20, 1969. 

During his leadership the first seven piloted Apollo missions were flown, in which 

20 astronauts orbited Earth, 14 traveled to the Moon and four walked upon its 

surface. Paine resigned from NASA on September 15, 1970 to return to the 

General Electric Co. in New York City as Vice President and Group Executive, 

Power Generation Group, where he remained until 1976. In 1985 the White 

House chose Paine as chair of a National Commission on Space to prepare a 

report on the future of space exploration. Since leaving NASA fi fteen years 

earlier, Paine had been a tireless spokesman for an expansive view of what should 

be done in space. The Paine Commission took most of a year to prepare its report, 

largely because it solicited public input in hearings throughout the United States. 

The Commission report, Pioneering the Space Frontier, was published in a lavishly 

illustrated, glossy format in May 1986. It espoused a “pioneering mission for 21stcentury America”—”to lead the exploration and development of the space 

frontier, advancing science, technology, and enterprise, and building institutions 

and systems that make accessible vast new resources and support human 

settlements beyond Earth orbit, from the highlands of the Moon to the plains of 

Mars.” The report also contained a “Declaration for Space” that included a 

rationale for exploring and settling the solar system and outlined a long-range 

space program for the United States. See Roger D. Launius, “NASA and the 

Decision to Build the Space Shuttle, 1969–72,” The Historian 57 (Autumn 1994): 

17-34 and “Thomas O. Paine” (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/offi ce/pao/History/Biographies/ 

paine.html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

Samuel C. Phillips (1921–1990), was trained as an electrical engineer at the 

University of Wyoming, but he also participated in the Civilian Pilot Training 

Program during World War II. Upon his graduation in 1942 Phillips entered 
798 Biographical Appendix 

the Army infantry but soon transferred to the air component. As a young pilot 

he served with distinction in the Eighth Air Force in England—earning two 

distinguished flying crosses, eight air medals, and the French croix de guerre— 

but he quickly became interested in aeronautical research and development. 

He became involved both in the development of the incredibly successful B-52 

bomber in the early 1950s and headed the Minuteman intercontinental ballistic 

missile program in the latter part of the decade. In 1964 Phillips, by this time an 

Air Force general, was lent to NASA to head the Apollo Moon landing program. 

He went back to the Air Force in the 1970s and commanded Air Force Systems 

Command prior to this retirement in 1975. See “Gen. Samuel C. Phillips of 

Wyoming,” Congressional Record, 3 August 1973, S-15689; Rep. John Wold, “Gen. 

Sarah H. Turner, “Sam Phillips: One Who Led Us to the Moon,” NASA Activities, 

May/June 1990, pp. 18-19; obituary in New York Times, 1 February 1990, p. D1. 

R

Milton Rosen (1915– ), an electrical engineer by training, joined the staff of 

the Naval Research Laboratory in 1940, where he worked on guidance systems 

for missiles during World War II. From 1947 to 1955, he was in charge of Viking 

rocket development. He was technical director of Project Vanguard, the scientifi c 

earth satellite program, until he joined NASA in October 1958 as Director of 

Launch Vehicles and Propulsion in the Office of Manned Space Flight. In 1963 he 

became senior scientist in NASA’s Office of the Deputy Associate Administrator 

for Defense Affairs. He later became Deputy Associate Administrator for Space 

Science (engineering). In 1974 he retired from NASA to become executive 

secretary of the National Academy of Science’s Space Science Board. (“Milton W. 

Rosen,” biographical file 001835, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC; see also his The Viking 

Rocket Story [New York: Harper, 1955].) 

S

Julian Scheer (1926–2001) served as NASA’s Assistant Administrator for Public 

Affairs from 1963 until 1971. He began his career in 1939 as an apprentice for a 

chain of weekly newspapers in his native Richmond, VA and went on to serve in 

the Merchant Marines during World War II and later in the U.S. Naval Reserve. 

Scheer earned a bachelor’s degree from the University of North Carolina in 1950 

and worked as the university’s Assistant Director of Sports Information until he 

joined NASA in 1962 as a consultant. As NASA’s missions progressed in the 1960s 

they attracted unprecedented public and press attention, creating ever-increasing 

demands for instantaneous information in every form. Under Scheer’s direction, 

NASA anticipated and planned for the press needs in connection with Apollo 

piloted flights, including a worldwide communications network for disseminating 

television pictures live from the Moon on Apollo 11. His Public Affairs program 

received several national awards, including the 1970 University of Missouri School 

of Journalism Special Achievement Award which cited the NASA program “for 

its outstanding, almost inconceivable, contributions to journalism technology.” 

His personal awards include NASA’s Exceptional Service Medal in 1968 and 

the Distinguished Service Medal in 1969. See “Scheer, Julian,” biographical fi le 

001902, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, NASA 

Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 799

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. (1923– 2007) was one of the original seven astronauts 

chosen by NASA in 1959. He became the fifth American in space in 1963 when 

he piloted the Mercury 8 mission. Schirra earned a bachelor of science degree 

from the United States Naval Academy in 1945. As a Navy pilot he flew 90 combat 

missions over Korea and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and two 

Air Medals for his service. He then attended the Naval Air Safety Offi cer School 

at the University of Southern California and completed test pilot training at the 

Naval Air Test center in 1958. Schirra was the only person to fly in America’s 

first three space programs—Mercury, Gemini and Apollo—logging over 295 

hours in space. In 1969 he was awarded three separate honorary doctorates in 

astronautical engineering, science, and astronautics. See “Schirra, Walter M. 

Mercury Flight,” biographical file 001915, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC and (http://www.jsc.nasa. 

gov/Bios/htmlbios/schirra-wm.html) accessed 23 October 2006.

Harrison H. Schmitt (1935– ) occupied the lunar module pilot seat as a scientistastronaut on Apollo 17. Schmitt conducted the longest and most productive 

lunar exploration of the Apollo program during this mission, spending twentytwo hours exploring the surface of the Moon and bringing back the largest lunar 

sample to date. He earned a bachelor of science degree from the California 

Institute of Technology in 1957 and a doctorate in geology from Harvard in 

1964. Before joining NASA in 1965, Schmitt worked with the U.S. Geological 

Survey’s Astrogeology Center at Flagstaff, Arizona, where he was project chief for 

lunar field geological methods. While at this position, he was among the USGS 

astrogeologists that instructed NASA astronauts during their geological fi eld 

trips. In 1974, after assuming additional duties as Chief of Scientist-Astronauts, 

he was appointed NASA Assistant Administrator for Energy Programs. Dr. 

Schmitt left NASA in 1975 to run for the United States Senate and subsequently 

served a six-year term in his home state of New Mexico. In 2005 he became chair 

of the NASA Advisory Council. See “Schmitt, Dr. Harrison (Jack) thru A-17,” 

biographical file 001925, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC and (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/ 

htmlbios/schmitt-hh.html) accessed 3 October 2006. 

William C. Schneider (1923–1999) joined NASA in June 1963 and was the 

Gemini mission director for seven of the ten piloted Gemini missions. From 1967 

to 1968, he served as Apollo mission director and the Apollo program’s deputy 

director for missions. He then served from 1968 to 1974 as the Skylab program’s 

director. After that, he worked as the Deputy Associate Administrator for Space 

Transportation Systems for almost four years. From 1978 to 1980, he served as 

the Associate Administrator for Space Tracking and Data systems. He received 

a Ph.D. in engineering from Catholic University. See “Schneider, William C.,” 

biographical file 001927, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Russell L. Schweickart (1935– ) served as lunar module pilot during the Apollo 

9 mission in 1969, during which he tested the portable life support backpack 

which was subsequently used on the lunar surface explorations. He earned a 

bachelor of science degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 

1956 and then served as a fighter pilot in the Massachusetts Air National Guard 

until 1963. He then returned to MIT as a graduate student and research scientist 
800 Biographical Appendix 

at the school’s Experimental Astronomy Laboratory, earning a master of science 

degree in 1963. That same year, Schweickart was selected by NASA to be in 

the third group of astronauts and fly in the Apollo program. After Apollo he 

served as backup commander for the first Skylab mission in 1973 and assumed 

responsibility for the development of hardware and procedures associated 

with erecting the emergency solar shade and deployment of the jammed solar 

array wing following the loss of the Skylab vehicle’s thermal shield. Schweickart 

finished his career at NASA serving as the Director of User Affairs in the Offi ce of 

Applications in Washington, DC. (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/schweickartrl.html) accessed 3 October 2006. 

David R. Scott (1932– ) was selected as one of the third group of astronauts in 

1963 and flew in the Gemini 8, Apollo 9, and Apollo 15 missions. He graduated 

near the top of his class at West Point with a bachelor of science degree and then 

chose to commission into the Air Force. He completed pilot training at Webb Air 

Force Base, Texas, in 1955 and was assigned to the 32d Tactical Fighter squadron 

stationed in Netherlands until 1960. Upon completing his tour of duty, Scott 

returned to the U.S. to study at MIT where he earned a master of science degree 

in aeronautics and astronautics as well as an engineering degree in aeronautics 

and astronautics, both in 1962. After leaving the astronaut corps in 1972, he was 

named Technical Assistant to the Apollo Program Manager at Johnson Space 

Center. He retired from the Air Force in March 1975 with the rank of Colonel and 

over 5600 hours of fl ying time. In that same year, Scott was appointed Director 

of Dryden Flight Research Center where he remained until he left NASA for 

private business ventures in 1977. Recently, Scott was the technical consultant to 

the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. See “Scott, David R. (Post – 

NASA),” biographical file 001958, NASA Historical Reference Collection, History 

Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC and (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/ 

htmlbios/scott-dr.html) accessed October 3, 2006. 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. (1918–2008) was born on October 30, 1918, in Salem, 

Massachusetts. He attended Lenox School, Lenox, Massachusetts; earned 

a bachelor of science degree in engineering at Harvard University in 1939; a 

master of science degree in aeronautics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

(MIT) in 1942; and a doctor of science degree in instrumentation from MIT 

in 1951. Dr. Seamans also received the following honorary degrees: doctor of 

science from Rollins College (1962) and from New York University (1967); doctor 

of engineering from Norwich Academy (1971), from Notre Dame (1974), and 

from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in 1974. In 1960, Dr. Seamans joined 

NASA as Associate Administrator. In 1965, he became Deputy Administrator, 

retaining many of the general management-type responsibilities of the Associate 

Administrator and also serving as Acting Administrator. During his years at NASA 

he worked closely with the Department of Defense in research and engineering 

programs and served as Co-chairman of the Astronautics Coordinating Board. 

Through these associations, NASA was kept aware of military developments 

and technical needs of the Department of Defense and Dr. Seamans was able to 

advise that agency of NASA activities which had application to national security. 

Seamans left NASA in late 1967; in 1969 President Nixon named him Secretary 

of the Air Force. He subsequently became the first Administrator of the Energy 

Research and Development Administration. For further information on Robert 

C. Seamans, Jr., see his autobiography, Aiming at Targets (Washington, DC: NASA 
Exploring the Unknown 801

SP-4106, 1996), his monograph Project Apollo: the Tough Decisions (Washington, DC: 

NASA SP-2005-4536, 2005), and “Robert C. Seamans, Jr.” (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/ 

offi ce/pao/History/Biographies/seamans.html) accessed 23 October 2006. 

Joseph F. Shea (1926–1999) served NASA as Deputy Director of the Offi ce of 

Manned Space Flight at Headquarters in Washington, DC, and as manager of the 

Apollo spacecraft program in Houston. He earned bachelor’s degrees in both 

engineering and mathematics and a master’s and doctorate degree in engineering 

mechanics, all at the University of Michigan. Shea worked in numerous positions 

in private companies, including Space Program Director at the Space Technology 

Laboratories in California, Advance Systems R & D Manager with General Motors, 

and Military Development Engineer with the Bell Telephone Laboratories. Shea 

officially retired from NASA in 1993 after his health began to fail him. He also 

was Senior Vice President for Engineering at Raytheon Co. from 1980 until his 

death in 1999. See “Shea, Joseph F.,” biographical file 2007, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. (1923–1998) was a member of the first group of seven 

astronauts in 1959 chosen to participate in Project Mercury. He was the fi rst 

American in space, piloting Mercury-Redstone 3 (Freedom 7), and was backup 

pilot for Mercury-Atlas 9. He was subsequently grounded due to an inner-ear 

ailment until May 7, 1969 (during which time he served as chief of the astronaut 

office). Upon returning to flight status Shepard commanded Apollo 14, and 

in June 1971 resumed duties as chief of the astronaut office. He retired from 

NASA and the U.S. Navy on August 1, 1974, to join the Marathon Construction 

Company of Houston, Texas, as partner and chairman. See Alan Shepard and 

Deke Slayton, Moonshot: The Inside Story of America’s Race to the Moon (New York: 

Turner Publishing, Inc., 1994); The Astronauts Themselves, We Seven (New York: 

Simon and Schuster, 1962); (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/schirra-wm.html) 

accessed 23 October 2006. 

Hugh S. Sidey (1927–2005) was a top reporter for Time and Life magazines 

during the Kennedy Presidency. He graduated from Iowa State University with 

a bachelor’s degree in 1950 and immediately began working with numerous 

publications such as the Omaha World-Herald and the Free Press. He would later 

author a biography of President Kennedy entitled John F. Kennedy, President. See 

Who’s Who in America, 1966-1967 (Chicago, IL: Marquis, 1966). 

Abe Silverstein (1908–2001), who earned a B.S. in mechanical engineering 

(1929) and an M.E. (1934) from Rose Polytechnic Institute, was a longtime NACA 

manager. He had worked as an engineer at the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory 

between 1929 and 1943 and had moved to the Lewis Laboratory (later, Research 

Center) to a succession of management positions, the last (1961–1970) as director 

of the Center. Interestingly, in 1958 Case Institute of Technology had awarded 

him an honorary doctorate. When Glennan arrived at NASA, Silverstein was on a 

rotational assignment to the Washington headquarters as Director of the Offi ce 

of Space Flight Development (later, Space Flight Programs) from the position 

of Associate Director at Lewis, which he had held since 1952. During his fi rst 

tour at Lewis, he had directed investigations leading to signifi cant improvements 

in reciprocating and early turbojet engines. At NASA Headquarters he helped 

create and direct the efforts leading to the space flights of Project Mercury and 
802 Biographical Appendix 

to establish the technical basis for the Apollo program. As Lewis’s director, he 

oversaw a major expansion of the Center and the development of the Centaur 

launch vehicle. He retired from NASA in 1970 to take a position with Republic 

Steel Corp. On the career of Silverstein see, Virginia P. Dawson, Engines and 

Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American Propulsion Technology (Washington, 

DC: NASA SP-4306, 1991), passim; “Silverstein, Abe,” biographical fi le 002072, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

Donald K. Slayton (1924–1993) was named one of the original seven Mercury 

astronauts in 1959, but was relieved of this assignment following the discovery 

of a heart condition in August of that same year. Instead he assumed the role 

of Director of Flight Crew Operations in 1963, bringing upon himself the 

responsibilities of directing the activities of the astronaut office, the aircraft 

office, the flight crew integration division, the crew training and simulation 

division, and the crew procedures division. Born and raised in Sparta, Wisconsin, 

Slayton joined the Air Force after high school and earned his wings in 1943. 

As a B-25 pilot with the 340th and 319th Bombardment groups, he flew a total 

of 63 combat missions over Europe and Japan. Upon completion of his tour of 

duty he attended the University of Minnesota, earning a bachelor of science 

degree in aeronautical engineering in 1949. He then worked for two years as an 

aeronautical engineer with the Boeing Aircraft Corporation until he was recalled 

to active duty in 1951 with the Minnesota Air National Guard. After his second 

tour of duty, he attended the USAF Test Pilot School in 1955 at Edwards Air Force 

Base, California, where he subsequently served as a test pilot until 1959. Slayton 

resigned from the Air Force in 1963 to fully devote himself to his duties at NASA. 

In 1972, following a comprehensive review of his medical status, he was fi nally 

restored to full flight status and certified eligible for piloted space fl ight. Two 

years later he made his first space flight as Apollo docking module pilot of the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, logging over 217 hours in space. Slayton retired from 

NASA in 1982 and founded a company to develop rockets for small commercial 

payloads. (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/slayton.html) accessed 16 October 

2006. 

Charles P. Sonnett (1924– ) served as chief of NASA’s Lunar and Planetary 

Sciences from 1960–62. He earned a bachelor of arts degree in physics from 

the University of California at Berkeley in 1949 and a masters and Ph.D. both in 

Nuclear Physics from the University of California at Los Angeles in 1951 and 1954, 

respectively. From 1954 to 1960 he was the Senior Staff Head of the Space Physics 

Section of Space Technology Laboratories while at the same time lecturing in the 

U.C.L.A. department of engineering. In 1962 Dr. Sonnett became the head of 

the Space Sciences Division at Ames Research Center, where he oversaw research 

for the nation’s space program in the areas of geophysics, interplanetary and 

planetary physics, planetary sciences, astronomy, and astrophysics. See “Sonnett, 

Dr. Charles P.,” biographical file 002160, NASA Historical Reference Collection, 

History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

T

Edward Teller (1908–2003) was a naturalized American physicist born in


Hungary who made important contributions to the development of both fi ssion­

Exploring the Unknown 803

and fusion-type bombs. As a member of the advisory committee of the AEC, he 

advocated the hydrogen bomb as a U.S. tactical weapon, arousing a great deal 

of controversy. He also spoke publicly about Sputnik as showing that the Soviets 

were beginning to gain a lead on the U.S. in the fields of science and technology. 

Among other works on Teller, see the view of the insider, Herbert York, The 

Advisors: Oppenheimer, Teller, and the Superbomb (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 

1976). For one perspective on Teller’s more recent and still controversial activities 

in the world of science and defense technology, see William J. Broad, Teller’s War: 

The Top-Secret Story Behind the Star Wars Deception (New York: Simon & Schuster, 

1992). 

Albert Thomas (1898–1966) (D-TX), a lawyer and World War I veteran, had fi rst 

been elected to the House of Representatives in 1936 and served successively until 

1962. In 1960–1962 he was chair of the independent offices subcommittee of the 

House Appropriations Committee and thus exercised considerable congressional 

power over NASA’s funding. “Thomas, Albert,” biographical fi le 002295, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

Howard W. Tindall (1925–1995) was an expert in orbital mechanics and a key 

figure in the development of rendezvous techniques for Gemini and lunar 

trajectories for Apollo. He was directly responsible for planning all ten of the 

Gemini missions at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. Tindall received 

a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Brown University in 

1948 and subsequently joined the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

at Langley Research Center that same year. He moved to Houston in 1961 to 

assume mission planning responsibilities in the Flight Operations Directorate 

for Gemini. He gained popularity within the organization for his irreverently 

written “Tindallgrams” which captured the details of complicated aspects of 

key flight problems. In 1970, Tindall was appointed deputy director of Flight 

Operations, and in 1972, he became director. He retired from NASA in 1979 after 

thirty-one years of service. See “Tindall, Howard W., Jr.,” biographical fi le 004812, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

V

Cyrus Vance (1917–2002) had a long career as a senior government offi cial 

in various Democratic administrations. He had been general counsel for the 

Department of Defense during the Kennedy administration of the early 1960s, 

and as Secretary of the Army, 1962-1964. He was Deputy Secretary of Defense, 

1964–1967. He served as Secretary of State for President Jimmy Carter in the 

latter 1970s. See “Vance, Cyrus R[oberts],” Current Biography 1977, pp. 408-11. 

Robert B. Voas (1928– ) was part of the first Space Task Group in 1958 and 

helped to conceptualize the criteria for the selection of astronauts. He earned a 

bachelor of arts, master of science and Ph.D. in psychology from the University 

of California in Los Angeles, as well as a bachelor of philosophy degree from 

the University of Chicago. Voas served in the United States Navy where he 

reached the rank of lieutenant and logged about three hundred hours in jet 

aircraft. After being assigned to NACA in 1958, Voas went on to serve as Training 
804 Biographical Appendix 

Officer for project Mercury and later proposed the selection process for the 

Gemini astronauts. See “Voas, Robert B.: Biography,” biographical fi le 002449, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 

Wernher von Braun (1912–1977) was the leader of what has been called the “rocket 

team,” which had developed the German V-2 ballistic missile in World War II. At 

the conclusion of the war, von Braun and some of his chief assistants—as part of a 

military operation called Project Paperclip—came to America and were installed 

at Fort Bliss in El Paso, Texas, to work on rocket development and use the V-2 

for high altitude research. They used launch facilities at the nearby White Sands 

Proving Ground in New Mexico. Later, in 1950 von Braun’s team moved to the 

Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, to concentrate on the development 

of a new missile for the Army. They built the Army’s Jupiter ballistic missile, and 

before that the Redstone, used by NASA to launch the first Mercury capsules. 

The story of von Braun and the “rocket team” has been told many times. See, as 

examples, David H. DeVorkin, Science With a Vengeance: How the Military Created the 

US Space Sciences After World War II (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992); Frederick 

I. Ordway III and Mitchell R. Sharpe, The Rocket Team (New York: Thomas Y. 

Crowell, 1979); Erik Bergaust, Wernher von Braun (Washington, DC: National 

Space Institute, 1976); “Wernher von Braun,”(http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun. 

html) accessed 23 October 2006; “Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC),” (http:// 

history.nasa.gov/centerhistories/marshall.htm) accessed 23 October 2006. 

W

James E. Webb (1906–1992) was NASA Administrator between 1961 and 1968. 

Previously he had been an aide to a Congressman in New Deal Washington, an 

aide to Washington lawyer Max O. Gardner, and a business executive with the 

Sperry Corporation and the Kerr-McGee Oil Co. He had also been director 

of the Bureau of the Budget between 1946 and 1950 and Under Secretary of 

State, 1950–1952. See W. Henry Lambright, Powering Apollo: James E. Webb of 

NASA (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995) and “James E. 

Webb” (http://www.hq.nasa.gov/offi ce/pao/History/Biographies/webb.html) accessed 

23 October 2006. 

Caspar W. Weinberger (1917–2006), longtime Republican government offi cial, 

was a senior member of the Nixon, Ford, and Reagan administrations. For Nixon 

he was deputy director (1970–1972) and director (1972–1976) of the Offi ce of 

Management and Budget. In this capacity he had a leading role in shaping the 

direction of NASA’s major effort of the 1970s, the development of a reusable 

Space Shuttle. For Reagan he served as Secretary of Defense, where he also 

oversaw the use of the Shuttle in the early 1980s for the launching of classifi ed 

Department of Defense payloads into orbit. See “Weinberger, Caspar W(illard),” 

Current Biography 1973, pp. 428-30. 

Edward C. Welsh (1909–1990) had a long career in various private and public 

enterprises. He had served as legislative assistant to Senator Stuart Symington 

(D-MO), 1953–1961, and was the executive secretary of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Council through the 1960s. See “Welsh, Dr. Edward C.,” biographical 
Exploring the Unknown 805

file 002546, NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Division, 

NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 

Jerome B. Wiesner (1915–1994) was Science Advisor to President John F. Kennedy. 

He had been a faculty member of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and 

had served on President Eisenhower’s Science Advisory Committee. During the 

presidential campaign of 1960, Wiesner had advised Kennedy on science and 

technology issues and chaired a transition team report on the space program 

that questioned the value of human spaceflight. As Kennedy’s Science Advisor 

he tussled with NASA over the lunar landing commitment and the method of 

conducting it. See Gregg Herken, Cardinal Choices: Science Advice to the President 

from Hiroshima to SDI (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 

Edward H. White, Jr. (1930–1967) piloted the Gemini 4 mission during which 

he carried out the first extra vehicular activity. He graduated with a bachelor of 

science degree from the United States Military Academy in 1952 and then was 

commissioned into the Air Force. Following his flight training, he was stationed 

in Germany for three and a half years with a fighter squadron, flying F-86’s and 

F-100’s. White then returned to the United States and earned a master of science 

degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan in 1959. 

That same year he attended the Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force 

Base, California, and was later reassigned to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in 

Ohio as an experimental test pilot with the Aeronautical Systems Division. He 

was named a member of the second group of astronauts selected by NASA in 

1962. After piloting Gemini 4 and serving as backup command pilot for Gemini 

7, he was named as one of the pilots for the Apollo 1 mission. Lieutenant Colonel 

White died on January 27, 1967 in the Apollo spacecraft fl ash fire during a launch 

pad test at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and was posthumously awarded the 

Congressional Space Medal of Honor. See “Edward H. White, II,” (http://www.jsc. 

nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/white-eh.html) accessed 30 October 30, 2006. 

Walter C. Williams (1919–1995) earned a B.S. in aerospace engineering from 

LSU in 1939 and went to work for the NACA in 1940, serving as a project engineer 

to improve the handling, maneuverability, and flight characteristics of World War 

II fighters. Following the war, he went to what became Edwards Air Force Base 

to set up flight tests for the X-1, including the first human supersonic fl ight by 

Capt. Charles E. Yeager in October 1947. He became the founding director of the 

organization that became Dryden Flight Research Facility. In September 1959 he 

assumed associate directorship of the new NASA Space Task Group at Langley, 

created to carry out Project Mercury. He later became director of operations 

for the project, then associate director of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center 

in Houston, subsequently renamed the Johnson Space Center. In 1963 Williams 

moved to NASA Headquarters as Deputy Associate Administrator of the Offi ce of 

Manned Space Flight. From 1964 to 1975, he was a vice president for Aerospace 

Corporation. Then from 1975-1982 he served as chief engineer of NASA, retiring 

in the latter year. See “Williams, W.C.,” biographical file 002618, NASA Historical 

Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC. 
806 Biographical Appendix 

Z

Charles H. Zimmerman (1907– ) was handpicked by Robert R. Gilruth to serve 

on the first Space Task Group in 1958 and served as Director of Aeronautical 

Research in NASA’s Office of Advanced Research and Technology from 1962­

1963. He received a B.S. in electrical engineering from the University of Kansas 

in 1929 and joined the staff of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

in that same year. He spent the next 33 years of his life in government and private 

industry developing and improving new aircraft. Zimmerman earned a master’s 

degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Virginia in 1954 and 

two years later was the recipient of both the Alexander Klemin Award of the 

American Helicopter Society and the Wright Brothers Medal of the Society of 

Automotive Engineers. See “Charles H. Zimmerman,” biographical fi le 002882, 

NASA Historical Reference Collection, History Division, NASA Headquarters, 

Washington, DC. 
Exploring the Unknown 807

Index 

A

Abbey, George, 695 

Abelson, Philip, 415 

AC Electronics, 708

Ad Hoc Committee on Man-in-Space, 389

Ad Hoc Committee on Space, 390 

Ad Hoc Mercury Panel, 177–92 

Ad Hoc Working Group on Apollo Experiments and Training, 617 

Adams, John B., 764 

Advanced Manned Missions Program, 40

Advanced Research and Technology, Office of, 288, 640 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) 

cooperation with NASA on spaceflight program, 11–12, 74–77, 82–89, 441 

creation of, 52 

Man in Space Committee, 441 

MISS program support, 10 

MRS-V Committee, 441 

Aeromedical Field Laboratory, Holloman Air Force Base, 141 

Aeronautical and Space Research, Office of, 441 

Aerospace Medical Laboratory, Wright Air Development Center, 15, 141, 151, 

155, 157 

Agena rockets 

cost of, 264 

docking maneuvers with, 38, 255–56, 261, 373; GT-6 mission, 46, 345, 346, 

373; GT-8 mission, 47, 345, 357–62; GT-10, 372; GT-11, 372


engines for, 383–84


payload capabilities, 461


procurement of, 256


Agnew, Spiro, 436, 738

Agriculture, U.S. Department of, 673, 679, 680, 681, 683, 743 

Air Crew Equipment Laboratory, 164, 169 

Air Force, U.S. 

Ballistic Missile Division, 164, 165, 242


Flight Test Center, 164


Hawkeye program, 465, 469


Manned Orbiting Laboratory, 41, 286–87, 376


Mercury program liaison to, 11


Mercury program, opposition to, 295


MISS program, 9–10, 9n25, 76, 77–79


Space Systems Division, 243


Titan III development, 253


X-20 Dyna-Soar program, 7, 52, 66–67, 80, 84, 442–43, 469


Air Lubricated Free Attitude (ALFA) Simulator, 166–67, 199 

Air Research and Development Command (ARDC), 152 

Aldrin, Buzz (Edwin E., Jr.) 

Apollo 8, 696


Apollo 11: assignment to, 432; declaration for agriculture and customs, 736–
808 Index 

37; lunar surface activities, 434, 775–79; mission report, 765–84; words said 

on lunar surface, 728

biographical information, 45, 45n142


Gemini XII (GT-12), 372


nickname of, 45


rendezvous and docking procedures development, 45–46


Alexander, Martin, 742 

Allen, H. Julian, 5–6, 50–51, 53 

America, 439 

Ames, M. B., Jr., 440, 441, 443 

Ames Research Center 

Apollo program: lunar surface information, robotic missions for, 560; 

rendezvous approaches study, 401, 495


director of, 388

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination membership, 673


research at, 5, 50, 444–45, 460–61


Anders, William A. 

Apollo 8, 430–31, 691, 696 

Apollo mission cancellations, 751 

biographical information, 785 

National Aeronautics and Space Council position, 750 

Anderson, Clinton P. 

Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 423, 654, 661–65 

criticism of Apollo program, 414 

quarantine procedures and back contamination, 665–66, 682–84 

Webb, relationship with, 423, 424 

Anderson, Melvin S., 122 

Apollo, Project 

all-up testing, 413–14, 608–9, 610–12 

Apollo 1 (204) fire, 422–24, 651–65 

Apollo 4, 712, 720 

Apollo 5, 720 

Apollo 6, 712, 720 

Apollo 7, 428, 429, 692, 698–99, 703–4, 706, 712, 720 

Apollo 8, 427–31, 685, 692–718, 727, 735–36 

Apollo 9, 431, 718

Apollo 10, 431–32, 718

Apollo 11: Command Module activities, 774–75; declaration for agriculture 

and customs, 736–37; EVA during, 432, 433–34, 721–26, 766, 775–79; 

flight crew assignment, 432; landing and recovery, 434, 767, 783–84; lunar 

landing, 433; lunar landing site selection, 432; Lunar Module descent, 

773–74; lunar samples, 434, 738, 740, 743, 744–46, 766, 778–79; mission 

report, 765–84; quarantine procedures, 408, 434, 666, 683–84, 767, 784; 

rendezvous and docking, 434, 767, 781–83; schedule for, 718, 720; success 

of, 739–40, 751–52; symbolic activities, 432–33, 727, 730–35; televised 

coverage from lunar surface, 432, 724, 725, 766, 778; training for, 432; 

words said on lunar surface, 433, 434, 726–29 

Apollo 12, 434, 435, 743, 744–46, 751–52


Apollo 13, 434, 435, 743, 745, 746–47


Apollo 14, 434, 435, 750
Exploring the Unknown 809

Apollo 15: cancellation of, 438, 750–51, 760; lunar samples, 439; mission 

planning, 434; stamp cover incident, 21, 21n70; success of, 439, 750 

Apollo 16, 434–35, 437, 439, 750, 754–60 

Apollo 17, 434–35, 437, 438–39, 750, 754–60 

Apollo 18, 434–35, 754 

Apollo 19, 434–35, 438, 750–51, 754, 760 

Apollo 20, 434–35, 436 

Apollo Logistic Support System, 616–18

Apollo Lunar Exploration Offi ce, 724 

Apollo Programs Offi ce, 413 

Apollo Spacecraft Program Offi ce, 382–83, 413, 424 

Apollo Systems Offi ce, 203 

approval for, 388–89, 390 

astronauts: contamination of moon by, 408, 677–78; pilot role of, 452; 

qualification of, 406; quarantine procedures and back contamination, 408, 

435, 665–66, 668, 672, 675, 678–84; selection of, 229, 406, 432, 558–59; 

spacesuits for, 381, 453; survival equipment, 381–82; training of, 382 

budget for, 391–92, 395, 547, 750–51, 753–60 

cancellation of missions, 434, 436–37, 438, 749–64 

Command Module: design of, 452, 540; development of, 537; function of, 

451, 465–66, 503; Phillips report on North American Aviation, 629–39; 

procurement plan, 503–4; quarantine procedures, 683–84; Reaction 

Control System, 383; schedule for, 629 

communication systems, 454 

contamination of moon, 408, 665, 666, 677–78

cost of, 389, 413, 456, 458, 470 

criticism of, 414–15, 603–7 

earth-orbital fl ights, 451 

engineering focus of, 438, 739 

extravehicular activities (EVA): during Apollo 11, 432, 433–34, 721–26, 

766, 775–79; development of through Gemini program, 44, 295, 379; life 

support system testing, 431 

facilities for, 395–97, 512–20 

flight crew assignments, 432 

funding for, 277, 390, 409–10, 411, 415, 588–603, 605, 607 

Gemini program as support for, 44, 48, 278–82, 295, 376, 378, 379, 382–84 

landing and recovery, 434, 452, 767, 783–84 

launch and flight operations, 380 

launch facilities, 396–97 

launch vehicles: booster program, 526–29; development of, 461–65; fuel for, 

396, 398, 483, 487–88; recovery of, 464–65; selection of, 398–99. See also 

Saturn rockets 

life support system, 431 

Lunar Module: ascent engines, 383–84; contract award for, 405; design and 

development of, 382–84, 467, 538; landing site selection, 407–8, 432, 560, 

561, 563–66; Lunar Landing System, 466; problems with, 427; propulsion 

system, 536–37; quarantine procedures and back contamination, 683–84; 

rendezvous and docking requirements, 378; rendezvous radar, 426, 688–90 

lunar samples, 434, 439, 670, 672–73, 676, 738, 740, 744–46, 766, 778–79 

lunar surface information, robotic missions for, 407, 559–62, 646–48
810 Index 

management of, 122, 399–400, 412–14, 422 

Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force report, 458–71 

as memorial to Kennedy, 419 

mission control operations: development of through Gemini program, 380– 

81; mission control center for, 397, 566–68

mission mode: comparison of modes, 578–85; delay in selecting, 398–99; 

direct ascent mode, 401, 404, 494, 540; dispute over, 404–5; Earth Orbit 

rendezvous (EOR), 401, 404, 494, 497, 500, 521, 539–40; Lunar Orbit 

rendezvous (LOR), 494, 497–98, 500, 520–44; lunar surface rendezvous, 

498, 500; survey of vehicle systems, 494–501; White House objection to 

LOR, 403–6, 568–88

mission module: design of, 453; function of, 451–52 

mission objectives, 451 

mission schedule, 409–10, 411–12, 413–14, 421, 428–29, 588–603, 608–12, 

718–20 

mission sequence and designations, 424–25, 428, 692, 694, 697, 700, 710, 718

naming of, 389, 449, 450 

objectives of, 277 

Orbital Space Laboratory, 466; function of, 503; procurement plan, 503–4 

origins of, 388–90 

overruns in Gemini program and, 40 

priority of, 409–12, 416, 562–63, 588–603 

progress on, 400, 544–47 

propulsion module, 454; design and development of, 452–53, 466; function 

of, 451, 453, 503; Launch Escape Propulsion System, 466; Mission Abort 

Propulsion System, 466; procurement plan, 503–4 

quarantine procedures, 408, 408n26, 434, 435, 665–76, 683–84, 740–49, 767, 

784


rationale for, 479


reentry vehicles, 50–51, 537


rendezvous and docking: Apollo 11, 434, 767, 781–83; development of 


through Gemini program, 45–46, 345, 378

review of, 413, 416, 608, 609–10 

risks and failure concerns, 429, 702–6, 710 

scientific activities for, 406–7, 558–59 

scientific value of, 392, 438, 760–64 

Service Module, 503–4, 536–37, 629–39 

Skylab vs., 751–53 

spacecraft: astronaut control of, 452; contamination of moon by, 408, 666, 

677–78; development of, 382–84, 461, 465–69; electrical power supply, 383; 

equipment installation, modular, 249; fuel cells, 708–9n1; heat and capsule 

design, 50; heating problems, 461; maneuvering capabilities, 249; modular 

concept of, 451–53, 456–57, 503–4; oxygen atmosphere, 654–55; problems 

with, 421; procurement plan, 398, 501–12; quarantine procedures and back 

contamination, 666, 671; radiation considerations, 454–55, 468; systems 

development for, 453–54 

success of, 273, 439, 739–40, 750, 751–52


timeframe for missions, 455–56, 466, 469–71


weightlessness issues, 454–55, 468

workforce responsible for, 471
Exploring the Unknown 811

Apollo 204 Review Board, 422–23, 651–61 

Apollo Achievement Awards, 733 

Apollo Applications Program, 376, 422, 639–46, 688

Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), 722–25 

Apollo Telescope Mount, 643, 752 

Arabian, Donald D., 377–84, 699 

Aristarchus, 408n26 

Armstrong, Neil A. 

Apollo 8, 696 

Apollo 11: assignment to, 432; declaration for agriculture and customs, 736– 

37; lunar surface activities, 434, 775–79; mission report, 765–84; words said 

on lunar surface, 433, 434, 728, 729 

biographical information, 785


Gemini VIII (GT-8), 47, 345, 357–62


test pilot experience of, 14n47


Army, U.S. 

Army Ordnance Missile Command (AOMC), 117–20 

astronaut selection from, 135–36 

Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), 28–29, 117–20 

Army Ordnance Missile Command (AOMC), 117–20 

Arnold, Earl H., 742 

Atlantic Missile Range, 142, 144, 164, 397 

Atlas rockets 

abort sensing and implementation system (ASIS), 182 

Atlas-Agena vehicles. See Agena rockets 

Atlas-Centaur vehicles, 40, 274, 461, 483 

Gemini program use of, 256 

Mercury program use of, 12, 33, 126, 210 

Mercury-Atlas missions, 241; failure of, 241; MA-1, 179; MA-2, 179, 180, 182; 

MA-3, 180, 190, 241; MA-4, 248; MA-5, 140, 142, 248; MA-6, 33–34, 214–28, 

249; MA-7, 34, 230–36, 248; MA-8, 41, 279; MA-9, 41, 279; television system 

for, 211–12 

MIS program, 76–77


priority status of program, 563


reliability analysis of missions, 186


reliability of, 29–30, 183, 184


rocket recovery system, 442


weight-carrying capacity of, 25, 27


WS-117L program, 83–84


Atomic Energy Commission, 376 

Atwood, Leland, 423, 629, 630, 708

Augerson, William S., 127, 133–35, 136, 153, 785 

Autoneutronics, 55–58

Auxiliary Flight Research Station (AFRS), 4, 49. See also Pilotless Aircraft 

Research Division (PARD) 

AVCO, 60–62, 551 

Aviation Medical Acceleration Laboratory, 168
812 Index 

B

Bagby, John, Jr., 673, 680 

Baikonur Cosmodrome, 425 

Bailey, Glenn F., 511 

Barclay, Brigadier General, 117 

Bass, Manuel N., 763 

Batdorf, S. B., 75, 86, 117, 120–21 

Bay of Pigs, Cuba, 393 

Bean, Alan, 435 

Beckner, John B., 53, 511 

Beeler, De E., 440, 445–46, 448

Beeson, Paul, 177–92 

Beil, W. John, 177–92 

Bell, David, 409–10, 588, 593, 598, 600 

Bell, E. Barton, 52, 70 

Bell Aerospace Systems, 550 

Bell Aircraft, 7, 52, 67–69 

Bellcomm, 710, 724 

Bergen, Bill, 695, 709 

Berkner, Lloyd, 392, 471–74 

Bermuda flight tracking center, 180 

Berry, Charles A., 294, 673, 742 

B.F. Goodrich Co., 164 

Biemann, Klaus, 742 

Big Joe fl ight, 241 

Bioastronautics Support Unit (BOSU), 364 

Bird, John D., 530 

Bland, William M., Jr., 122 

Blasingame, Paul, 708

BMES, 563 

Boeing Airplane Company 

Apollo 8, 708, 709


Apollo spacecraft proposal, 506, 550


booster decisions and, 543


Dyna-Soar contract, 443


Lunar Orbiter program, 564


Saturn V production, 663


work schedule at, 591


Bolender, 693, 695 

Bond, Aleck C., 122 

Bonney, Walter, 17 

Borman, Frank 

Apollo 8, 430–31, 691, 696, 718, 727, 735–36 

Apollo 204 Review Board, 422–23, 652–53, 654, 655, 657–61 

Gemini IV (GT-4), 268

Gemini VII (GT-7), 46–47, 345–57 

Bothmer, Clyde B., 608

Bourgin, Simon, 726, 729 

Boushey, General, 87 
Exploring the Unknown 813

Boyer, William J., 122, 123 

Brackett, Ernest W., 501–2 

Brooks Air Force Base, School of Aviation Medicine, 138, 139, 140 

Brown, Allan H., 673, 742, 748

Brown, C. E., 49 

Brown, George, 396 

Brown & Root, 396 

Brundin, R. H., 214–28

Buckley, John, 673 

Budget, U.S. Bureau of 

National Space Plan recommendations, 479 

space program review, 409, 419, 419n51, 588, 618–24 

Buglia, James J., 80–81 

Bundy, McGeorge 

astronaut activities guidelines, 237–38

biographical information, 785


mission mode decision, 405, 569, 570, 585


Bunker, George, 58–59, 708

Burke, Walter, 275, 708

Bush, Vannevar, 415, 603–7 

Byrnes, Martin A., 514 

C

Califano, Joseph A., Jr., 283, 285 

California Institute of Technology, 559 

Callaghan, Richard L., 236–38, 786 

Cameron, A. G. W., 763 

Campagna, I. Edward, 514 

Canary Islands flight tracking center, 180 

Cape Canaveral (Cape Kennedy) 

Apollo 1 (204) fi re, 422 

Apollo program, complete systems at, 610 

Bioastronautics Support Unit (BOSU), 364 

firing pad restrictions, 446 

Kennedy visit to, 419 

launch facilities at, 397 

Mercury program: launches from, 121, 160; medical monitoring at, 187; 

mission control center for, 397, 566; readiness of, 180; training at, 165, 170; 

work schedule, 482 

mission control center, 397, 566, 567 

visitors to, 755 

work schedule at, 483 

Capsule Coordination Group Meetings, 166 

Carpenter, Malcolm Scott 

biographical information, 786 

departure of, 231 

MA-7 flight of, 34, 230–36, 248, 252 

press conference to introduce astronauts, 18

specialty area assignment, 25, 166 
814 Index 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Casey, Frank, 559–62, 564 

Castro, Fidel, 393 

Centaur, 40, 274, 461, 483 

Central Intelligence Agency, 425–26, 685–87 

Cernan, Gene, 432, 439 

Cesaro, Dick, 76 

Chaffee, Roger, 422, 651, 652 

Chamberlin, James A., 204, 510, 549 

Chance Vought Aircraft, Inc., 506, 550, 551 

Chilton, Robert G., 122, 511 

Chrysler, 541–42, 590, 708

Clagett, A. A., 549 

Clark, John, 140 

Clauser, Milton U., 177–92 

Cocke, Earl, 284 

Collier’s, 2, 6 

Collins, Michael 

Apollo 11: aboard Columbia, 434, 774–75; assignment to, 432; declaration for 

agriculture and customs, 736–37; mission report, 765–84 

biographical information, 786 

Columbia, 434 

Commerce, U.S. Department of, 376 

Committee on Science and Astronautics, 277, 513 

Conley, Stu, 708–9n1 

Conrad, Charles “Pete,” 372, 435 

Convair Astronautics, 29, 64, 76–77, 164, 165. See also General DynamicsAstronautics 

Cooper, Leroy Gordon, Jr. 

biographical information, 786–87 

circumlunar mission proposal, 204 

Faith 7 flight, 34, 239, 248, 250, 252 

press conference to introduce astronauts, 18

public image of astronauts, 20 

specialty area assignment, 25, 26, 166 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Crane, Robert, 441, 442 

Cuban Missile Crisis, 570, 612 

Cunningham, Walter, 429, 787 

Curran, John M., 512 

D

Dammin, Gustave J., 742, 748–49 

David, Edward E., Jr, 749, 750, 751–53 

Day, LeRoy E., 278, 279–81 

Debus, Kurt H. 

Apollo 8, 693, 694, 696, 698, 717 

biographical information, 787 

launch facilities search, 397 
Exploring the Unknown 815

Launch Operations Center head, 397 

LOR concept, 587 

Defense, U.S. Department of (DOD). See also Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (ARPA) 

accidents, contingency plans for, 363–67, 369 

Apollo 8, 709, 710 

Apollo program review, 416 

astronaut activities guidelines, 238

contract monitoring, 662 

DX priority status, 137, 563 

Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group, NASA-DOD, 398, 399, 521, 523 

LOR concept, 587 

Manned Orbiting Laboratory, 286–87, 376 

Manned Space Flight Experiments Board, 642 

Master Urgency List, 137 

medical aspects of spacefl ight, 187, 188

Mercury program responsibilities of, 179, 242–43, 244 

MISS program, 10 

National Space Plan recommendations, 479 

robotic missions of, 388

space race with Soviets review, 393, 478

support from, importance of, 376 

workforce, 376 

Discoverer project, 165, 189, 563 

Disher, John, 413, 441, 457, 608, 609–10 

Doe, Bruce, 763 

Donlan, Charles J. 

biographical information, 787–88

Mercury program astronaut selection, 15, 16, 127, 136 

Space Task Group membership, 122, 179 

Dornbach, John E., 564 

Douglas, W. K., 168

Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc. 

Apollo spacecraft proposal, 506, 550, 551 

booster decisions and, 543 

Saturn V production, 663 

work schedule at, 591 

Downhower, Walter J., 494–501 

Draper, Stark, 708

Drew, Russ, 750, 751 

Drewry, Colonel, 117 

Dryden, Hugh L. 

Apollo program: management of, 400; schedule for, acceleration of, 593–95, 

601; spacecraft contract, 547 

biographical information, 788

EVA on GT-4, 44, 292, 293–96 

illness and death of, 44, 420 

manned satellite program, 86 

Mercury program: animal payloads, 141; astronaut activities guidelines, 229; 

DX priority status for, 137; funding for, 146 
816 Index 

MIS program, 72, 74–80, 120 

MISS program, 9, 10 

NACA position, 86 

NASA budget approval, 392 

NASA position, 391 

space race with Soviets meeting, 393 

DuBridge, Lee, 750, 751 

Duke, Charles, 439 

Dyna-Soar, 7, 52, 66–67, 80, 84, 442–43, 469 

E

Eagle, 433–34 

Echo satellites, 484 

Eckles, Howard H., 673, 680–81, 742 

Edwards, Gardner, 153 

Edwards Air Force Base, 49, 160, 440 

Edwards Flight Test Center, 165 

Eggers, A. J., Jr. 

aerodynamic heating, 50–51 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 86, 87 

rendezvous approaches study, 494–501 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 440, 444–45, 448

spacecraft concepts, 53 

spaceflight research review, 444–45 

Eglinton, Geoffrey, 764 

Ehricke, Krafft A., 64 

Eisele, Donn F., 429, 788

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 

Apollo program approval, 390 

human spaceflight study, 389 

human spaceflight views of, 145, 389, 415 

Mercury program: astronaut selection, 13, 127, 136, 175; DX priority status 

for, 137; funding for, 145–47


NASA budget approval, 392


National Aeronautics and Space Act, 10


Soviet Union strategy of, 145


Ellington Air Force Base, 681 

Emme, Eugene, 608

England, Anthony W., 763 

Engle, Joe, 439 

Enos, 33, 140–41, 241 

Environmental control simulator, 167 

Escher, William J. D., 494–501 

Evans, Bob, 708

Evans, Lew, 699 

Evans, Ron, 439 
Exploring the Unknown 817

F

F-1 engines 

Apollo program launch vehicles, 390, 396, 399, 462–63, 496, 542, 570 

building of, 522 

funding for, 476 

payload capabilities, 464 

technical problems with, 412, 420–21 

testing facility, 397 

Faget, Maxime A. 

Apollo 204 Review Board, 652–53, 657–61 

Apollo spacecraft design, 403 

biographical information, 26, 789 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 12, 86, 89 

lunar landing mission goal, 388, 440, 447 

Mercury program: circumlunar mission proposal, 204; discussion of, 443; 

Redstone missile procurement, 117; spacecraft design, 8, 25, 26, 80–81 

MIS program, 72, 74–77, 120 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 440, 443, 447, 448

Source Evaluation Board, 510, 549 

Space Task Group, 122, 388

Faith 7, 34, 239, 248, 250, 252 

Favorite, Frank G., 742, 748

Feigert, Paul, 735–36 

Ferri, Antonio, 69 

Field, Edison M., 122, 230 

Finger, Harold B., 709, 717 

Fishman, Alfred P., 177–92 

Flanigan, Peter, 750, 751 

Fleming, William, 400–401, 521, 526 

Flemming, Secretary, 140 

Fletcher, James C., 437, 749, 750, 753–60 

Flickinger, Don, 136, 152 

Flight Readiness Board, 174 

Flight Research Center (NACA/NASA), 14n47 

Florida State University, 681 

Forest, Casey, 67–69 

Frau Mauro, 435 

Freedom (space station), 4 

Freedom 7, 31 

Friendly, Alfred, 237 

Friendship 7, 33–34, 214–28, 241, 247–48, 251–52 

Fryklund, Verne C., Jr., 616–18

Fulbright, William, 415 

G

Gagarin, Yuri 

ABC appearance of, 205–7 

biographical information, 789 
818 Index 

spaceflight by, 30, 82, 177, 391, 392, 612 

visits with NASA astronauts, 43, 149 

Gamble, Allen O., 127 

Garland, Benjamine J., 80–81 

Gast, Paul, 742 

Gavin, Joe, 699, 709 

Geer, E. Barton, 652–53, 657–61 

Gemini, Project 

accidents, contingency plans for, 43, 363–70 

Apollo program support from, 44, 48, 278–82, 295, 376, 378, 379, 382–84 

astronauts: capabilities of, 381; crew safety, 43; equipment for, 381–82; 

flight experience, 382; honoring following missions, 43, 288–91; loss 

of, contingency plans for, 43, 363–70; pilot role of, 48, 267, 280, 381; 

rendezvous and docking role of, 45–46; selection of, 229; space rescue 

plans, 42–43, 283–88; spacesuits for, 39, 271, 381; survival equipment, 381– 

82; training of, 259, 260, 294, 382, 384 

celebrations following missions, 43, 288–91 

challenges faced by, 39–40, 45 

circumlunar mission proposal, 40, 272–73, 274 

communication systems, 383 

conclusion of, 371, 372, 385 

cost of, 40, 264 

crew size, 257 

development plan for, 38, 253–64 

duration of missions, 46–47, 257, 260, 372, 374–75 

experiments, medical, 41, 279 

experiments, scientific and technological, 48, 372 

extravehicular activities (EVA): Apollo program support from, 44, 295, 379; 

equipment for, 39, 271–72, 293; GT-4, 39, 44–45, 268, 291–96, 297; mission 

planning, 270, 279; objectives of, 269–70; opposition to, 44, 292; program 

plan for, 39, 268–72; public reaction to, 295, 296; risks of, 44, 293, 294–95; 

spacecraft modifications for, 39, 268, 272; success of, 297, 298, 372, 375, 

379; task assignments, 270–71; training for, 294 

funding for, 253


Gemini III (GT-3): corned beef sandwich issue, 21, 297; mission objectives, 


279; success of, 42, 294, 296–98; White House reception following, 43, 290 

Gemini Information Director, 364 

Gemini IV (GT-4): altitude chamber testing approval, 292; celebrations 

following, 43, 290; debriefing following, 298–344; EVA during, 39, 44–45, 

268, 291–96, 297, 298–344, 375; length of mission, 374; mission objectives, 

41, 279, 295–96; success of, 296–98

Gemini IX (GT-9): mission objectives, 41, 280; rendezvous and docking 

during, 373 

Gemini IX-A, 373, 375, 378

Gemini V (GT-5): EVA during, 294, 296; landing accuracy, 372; length of 

mission, 372, 374; mission objectives, 41, 279 

Gemini VI-A (GT-6): mission objectives, 41, 279–80, 373; mission summary, 

348–57; rendezvous and docking with GT-7, 46, 345–57, 373, 375, 378

Gemini VII (GT-7): length of mission, 46–47, 372, 374; mission objectives, 41, 

279; rendezvous and docking with GT-6, 46, 345–57, 373, 375, 378
Exploring the Unknown 819

Gemini VIII (GT-8): attitude control challenges, 47, 345, 357–62, 373; 

mission objectives, 41, 47, 280; rendezvous and docking during, 46, 345, 

379 

Gemini X (GT-10): EVA during, 375; mission objectives, 41, 280; rendezvous 

and docking during, 46, 372, 378, 379 

Gemini XI (GT-11): altitude record, 372; EVA during, 375; mission objectives, 

41, 280; rendezvous and docking during, 46, 372, 378

Gemini XII (GT-12): EVA during, 372, 375; mission objectives, 41, 281; 

rendezvous and docking during, 46, 378

guidance systems, 280, 383 

landing procedures: accuracy of, 372; controlled landings, 258–59, 379–80; 

parachute system, 40; paraglider design, 37, 39–40, 262


launch and flight operations, 378–79, 380


launch vehicles: challenges of, 383; success of, 373; Titan II, 38, 39, 253, 


255–56 

management of, 122 

Mercury compared to, 267–68

mission control operations, 380–81 

mission objectives, 37, 257–59, 266–67, 278–82; accomplishment of, 372–73, 

377–84; by mission number, 41, 278–81 

naming of, 38

operational profi ciency, 375–76 

program summary, 370–85 

Project Offi ce, 256 

purpose of, 38, 256, 374, 377 

reentry maneuvering envelope, 263 

reentry vehicles, 50–51 

rendezvous and docking: Agena as target vehicles, 38, 255–56, 373, 383–84; 

Aldrin’s contributions to, 45–46; astronaut control during, 45–46; engines 

of target vehicles, 383–84; GT-6 and GT-7 missions, 46, 345–57, 375; 

guidance systems, 280, 383; maneuvers for, 258, 261; mission objectives, 41, 

257–58, 259, 280; procedures and tools for, 45–46; propulsions systems and, 

378–79; success of, 45, 46, 297, 298, 345, 372, 375, 378–79 

as research and development competition, 376–77


routine nature of spacefl ight, 43


space rescue plans, 42–43, 283–88

spacecraft: abort system, 267; Apollo program support from systems 


development, 382–84; astronaut control of, 48, 267, 280, 381; design of, 37– 

39, 203, 253, 260–63; development of, 256; EVA, modifications for, 39, 268, 

272; fuel cells, 37, 39, 267, 383; heat and capsule design, 50; maneuvering 

capabilities, 249, 258, 267; modular systems for, 38, 39, 249, 259; oxygen 

atmosphere, 654; paraglider design, 37, 39–40, 268; range control, 268; 

redundant systems, 43, 288

success of, 48, 370–73, 384–85, 420


television system for fl ights, 211


timeframe for missions, 37, 262


unsuccessful missions, 373


weightlessness issues, 294, 381


workforce responsible for, 376


Gemini Familiarization Package, 266–68
820 Index 

General Dynamics-Astronautics 

Apollo spacecraft proposal, 506, 550, 551, 553–55, 557–58

Gemini launch vehicle procurement, 256 

launch vehicle development, 243 

General Electric Corporation 

Apollo 8, 708, 709 

Apollo spacecraft proposal, 506, 550, 551, 553–55, 557, 558

automated checkout equipment production, 663 

Mark 2 reentry vehicle, 5–6 

Paine as executive at, 428

Radio-inertial Guidance System, 76 

Gibbons, John H., 789 

Gilruth, Robert R. 

accidents, contingency plans for, 367 

Apollo program: Apollo 8, 427, 691, 692, 693–94, 696, 698, 699, 701–2, 710, 

717; Apollo 11, 729; cancellation of missions, 434; Command Module 

design, 540; LOR concept, 402, 587; procurement plan, 501–12; risks and 

failure concerns of Mueller, 429, 702–6; scientific activities on lunar surface, 

616–18; scientific value of, 438, 739–40; spacecraft design, 540 

biographical information, 789 

Flight Readiness Board, 174 

Gemini program, 275, 292, 293–96 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 12, 86 

Manned Spacecraft Center director, 522 

Mercury program: animal payloads, 138–39; astronaut activities guidelines, 

228–30; astronaut integration with capsule, 26; astronauts, public image 

of, 20–21; astronauts, selection of, 136; Atlas reliability, 29; circumlunar 

mission proposal, 204; contributions of, 122; launch vehicle research, 

5, 7–8; MA-6 postlaunch telegram, 214–28; management of, 120, 243; 

management success of, 122; Manned Spacecraft Center expansion and 

success, 35; naming of, 124–25; oversight of building spacecraft, 27, 147–48

Mercury-Redstone program termination, 209–10


MIS program, 120, 121


PARD leadership of, 4


Redstone ballistic missile procurement, 117–20


Source Evaluation Board, 549


Source Selection Board, 126


Space Task Group, 12, 121–23, 179, 399


Glenn, John H., Jr. 

biographical information, 790 

circumlunar mission proposal, 204 

Friendship 7 flight, 33–34, 241; debriefing following, 223–28; equipment 

failure, 248; landing bag problem during, 34, 216, 220; pilot role of, 33–34, 

247–48; postlaunch telegram, 214–23; scientific observations, 251–52


popularity of, 34


press conference to introduce astronauts, 18, 19


public image of, 34


specialty area assignment, 25–26, 160, 166


training of astronauts, 22, 158–61


visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51

Exploring the Unknown 821

Glennan, T. Keith 

Apollo program, approval for, 390 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 86 

Mercury program: animal payloads, 138–40; approval for, 12, 120; 

funding for, 145, 146; management of, 120–21; naming of, 124, 128; press 

conference to introduce astronauts, 17–18

NASA budget planning, 441


Space Task Group, 12


Goddard, Robert H., 1 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

Apollo program, 455 

director of, 388, 440 

readiness of, 180 

research at, 461 

Space Task Group relocation to, 395 

work schedule at, 483 

Goett, Harry J., 388, 440 

Gold, Thomas, 407, 646–48, 762 

Golovin, Nicholas 

biographical information, 790


departure from NASA, 404, 569


NASA-DOD Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group, 398, 521, 523


PSAC position, 404, 569


Goodpaster, A. J., 145–47, 790 

Goodyear Aircraft Corporation, 65–66, 506, 550 

Gordon, Richard F., Jr., 372, 435 

Gray, Edward Z., 40, 272–73, 274, 790 

Gray, Wilbur H., 512 

Great Society program, 420 

Grissom, Virgil I. “Gus” 

Apollo 1 (204) fire, 422, 651, 652


biographical information, 791


character of, 35


circumlunar mission proposal, 204


Gemini III (GT-3), 43, 290, 297


MA-7 pilot debriefi ng, 230


press conference to introduce astronauts, 18

specialty area assignment, 26, 166


suborbital flight by, 32–33, 33n103, 207–9, 241


visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51


Grissom Bugs, 35 

Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation 

Apollo 8, 709 

Apollo spacecraft: contract award, 405; problems with, 421, 424; production 

of, 424, 663; proposal, 507, 550, 551 

guidance systems, 280 

Gwinn, Bill, 708
822 Index 

H

H-1 engines, 396, 527 

Hage, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 699 

Hagerty, James C., 205–7, 791 

Haise, Fred, 432, 435, 696 

Hall, Eldon W. 

Gemini program: circumlunar mission proposal, 40, 273, 275–76; mission 

objectives, 41–42, 278–79, 281–82 

Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force, 457 

Hall, Lawrence B., 674, 742 

Ham, 30, 140, 188

Hammack, Jerome B., 122 

Hammersmith, John, 274, 278, 281–82 

Hartgering, James B., 177–92 

Haskens Laboratory, 681 

Hatley, Shirley, 123 

Hawkeye program, 465, 469 

Haxo, Francis, 681 

Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Department of, 683, 743 

Heaton, Colonel, 77, 78

Heaton, Donald, 401, 521, 523, 525, 526 

Heat-sink concept, 6 

Heberlig, Jack C., 123 

Heinemann, Edward H., 177–92 

Helgeson, Bob P., 717 

Helsley, Charles E., 763 

Hendrickson, Douglas E., 511 

Hess, Wilmot N., 674 

Hessberg, Rufus R., 742 

Hicks, Claiborne R., Jr., 123 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory, 757, 758, 759 

High Speed Flight Station (HSFS), 440, 445–46 

Hingham Air Force Base, 512, 520 

Hjornevik, Wesley L., 510, 514, 549 

Hodge, John, 298

Holloman Air Force Base, 140, 141 

Holmes, D. Brainard 

Apollo program: funding for, 409, 588; LOR concept, 402, 521, 587; 

management of, 400, 414; priority of, 409, 410, 588; resignation from, 

412; robotic missions for lunar surface information, 407; schedule for, 

acceleration of, 593–94, 595 

biographical information, 791
 

Gemini program: funding for, 253; naming of, 38

MA-6 postlaunch telegram, 214–28

Webb, relationship with, 409, 410, 588

Horner, Richard, 141 

Hornet, U.S.S., 434, 767 

Hornig, Donald F., 177–92, 389, 404, 568, 570–73, 791 

Houbolt, John C., 401–2, 520, 521, 522–30, 538, 791–92
823

I

Exploring the Unknown 

House of Representatives, U.S. 

Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 654, 655 

Science and Astronautics, Committee on, 277, 438, 513, 655, 662 

Houston, Vincent, 717 

Hughes Aircraft Company, 551 

Human spacefl ight 

catching-up efforts, Soviet achievements and, 51–52 

military support functions of, 2 

MISS program, 9–10, 9n25, 9n29 

NACA’s research and plans, 5–8, 49 

perceptions about, 1, 6, 51 

schedule proposals, 57–58

scientific value of, 392, 415, 471–74 

studies of at Langley, 49, 71–72 

support for, public relations campaign for, 1–2 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 391, 416–19, 753 

U.S.-Soviet rivalry, 36, 82, 83, 145–47, 204, 212, 390, 392–93, 410–11, 416, 598

Von Braun’s plan for, 3–4 

Humphrey, Hubert H., 149, 429 

Humphreys, James W., Jr., 742 

Hyland, Lawrence A., 177–92 

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, 408, 435, 665, 666–76, 679–81, 

683–84, 744 

Interior, U.S. Department of, 673, 680–81, 683 

International Business Machines, 663, 708

International Space Station, 4 

Intrepid, U.S.S., 231 

Irvine, Jack, 75 

Irwin, James, 21n70, 439 

J

J-2 engines 

alternatives to, 528

Apollo program launch vehicles, 399, 496, 542, 570 

building of, 522 

development of, 461, 464 

payload capabilities, 464 

James, Lee, 694, 696, 698, 707, 717 

James, Lieutenant Colonel, 117 

Jeffs, George, 652–53 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) 

landing site selection, 561, 564–66 

mission objectives of, 559 

rendezvous approaches study, 401, 495 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 440 

robotic missions supervised by, 407, 559–62 

spaceflight research at, 446–47 
824 Index 

Johnson, Caldwell C., Jr., 511 

Johnson, George W. S., 494–501 

Johnson, Lyndon B. 

Apollo program: Apollo 1 (204) fire, 422, 651; Bureau of Budget review, 618; 

facilities for, 396, 512–20; review of, 416 

biographical information, 792 

Gemini program: GT-4, success of, 44–45; meeting astronauts following 

missions, 43, 288–91; report on success of, 296–98

Great Society program, 420 

housing for astronauts, 20 

Mercury program: astronaut activities guidelines, 237; support for, 145 

National Aeronautics and Space Council chair, 393, 478

post-Apollo options, 421, 639 

presidency of, 419 

Southeast Asia trip, 394, 479 

space race with Soviets review, 393–95, 478–79, 485–90 

space rescue plans, 42–43, 283–88

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 419 

Vietnam War, 420 

Webb appointment to NASA, 391 

Webb resignation request, 429 

Johnson, Roy 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 86 

MIS program, 11, 75, 81–85 

Johnsonville Centrifuge, 159–60, 167, 188, 190 

Joint Chiefs of Staff, 9, 9n29 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel 

establishment of, 12 

minutes of meeting, 86–89 

preliminary specifications for satellite capsule, 12, 89–116 

Jones, Edward, 25 

Jupiter, 126, 757, 758

K

Kallio, R. E., 742 

Kantrowitz, Arthur, 60–62 

Kartveli, Alexander, 69 

Kaula, William M., 762 

Kavanaugh, Lawrence, 398

Kaysen, Carl, 625–29 

Keeling, G. F., 664 

Kemmerer, Walter W., Jr., 673, 742 

Kennedy, John F. 

Apollo program: announcement of, 501–12; Bureau of Budget review, 409, 

588, 618; funding for, 409–10, 412, 588–603; LOR concept, dispute over, 

403–6, 568–88; as memorial to, 419; priority of, 409–12, 562–63, 588–603; 

review of, 416; schedule for, acceleration of, 411–12, 588–603 

assassination of, 419
 

astronaut activities guidelines, 236–38
Exploring the Unknown 825

astronaut selection, 175–77
 

Bay of Pigs incident, 393
 

biographical information, 792
 

Cape Canaveral visit, 419
 

human spaceflight views of, 390–91
 

Inaugural Address, 391
 

lunar landing commitment, 400, 401, 458

lunar landing promise of, 35, 203–4, 390n4, 395, 414, 547
 

NASA budget approval, 392
 

National Space Plan approval, 395
 

space preeminence goal, 411, 412, 598–600
 

space race with Soviets, 392–95, 474–93
 

United Nations speech, 417–18, 612, 613
 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 391, 416–19, 612–16, 627
 

U.S.-Soviet rivalry, 390, 392–93, 410–11, 416, 598

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149
 

Kennedy Space Center, 381, 724 

Kerr, Robert, 391, 414 

Khrushchev, Nikita, 392, 417, 418, 419, 612, 613, 615–16, 793–94 

Killian, James R., 10, 72, 79–80, 793 

Kistiakowsky, George, 145–47, 389, 792–93 

Klein, Harold P., 673 

Kleinknecht, Kenneth 

Apollo 8, 695, 699
 

biographical information, 793
 

circumlunar mission proposal, 275
 

EVA attempts, 39, 268

Source Evaluation Board membership, 549
 

Kolenkiewicz, Ronald, 123 

Komarov, Vladimir, 430, 686 

Koppenhaver, James T., 502, 511, 549 

Kraft, Christopher C., Jr. 

Apollo 8, 427, 694, 695, 696, 698, 699, 707, 717 

biographical information, 245, 793 

Carpenter, attitude toward, 231 

Gemini program: GT-4 role of, 298; GT-6 and GT-7, rendezvous between, 

346 

Manned Spacecraft Center director, 231 

Mercury program: astronaut integration with capsule, 24; program review, 

36–37, 245–52
 

Senior Flight Director role, 245
 

Space Task Group membership, 123, 245
 

Kranz, Gene, 298

Kuettner, Joachin P., 147–48, 203–5, 794 

L

L-115 engines, 528

Laika, 6 

Laitin, Joseph, 346–47 
826 Index 

Lake Champlain, U.S.S., 192 

Lambright, W. Henry, 422 

Lang, Dave W., 511, 549 

Lange, Oswald H., 549 

Langley Field, 166, 169, 170 

Langley Research Center (Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory) 

aeromedical experts at, 127
 

Instrument Research Division, 71
 

LOR concept, 530–35
 

Lunar Orbiter program, 407, 564
 

lunar surface information, robotic missions for, 407, 560
 

manned-satellite program studies, 49, 71–72
 

paraglider design development, 37
 

research at, 460–61
 

Space Task Group, 12, 120, 121–23, 395
 

spacecraft research at, 443–44
 

Theoretical Mechanics Division, 71
 

Langseth, M. E., 762 

Launch Complex 39, 397 

Launch Operations Center, 397, 538, 587 

Lauten, William T., Jr., 123 

Leary, F. J., 152–53 

Lee, John B., 123 

Leonov, Alexey, 44, 292 

Lewis Laboratory, 167, 169 

Lewis Research Center, 12, 388, 401, 445, 460–61, 495 

Liberty Bell 7 (MR-4), 32–33, 33n103, 207–9 

Life magazine, 16, 20, 35, 236 

Lilly, William E., 639–46 

Ling, Donald P., 177–92 

Little Joe flights, 126, 138–40, 142, 143, 144, 186, 241 

Livesay, Norma L., 123 

Livingston, Robert B., 177–92 

Lloyd, Bill, 213, 237 

Lockheed Aircraft Corporation 

Agena rockets, 256, 346 

spacecraft design proposal, 62–63, 507, 550, 551 

Loftin, Laurence K., Jr., 440, 443–44, 448, 494–501 

Long, Frank A., 652–53 

Long Range Objectives Committee (NASA), 441 

Lord, Douglas R., 177–92 

Los Alamos National Laboratory, 411, 589 

Lovelace, Dr. Alan, 87, 136 

Lovelace Foundation, 15, 153, 155, 157 

Lovell, Bernard, 417 

Lovell, James A., Jr. 

Apollo 8, 430–31, 691, 696
 

Apollo 13, 435
 

biographical information, 794–95
 

Gemini IV (GT-4), 268
Gemini VII (GT-7), 46–47, 345–57 

Gemini XII (GT-12), 372 

Low, George M. 

Apollo program: Apollo 7, 706; Apollo 8, 427, 430, 690, 691–702, 706–10, 717, 

718–20; Apollo 11, 433, 726–29; Apollo 20, 436; cancellation of missions, 

436–37, 749–53; LOR concept, 402; Lunar Module rendezvous radar, 426, 

688–90; management of, 413, 424; mission schedule, 610–12, 718–20 

Apollo Spacecraft Program Office duties, 424 

biographical information, 125, 795 

departure from NASA, 691 

Gemini program, 264–65, 275, 384–85 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 12, 86 

lunar landing mission: goal of, 388–90, 440, 447; Manned Lunar Working 

Group Task Force, 389, 392, 457–71 

Manned Space Flight presentation, 388–89, 449–57 

Manned Spacecraft Center assignment, 413 

Mercury program: animal payloads, 138–40; astronaut selection, 15, 135–37; 

naming of, 124–25; priority of, 137–38; status report, 125–27
 

MIS program, 120
 

MRS-V Committee membership, 441
 

NASA positions of, 125, 436, 750
 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 440, 447, 448

Skylab vs. Apollo, 751–53
 

Source Evaluation Board, 510, 549
 

Source Selection Board, 126
 

Lowe, Nancy, 123 

LR115 engines, 496 

LR-119 engines, 464 

Lunar and Planetary Missions Board, 724, 750 

Lunar and Planetary Programs Offi ce, 406 

Lunar Artifacts Committee, 727. See also Symbolic Activities Committee 

Lunar Exploration Offi ce, 738

Lunar Geology Investigation (LGI), 722–25 

Lunar Orbiter program, 407, 564 

Lunar Receiving Laboratory, 408, 666, 668, 679–81, 743, 747, 767 

Lundin, Bruce T. 

booster program, 442 

lunar landing mission goal, 388, 440, 445 

rendezvous approaches study, 401, 494–501, 521, 523, 525 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 440, 441, 442, 445, 

448

spaceflight research review, 445
 

M

MacDougall, George F., Jr., 123, 511 

MacGregor, Ian D., 762 

Magin, Betty F., 123 

Malley, George, 653 

Man in Space Committee (ARPA), 441 

Exploring the Unknown 827
828 Index 

Management and Budget, Office of, 437, 750, 751 

Management Council, 608, 610 

Mandel, Adrian, 673, 743 

Man-in-Space Soonest (MISS) program, 9–10, 9n25, 9n29 

Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force, 389, 392, 457–71 

Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL), 41, 286–87, 376 

Manned Satellite Project 

development of, 9, 9n25 

experiments, aeromedical, 87 

funding for, 9, 9n29, 11, 76, 83, 121 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel: establishment of, 12; minutes of meeting, 86– 

89; preliminary specifications for satellite capsule, 12, 89–116 

personnel for, 76 

priority of, 11, 81–84 

public relations issues, 121 

renaming of, 123–25 

responsibility for, 9–10, 72–80 

spacecraft: booster design, 84; design of, 7–8, 50–51, 52–71, 80–81; reusable, 

3, 4, 80 

status report, 125–27 

Manned Space Flight and Public Affairs, Office of, 371 

Manned Space Flight Network, 380 

Manned Space Flight, Office of (OMSF), 402, 406, 535, 539, 544, 559, 617, 674, 

725, 742 

Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) 

accidents, contingency plans for, 367, 369–70 

Apollo program: all-up testing, 609; Apollo 11, 724; direct ascent mode, 

540; EOR concept, 539; landing site selection, 561; LOR concept, 403, 521, 

538–39, 585, 587; lunar surface information, robotic missions for, 560; 

mission control center for, 397, 566–68; mission schedule, 611; reentry 

vehicle design, 538; rendezvous approaches study, 402–3; scientifi c activities 

on lunar surface, 617 

Apollo Spacecraft Program Offi ce, 382–83, 413, 424 

creation of, 229, 396 

expansion of, 35 

Gemini program, 274, 275 

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination membership, 673–74, 742– 

43
 

landing site selection, 564
 

Lunar Exploration Offi ce, 738

Lunar Receiving Laboratory, 408, 666, 668, 679–81, 743, 747, 767
 

purpose of, 380
 

Space Task Group relocation to, 35, 229
 

spacesuit support facilities, 381
 

success of, 35
 

Trajectory Analysis, 564
 

Mark 2 reentry vehicle, 5–6 

Mars exploration, 3, 4, 436 

Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) 

Apollo program: all-up testing, 414, 609; Apollo 11, 724; EOR concept, 403, 
Exploring the Unknown 829

521, 539–40; launch vehicle development, 399; LOR concept, 403, 535–44, 

585, 587; LOR concept, dispute over, 404–5, 569; mission schedule, 611; 

rendezvous approaches study, 401, 402–3, 495 

Gemini program, 274
 

Kuettner’s role at, 203
 

launch operations management, 397
 

reliability analysis, 187
 

research at, 461
 

Saturn schedule, acceleration of, 603
 

S-IC booster test stand, 542
 

training at, 165
 

work schedule at, 483, 486
 

Martin Company 

Apollo spacecraft proposal, 507, 547, 550, 551, 553–56 

Gemini program, 275, 276 

launch vehicle development, 256 

launch vehicle procurement, 256 

space rescue plans, 284, 288

spacecraft design proposal, 58–59 

Titan III program, 555 

Martin Marietta, 708

Martin-Bell, 443 

Mason, Brian H., 762 

Mason, John A., 743 

Massachusetts, 396, 512, 519–20 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 604, 708

Masursky, Harold, 764 

Mathews, Charles W., 511, 549, 795 

Matthews, Charles F., 123, 268–72, 275, 522, 540 

Mattingly, T. K. “Ted,” 435, 439 

May, Ralph W., Jr., 441, 494–501 

Mayall, N. U., 764 

Mayer, John P., 123 

Maynard, Owen E., 377–84, 559–62, 564, 795–96 

McAdam, Robert, 153 

McCord, Thomas B., 764 

McDivitt, James A., 796 

Apollo 9, 431 

Gemini IV (GT-4): altitude chamber testing approval, 292; celebration 

following mission, 43; debriefing following, 298–344; EVA during, 39, 44, 

268, 299–344 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 43, 149 

McDonald, Gordon, 709 

McDonnell Aircraft Company (MAC) 

Apollo 8, 708

Apollo spacecraft, 507, 550, 551, 553–55, 557, 558, 576 

couch molding by, 164 

Gemini program: circumlunar mission studies, 274, 275, 276; development 

plan for, 38, 253–64; Gemini Familiarization Package, 266–68; spacecraft 

development, 204, 256; spacecraft procurement contract, 256 
830 Index 

Manned Satellite Project spacecraft, 8, 64–65 

Mercury spacecraft: cost of, 26–27, 27n85; design of, 89; development of, 24, 

26–28; oversight of building of, 27, 147–48; oxygen atmosphere, 28, 28n89, 

183; reliability analysis, 181; spacecraft training for Mercury Seven, 165–66 

reliability analysis, 186 

work schedule, 482 

McDonnell Procedure Trainer, 167, 169 

McElroy, Neil H,, 137 

McGuire, T. F., 152 

McKay, David S., 764 

McNamara, Robert, 283, 285, 394–95, 478–79, 490–93 

Meinschein, Warren G., 763 

Meissner, Rolf, 762 

Mercury, Project 

animal payloads, 26n83, 33, 138–45, 188–89, 190, 241 

astronauts (Mercury Seven): activities guidelines for, 228–30, 236–38; 

character of, 35–36; civilians as astronauts, 175–77; duties of, 129; ethical 

issues, 20–21, 236–38; evaluation of, 15, 15n54, 151–58; family lives of, 

19–20; honoring following missions, 43; invitation to apply for position, 14, 

127–33; life support for, 251; media access to, 161, 238; medical concerns 

about, 187–98; national symbols status of, 21–22; pilot role of, 23–26, 

33–34, 247–48, 249, 252; press conference to introduce, 16–19; pressure 

suits, 164, 251; propaganda use of, 22, 31, 34, 149–51, 205–7, 212–14; public 

appearances by, 34, 43, 228–30; public image of, 19–22, 34; qualifi cation 

of, 14, 130–31, 175–77; radio transmissions of, 212–14; role in capsule 

development, 160; salary of, 128, 133; selection of, 13–16, 14n47, 127, 135– 

37, 163, 173–75; spacecraft design role of, 24–26; specialty area assignments, 

22, 25–26, 160, 166; training of, 22, 36, 133–35, 158–72, 180, 244; visits with 

Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Big Joe fl ight, 241 

celebrations following missions, 43, 288–89 

committee reviews of, 177–92, 389 

components of, 178–79 

conclusion of, 36, 239 

cost of, 36, 244, 456, 595 

description of, 128

discussion of, 443 

experiments, aeromedical, 250–51 

funding for, 26–27, 27n85, 145–47 

Gemini compared to, 267–68

landing procedures and regions, 184, 189, 222; landing bag problem, 34, 216, 

220 

launch vehicles: development of, 242; fuel for, 29; funding for, 126; 

procurement of, 12, 117–20, 126; reliability of, 29–30, 183, 184, 187, 189; 

types of, 28–29, 241. See also Atlas rockets; Redstone ballistic missiles 

lessons of, 36–37; review by Kraft, 245–52; review by Williams, 239–45
 

Little Joe flights, 126, 138–40, 142, 143, 144, 186, 241
 

management of, 12, 120–23, 242–43
 

media coverage of, 161, 238, 288–89
 

medical aspects, 187–89, 190–91
 
Exploring the Unknown 831

Mercury-Atlas missions, 241; failure of, 241; MA-1, 179; MA-2, 179, 180, 182; 

MA-3, 180, 190, 241; MA-4, 248; MA-5, 140, 142, 248; MA-6, 33–34, 214–28, 

249; MA-7, 34, 230–36, 248; MA-8, 41, 279; MA-9, 41, 279; television system 

for, 211–12 

Mercury-Redstone missions, 203, 241; MR-1, 30, 241; MR-1A, 30; MR-2, 30, 

140, 142, 179, 180, 183, 188; MR-3, 173–75, 188, 189, 190; MR-4, 32–33, 

33n103, 207–9; MR-BD, 183; termination of, 209–10 

MISS program and, 10
 

mission control center for, 397, 566
 

mission objectives, 450, 459
 

naming of, 12, 123–25, 128

opposition to, 295
 

orbital flights, 33–37, 230; Carpenter’s flight, 34, 230–36, 248, 252; 
 

communication during, 179, 180, 211–14, 226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 236, 249; 

Cooper’s flight, 34, 239, 248, 250, 252; Glenn’s flight, 33–34, 214–28, 241, 

247–48, 251–52; propaganda value of, 211–14; radio transmissions during, 

212–14; Schirra’s flight, 34, 248, 249, 252; scientific experiments, 251–52; 

television system for, 211–12; total hours of, 245, 246 

priority of, 12–13, 137–38, 563 

purpose of, 16, 178, 239, 246 

recovery operations, 32, 33n103, 180, 184, 208–9, 244 

reentry vehicles, 5–6, 8, 50–51 

review of by Ad Hoc Mercury Panel, 177–92 

risks and reliability issues, 180–87, 190–92 

space rescue plans, 287 

spacecraft, 147–48; Apollo program support from, 469; astronaut control of, 

23–26, 33–34, 247–48, 249, 252; automatic stabilization and control system 

(ASCS), 183, 197, 200, 226–27, 228, 232, 280; circumlunar mission proposal, 

203–5; cost of, 26–27, 27n85; customization of, 164–65; design of, 7–8, 

24–26, 247; development of, 26–28, 239–40, 246–47; equipment installation, 

modular, 249; escape mechanisms, 185; failures with no backup, 185–86, 

248; fire hazard, 185; heat and capsule design, 50; manuals for, 165–66; 

oversight of building of, 27; oxygen atmosphere, 28, 28n89, 183, 251, 654; 

procurement of, 126; redundant systems, 184–85, 248; reliability analysis, 

186–87; reliability issues, 181–84, 250; role of astronauts in development of, 

160; specifi cations for, 89–116; specifications of finished capsule, 28; testing, 

127; weight of, 25, 27 

suborbital flights, 30–33; Ad Hoc Mercury Panel report, 177–92; animal 

payloads, 138–45; astronaut selection, 173–77; Grissom’s fl ight, 32–33, 

33n103, 207–9, 241; propaganda use of astronauts’ experiences, 31, 205–7; 

Shepard’s flight, 31, 192–203, 241, 394, 395, 478, 479; termination of 

program for, 209–10 

success and accomplishments of, 34, 377, 390
 

timeframe for missions, 26, 36, 240–41
 

tracking flights, 36, 180, 244–45, 249
 

weightlessness issues: orbital flights, 225–26, 228, 250–51; simulation
 

training, 155, 160–61, 168–69, 172; suborbital flights, 31, 202, 203
 

work schedule, 482
 

workforce responsible for, 12, 121–23, 243–44
 

Mercury Mark II capsule, 37–39, 253–64. See also Gemini, Project 
832 Index 

Merritt Island Launch Area, 397 

Meyer, Andre J., 511 

Michoud, Antoine, 397 

Miller, George, 438, 513, 654, 655, 760–64 

Miller, N. Philip, 514 

Minuteman ICBM program, 137, 412, 563 

Mission Analysts Division, 288

Mission Control Center-Houston, 297–98, 364 

Mississippi Test Facility, 397, 542 

Mitchell, Edgar, 435 

Mitchell, Willis B., 377–84 

Mondale, Walter, 423 

Moon exploration. See also Apollo, Project 

Frau Mauro, 435 

Gemini program proposal, 40, 272–73, 274 

life on the Moon, 408, 408n26 

lunar landing mission: cost of, 394, 478, 481, 486; fuel for, 483, 487–88; goal 

of, 388–90, 440–48; Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force, 389, 392, 

457–71; work schedule for, 482–83, 486
 

lunar orbit simulation, 280
 

Mercury program proposal, 203–5
 

NASA’s long-range plans and, 4, 388–90
 

public opinion about, 1
 

Sea of Tranquility, 432, 560, 561
 

Soviet program for, 425–26, 430, 685–87, 692
 

support for, 1–2, 388–90, 440–48

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 416–19, 417n46, 612–16
 

U.S.-Soviet rivalry, 277–78, 650
 

Von Braun’s plan for, 3
 

Moore, Forrest, 20 

Moore, Patrick, 408n26 

Morehead Planetarium, 168

Morrow, Tom, 708

Moyers, Bill, 42, 283, 285–87, 347 

Mrazek, William A., 117, 511 

MRS-V Committee (ARPA), 441 

Muehlberger, William R., 762 

Mueller, George E., 796 

Apollo program: all-up testing, 413–14, 608–9, 610–12; Apollo 1 (204) fi re, 

422; Apollo 7, 706; Apollo 8, 427, 428, 430, 691, 692, 695, 697, 699, 709–16; 

Apollo 10, 431; Apollo 11, 721–26, 730–35; Lunar Module rendezvous 

radar, 426, 689; management of, 412–14, 423, 608–12; Phillips report on 

North American Aviation, 423, 629; risks and failure concerns, 429, 702–6; 

schedule for, 650; scientific value of, 438, 739–40 

Gemini program: circumlunar mission proposal, 273, 274; EVA on GT-4, 

293–96; GT-6 and GT-7, rendezvous between, 346–47; summary conference, 

374–77 

Saturn V production termination, 687–88

United Nations conference, 427–28, 692 

Muhly, William C., 123 
Exploring the Unknown 833

Multi-Axis Spin Test Inertia Facility (MASTIF) device, 167, 169 

Murrow, Edward R., 211 

Myers, Dale, 695, 749, 750 

N

Nagy, Alex P., 38, 264–65 

NASA-Industry Apollo Executives Group, 412 

NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, 388–89, 449–57 

National Academy of Sciences 

astronaut selection, 406–7
 

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, 435, 673, 683
 

quarantine procedures and back contamination, 408, 665, 678–81
 

Space Science Board, 388, 392, 408, 471–74, 616, 617, 740–49, 750
 

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) 

Flight Research Center, 14n47 

human spaceflight research and plans, 5–8, 49, 79 

MIS program, responsibility for, 9–10, 72–80 

missile research, 4–5 

review board for research, 49 

National Aeronautics and Space Act, 10, 79, 393 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

accidents, contingency plans for, 43, 363–70 

Advanced Research and Technology, Office of, 288, 640 

Apollo 204 Review Board, 422–23, 651–61 

Apollo program review, 416 

astronaut activities guidelines, 238

budget for, 145–47, 392, 395, 419–20, 436–37, 749, 750–51, 753–60; Bureau 

of Budget review, 409, 419, 419n51, 588, 618–24 

civilian control of, 10–11 

cooperation with ARPA on spaceflight program, 11–12, 74–77, 82–89, 441 

creation of, 52, 82 

DOD support for, 376 

earth orbit simulation, 280 

Flight Research Center, 14n47 

Gemini program development, 38, 253–64 

Interagency Committee on Back Contamination, 408, 435, 665, 666–76, 

679–81, 683–84, 744 

Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group, NASA-DOD, 398, 399, 521, 523 

Long Range Objectives Committee, 441 

long-range plan (1959), 2, 4, 388, 392 

Lunar and Planetary Programs Offi ce, 406 

lunar landing mission: contracting procedures, 489–90; cost of, 394, 478, 

481, 486; fuel for, 483, 487–88; goal of, 388–90, 440–48; Manned Lunar 

Working Group Task Force, 389, 457–71; work schedule for, 482–83 

Manned Orbiting Laboratory, 41 

Manned Space Flight and Public Affairs, Office of, 371 

Manned Space Flight Experiments Board, 642 

Manned Space Flight, Office of (OMSF), 402, 406, 535, 539, 544, 559, 617, 

674, 725, 742 
834 Index 

manned-satellite program, responsibility for, 79–80 

medical aspects of spacefl ight, 187, 188

Mercury program management, 242–43 

Mercury program workforce, 244 

Mercury-Redstone program termination, 210 

Merritt Island Launch Area purchase, 397 

Mission Analysts Division, 288

National Space Plan recommendations, 394–95, 478–79, 490–93 

post-Apollo planning, 421–22, 639–46 

Program Planning Committee, 441 

Reliability, Office of, 502 

reliability analysis, 181, 186–87 

Research Centers, 460–61 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 388, 440–48

site survey team, 514–20 

Source Evaluation Board. See Source Evaluation Board 

Source Selection Board, 126 

Space Exploration Program Council, 389–90 

Space Flight Centers, 461 

space race with Soviets review, 393–94, 478, 479–84 

space rescue plans, 42–43, 283–88

Space Science and Applications, Office of, 640, 674, 742 

Space Science Steering Committee, 558–59 

Space Sciences, Office of, 616–18

Space Task Group. See Space Task Group 

Symbolic Activities Committee, 432–33, 730–35 

tasks assigned to, 388

workforce, 376, 420 

National Aeronautics and Space Council (NASC) 

Anders as chair, 750 

creation of, 137, 393 

disagreements with NASA, 137 

Johnson as chair of, 393, 478

priority status of Apollo program, 562–63 

space race with Soviets review, 478

National Astronomical Observatories, 642, 643 

National Defense Education Act, 52 

National Intelligence Estimate, 426, 685–87 

National Orbital Rescue Service, 284 

National Press Club, 513 

Naval Medical Acceleration Laboratory, 71–72 

Naval Medical Research Institute (NMRI), 169 

Naval School of Aviation Medicine, 169 

Navy, U.S., 244 

Neill, Arthur H., 674 

Neustadt, Richard, 390 

New Orleans, LA, 397 

Newell, Homer 

Apollo 8, 430, 709, 710, 717 

biographical information, 796 
Exploring the Unknown 835

quarantine procedures and back contamination, 666, 683–84 

scientific value of Apollo, 438

Nicks, Oran, 457 

Nike-Zeus, 563 

Nimbus satellites, 484 

Nixon, Richard M., 429, 432, 433, 434, 435–37, 639, 738, 796–97 

Noa, U.S.S., 228

North, Warren J. 

biographical information, 797
 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 86
 

Mercury program: astronaut selection, 127; MA-7 pilot debriefi ng, 230;
 

Redstone missile procurement, 117
 

MIS program, 120
 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 441
 

North American Aviation 

Apollo spacecraft: building of, 522; contract award to, 398, 547; evaluation of, 

553–55, 556–57; problems with, 421, 424; production of, 663; proposal, 507, 

550, 551 

booster decisions and, 543
 

criticism of, 423
 

direct ascent mode studies, 576
 

management of, 423–24
 

Phillips report on, 423, 424, 629–39, 661–64
 

Rocketdyne Division, 165, 522
 

Saturn S-II program, 555
 

Saturn V production, 663
 

work schedule at, 591
 

North American Rockwell, 708, 709 

Northrup, 7, 52, 66–67 

Nova 

acceptance of, 525
 

Apollo program launch vehicles, 399, 400, 401, 494
 

development of, 399, 442, 462–64
 

direct ascent mode, 400
 

features of, 396, 521
 

launch facilities for, 396–97
 

lunar landing operations, 499, 529
 

recommendations against, 402–3, 540–44
 

O

Oberth, Hermann, 80 

O’Connor, E. F., 664 

Oppenheimer, Carl, 681 

Orbiting Solar Observatory, 752, 758, 759 

O’Sullivan, S., 763 

O’Sullivan, W. J., 49 
836 Index 

P

Pacific Missile Range, 483 

Page, Lincoln R., 762 

Paige, Hilly, 708

Paine, Thomas O. 

Apollo 8, 428, 430, 691, 692, 696, 697, 698, 699, 703, 709, 710, 716–18

Apollo 11, 729 

biographical information, 428, 797 

NASA position, 428, 429, 432 

quarantine procedures and back contamination, 665, 678–79, 681 

resignation of, 436, 750 

Saturn V production termination, 436 

Papike, J. J., 764 

Paris International Air Show, 43 

Park, A. B., 673, 680 

Parsons, John F., 514 

Patterson, Herbert G., 123 

Patterson, William H., 64 

Pegasus spacecraft, 644 

Petrone, Rocco A., 693, 694, 696, 698, 707, 717 

Philco-Ford, 708

Phillips, G. Briggs, 674 

Phillips, Samuel C. 

Apollo 1 (204) fi re, 422 

Apollo 7, 698–99, 706 

Apollo 8, 427, 428, 430, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 696, 697, 699–700, 701–4, 

707–8, 709, 710–16, 717
 

Apollo 11, 432, 721–26, 727, 729
 

Apollo Programs Office assignment, 413
 

biographical information, 797–98

North American Aviation review by, 423, 424, 629–39, 661–64
 

Phinney, Robert A., 763 

Pickering, John E., 674 

Piland, Joseph V., 674 

Piland, Robert O., 510, 511, 549 

Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD), 4–5, 49 

Pioneer spacecraft, 758, 759 

Polaris ICBM program, 137, 563 

Pratt & Whitney, 708–9n1 

Preacher, Brooks C., 510 

President’s Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) 

Apollo 8, 709, 710, 717
 

Apollo Applications Program, 640
 

Bioastronautics Panel, 575
 

human spaceflight study, 389
 

human spaceflight views of, 472
 

LOR concept, 585
 

Mercury program review, 177
 

Space Vehicle Panel, 404, 569, 574–75
 
Exploring the Unknown 837

Program Planning Committee (NASA), 441 

Project Apollo. See Apollo, Project 

Project Astronaut, 124–25, 128

Project Gemini. See Gemini, Project 

Project Mercury. See Mercury, Project 

Project Sure Fire, 384 

Prospector fl ights, 468

Proton launch vehicle, 426, 430, 687 

Provasoli, Luige, 681 

Public Health Service, U.S., 673, 674, 679, 680, 681, 683, 743 

Purser, Paul E., 117–20, 123 

Putt, Donald L., 9 

R

Radio Corporation of America, 550 

Randolph Air Force Base, 141 

Ranger fl ights 

missions for lunar surface information, 407, 467, 485, 498, 559–62, 564, 565 

schedule for, 467, 485 

technological advancements from, 468, 493 

Redstone ballistic missiles 

abort sensing and implementation system (ASIS), 182 

cost of, 126 

development of, 28–29 

Mercury-Redstone missions, 203, 241; MR-1, 30, 241; MR-1A, 30; MR-2, 30, 

140, 142, 179, 180, 183, 188; MR-3, 173–75, 188, 189, 190; MR-4, 32–33, 

33n103, 207–9; MR-BD, 183; termination of, 209–10
 

payload capabilities, 126
 

procurement of, 12, 117–20
 

reliability of, 183, 184, 187, 189
 

Rees, Eberhard F. M., 664, 694, 717 

Reid, H. J. E., 49 

Republic Aviation Corporation, 7, 52, 69–70, 507, 550 

Research Steering Committee on Manned Space Flight, 388, 440–48

Reston, James, 19 

Reynolds, John, 764 

Rice University, 35, 396 

Ricker, Harry H., Jr., 123 

Right Stuff, The, 24–25, 24n79, 32 

Robert, Frank C., 123 

Robinson, Marvin, 214 

Robotic explorers, 3–4 

ROBO-type glider, 7, 52, 67–69 

Rocketdyne Division, North American Aviation, 165, 522 

Rollins, Joseph, 123 

Romick, Darrell, 65–66 

Roosa, Stuart, 435 

Rosen, Milton, 399, 441, 442, 798

Rover program, 476–77, 547
838 Index 

Ruby, William W., 750, 762 

Ruppe, Harry O., 494–501 

S

Sagan, Carl, 743 

Salinger, Pierre, 237–38, 393, 474–76 

Salmon, E. E., 743 

Sam, 138, 140 

SAMOS, 563, 564 

Sartor, Ronelda F., 123 

Saturn rockets 

assembly plant for, 397 

C-2: features of, 521; lunar landing operations, 523; lunar surface 
 

rendezvous, 498; manned lunar mission use of, 462, 463–64; payload 
 

capabilities, 461–62, 496
 

C-3: features of, 521; lunar landing operations, 499, 523, 526, 532–33; 

payload capabilities, 496, 526–27 

C-4, 533 

C-8, 522, 540–44 

development of, 390n5 

Gemini circumlunar mission proposal, 40, 274 

launch facilities for, 396–97 

lunar landing operations, 499 

Michoud plant, 397, 541–42 

payload capabilities, 442, 461–62, 484 

priority status of program, 563 

Saturn I (C-1), 522; cancellation of missions, 413; lunar landing operations, 

532–33, 534, 536; mission objectives, 420; payload capabilities, 461;
 

refueling operations, 462; work schedule, 482
 

Saturn IB (C-1), 522; Apollo Applications Program, 641, 645; circumlunar 

mission study, 40, 274; mission objectives, 420; mission schedule, 413; 

testing of, 608, 611 

Saturn IC, 542
 

Saturn II, 542, 555
 

Saturn V (C-5), 522; Apollo Applications Program, 641, 645, 688; 
 

development of, 277–78, 390n5, 399, 536; direct ascent mode, 540; funding 

for, 602–3; LOR concept and, 403, 537–38; Phillips report on, 423, 629–39; 

production of, 663; production termination, 421–22, 436, 687–88; schedule 

for, 421, 591–92, 602–3, 608, 611, 629, 649–51; technical problems with, 412, 

420–21, 426–27; testing of, 424 

value of, scepticism about, 390, 390n4 

workforce responsible for, 543 

Saulman, Ernest, 673 

Scheer, Julian 

Apollo 8, 717
 

Apollo 11, 433, 726–29, 735, 738

biographical information, 798

Gemini missions, celebrations following, 43, 288–90
 

Scherer, Lee, 738
Exploring the Unknown 839

Schirra, Walter M., Jr. 

Apollo 7, 429 

biographical information, 799 

Gemini VI-A (GT-6), 46, 345–57 

Gemini VIII (GT-8), 358

neck dam work for Grissom, 209 

orbital flight of, 34, 248, 249, 252 

press conference to introduce astronauts, 18

specialty area assignment, 26, 166 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Schmitt, Harrison H. “Jack,” 406, 438–39, 558, 739, 799 

Schmitt, Roman A., 762 

Schneider, William C., 278, 279–81, 696, 698, 799 

Schoemaker, Eugene, 763 

Schonfeld, Ernest, 764 

School of Aviation Medicine, Brooks Air Force Base, 138, 140 

School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph Air Force Base, 141 

Schubert, Gerald, 764 

Schurmeier, Harris M., 441, 446–47, 448

Schweickart, Russell L., 431, 799–800 

Science and Technology, Office of, 418, 569 

Science and Technology Advisory Committee (STAC), 709, 717, 724 

Scott, David R. 

Apollo 9, 431
 

Apollo 15, 21n70, 439
 

biographical information, 800
 

Gemini VIII (GT-8), 47, 345, 357–62
 

Scripps Oceanographic Institute, 681 

Sea of Tranquility, 432, 560, 561 

Seamans, Robert C., Jr. 

Apollo program: Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 422, 651, 652–53, 654, 655, 657; 

launch facilities for, 397; management of, 400, 413, 423; mission control 

center location, 566–68; mission mode decisions, 400–402, 521, 522–30; 

Phillips report on North American Aviation, 423; procurement plan, 501, 

502–12; review of, 413, 608; schedule for, acceleration of, 593, 596–98, 601; 

spacecraft contract, 547 

biographical information, 800–801 

Gemini program: approval for development plan, 253; circumlunar mission 

proposal, 273; EVA for GT-4, 291, 292–96; GT-6 and GT-7, rendezvous 

between, 346; naming of, 38, 264–65; review of, 370, 371–73 

on Holmes, 409
 

Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force report, 458–71
 

Mercury program, 228–30, 237
 

on Mueller, 412
 

NASA budget approval, 392
 

NASA positions of, 391, 420
 

resignation of, 424, 428

Webb, relationship with, 424
 

Seitz, Frederick, 665, 678–81 

Senate, U.S. 
840 Index 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee, 277, 391, 414, 423 

Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 651–52, 654, 655 

criticism of Apollo program, 414–15, 604 

Foreign Relations Committee, 415 

Phillips report on North American Aviation, 423, 424, 661–65 

quarantine procedures and back contamination, 408, 665–66, 682–84 

Sencer, David J., 673, 743 

Shapley, Willis H. 

Apollo 8, 709, 717 

Apollo 11 symbolic activities planning, 432–33, 726, 727, 729, 730–35 

Apollo Applications Program, 639, 640 

schedule for Apollo program, acceleration of, 593 

Shea, Joseph F. 

Apollo 1 (204) fire, 424, 664 

Apollo program management, 400, 413 

astronaut selection, 406, 558–59 

biographical information, 801 

LOR concept, 402, 403, 520, 521, 535 

LOR concept, White House objections to, 403–4 

Manned Spacecraft Center assignment, 413 

resignation of, 424 

Shepard, Alan B., Jr. 

accidents, contingency plans for, 367 

Apollo 14, 435 

as Astronaut Office chief, 367 

biographical information, 801 

press conference to introduce astronauts, 17, 18

propaganda use of, 31, 205–7 

public image of, 31 

specialty area assignment, 25, 166 

suborbital flight by, 31, 192–203, 241, 394, 395, 478, 479 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Shultz, George, 750, 751 

Sidey, Hugh S., 393, 474–76, 801 

Siepert, A. E., 126 

Silver, Leon T., 762 

Silverstein, Abe 

Apollo program, naming of, 389 

biographical information, 801–2 

Manned Lunar Working Group Task Force, 457–58

Mercury program: animal payloads, 141; astronaut selection, 136, 173–75; 

naming of, 123–25; television system for Mercury-Atlas fl ights, 211–12 

MIS program, 120, 121 

Skopinski, Ted H., 563–66 

Skylab program 

Apollo Applications Program, 421, 639
 

astronauts for, 406
 

budget for, 436, 749, 750
 

Saturn V launch vehicle, 421
 

scientific value of, 437, 751–53
 
Exploring the Unknown 841

space rescue plans, 284 

Slayton, Donald K. “Deke” 

accidents, contingency plans for, 367 

Apollo 8, 427, 694, 696, 698, 699, 707 

Apollo 11, 734 

as Astronaut Office head, 23 

biographical information, 802 

circumlunar mission proposal, 204 

as Director of Flight Crew Operations, 229, 367 

flight crew assignments, 432 

pilot role of astronauts, 23 

press conference to introduce astronauts, 17, 18

specialty area assignment, 26, 166 

suborbital flight by Shepard, 196 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 149–51 

Slobodki, Lawrence B., 742 

Smiley, Gerry, 709 

Smith, Margaret Chase, 654 

Sonnett, Charles P., 406–7, 559, 764, 802 

Sorensen, Theodore 

Apollo program: mission mode decision, 406; progress on, 400, 544–47 

astronaut activities guidelines, 237 

oral history interview, 625–29 

space race with Soviets meeting, 475 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 416–17, 612, 627 

on Webb appointment, 391, 629 

Soulé, Hartley A., 49 

Source Evaluation Board 

Apollo spacecraft, 398, 506, 508, 547–58

Business subcommittee, 511–12, 551–53 

membership of, 502, 507–8, 510–11 

Mercury spacecraft, 26 

Technical subcommittee, 511, 551–53 

Source Selection Board, 126 

Soviet Union 

animal payloads, 191, 468

cosmonauts: training of, 13; visits with NASA astronauts, 43, 149–51 

EVA by, 44, 268, 292, 293, 294 

Gagarin’s fl ight, 30, 82, 177, 391, 392, 612 

lunar fly-by mission of, 277 

lunar landing program, 417, 417n46, 418, 425–26, 430, 685–87, 692 

satellite launches, 6, 51 

space race against, 392–95, 474–93 

successes in space by, 82 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 391, 416–19, 417n46, 612–16, 753 

U.S.-Soviet rivalry, 36, 82, 83, 145–47, 203, 204, 212, 277–78, 390, 392–93, 

410–11, 416, 598, 650 

Soyuz spacecraft, 426, 430 

Space Exploration Program Council (NASA), 389–90 

Space Flight Development, Office of, 441 
842 Index 

Space General Corporation, 550 

Space Science and Applications, Office of, 640, 674, 742 

Space Science Board, 388, 392, 408, 471–74, 616, 617, 740–49, 750 

Space Science Steering Committee, 558–59 

Space Sciences, Office of, 616–18

Space Shuttle, 4, 436, 437, 757 

Space station. See also Freedom (space station) 

importance of, 460
 

NASA plan for, 2
 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 753
 

Von Braun’s plan for, 3
 

Space Task Group 

animal payloads, 141, 144 

Apollo program: procurement plan, 502, 505, 506; responsibility for, 399 

creation of, 12 

future of space exploration, 436 

medical aspects of spacefl ight, 187, 190–91 

membership of, 122–23 

Mercury program: management of, 120, 121–23; Mercury Seven, training 

of, 165–66; Mercury-Redstone program termination, 210; spacecraft 

development, 126, 177, 185, 447
 

reliability analysis, 186–87
 

relocation of, 35, 229, 395
 

responsibilities of, 179, 242–43
 

workforce, 243–44
 

Space Technology Laboratories, 165, 412, 550, 551, 576
 

Spacecraft. See under Apollo, Project; Manned Satellite Project; Gemini, Project; 
 

Mercury, Project 

Spacefl ight. See human spacefl ight 

Spizizen, John, 742, 748

Sputnik I, 6, 51 

Sputnik II, 6, 51 

Staats, Elmer, 593 

Stafford, Thomas P., 46, 345–57, 432 

Stans, Maurice, 72, 73–74 

State, U.S. Department of, 363, 365 

Stearn, Jacquelyn B., 123 

Stockdale, James B., 159 

Stoner, George, 709 

Storms, Harrison A., 177–92, 423 

Stosick, Arthur, 75 

Strang, Charles F., 652–53, 657–61 

Strass, Kurt, 441, 447 

Strobell, J. D., Jr., 764 

Surveyor fl ights 

missions for lunar surface information, 407, 467, 498, 560, 565, 646–48

technological advancements from, 468, 493, 498

Swigert, Jack, 435 

Symbolic Activities Committee, 432–33, 727, 729, 730–35 

Syvertson, Clarence, 54 
Exploring the Unknown 843

T

Taylor, C. L., 719 

Taylor, Gerald R., 743 

Taylor, Paul D., 123 

Teague, Olin E. 

Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 654, 662 

Gemini circumlunar mission proposal, 40–41, 273, 277–78

Teller, Edward, 9, 650, 802–3 

Thomas, Albert 

Apollo program facilities, 396, 512
 

biographical information, 803
 

dinner for, 419
 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 418, 612, 613–14
 

Thompson, Floyd L. 

Apollo 1 (204) fire review, 422, 651, 652–53, 654, 655, 657–61 

Apollo 8, 717 

Space Task Group, 123 

Thompson, T. W., 762 

Thor, 126 

Tindall, Howard W. “Bill,” 426, 688–90, 803 

Tindallgrams, 426, 689 

TIROS satellites, 484 

Tischler, Adelbert O., 52–71, 413, 608, 609–10 

Titan II ballistic missiles 

cost of, 264
 

as Gemini launch vehicles, 38, 39, 253, 255–56
 

pogo effect, 39
 

priority status of program, 563
 

procurement of, 256
 

success of, 373
 

Titan III ballistic missiles, 253, 275, 555 

Titov, Gherman, 149 

Tobias, Cornelius, 177–92 

Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 433, 731 

Trimble, George, 58–59 

Truax, Robert, 76 

Truszynski, Gerald M., 717 

Turnock, James, 674 

U

Ulrich, George E., 764 

United Aircraft, 708

United Nations, 417–18, 427–28, 612, 613, 692 

University of Iowa, 407, 616, 617 

University of Michigan, 290, 291 

University of Pennsylvania, 673 

Urey, Harold C., 646–48, 763 

U.S. Air Force. See Air Force, U.S.
844 Index 

U.S. Army. See Army, U.S. 

U.S. Department of Defense. See Defense, U.S. Department of (DOD) 

U.S. Information Agency, 211 

V

V-2 ballistic missile, 2 

Van Allen, Dr., 576 

Van Bockel, J., 358

Van Dolah, Robert, 654, 655, 657–61 

Vance, Cyrus, 42, 283, 285–87, 803 

Vanguard program, 51, 83, 137, 556 

Vega, 446, 447 

Venus, 686 

Vietnam War, 420 

Viking, 757 

Vishniac, Wolf, 673, 679–81, 742 

Voas, Robert B. 

biographical information, 803–4


Mercury program: astronaut selection and training, 127; astronaut training, 


22, 161–72; MA-6 pilot debriefing, 223–24; propaganda value of, 212–14 

Vogel, L. W., 291–92, 293–96 

Vogeley, Arthur W., 530 

Von Braun paradigm, 3–4 

Von Braun, Wernher 

advocacy role of, 2–3 

Apollo program: all-up testing, 414; Apollo 8, 427, 694, 696, 697, 717; EOR 

concept, 521; launch vehicle development, 399; LOR concept, 403, 521, 

535–44, 587; LOR concept, dispute over, 404–5; schedule for, 421, 649–51 

biographical information, 147, 804 

character of, 649 

Gemini circumlunar mission proposal, 273 

liquid fuel propulsion systems, 398

Mercury program: circumlunar mission proposal, 203–5; Mercury-Redstone 

program termination, 209–10; Redstone missile procurement, 29, 117; 

spacecraft design ideas, 80; spacecraft oversight, 27, 147–48; visit with 

Mercury Seven, 160 

reputation of, 147


rocket and missile development, 2


Saturn rocket development, 390n5


space exploration plan of, 3–4


space race with Soviets review, 394, 478, 485–90


space rescue plans, 283


W

Wallops Island, Virginia, 4n9, 49 

Little Joe fl ights, 138, 142, 143, 144 

work schedule at, 483 

Warner, Jeffrey L., 763 

Wasp, U.S.S., 348
Exploring the Unknown 845

Wasson, John, 763 

Waterman, Alan, 471 

Watkins, Julia R., 123 

Watkins, Shirley, 123 

Watson, Marvin, 288–91 

Webb, James E. 

Anderson, relationship with, 423, 424 

Apollo program: Apollo 1 (204) fire, 422–24, 651, 653–55, 657; Apollo 8, 427, 

428, 692, 695, 699–700; budget for, 391–92, 419–20; criticism of, 415, 603–7; 

facilities for, 396, 512–20; funding for, 588–601; LOR concept, dispute over, 

403–6, 568–70, 574–85, 586–88; management of, 400, 422, 423–24; mission 

control center location, 566–68; Phillips report on North American 

Aviation, 423, 630, 661–65; priority of, 409–12, 562–63; procurement plan, 

501–12; schedule for, 421, 588–601, 649–51; spacecraft contract, 547 

appointment of to NASA, 391, 629 

biographical information, 391, 804 

Congress, relationship with, 424, 662 

Gemini program: celebrations following missions, 43, 290–91; circumlunar 

mission proposal, 40–41, 273, 277–78; GT-4, EVA during, 292–96; GT4, success of, 44–45; GT-6 and GT-7, rendezvous between, 346–47; space 

rescue plans, 42–43, 283, 285–88; success of, 296–98

Holmes, relationship with, 409, 410, 588

Johnson, meeting with, 429 

Mercury program: astronaut activities guidelines, 229–30, 236–38; MA-6 

postlaunch telegram, 214–23; propaganda use of astronauts’ experiences, 

205–7


NASA budget approval, 392


National Space Plan recommendations, 394–95, 478–79, 490–93


North American Aviation, management of, 423–24


post-Apollo planning, 422


resignation of, 429


Saturn V production termination, 421–22, 687–88

scientific value of human spaceflight, 392, 471–74


Seamans, relationship with, 424


Soviet lunar landing program, 425


space preeminence goal, 411, 412, 598–600


space race with Soviets meeting, 393


success of, 422


United Nations conference, 427–28, 692


U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 417, 418–19


Weeks, Michael, 64–65 

Weinberger, Caspar W., 437, 749, 753–60, 804 

Welsh, Edward C. 

Apollo program, 593


biographical information, 804–5


space rescue plans, 283, 284, 286, 287


Western Electric, 243 

Wetherill, George, 763 

Whitbeck, Phillip H., 511 

White, Edward H., Jr. 
846 Index 

Apollo 1 (204) fire, 422, 651, 652


biographical information, 805


Gemini IV (GT-4): altitude chamber testing approval, 292; celebration 


following mission, 43; debriefing following, 298–344; EVA during, 39, 44, 

268, 297, 298–344 

visits with Russian cosmonauts, 43, 149 

White, George C., Jr., 653, 657–61 

White, S. C., 230, 511 

White, Thomas D., 77–79 

White Sands, NM, 397 

Wickham, Paul, 177–92 

Wiesner, Jerome B. 

Ad Hoc Committee on Space, 390 

Apollo program: funding for, 412, 601–3; LOR concept, 403–5, 568–85; LOR 

concept, dispute over, 404–5, 569; mission mode decision, 406; progress on, 

400, 544–47; schedule for, acceleration of, 411–12, 588, 589, 593, 598, 601–3 

biographical information, 805 

civilians as astronauts, 175–77 

science advisor role of, 390 

scientific value of human spaceflight, 392, 471–74 

space race with Soviets meeting, 393, 475 

space transition team chair, 472 

spaceflight in response to Soviet launch, 31, 175–77 

U.S.-Soviet cooperation, 418, 612, 613, 614–16 

Webb appointment to NASA, 391 

Williams, John J., 653, 657–61 

Williams, Walter C. 

biographical information, 805 

circumlunar mission proposal, 204 

Joint Manned Satellite Panel, 86, 87 

MA-6 postlaunch telegram, 214–23 

Mercury program review, 36, 239–45 

Source Evaluation Board chair, 507, 510 

Space Task Group membership, 179 

spaceflight review board, 49 

Wilson, Charles L., 151–58

Wise, Donald, 438

Wolman, William, 502 

Wood, Clotaire, 72, 77, 78, 120 

Wood, John, 763 

Wooley, Bennic C., 743 

Worden, Alfred, 21n70, 439 

Wright Air Development Center, Aerospace Medical Laboratory, 15, 141, 151, 

155, 157 

Wright Air Development Division, 168, 169 

WS-117L program, 83–84 
Exploring the Unknown 847

X

X-15 projects, 14n47, 43, 79, 87, 165, 287–88

X-20 Dyna-Soar program, 7, 52, 66–67, 80, 84, 442–43, 469 

Y

Yardley, John F., 27, 275 

Yeager, Chuck, 210 

York, Dr., 75, 76–77, 146, 471 

Young, John D., 511 

Young, John W. 

Apollo 10, 432 

Apollo 16, 439 

Gemini III (GT-3), 21, 43, 290, 297 

Youngquist, Roberson, 75, 86 

Z

Zimmerman, Charles H., 49, 123, 126, 806 

Zond, 426, 430, 692

Exploring the Unknown 849

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SP-4021, 1984. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1977: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA 

SP-4022, 1986. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1978: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA 

SP-4023, 1986. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1979–1984: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4024, 1988. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1985: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA 

SP-4025, 1990. 

Noordung, Hermann. The Problem of Space Travel: The Rocket Motor. Edited by Ernst 

Stuhlinger and J. D. Hunley, with Jennifer Garland. NASA SP-4026, 1995. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1986–1990: A Chronology. NASA SP-4027, 1997. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1990–1995: A Chronology. NASA SP-2000-4028, 2000. 
Exploring the Unknown 851

Management Histories, NASA SP-4100: 

Rosholt, Robert L. An Administrative History of NASA, 1958–1963. NASA SP-4101, 


1966.


Levine, Arnold S. Managing NASA in the Apollo Era. NASA SP-4102, 1982.


Roland, Alex. Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915–


1958. NASA SP-4103, 1985.


Fries, Sylvia D. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. NASA SP-4104, 1992. 

Glennan, T. Keith. The Birth of NASA: The Diary of T. Keith Glennan. J. D. Hunley, 


editor. NASA SP-4105, 1993.


Seamans, Robert C., Jr. Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 


NASA SP-4106, 1996. 

Garber, Stephen J., editor. Looking Backward, Looking Forward: Forty Years of U.S. 


Human Spacefl ight Symposium. NASA SP-2002-4107, 2002.


Mallick, Donald L. with Peter W. Merlin. The Smell of Kerosene: A Test Pilot’s Odyssey. 


NASA SP-4108, 2003. 


Iliff, Kenneth W. and Curtis L. Peebles. From Runway to Orbit: Reflections of a NASA 


Engineer. NASA SP-2004-4109, 2004. 


Chertok, Boris. Rockets and People, Volume 1. NASA SP-2005-4110, 2005. 


Laufer, Alexander, Todd Post, and Edward Hoffman. Shared Voyage: Learning and 


Unlearning from Remarkable Projects. NASA SP-2005-4111, 2005. 

Dawson, Virginia P. and Mark D. Bowles. Realizing the Dream of Flight: Biographical 

Essays in Honor of the Centennial of Flight, 1903-2003. NASA SP-2005-4112, 2005. 

Mudgway, Douglas J. William H. Pickering: America’s Deep Space Pioneer, NASA SP2007-4113, 2007. 

Project Histories, NASA SP-4200: 

Swenson, Loyd S., Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander. This New 

Ocean: A History of Project Mercury. NASA SP-4201, 1966; rep. ed. 1998. 

Green, Constance McLaughlin, and Milton Lomask. Vanguard: A History. NASA 

SP-4202, 1970; rep. ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. 

Hacker, Barton C., and James M. Grimwood. On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of 

Project Gemini. NASA SP-4203, 1977. 

Benson, Charles D., and William Barnaby Faherty. Moonport: A History of Apollo

Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA SP-4204, 1978. 

Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr. Chariots for 

Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. NASA SP-4205, 1979. 

Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch 

Vehicles. NASA SP-4206, 1980, rep. ed. 1997. 
852 The NASA History Series 

SP-4207 not published. 

Compton, W. David, and Charles D. Benson. Living and Working in Space: A History 

of Skylab. NASA SP-4208, 1983. 

Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. The Partnership: A History of the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. NASA SP-4209, 1978.


Hall, R. Cargill. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. NASA SP-4210, 1977.


Newell, Homer E. Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science. NASA SP­


4211, 1980. 

Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. On Mars: Exploration of the Red 


Planet, 1958–1978. NASA SP-4212, 1984.


Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. 


NASA SP-4213, 1985. 

Compton, W. David. Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar 


Exploration Missions. NASA SP-4214, 1989.


Naugle, John E. First Among Equals: The Selection of NASA Space Science Experiments. 


NASA SP-4215, 1991. 

Wallace, Lane E. Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA Langley’s Boeing 737 


Flying Laboratory. NASA SP-4216, 1994.


Butrica, Andrew J., editor. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication. 


NASA SP-4217, 1997. 

Butrica, Andrew J. To See the Unseen: A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy. NASA 


SP-4218, 1996.


Mack, Pamela E., editor. From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA 


Collier Trophy Research Project Winners. NASA SP-4219, 1998.


Reed, R. Dale, with Darlene Lister. Wingless Flight: The Lifting Body Story. NAS

SP-4220, 1997.


A 


Heppenheimer, T. A. The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA’s Search for a Reusable Space 


Vehicle. NASA SP-4221, 1999.


Hunley, J. D., editor. Toward Mach 2: The Douglas D-558 Program. NASA SP-4222, 1999.


Swanson, Glen E., editor. “Before this Decade Is Out . . .”: Personal Reflections on the 


Apollo Program. NASA SP-4223, 1999. 

Tomayko, James E. Computers Take Flight: A History of NASA’s Pioneering Digital Fly-byWire Project. NASA SP-2000-4224, 2000.


Morgan, Clay. Shuttle-Mir: The U.S. and Russia Share History’s Highest Stage. NASA 

SP-2001-4225, 2001.


Leary, William M. “We Freeze to Please”: A History of NASA’s Icing Research Tunnel and 


the Quest for Flight Safety. NASA SP-2002-4226, 2002.

Exploring the Unknown 853

Mudgway, Douglas J. Uplink-Downlink: A History of the Deep Space Network 1957–1997. 

NASA SP-2001-4227, 2001. 

Dawson, Virginia P. and Mark D. Bowles. Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur 

Upper Stage Rocket, 1958-2002. NASA SP-2004-4230, 2004. 

Meltzer, Michael. Mission to Jupiter: A History of the Galileo Project. NASA SP-2007­

4231. 

Heppenheimer, T. A. Facing the Heat Barrier: A History of Hypersonics. NASA SP2007-4232, 2007. 

Tsiao, Sunny. Read You Loud and Clear. NASA SP-2007-4233, 2007. 

Center Histories, NASA SP-4300: 

Rosenthal, Alfred. Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA 

SP-4301, 1985. 

Hartman, Edwin P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940– 

1965. NASA SP-4302, 1970. 

Hallion, Richard P. On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946–1981. NASA SP4303, 1984. 

Muenger, Elizabeth A. Searching the Horizon: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940– 

1976. NASA SP-4304, 1985. 

Hansen, James R. Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 

1917–1958. NASA SP-4305, 1987. 

Dawson, Virginia P. Engines and Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American Propulsion 

Technology. NASA SP-4306, 1991. 

Dethloff, Henry C. “Suddenly Tomorrow Came . . .”: A History of the Johnson Space 

Center. NASA SP-4307, 1993. 

Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley Research Center from Sputnik 

to Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 1995. 

Wallace, Lane E. Flights of Discovery: 50 Years at the NASA Dryden Flight Research 

Center. NASA SP-4309, 1996. 

Herring, Mack R. Way Station to Space: A History of the John C. Stennis Space Center. 

NASA SP-4310, 1997. 

Wallace, Harold D., Jr. Wallops Station and the Creation of the American Space Program. 

NASA SP-4311, 1997. 

Wallace, Lane E. Dreams, Hopes, Realities: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, The 

First Forty Years. NASA SP-4312, 1999. 

Dunar, Andrew J., and Stephen P. Waring. Power to Explore: A History of the Marshall 

Space Flight Center. NASA SP-4313, 1999. 

Bugos, Glenn E. Atmosphere of Freedom: Sixty Years at the NASA Ames Research Center. 

NASA SP-2000-4314, 2000. 
854 The NASA History Series 

Schultz, James. Crafting Flight: Aircraft Pioneers and the Contributions of the Men and 

Women of NASA Langley Research Center. NASA SP-2003-4316, 2003. 

General Histories, NASA SP-4400: 

Corliss, William R. NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958–1968: A Historical Summary. NASA 

SP-4401, 1971. 

Wells, Helen T., Susan H. Whiteley, and Carrie Karegeannes. Origins of NASA 

Names. NASA SP-4402, 1976. 

Anderson, Frank W., Jr. Orders of Magnitude: A History of NACA and NASA, 1915– 

1980. NASA SP-4403, 1981. 

Sloop, John L. Liquid Hydrogen as a Propulsion Fuel, 1945–1959. NASA SP-4404, 1978. 

Roland, Alex. A Spacefaring People: Perspectives on Early Spacefl ight. NASA SP4405, 1985. 

Bilstein, Roger E. Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990. 

NASA SP-4406, 1989. 

Logsdon, John M., editor, with Linda J. Lear, Jannelle Warren-Findley, Ray A. 

Williamson, and Dwayne A. Day. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the 

History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume I, Organizing for Exploration. NASA SP4407, 1995. 

Logsdon, John M., editor, with Dwayne A. Day and Roger D. Launius. Exploring the 

Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume II, 

Relations with Other Organizations. NASA SP-4407, 1996. 

Logsdon, John M., editor, with Roger D. Launius, David H. Onkst, and Stephen J. 

Garber. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space 

Program, Volume III, Using Space. NASA SP-4407, 1998. 

Logsdon, John M., general editor, with Ray A. Williamson, Roger D. Launius, 

Russell J. Acker, Stephen J. Garber, and Jonathan L. Friedman. Exploring the 

Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume IV, 

Accessing Space. NASA SP-4407, 1999. 

Logsdon, John M., general editor, with Amy Paige Snyder, Roger D. Launius, 

Stephen J. Garber, and Regan Anne Newport. Exploring the Unknown: Selected 

Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume V, Exploring the Cosmos. 

NASA SP-2001-4407, 2001. 

Siddiqi, Asif A. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974. 

NASA SP-2000-4408, 2000. 

Hansen, James R., editor. The Wind and Beyond: Journey into the History of Aerodynamics 

in America, Volume I, The Ascent of the Airplane. NASA SP-2003-4409, 2003. 

Hogan, Thor. Mars Wars: The Rise and Fall of the Space Exploration Initiative. NASA 

SP-2007-4410, 2007. 

Hansen, James R., editor. The Wind and Beyond: Journey into the History of Aerodynamics 

in America, Volume II, Reinventing the Airplane. NASA SP-2007-4409, 2007. 
Exploring the Unknown
 855

Monographs in Aerospace History, NASA SP-4500:


Launius, Roger D. and Aaron K. Gillette, compilers, Toward a History of the Space 

Shuttle: An Annotated Bibliography. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 1, 1992. 

Launius, Roger D., and J. D. Hunley, compilers, An Annotated Bibliography of the 

Apollo Program. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 2, 1994. 

Launius, Roger D. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monograph in Aerospace History, 

No. 3, 1994. 

Hansen, James R. Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the LunarOrbit Rendezvous Concept. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 4, 1995. 

Gorn, Michael H. Hugh L. Dryden’s Career in Aviation and Space. Monograph in 

Aerospace History, No. 5, 1996. 

Powers, Sheryll Goecke. Women in Flight Research at NASA Dryden Flight Research 

Center, from 1946 to 1995. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 6, 1997. 

Portree, David S. F. and Robert C. Trevino.Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology. 

Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 7, 1997. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Legislative Origins of the National Aeronautics and 

Space Act of 1958: Proceedings of an Oral History Workshop. Monograph in Aerospace 

History, No. 8, 1998. 

Rumerman, Judy A., compiler, U.S. Human Spaceflight, A Record of Achievement 

1961–1998. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 9, 1998. 

Portree, David S. F. NASA’s Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age. Monograph in 

Aerospace History, No. 10, 1998. 

Logsdon, John M. Together in Orbit: The Origins of International Cooperation in the 

Space Station. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 11, 1998. 

Phillips, W. Hewitt. Journey in Aeronautical Research: A Career at NASA Langley Research 

Center. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 12, 1998. 

Braslow, Albert L. A History of Suction-Type Laminar-Flow Control with Emphasis on 

Flight Research. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 13, 1999. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Managing the Moon Program: Lessons Learned From 

Apollo. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 14, 1999. 

Perminov, V. G. The Difficult Road to Mars: A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the 

Soviet Union. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 15, 1999. 

Tucker, Tom. Touchdown: The Development of Propulsion Controlled Aircraft at NASA 

Dryden. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 16, 1999. 

Maisel, Martin D., Demo J. Giulianetti, and Daniel C. Dugan. The History of the XV-15 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft: From Concept to Flight. NASA SP-2000-4517, 2000. 

Jenkins, Dennis R. Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X-15 Research 

Airplane. NASA SP-2000-4518, 2000. 
856 The NASA History Series 

Chambers, Joseph R. Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the Langley Research Center 

to U.S. Military Aircraft in the 1990s. NASA SP-2000-4519, 2000. 

Waltman, Gene L. Black Magic and Gremlins: Analog Flight Simulations at NASA’s 

Flight Research Center. NASA SP-2000-4520, 2000. 

Portree, David S. F. Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000. 

NASA SP-2001-4521, 2001. 

Thompson, Milton O., with J. D. Hunley. Flight Research: Problems Encountered and 

What They Should Teach Us. NASA SP-2000-4522, 2000. 

Tucker, Tom. The Eclipse Project. NASA SP-2000-4523, 2000. 

Siddiqi, Asif A. Deep Space Chronicle: A Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes, 

1958–2000. NASA SP-2002-4524, 2002. 

Merlin, Peter W. Mach 3+: NASA/USAF YF-12 Flight Research, 1969–1979. NASA SP2001-4525, 2001. 

Anderson, Seth B. Memoirs of an Aeronautical Engineer—Flight Tests at Ames Research 

Center: 1940–1970. NASA SP-2002-4526, 2002. 

Renstrom, Arthur G. Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating the 

One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. NASA SP2002-4527, 2002. 

No monograph 28. 

Chambers, Joseph R. Concept to Reality: Contributions of the NASA Langley Research 

Center to U.S. Civil Aircraft of the 1990s. SP-2003-4529, 2003. 

Peebles, Curtis, editor. The Spoken Word: Recollections of Dryden History, The Early 

Years. SP-2003-4530, 2003. 

Jenkins, Dennis R., Tony Landis, and Jay Miller. American X-Vehicles: An InventoryX-1 to X-50. SP-2003-4531, 2003. 

Renstrom, Arthur G. Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Chronology Commemorating the OneHundredth Anniversary of the First Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. NASA SP-2003­

4532, 2002. 

Bowles, Mark D. and Robert S. Arrighi. NASA’s Nuclear Frontier: The Plum Brook 

Research Reactor. SP-2004-4533, 2003. 

Matranga, Gene J. and C. Wayne Ottinger, Calvin R. Jarvis with D. Christian Gelzer. 

Unconventional, Contrary, and Ugly: The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. NASA SP2006-4535. 

McCurdy, Howard E. Low Cost Innovation in Spaceflight: The History of the Near Earth 

Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Mission. NASA SP-2005-4536, 2005. 

Seamans, Robert C. Jr. Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. NASA SP-2005-4537, 2005. 

Lambright, W. Henry. NASA and the Environment: The Case of Ozone Depletion. NASA 

SP-2005-4538, 2005. 
Exploring the Unknown 857

Chambers, Joseph R. Innovation in Flight: Research of the NASA Langley Research Center 

on Revolutionary Advanced Concepts for Aeronautics. NASA SP-2005-4539, 2005. 

Phillips, W. Hewitt. Journey Into Space Research: Continuation of a Career at NASA 

Langley Research Center. NASA SP-2005-4540, 2005. 

Rumerman, Judith A., compiler, with Chris Gamble and Gabriel Okolski, U.S. 

Human Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 1961-2006. NASA SP-2007-4541, 2007. 

Electronic Media, NASA SP-4600: 

Remembering Apollo 11: The 30th Anniversary Data Archive CD-ROM. NASA SP4601, 1999. 

The Mission Transcript Collection: U.S. Human Spaceflight Missions from Mercury 

Redstone 3 to Apollo 17. NASA SP-2000-4602, 2001. 

Shuttle-Mir: The United States and Russia Share History’s Highest Stage. NASA SP-2001­

4603, 2002. 

U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission Presents Born of Dreams—Inspired by Freedom. 

NASA SP-2004-4604, 2004. 

Of Ashes and Atoms: A Documentary on the NASA Plum Brook Reactor Facility. NASA 

SP-2005-4605, 2005. 

Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket Interactive CD-ROM. NASA 

SP-2004-4606, 2004. 

Fueling Space Exploration: The History of NASA’s Rocket Engine Test Facility DVD. NASA 

SP-2005-4607, 2005. 

Conference Proceedings, NASA SP-4700: 

Dick, Steven J., and Keith L. Cowing, editors. Risk and Exploration: Earth, Sea and 

the Stars. NASA SP-2005-4701, 2005. 

Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius, editors. Critical Issues in the History of 

Spacefl ight. NASA SP-2006-4702, 2006. 

Societal Impact, NASA SP-4800: 

Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius, editors. Societal Impact of Spacefl ight. NASA 

SP-2007-4801, 2007. 

: 2008— 33 9-605