Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1984 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1984 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
A great blue heron, startled from its perch in a lagoon south of the Launch Pad A of Launch Complex 39 at the Kennedy Space 

Center (KSC), moments before Discovery, seen in the background, was launched on its maiden voyage. 
Contents 

Summary ............................ 

Com s ................. 

Earth: Atmosphere, Environment and 

Space Science, Space Research and Technology , 

Space Transportation . . . . . . . . 

Space Tracking and Data Syste 

Spacestation .............................. 

Aeronautics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Earth Applications ................. 

Space Tranportation 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

Science ................................... 

Commercial Use of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Spacestation .............................. 

Space Research and Technology . . . . . . , . , . . . . . 

Aeronautical Research and Technology . . . . . . , . 

Space Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 

Aeronautical Activities . , . , . , , . , 

Space and Aeronautics Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Relations with NASA . . . . . . . . . . 

Department of Commerce ............._._... 

Space Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Other Uses of Satellites . . . . . . 

Space Support Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . , . 

Space and Atmospheric Research . . . . . . . . . . . , . 

Aeronautical Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . , . , , . 

Department of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 

Space Nuclear Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Nuclear Test Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Processing . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . 

Digital Data Processing and Analysis 

Monitoring the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . , 

Geology .................................. 

. . . . . . . . ..... 

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Department of Defense ................... 

... 

... 

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Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . 

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s................. 

Department of Ag ............ 

Communications Satellites ............ 

New Satellite Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 

International Conference Activities 

Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . . , . , 

Aviation Safety . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Air Navigation and Traffic Control . . . . . . . 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation , . , . 

Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . 

Future Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . ___.. 

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National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 

Astronomy ................................ 

Atmospheric Sciences . . . . . . 

Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Space Sciences ............................ 

Planetary Sciences . . 

Department of State ...................... 

Activities within the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Communications Satellites 

Rempte Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Space Arms Control Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 

International Dis 

Control . . . . . , . 

Space Policy . . . , . , . _. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . . 

United States Information Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Other Programs . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency . . 

Space Shuttle ................. 

A- 1 

A-2 

A-3 

B- 1 

B-2 

B-3 

C 

D 

E- 1 

E-2 

E-3 

F- 1 

F-2 

F-3 

F-4 

F-5 

Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record _._._._._........... 

World Record of Space Launches 

Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or 

Beyond ............................... 

Successful U.S. Launchings- 1984 . . . . . . . . . . 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

U. S.-Launched Space Probes, 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

1978-1984 . . 

1978-1984 ............................. 

1975-1984 ............................. 

1961-1984 ............................. 

Historical Budget SummaryBudget Authority 

Space Activities Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Aeronautics Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . , . 

State of the Union Address-Space Station . . . . . 

Commercial Expendable Launch Vehicle 

Activities-Executive Order 12465 

(February 24, 1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public Law 98-365-July 17, 1984 

98th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

White House Fact Sheet 

National Space Strategy (August 15, 1984) . . 

Public Law 98-575-October 30, 1984 

98th Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

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N 

The year 1984 was one of high achievement for the 

United States aeronautics and space programs. It also 

was a time in which new space goals were established, 

setting the Nation’s course in this vast frontier for the 

rest of this century. 

This new pathway in space was charted by President 

Reagan onJanuary 25, 1984, in his State of the Union 

message to the Congress. Noting that the U.S. space 

effort, little more than a quarter of a century old, has 

transformed dreams into reality, the President proposed a new space goal, directing the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) “to 

develop a permanently manned space station . . . 

within a decade.” The establishment of a permanent 

human habitat in space, the President said, holds enormous potential for commerce both on earth and in 

space; and to meet this challenge, President Reagan 

called for NASA’s help to encourage investment in 

space by the private sector, stating that a number of 

Executive initiatives would be forthcoming to advance 

this objective. 

A month later, on February 24, 1984, the President 

announced the first of the promised initiatives and 

issued Executive Order 12465 to “encourage” the 

development of commercial expendable launch vehicle 

operations by private U.S. enterprises. The Department of Transportation, assigned responsibility for this 

effort, is to be assisted by an interagency group, including NASA. Six months later, on .July 20, 1984, 

President Reagan gavr an additional boost to commerce in space by announcing his National Policy on 

the Commercial Use of Space, which calls for 

economic initiatives, legal and regulatory initiatives, 

research and development initiatives, and initiatives to 

implement generally this new national policy. 

The commercial potential of space, emphasized by 

the Administration, was advanced in 1984 by the success of Space Shuttle operations, precursor to development of a fully operational Space Transportation 

System (STS). Of the STS’ 1984 flights, three were 

flown by Challenger (the second craft of the STS fleet) 

and two by Discovery (the first flights of this third craft 

of the STS). Each Shuttle mission deployed operational satellite< into Earth orbit for academic, industry, 

U.S. government, and foreign government users. The 

satellite-launch services were provided on a r.eimbursable basis, except for missions launched by or for the 

U.S. government. Each mission also included experiments, from several disciplines, which were performed aboard the Shuttle. 

Several communications satellites were deployed for 

paying customers by means of expendable launch 

vehicles, as well as by the Shuttle. Special satellites, 

such as the Long Duration Exposure Facility and the 

national climate research satellite, Earth Radiation 

Budget Satellite, also were deployed from Shuttle orbiters. Other highlights of Shuttle missions in 1984 included the first use of the Manned Maneuvering Unit; 

the first retrieval and return to Earth of disabled 

satellites, the Westar-6 and Palapa B2 communications 

satellite, in November; and the capture, repair and 

redeployment of the Solar Maximum Mission satellite 

in April. The first Discovery mission carried the first 

non-astronaut crew member. The third Challenger 

mission of 1984, which began on October 5, carried a 

crew of 7, the largest to date, including for the first 

time a Canadian payload specialist. Two female mission specialists also were on board. During 1984, a 

total of four female mission specialists were on Shuttle 

flights. 

In 1984, U.S. payloads launched into Earth-orbit 

numbered 35. Of the 35, 14 were launched by the 

Department of Defense (DoD) and 21 by NASA, including 9 satellites and a balloon rendezvous radar 

target that the Shuttle deployed during its 5 flights. Expendable launch vehicles boosted 20 satellites into orbit, with one launching 3 satellites simultaneously and 

another launching 2. 

NASA launched 11 communications satellites, 10 of 

which were for commercial customers and one of which 

was defense related. Other applications spacecraft also 

were boosted into orbit: 3 navigation satellites, 1 

navigation balloon, 1 NOAA weather satellite, 1 Earth 

resources satellite, and 5 scientific satellites. 

In the exploration of the solar system in 1984, cometary studies had a prominent role, with the International Cometary Explorer spacecraft retargeted toward 

a 1985 encounter with the Comet Giacobini-Zinner 

and with preparations underway for observations of 

Comet Halley during its appearance in 1985-1986. 

Four active planetary spacecraft, Pioneers 10 and 11 

and Voyagers 1 and 2, continued to provide observations of the interplanetary medium. Data from Pioneer 

10 were transmitted from a distance of nearly 35 

1 
astronomical units (AU) from the sun in a direction 

opposite the solar apex. Data from a distance of 17 AU 

were provided by Pioneer 11 from the direction of the 

solar apex. Additional observations of the interplanetary medium came from Voyagers 1 and 2. 

Study of the inner solar system continued with the fifth 

year of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter mission; and the 

Galileo spacecraft had its final testing in 1984 in 

preparation for its 1986 launch. 

NASA’s program of international cooperation continued in 1984. On February 6, NASA launched a 

communications satellite for Indonesia from the orbiter Challenger. When the satellite’s booster motor 

failed, the orbiter Columbia later retrieved the satellite 

and returned it to Earth for repair. In November 1984, 

a communications satellite was deployed from the orbiter Discovery for Telsat Canada; and on November 

14, 1984, a NATO defense related satellite was put 

into orbit successfully by an expendable launch vehicle 

(ELV). There also were launches for the United 

Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany. During the year, the COSPAS/SARSAT search and 

rescue system became operational, another example of 

productive international cooperation, this time in the 

safety field. 

In response to the President’s National Space Policy 

for assured access to space (August 1984), DoD began 

plans to acquire a limited number of ELVs to complement NASA’s STS. The ELVs are intended to serve as 

a complement to the Space Shuttle and will be capable 

of launching Shuttle-class DoD payloads essential for 

national security. Efforts by DoD to increase the survivability, autonomy, performance, reliability and 

functional life of military space-based communications 

systems continued in 1984. 

During 1984, NASA, DoD, and the Federal Aviation Administration continued to work for improved 

performance and safety of aircraft. NASA research 

also addressed the objective of better performance in 

the STS and application satellites as well as increased 

safety in space travel 

Following is a summary by function of U.S. space 

and aeronautics activities and achievements in calendar year 1984. Succeeding chapters delineate the programs and accomplishments of the various individual 

agencies in greater detail 

Communications 

In 1984, prompted by evident growing congestion of 

the frequency spectrum and the erosion of the U.S. 

competitive position in satellite communications 

technology resulting from inroads i~iade by Europe 

and Japan, NASA undertook a program, in cooperation with U.S. industry, to develop high risk 

technology for the desired multiple frequency bands 

and other requirements necessary to maintain U.S. 

preeminence in the world marketplace. For this objective, NASA began development of the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), the 

agency’s first experimental communications satellite 

since 1973. In 1984, NASA also initiated a technology 

development program to provide a variety of satelliteaided mobile communications for cars, trains, buses, 

and other mobile platforms - such services as emergency response communications for law enforcement, 

assessment of natiural disasters, local and national 

emergencies, and emergency medical services as well 

as for a variety of business and commercial uses. 

NASA also consulted with other government agencies 

to determine the usefulness of mobile satellite services 

for their operations. 

The use of international and domestic satellite communications increased in 1984 as demand for such 

communications continued to grow. During 1984, 

NASA launched 11 communications satellites, 7 from 

the Space Shuttle and 4 by ELVs. Four of the satellites 

were for international use 

Operational Space Systems 

COSPASLSARSAT. In October 1984, the international 

satellite aided search and rescue system, 

COSPAVSARSAT, developed by the United States, 

Canada, France, and the Soviet Union, became operational; and a Memorandum of Understanding was 

signed by representatives of the nations involved. 

Other nations participating in this operation are Norway, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, 

Bulgaria, Denmark, and Brazil. Their participation 

has both reduced costs to individual participants and 

.broadened the sharing of benefits, the most important 

being the saving of lives, at least 289 throughout the 

world since development of the system began. 

INTELSAT and INMARSAT. The 108-membernation International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) continued to expand its 

services in 1984. The INTELSAT network, consisting 

of 17 satellites positioned over the Atlantic, Pacific, 

and Indian Oceans, was reconfigured for improved 

and more efficient operations. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved 11 new 

Earth station facilities, which will provide the INTELSAT system access in the Atlantic Ocean Region 

for international business service, and authorized 

Cumsat, the U.S. member of INTELSAT, to participate in the construction of five INTELSAT VI 

satellites, to be built by Hughes Aircraft Company. 

In 1984, in its third year of operation, the International Maritine Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) 

had three satellites to serve the Atlantic, Pacific, and 

Indian Ocean regions and a lease agreement with INTELSAT to provide martitime communications services through 1985. With its facilities, INMARSAT 

served 2,800 vessels. In 1984, as in 1983, INMARSA1 requested proposals from industry for additional 

2 
maritime capability. The International Civil 

Aeronautics Organization (ICAO) approached INMARSAT in 1984 to investigate the possibility of 

shared use of satellite facilities; and INMARSAT 

subsequently specified the inclusion of a small part of 

the aeronautical mobile-satellite band in 

INMARSAT’s second generation satellites, for which 

bids were under evaluation in 1984. 

Domestic Communications Satellites. In 1984, domestic 

commercial communications satellites increased in 

number from 16 to 23. Four satellites were retired and 

replaced with satellites of higher efficiency. The 

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has 

authorized the launch of and assigned orbital postions 

for a total of 38 domestic satellites; and there are an additional 85 applications on file with the FCC for new 

domestic satellites. Those applicaitons are under 

review with respect to the reduced orbital spacing requirement the FCC approved in 1983. The additional 

applications are from a mixture of new satelltie applicants, applicants for expansion of existing and 

planned systems, and applicants for replacement 

satellites in existing systems. New technology continued to bring economic benefits and improved 

satellite services to users. Four of the 8 companies 

granted permits by the FCC to construct Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS) have been granted modified construction permits and launch authority. The remaining 

4 have had their permits cancelled for failure to comply 

with the terms of those permits. Three additional applicants on a “second-round” cut-off list have been joined by 4 more, each proposing delivery of 6 to 16 channvls from each of 2 satellites. 

Military Communications Satellites. Military Satellite 

Communications (MILSATCOM) continued to meet 

the challenge of an unsettled and uncertain world and 

the increasingly destructive nature of weapons by providing rapid, reliable communications crucial to the 

deterrence and containment of hostilities. Reliable 

communications are absolutely essential in times of 

political-military crisis to reduce danger and the threat 

of conflict that might result without such communications. MILSATCOM provides near instant links between command and support, strategic and tactical, 

nuclear and conventional decision makers, and forces 

deployed worldwide. Its effective operation depends 

primarily on the Defense Satellite Communications 

Systems, the Fleet Satellite Communications System, 

and selected commercial satellite communications circuits, as well as on the operational Air Force Satellite 

Communications System (AFSATCOM). Development by the Air Force of the MILSTAR communications satellite and terminals for all airborne platforms 

continued in 1984 with the Navy responsible for shipboard terminals and the Army for all other general terminal requirements for the three services. By the end 

of 1984, most of the terminal development by the Air 

Force was complete; and work was proceeding on terminals of the other services with emphasis on compatibility for interoperations. 

Military Navigation Satellites. Nova-3, the second improved Transit satellite for DoD, was launched successfully in October 1984. Navstar 9 and l0,joint service Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, also 

were launched successfully, Navstar 9 in June and 

Navstar 10 in September 1984. The function of GPS is 

to provide radio position and navigation information 

for DoD missions worldwide. With its third year of 

development completed in 1984, the system is being 

built under a multi-year contract for 28 spacecraft. Approximately one-third of the contract has been accomplished, and estimates are that the GPS will 

achieve full operational capability by the end of 1988. 

National and international efforts for a Future 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 

(FGMDSS) continue. Satellite emergency-positionindicationg radio beacons will provide initial distressalerting information from ships in distress to shorebased rescue coordination centers. According to present plans, those beacons will operate through the 

geostationary INMARSAT and the now-operational 

polar COSPAS/SARSAT satellite systems. Expectations are that the FGMDSS will be fully implemented 

by 1996. 

Work continues by NASA, industry, and other 

government agencies to develop commercial landmobile services for emergency communications 

(police, medical, natural, and other disasters) as well as 

for health, education, and other public and social service communications to remote areas. 

Research also continues on reducing further the orbital spacing between domestic satellites in specified 

frequency hands in order to accommodate additional 

satellite systems. NASA and industry continue to 

develop new and advanced technologies for future, 

more advanced communications systems. One such 

new development, for example, offers a tremendous 

increase in voice channels, with enormous commercial 

potential 

Earth: Atmosphere, Environment 

and Resources 

In 1984, observations and knowledge of Earth, its 

atmosphere, environment, and resources, were advanced substantially by several special satellite 

systems, programs, and experiments. NASA’s Shuttle 

mission of October 1984 carried 2 major land sensing 

experiments: the Shuttle Imaging Radar and the Large 

Format Camera. It also carried the Earth Radiation 

Budget Satellite (ERBS), which was deployed into orbit from the Shuttle. ERBS is the first part of a threesatellite system comprising the Earth Radiation Budget 

Experiment (ERBE) and is important to NASA’s continuing climate observing program, whose objective is 

to gain understanding of the important physical proc3 
Photo taken onboard the Shuttle Challenger mission showing 

the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) prior to its 

deployment on October 5, 1984. Part of the arm of the 

remote manipulator system can be seen grasping the satellite. 

esses governing the interaction of clouds and radiation. 

Such knowledge is essential for accurate climate 

modeling and prediction. Toward this objective, the 

World Meteorological Organization and the International Council of Scientific Unions jointly sponsored 

an International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project 

(ISCCP). NASA is a key participant as host to the 

Global Processing Center, where data and cloud imagery from the 6 operational meteorological satellites 

are merged and analyzed 

In cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of Energy, NASA also 

established the National Project Office for the First 

ISCCP Regional Experiment (FIRE). Both ISCCP 

and FIRE will aid in the interpretation of ERBE 

measurements. 

The study of atmospheric processes also benefited in 

1984 from the use of laser radar to observe global wind 

profiles and thereby improve understanding of largescale atmospheric processes necessary for better 

weather prediction. Other significant developments 

were the use of satellite radar data to determine wind 

speed and direction of the ocean surface and NASA's 

Mesoscale Atmospheric Research Program which 

deals with studies of atmospheric behavior related to 

severe weather. In 1984, several such studies were 

made to increase airline safety; and the use of airborne 

Doppler Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) laser 

systems also contributed to improving airline safety by 

advancing pilots' understanding of the effects of wind 

on flight. 

In 1984, NASA also completed the first phase of a 

research-aircraft-based effort, the Global Tropospheric 

ExperimentiChemical Instrumentation Test Evaluation, and continued work on its Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite scheduled for launch in 1989. 

The 3-satellite Active Magnetosphere Particle 

Tracer Explorer, on which NASA, the Federal 

Republic of Germany, and the United Kingdom 

cooperated, was launched in August 1984. The objective of the NASA satellite, the Charge Composition 

Explorer, was to detect ions within Earth's 

magnetosphere. The Ion Release Module (IRM) of the 

Federal Republic of Germany was placed in a highly 

elliptical orbit to study Earth's magnetosphere; and the 

United Kingdom Satellite was launched to observe 

barium and lithium released by IRM. Results obtained from each of the spacecraft are under analysis. 

Programs and strategies were formulated for monitoring changes in stratospheric ozone, including a major 

aircraft measurement program using the NASA U-2 

and ER-2 high-altitude aircraft, to study atmospheric 

transfer processes. 

New data, including those from the first direct 

measurement of the movement of tectonic plates that 

make up the Earth's crust and measurement of a 

change in the gravity field of Earth, were obtained in 

1984 from NASA's Geodynamics Program using laser 

ranging to satellites such as the Laser Geodynamics 

Satellite. Such measurements are vital to the Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program of the U.S. 

Geological Survey. NASA cooperated with other nations concerned with the hazard of earthquakes, providing measurements made in the Mediterranean, the 

Caribbean, the Near East, South America, and 

western Canada. 

Important to environmental studies in 1984 were 

NOAA's satellites, GOES 5 and 6, prime imaging 

spacecraft of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system. On July 30, the 

imager failed on GOES 5; and GOES 6 was repositioned to compensate and to provide necessary 

coverage. Failure of GOES 5 did not affect the Data 

Collection System, its Space Environment Monitor, or 

its Weather Facsimile broadcasting capability. Additional GOES spacecraft, scheduled for launch in 1985 

and 1986, will incorporate improvements such as concurrent imaging and atmospheric sounding and relocation of picture elements for better calculation of winds 

from images showing cloud motions. 

In 1984, the Earth observation system consisted of 

two Earth-orbiting satellites, Landsat 4 launched in 

1982 and Landsat 5 launched in 1984, and a control 

and data processing facility at Goddard Space Flight 

Center. Testing of sensor systems to discriminate surface materials continued. Originally developed by 

NASA, Landsat 4 now is under NOAA management, 

as is Landsat 5, as a result of a 1983 Presidential Directive. Both satellites carried special Earth-observation 

sensor packages: the multi-spectral scanner to measure 

solar radiation and the thematic mapper to make 

4 
measurements in the visible and near-infrared wave 

lengths. Data from Landsat are distributed through the 

Department of Interior’s Earth Resources Observations System Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 

and through foreign facilities in countries with Landsat 

ground stations. During 1984, through an agreement 

with the Department of the Interior, NOAA added 

-33,000 multi-spectral scanner scenes and 4,000 

thematic mapper scenes to its archives. Some 3,000 

digital products and 35,000 photographic products 

were sold to Landsat customers at prices to recover the 

cost of operating and managing the Landsat system. 

Public Law 98-365, passed by the Congress in July 

1984 with respect to newly evolving commercial relationships, required the Department of Commerce’s 

Civil Space Remote Sensing Commercialization 

Group to report to the Congress before implementing 

the Secretary of Commerce’s decision to contract for 

commercialization of the Landsat system. The law and 

the subsequent report advanced the Administration’s 

efforts to move civil satellite remote sensing from the 

public sector into the private sector. However, the 

President concurred in a decision by the Secretary of 

Commerce and the Office of Management and Budget 

to limit government financial support for the transition 

of Landsat operations to the private sector so as not to 

affect adversely the Administration’s efforts to reduce 

the Federal Budget. 

The Congress had not supported the Administration’s 1983 proposal for commercialization of civil 

weather satellites affirming that those satellites support 

traditional government roles for the health, safety, and 

economic well-being of its citzens. It should be noted 

that P.L. 98-365 reaffirmed the priority of those traditional roles in the context of newly evolving 

government-commercial relationships. 

It has been said that the U.S. weather satellites alone 

are well worth the U.S. investment in space. The advanced instruments in NOAA’s meteorological 

satellites are able to provide a variety of services, including environmental observations of the entire Earth 

and meteorological measurements yielding improved 

conventional and numerical weather prediction. At the 

end of 1984, the latest weather satellite, NOAA-9, was 

launched. Its 3-instrument array of sensors measures 

Earth-radiation budget factors, including backscatter 

to space of solar ultraviolet light and Earth-radiated 

thermal (infrared) radiation. NOAA-9 will work in 

concert with NASA’s Earth Radiation Budget Satellite. 

As part of the COSPAS/SARSAT system, NOAA-9 

also carries search and rescue instrumentation. 

Observations via satellite of oceanic processes were 

made to assess the interdependence of atmospheric and 

oceanic variability and its influence on Earth‘s climate. 

The Navy continued development of its Remote 

Ocean Sensing System (N-ROSS) satellite which, with 

the cooperation of N.OAA, NASA, and the Air Force 

Systems, will measure ocean surface winds, sea surface 

temperatures, movement and height of waves, and 

polar ice conditions for both civil and military purposes. A Navy oceanographer was aboard the Shuttle 

Challenger’s October 1984 mission to observe and 

record ocean phenomena from low Earth orbit. 

In 1984, data from space contributed to ongoing 

programs to assess agricultural crop conditions and to 

manage renewable resources and land use. The 

Department of Agriculture emphasized its multiagency 

program, Agriculture and Resources Inventory Service through Aerospace Remote Sensing; data from 

NOAA and Landsat satellites contributed substantially 

to inventory and management of land resources and 

land use. 

In the Spacelab Flight Program, significant observations of the environment were made. For example, in 

the mission of October 1984, Shuttle Imaging Radar B 

and the Large Format Camera were used for observations and returned outstanding images. In one experiment of that mission, the global distribution of carbon 

monoxide in the atmosphere was measured; and 

another experiment demonstrated a capability for 

discriminating between cloud cover, water, vegetation, 

and bare ground. 

Enviromental concerns with respect to pollution 

were addressed by the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) assisted by NASA. NASA helped EPA 

develop various Light Detection and Ranging laser 

systems for monitoring the environment. 

Space Science, Space Research 

and Technology 

NASA’s space science and space research and 

technology programs are key to U. S. primacy in the 

exploration of space and in the knowledge gained. In 

1984, new scientific discoveries were made as both 

research and technology continued to advance. 

Space Science 

Planetary spacecraft Pioneers 10 and 11 and 

Voyagers 1 and 2 provided observations in 1984 of the 

interplanetary medium; and study of the inner solar 

system continued with observations from the Venus 

Orbiter, a mission in its fifth year. Final testing of the 

Galileo spacecraft was conducted in preparation for its 

mission to Jupiter in 1986. Other planetary missions 

were approved and under development, including the 

Venus Radar Mapper, to be launched in 1988, and the 

Mars Geoscience Climatology Observer, for launch in 

1990 to study the Martian climate and soil atmospheric 

interaction for a full Martian year, approximately 700 

Earth days. 

Cometary studies also were prominent in 1984. The 

International Cometary Explorer (ICE) was set on a 

path to a 1985 encounter with Comet GiacobiniZinner; and preparations were made for using the 

5 
Shuttle Astro-1 payload to observe Comet Halley in 

The NASA Astrophysics Program continued investigation of the physical nature of the universe. 

Perhaps the most dramatic increase in astrophysical 

knowledge in 1984 came from the Infrared 

Astronomical Satellite, launched in 1983. More than 

98 percent of the sky was covered at least twice; and a 

catalog of more than 200,000 infrared sources was 

issued in November 1984 as a result of data analysis. 

Previous catalogs had only 1,000 such entries. Also of 

note in 1984 were the 3 Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers (AMPTE) launched in August. 

Development of the Cosmic Background Explorer 

(COBE) continued in 1984 with instrument development. Launch is planned for the end of 1988. 

Technology research and long-range planning for 

the proposed Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

began in 1984. Mirror technology demonstration programs were continued. Investigators for the proposed 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility were selected, and 

design of the proposed Solar Optical Telescope was 

continued. The Hubble Space Telescope, a major 

astronomical observatory and the first space facility 

designed and built from inception to be serviced on orbit by the Shuttle orbiter, is on schedule for launch in 

the second half of 1986. Expectations are that the onorbit serviceability will be such as to obviate the 

necessity for ever returning the Hubble Space 

Telescope to Earth for refurbishment. 

In 1984, NASA's High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAOs) provided significant results on a 

broad range of astrophysical phenomena. Of particular 

significance is firm evidence, provided by the High 

Resolution Gamma Ray Spectrometer on HEAO-3, of 

the recent processing of heavy nuclei in stars. HEAO-2 

also yielded a new finding: a spectrum of a BL Lacerta 

object revealed a sharp absorption feature. BL Lacerta 

objects are thought to be a variety of quasars and will 

be primary objects of study by instruments on the 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), which is scheduled 

for launch in 1988. Preliminary design review of GRO 

was completed in 1984, as were design reviews of its instruments. 

In 1984, the Solar Maximum Mission spacecraft 

was repaired in orbit by the crew members of the Space 

Shuttle. This was the first use of new technology for 

repairing spacecraft in orbit. Improvements incorporated during the repair made possible some new and 

revealing observations of the structure and dynamics of 

solar prominences. 

The year 1984 was significant for each of the four 

elements of NASA's suborbital program: balloons, 

Spartan, rockets, and the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO). Balloons carried high-resolution gamma ray telescopes above the atmosphere to observe the 

annihilation of antielectrons in the center of our 

galaxy. The first Spartan carrier was ready for flight in 

6 

1985-86. 

1984 but was rescheduled to 1985; and a Spartan carrier was under development for observation of Comet 

Halley in 1986. A major campaign to study plasma 

physics in space with sounding rockets began in 

Greenland in December 1984 and will continue 

through February 1985. The KAO carried a 1-meter 

telescope for infrared and submillimeter observations 

above the absorbing water vapor in Earth's atmosphere. There were 35 successful balloon launches, 

38 successful rocket launches, and 64 missions (511 

hours of flight time) with the KAO. 

Microgravity Science 

In 1984, several developments took place in 

microgravity science and applications. In July, NASA 

transferred to the National Bureau of Standards 

(NBS), for evaluation, characterization, and ultimate 

sale, the 10-micron diameter monodisperse latex beads 

processed aboard the Space Shuttle. They are to be 

released for sale in 1985 as primary standards. NBS 

also began evaluation of 30-micron diameter beads 

produced in limited quantities in 1984 on a Shuttle 

flight. Preliminary results were obtained in 1984 from 

a germanium selenide vapor crystal growth experiment. Typical of crystals processed in space, they are 

larger and more regular and have a low defect density. 

In 1984, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace Corporation continued efforts to commercialize processing of 

biomaterials in space using a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System. 

L$e Sciences 

In the life sciences, studies continued in space 

medicine and space biology. In space medicine, emphasis continued on the health and safety of spacecraft 

crews, including the effect of various aspects of Shuttle 

operations, the refinement of medical standards, 

criteria for crew selection and crew medical training, 

and monitoring and maintenance of the health and 

career longevity of space travelers. Particular attention 

was given to the Space Adaptation Syndrome and 

medical concerns of both long-term and short-term 

space missions. These concerns include changes in 

perception, cardiovascular dynamics, neuromuscular 

physiology, and radiation exposures. 

In space biology, ground-based and Spacelab- 1 

flight experiments with plants added significantly to 

knowledge of plant growth control and mechanisms. 

For example, a spaceflight experiment proved that the 

phenomenon of continuous circular oscillation exhibited by all plant shoot tips is gravity independent, 

thus settling a scientific question debated since the time 

of Charles Darwin. In 1984, ground-based animal experiments provided important information on animal 

vestibular, skeletal, and muscular systems. Preparation continued for special experiments on fundamental 

problems of space biology to be conducted on 
Spacelab-4. Flight hardware for that first dedicated 

Space Life Sciences mission was delivered in 1984 to 

various NASA centers for testing. 

Studies continued in 1984 on the origin, evolution, 

and distribution of life and life-related chemicals on 

Earth and throughout the universe; and investigations 

on the influence of biological processes on global 

biogeochemical cycles continued in NASA's Biospheric 

Research program, formerly Global Biology. 

Space Research and Technology 

Advances in space exploration and space science 

develop concurrently with advances in research and 

technology. Conducted at NASA centers, and in industry and universities, NASA's research and 

technology program is broad-based, covering several 

disciplines, including propulsion, space energy conversion, controls and human factors, space data and communications, computer science and electronics, 

materials and structures, and aerothermodynamics. 

The program includes both theoretical and experimental research, with the latter conducted both in the 

laboratory and in flight tests. 

In propulsion, advances were made in 1984 in 

developing longer life components and critical subcomponents for Earth-to-orbit propulsion systems. 

In sp:icc c:ncrgy conversion, a joint DOE/ 

DoII/NASA nuclcar reactor progratii hits conc.cntratc~d 

most recently on the evaluation 01' 3 cncrgy systcnts: 

thcrnioclcctric, t ticrntionic, ant1 Stirling-cycle. con\'crsion systciiis. During 1984, I' 1rch progrrssccl 011 

photovoltaic. cncrgy systc'nls in higli-~ict~fo~rii;incc solar 

cclls and large arrays, and pro\idcd increased cl'l'icicncy and decreased weight. Progress also was niatlc on 

rnultijilc Ixindgap cclls. 1,argc electric currcnts and 

heat flows rcquirccl for future advanc~cd spa(~s systcnts 

also werc' invrstigatcti, as was the protilein 01' disposal 

or transfer into space 01' waste heat I'roiii a space stat ion 

power systrni. The. concept of' rcgcncrativc, fitel (.ells 

fi)r ~OWC.~ generation and cncrgy storagc' also was 

tcsted. 

Controls and hunim f'ac.tors research foc~uscd largely 

on c.ontrolling space systems and on investigation of' 

advanced c.onccpts for tclcopcrations, the largest portion of the tiurnan l>~.tors prograin. Major a(.- 

complishrricnts in 1984 weir rrradc irt intclligcrtt 

displays antl augrricntcd controls f'or usc by :in 

o pcra t or. 

Benefits to the sp:tc.c data and comrnunicatioris area 

in 1984 resulted 1'rom devclopntent and dcnionstration 

of a charge coupled dcvicc l'or imaging astronomical 

objects. Also demonstrated in 1984 for the first time 

was ;i 55-rrictcr diarncter, offir1 wraprib antenna 

capable of supporting a nationwide mobile conini u n i ca t i on s sy s t c iii . 

Advanccs in computer sciencc and clcctronics were 

made in 1984 by an interagency research and dcveloptticnt prograin in\,ol\,ing NASA, DOE, the, U.S. Air 

Forc.~, th(, <:(*ntraI Intclligc-ncc Agency, and the 

I)c,lL,nse Mapping Ag(.ncy, all working together to pro- 

\.itlc tioth the Spat(, Station and go~~ci~nri~cnt suprrc.onipiitcr Iicilitics with an ultra-high pcrl'orniaric~c~ 

clata storagc' unit. 

Materials ant1 structurc's rcscarc.h in 1984 yicklc~l ;I 

tiem and tiiorc tlurablc tIi(~rtt~;il protection systcni than 

the origiiial systc~iit t'i)I the Shuttle orbitcrs. O\,cr an 

area of 4,000 squ;irc l'i~t, 2,000 Ilcsililc, woven 

ccrani ic tilankcts rcplacc~l 8,OOO crr.ariiic I ilcs wi I hou t 

;in ;iddition:il wc,iglit pcn;ilty or loss 01' pcrt'orit~ancc, 

In ;ict~otlict~rtiotl~n;irtiics, progress was ni;id(~ in 

clcfiriing IIM* acroclynariiic heating lik(.ly to be cricountcrccl by orliital transkr \,chicles, transatI ii( )sp tic ric \,(,ti ic1c.s antl I)lanctary re t u rn \,e hiclcs usi rig 

acr( hrak i n g ii ntl arr( apt u re I( )I' I iirincu ri ng ()I' I'( )I' 

liraki ng up )n ret u rn to Eart 11. 

Rcxsrarch ;inti tc~chnology spi('c tligtit cspcriiiiciits in 

1984 included two significant c\'cnts in the use of' the 

Shuttle: the delivery 01' the 1,ong Duration Expos~rc 

Facility into orbit in April 1984 front the Sliuttlc Orliiter C:hallcngrr; and the lilting of' 3 cxpcrinicnts on 

siiacc power technology in one payload by the Shuttle 

orIiit(.r Disc.o\,c,i.y in August and Scptcn~licr 1984. At 

the heart of thr latter payload was ii lightweight, tlatf'olding solar array of 84 panels that was only 7 inches 

thick when I'oldcd, but when fully cxtcntlcd, rose 1110rc 

than 10 stories at)o\,c the Shuttle orbit(-r cargo bay. In 

0c.tolicr 1984, a llight test of' thc Future Identification 

and I,oc.ation Fxperinicnt tlcnionstratcd atlvanc~cd sensor t(y.hnology f'or ;iutononious classification of Earth's 

surl'acc l'raturcs. Use was niarlc of'the Shuttle orbiter in 

1984 LIS 21 tc~t lied for technology and instrumentation 

ti)r aclv;incccl transporation systcnis. 

Space Transportation 

,)pact, 7 ?a n~por~u t io n Sj.r [em 

Thr achicvenicnt of' a tully opcrational Space 

'I'ransportatioii System (S'I'S) was advanced substantially in 1984 by new and improved Shuttle operations 

and devclopnic~its l'or the futurc. 

Shuttle Missions. Of the five Shuttle missions in 1984, 

two were by Discovery (the third vehicle of the orbiter 

fleet) and three by Challenger (the second vehicle of 

the fleet). Hardware turnaround time was shortened 

thereby reducing the time required for Shuttle testing. 

Progress was made in 1984 toward achieving the goal 

of a fleet of four operational orbiters by 1985. Another 

orbiter vehicle, the Atlantis, was added; and the Columbia orbiter transitioned from developmental to 

operational status. Fourteen major payloads were 

processed and subsequently launched by the Shuttle in 

1984, the highest number in a year to date. 

7 
The highly successful in-orbit retrieval, repair, and 

redeployment of the Solar Maximum Mission satellite 

by means of the Shuttle in 1984 demonstrated the 

Shuttle’s important capability to service spacecraft and 

their payloads in space. That capability is to be 

employed, with significant savings in cost, for future 

systems such as the Space Telescope, Gamma-Ray 

Observatory, and the proposed Advanced X-Ray 

Astrophysics Facility. The Shuttle’s retrieval capability 

also was used during the November 1984 Shuttle mission to recover and return to Earth the Westar IV and 

Palapa B2 communications satellites that had been 

placed in unusable orbits because of failure of Payload 

Assist Modules used in their deployment. 

Noteworthy accomplishments in flight operations 

support of the STS in 1984 were demonstrated in mission planning, mission control, crew training, and production of flight software, as well as in security provisions for the support of DoD classified operations. 

During 1984, 17 astronaut candidates were selected, 

the tenth group chosen since the original seven Mercury astronauts in 1959. 

Twenty solid rocket boosters (10 flight sets) for the 

Shuttle were delivered in 1984. The Shuttle’s solid 

rocket boosters performed successfully on all the 1984 

launches, and all were retrieved to be refurbished for 

future use. 

Shuttle Payloads. Building on past successes, preparations were underway in 1984 for payloads for future 

missions. For example, the successful European Space 

Agency (ESA) Spacelab 1 in 1983 led to a year of transition and preparation for the first operational 

Spacelab module missions, scheduled for 1985. 

Originally developed and funded by ESA, Spacelab is 

an example of continuing international cooperation 

demonstrated by the Japanese government’s 1984 decision to purchase space on a Spacelab module mission 

in 1988. This followed a decision by the Federal 

Republic of Germany to fly a series of dedicated missions beginning in 1985. 

Other initiatives relating to Shuttle payloads include 

the development of a Shuttle Payload of Opportunity 

carrier named Hitchhiker, designed to attract new 

customers and thus increasing use of space. 

Tethered Satellzte Jjstem. Development of hardware 

began early in 1984 for the Tethered Satellite System 

(TSS). A cooperative project of the United States and 

Italy, the TSS, using the Shuttle orbiter as a base, will 

provide a means for conducting experiments in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere, regions now not accessible except for very limited periods of time. 

Shuttle Upper Stages. NASA continued the design, 

development, and procurement of the STS/Centaur 

upper stage for use in the Galileo and Ulysses missions 

scheduled for 1986. Because the Air Force needs this 

stage to fulfill certain of its mission requirements, it is 

sharing in the design and development costs. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

Launch support for 7 NASA missions and 4 DoD 

missions was provided by expendable launch vehicles 

(ELVs) in 1984. As noted previously, ELVs are under 

active consideration for commercial use by private industry, in accordance with the President’s policy directive of May 1983. In the meantime, NASA will continue to fulfill launch commitments for these systems 

through 1987. 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

NASA’s Space Tracking and Data Systems provided 

support in 1984 for the tracking, command, telemetry 

and data acquisition needs of all NASA space flight 

programs by means of the Space Network, the Deep 

Space Network, the Spaceflight Tracking and Data 

Network, and other facilities. A global communications system links tracking sites, control centers, and 

data processing facilities. The transition to the Space 

Network from the earlier mode of using a ground network for tracking low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft began 

in 1983 with the launch of the first Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite. In 1984, progress continued toward the 

ultimate objective of establishing an operational 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System by 1986, 

permitting many of the existing ground stations to be 

eliminated. 

Space Station 

The President directed NASA in January 1984 to 

develop a permanently manned space station within a 

decade, and invited the participation of other nations 

in this endeavor. The objectives: to assure U.S. leadership in space in the 1990s and beyond, to promote international cooperation, to stimulate development of 

advanced technologies, to enhance capabilities for 

space science and applications, to encourage private 

investment in the commercial use of space, and to 

stimulate interest in education and careers in science 

and engineering. 

Many significant steps were taken in 1984 in 

response to the President’s directive and established objectives. A Space Station program office was established at NASA Headquarters, with responsibility for 

policy and overall direction; and plans were initiated to 

acquire, by the early 199Os, an operational space station to be assembled in orbit at an altitude of about 300 

be able to incorporate new technology and to adapt to 

emerging mission requirements, thus enabling the Station to serve usefully in many ways well into the 21st 

century. Management and engineering guidelines 

were defined, with the Johnson Space Center 

designated the “lead center” for Space Station program 

management and technical implementation. Other 

NASA Centers were assigned discrete project managemiles. A key aspect of the Space Station planning ’ IS ’ to 

8 
ment responsibilities for differem Space Station 

elements. 

International participation is to be a key element of 

the Space Station Program with funding to be shared 

with those who choose to participate. Canada, Japan, 

and the member nations of the European Space Agency are among those who have shown interest in participating. A working group at NASA Headquarters 

was established to develop guidelines for international 

participation. 

During 1984;~ the following 3 categories of missions 

for the Space S’tation were established: Science and 

Applications, Commercial, and Technology Development. 

In September 1984, NASA issued a Request for 

Proposal for the definition and preliminary design of 

the Space Station. Contracts are to be awarded on a 

competitive basis. 

Advanced Development Technology test beds, to be 

located at various NASA centers, were initiated in 

1984 for several purposes, among them to help identify 

technologies essential for optimum Space Station 

design and to provide technology options for initial 

Station capability, As NASA moves forward on Space 

Station development, participation by the private sector and the international community is expected to 

grow. 

Aeronautics 

NASA’s aeronautical research and technology activities in 1984 continued to provide the direction and 

developments necessary for maintaining U.S. 

preeminence in civil and military aviation. 

Simulation. A major goal is to develop an ability to 

simulate numerically the complex 3-dimensional flow 

of air around a flight vehicle and thus use small models 

to test aircraft designs for safety and efficiency, at great 

savings in time and cost. The Numerical Aerodynamic 

Simulation program, a response to this goal, will 

develop the world’s most advanced aerodynamic computational facility, capable of such simulation at the 

rate of one billion operations per second. It will provide a substantial improvement in the efficiency of 

both the design process and the resulting product. 

In 1984, NASA dedicated the Man-Vehicle Simulation Research Facility for use in research and studies to 

enhance safety, improve flight deck instrumentation 

and solve other human related problems related to 

aerospace vehicles. In addition, NASA researchers 

completed the first half of a crew fatigue and jet lag 

program by gathering a data base on short-haul commercial air-lines. 

Disciplinary RHT. NASA’s disciplinary aeronautical 

research activities are directed at improving 

understanding of basic physical phenomena and 

developing new concepts in the areas of fluid and thermal physics, materials and structures, controls and 

guidance, human factors, and information sciences. In 

1984, advances were made in all these areas. 

Systems Research. NASA’s programs in 1984 on 

systems research and technology were focused on 

technologies to improve propulsion, short takeofflvertical landing (STOVL), advanced turboprop, and 

supersonic cruise systems. On STOVL, 2 major joint 

international activities were initiated in 1984: a 

cooperative program with Canada to test a large-scale 

ejector STOVL model in NASA’s 40 x 80 foot wind 

tunnel and a planning activity with the United 

Kingdom to define a cooperative advanced STOVL 

technology program. Studies continued in 1984 in 

supersonic cruise technology, with the promise of 

significant advancement as a result of rapidly evolving 

gas turbine technology. Progress was made in the advanced turboprop program, including completion of 

the final design of the large-scale (9-foot diameter) propeller. Work also continued on helicopter technology 

for public service uses and emergency medical services. 

This is in coordination with the FAA, Coast Guard, 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

DoD, and segments of the public service and medical 

community. 

Military Support. NASA and DoD conduct many 

joint programs covering such vehicles as rotorcraft and 

high performance aircraft. The Automatic Maneuvering Attack System phase of the Advanced Fighter 

Technology Integration program, an Air ForceINASA 

effort, began in 1984 and will be completed in 1985. A 

flight research experiment to develop the technology 

required for the beneficial interaction of engine and 

flight controls is part of the NASAIAir Forcelindustry 

F- 15 Highly Integrated Digital Engine Control activity. A NASAINavy activity is the development of an 

oblique wing research aircraft to be designed, 

fabricated, and tested for operation at transonic and 

supersonic speeds. The oblique wing concept, conceived by a NASA employee, R. T. Jones, promises 

potential improvements in performance for a variety of 

military and civil missions. A Request for Proposal was 

issued in 1984 for preliminary design of an aircraft embodying this concept. NASA and Air Force test pilots 

will join in a flight test series to expand the flight 

envelope of the X-29A Forward Swept Wing Flight 

Demonstrator, an aircraft incorporating another 

revolutionary concept. The X-29A program, funded 

by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA), achieved several milestones in 1984 including successful high-speed taxi tests. In still another 

joint program, NASA is managing and supporting, at 

DARPA’s request, a program to develop and flight test 

the X-Wing Rotor concept on one of the two 

NASAIArmy Rotor Systems Research Aircraft 

(RSRA). In 1984, the helicopter version of the RSRA 

was modified to accept the unique X-wing rotor. Other 

cooperative activities included successful completion of 

the first full-scale testing and demonstration of concept 

9 
feasibility of the “convertible” engine and the provision 

by NASA’s research facilities of essential data to the 

Joint Services Vertical Lift Aircraft program. 

Air Safe9 and Eficienry. NASA has continued to advance technologies to improve aircraft and aviation 

safety. Among the hazards to which NASA has 

directed its research are lightning strikes, wind shear, 

and icing. In a joint activity with FAA, NASA completed development of advanced lightweight, fireworthy materials to reduce the threat of fire in aircraft 

cabins. In a major research program, a remotely controlled crash of a civil jet transport was conducted successfully at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Facility. 

The results will assist FAA in implementing additonal 

safety features for civil transport aircraft. 

An activity underway in 1984 investigated extending 

the concept of automatic flight to the rollout and turnoff phases of aircraft operations for the purpose of 

reducing runway occupancy times during both normal 

and adverse weather conditions. This Advanced 

Transport Operating System will be subjet to additional experiments. 

10 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Under the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 

1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the civilian agency responsible for 

direction and management of the research and 

development for all aeronautical and space activities 

except for those associated with military operations for 

the defense of the United States, which are under the 

Department of Defense (DoD). Although NASA and 

DoDs efforts are separate, there is extensive cooperation. Other federal departments and agencies, state 

and local and foreign governments as well as educational institutions and industry also share in NASA’s 

programs. 

The 1958 Act states that NASA’s programs and activities in space, “should he devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind;” and in the 

discharge of its functions, NASA is to “provide for the 

widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of information concerning its activities and the results 

thereof.” The information that follows, as part of the 

annual Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, 

is a response to this directive. 

Earth Applications 

In 1984, applications of space research and development and space technology for use on Earth advanced 

substantially in various fields, among them communications, environmental observations, agriculture, 

natural resources, and commercial developments such 

as materials processing in space for the improvement of 

medical and industrial products. 

Communications 

NASA launched its last experimental communication satellite in 1973 and for the next ten years, maintained only a minimum involvement in advanced 

technology. No new flights were initiated. Subsequently, there have been concerns regarding congestion of 

the frequency spectrum and geostationary orbital arc, 

and competition with Europe and Japan in satellite 

communication technology vis-a-vis Europe and 

Japan. In 1984, in cooperation with U.S. industry, 

NASA initiated a vigorous program to develop the advanced high risk spectrum and orbit efficient 

technology needed to ensure continued growth of this 

important industry and to maintain U.S. preeminence 

in the world marketplace. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS). 

Working with a wide segment of U.S. industry, NASA 

will develop the world’s most advanced communication 

technology satellite, ACTS, to be launched and ready 

for experiments in 1989. ACTS will allow large 

numbers of U.S. companies, universities, and government agencies to experiment with spot beams, hopping 

beams, and switchboard in-the-sky concepts that 

ultimately will enter the market place by the 

mid- 1990’s. 

Mobile Satellite. Satellite-aided communications from 

cars, trains, buses, and other mobile platforms has 

been one of the unfilled promises of modern 

technology. A system of this type would augment 

planned terrestrial service in non-metropolitan areas of 

the U.S. and thus provide a truly ubiquitous, nationwide network. Applications include emergency 

response communications such as wide area law enforcement, national disaster assessment, and emergency medical service as well as numerous business and 

commercial uses such as communications for interstate 

trucking and remote oil and gas well drilling operations. 

In 1984, through a multiple set of joint endeavor 

agreements with U.S. industry and a cooperative 

agreement with Canada, NASA initiated a three-phase 

program that will help industry provide commercial 

mobile communications in the late 1980’s. This program is in direct response to the President’s commercialization of space policy and will develop new hardware markets, businesses, and service industries. 

NASA’s involvement will be primarily in the development of technologies needed to conserve power and the 

frequency spectrum/orbit resource so important to the 

future growth and economic viability of the system. 

Important examples of this technology include higher 

gain vehicle rooftop antennas and multibeam 

spacecraft antennas that can reuse the allotted frequencies many times. In addition, NASA is working with 

other government agencies toward an experimental 

program that would help those agencies determine the 

11 
usefulness of mobile satellite service for their operations. 

Search and Rescue. During 1984, the COWAS/ 

SARSAT system successfully completed its demonstration and evaluation phase and began an era of regular 

operation. This international cooperative program has 

demonstrated the use of satellite technology to detect 

and locate aircraft and vessels in distress. This 

technical performance of the combined satellite and 

ground system has equalled or exceeded expectations 

of sensitivity, accuracy, and ground coverage. Even 

more impressive has been the use of the system in real 

distress operations resulting in the saving of 289 

human lives throughout the world. The system enjoys 

wide international participation which has resulted in 

reduced system costs and broad sharing of the benefits. 

The United States, Canada, France, and the Soviet 

Union developed the system; and Norway, the United 

Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, Bulgaria, Denmark, and 

Brazil also are participating. 

Its success was affirmed when all of the nations 

which participated in its development signed a new 

Memorandum of Understanding in October 1984 to 

enter into a new period of initial operational use of the 

system. 

Optical Intersatellite Links and Other Component Techniques. NASA continues a broad based advanced 

research and development program in communications component technology. Solid state and electron 

device amplifiers, and monolithic receivers and 

amplifiers are being developed for frequencies through 

60 GHz. A major effort continued in 1984 to develop 

laser communications for intersatellite links between 

geosynchronous and low earth orbiting spacecraft and 

for deep space communications. 

Environmental Observations 

New and more advanced instrumentation, particularly more complex sensors, provide a bonus of 

more detailed information and consequently greater 

understanding of earth's environment and the processes that affect it. 

Upper Atmosphere. Work began on the observatory 

and ground data handling segments of the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) program. Instrument development for the scientific payload of UARS 

had begun in 1982, in recognition of the fact that 

development of the complex, remote-sensing instruments is the pacing task in the implementation of 

the UARS program. The UARS, scheduled for launch 

in late 1989, will be the first satellite capable of 

simultaneous measurements of the energy input, 

chemical composition, and dynamics of the 

stratosphere and mesosphere. A critical component of 

NASA's program is to understand the upper atmosphere well enough to assess its susceptibility to 

chemical change. When fully implemented, the program will provide the first global-scale data set for 

scientific study of the coupling of chemical composition 

and dynamics driven by solar energy input, which is 

the striking difference between the upper atmosphere 

and the lower atmosphere and which largely determines the behavior of the stratosphere. 

In 1984, NASA completed the first phase of the 

Global Tropospheric Experiment/Chemical Instrumentation Test and Evaluation (GTE/CITE) Project, a research-aircraft-based effort to validate, 

through intercomparison, the extremely sensitive instruments that will be needed to study global 

tropospheric chemistry. The overall objective of GTE 

is to assess the role of the troposphere as the ultimate 

source and sink for chemical species in the 

stratosphere, the contribution of tropospheric ozone to 

total ozone content of the atmosphere, and the role of 

tropospheric chemistry in biogeochemical cycles. 

Future phases of GTE will continue the critical instrument development and testing, evaluate source 

strengths of biogenic gases in a variety of environments, study boundary layer/free tropopause exchange rates, probe stratosphere/troposphere exchange 

processes, and evaluate the role of various chemical 

and dynamic processes in controlling atmospheric concentration distribution. 

In January 1984, NASA reported to the Congress 

and the Environmental Protection Agency on the current status of stratospheric research, as required by 

provisions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. 

Several key issues with regard to the stability of the 

ozone layer were identified. In particular, concern remains that anthropogenic effects may alter the concentration of stratospheric ozone. Moreover, it now is well 

recognized that the magnitude of such effects depends 

critically on the future concentrations of atmospheric 

trace gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, carbon 

dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Theoretical models, 

based on the best chemical laboratory data available, 

show that nitrogen oxides are especially significant in 

controlling the onset of strong, non-linear perturbations of ozone by chlorine compounds derived from 

chlorofluorocarbons. As a result of these findings, increased emphasis in the program is being placed on the 

measurement of trace gas concentrations and on the 

development of means to predict their future behavior. 

Improved strategies have been formulated for 

monitoring changes in the concentration and distribution of stratospheric ozone for the calibration of 

satellite ozone sensors which monitor ozone globally. 

As a step towards understanding the mechanisms by 

which trace species are exchanged between the 

troposphere and the stratosphere, a major aircraft 

measurement program to study atmospheric transfer 

processes has been initiated. Plans call for five major 

missions using the NASA U-2 and ER-2 high altitude 

aircraft in the extratropics, the subtropics, and the 

equatorial region in the years 1984- 1987. 

12 
Geodynarnics. The first direct measurements of the 

movement of the tectonic plates that make up the cmst 

of the earth have been obtained by the NASA 

Geodynamics Program, using laser ranging to special 

satellites such as the Laser Geodynamics Satellite 

(Lageos), and using very long baseline microwave interferometry (VLBI), a technique pioneered by radio 

astronomers. These measurements constitute a key test 

of the plate tectonics theory which has revolutionized 

the earth sciences in the same way that quantum 

mechanics and relativity revolutionized physics nearly 

a century ago. 

The new data, acquired using space methods, show, 

for example, that North America is moving away from 

Europe at a rate of 1.3 centimeters per year; and this 

and the observed relative motion of other pairs of 

plates are in good agreement with the predictions 

based on the geological record, averaged over millions 

of years. Continuation of these observations for longer 

times should result in information on how the 

dynamics of the earth‘s interior affect the rate of motion of the plates. 

Satellite laser ranging measurements of the relative 

motion of the North American and Pacific plates between two points along their boundary (the San Andreas Fault System in California) 800 kilometers apart, 

have been refined; and the relative motion is now well 

established at 6.5 centimeters per year- substantially 

higher than rates of deformation observed by ground 

measurements close to the San Andreas Fault. These 

observations have led to the conclusion that a significant portion of the relative motion of these two plates 

must be taken up by movements along other faults, 

either on land or under the sea, west of the San Andreas Fault. The space observation program is continuing to gather data on deformation of the two plates 

in the vicinity of the San Andreas Fault, highly relevant to the Earthquake Hazard Reduciton Program 

being carried out by the U.S. Geological Survey. 

NASA and the USGS are cooperating in a joint 

research program to mitigate the hazards of earthquakes to life and property in California. 

Laser ranging to the Lageos satellites has detected, 

for the first time, a change in the gravity field of the 

Earth. This change apparently is related to the slow rising of the Earth‘s crust in North America and Scandinavia, which has bczn occurring at the rate of a few 

millimeters per year since the recessions of the glaciers 

which covered these areas 18,000 years ago. 

NASA continues-to cooperate with other countries 

in geodynamics programs, through coordination of 

observatory measurements and through cooperation in 

the deployment of mobile laser ranging and VLBI stations to measure crustal deformation in areas of the 

world where significant earthquake hazards exist. In 

addition to the Western United States, these 

measurements will be made in the Mediterranean and 

Near East, in South America, the Caribbean, and in 

Western Canada. 

Land Observations. The development, testing, and 

evaluation of sensor systems to discriminate surface 

materials by measuring reflected or emitted radiation 

continued during 1984. During the year, Landsat-5 

was launched; and an “Announcement of Opportunity” 

was issued to solicit and fund research in the earth 

sciences utilizing the improved spatial and spectral 

capabilities of the Thematic Mapper (TM) flown on 

Landsats 4 and 5. This science assessment of the TM is 

a companion to the engineering/data quality assessment completed in 1984. 

The STS-17 mission, launched October 5, 1984, 

carried two major land remote sensing experiments: 

the Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-B), a reflight of the 

L-Band instrument flown originally as SIR-A but with 

multiple incidence angle capability which permits improved discrimination of“ surface terrain features; and 

the Large Format Camera (LFC) which will produce 

high resolution stereo photography, essential in constructing accurate base maps for scientific studies. 

Aircraft instrument development during the year included a new radar capable of producing either L or 

C-Band near-simultaneous multi-polarized data for a 

given site. This data, used to classify an area in South 

Carolina, permitted the separation of Hardwood 

Islands from marsh on tributary Deltas, which was not 

possible with single polarization data. 

Monthly global vegetation maps, based on the “Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer” sensor 

flown on the NOAA series of polar orbiting satellites, 

were used to study the interaction of the land surface 

with the atmosphere. During 1984, the metabolic activity of the global vegetation was successfully linked to 

the annual variation in atmospheric CO, levels. 

A major new international research project, International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project, was 

launched under the auspices of COSPAR and the International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. The first objective is to conduct a 

retrospective analysis of existing remote sensing data to 

determine to what extent changes in the land surface 

climatology can be measured and to assess the importance of various processes. The second is to validate 

current satellite-based information on scales up to 400 

km2. 

Operational Meteorological Salellites. NOAA-F was 

launched into a sun-synchronous orbit on November 

8, 1984. Upon achieving orbit, NOAA-F was 

redesignated NOAA-9 and replaced NOAA-7 as 

NOAA’s operational afternoon (2:30 p.m. local time) 

spacecraft. NOAA-9 is be the second of the advanced 

TIROS-N spacecraft. These spacecraft are a 

“stretched” version of the original TIROS-N series and 

provide expanded capabilities to handle additional 

operational and R&D instruments. NOAA-9 is the 

first operational spacecraft to carry the Solar Backscat13 
ter U1 traviolet radiometers to provide global measurements of atmospheric ozone conccntration for both 

NASA research and NOAA operational objectives. 

NOAA-9 also will carry Earth Radiation Budget instruments intended to fly in con,junction with NASA's 

dedicated Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS). 

These instruments measure the Earth's radiation 

balance between incoming and outgoing energy. Data 

from both these instruments will be used in support of 

climate research activities. The Search and Rescuc instruments to be flown on NOAA-9 are a continuation 

extension of those successfully tested on NOAA-8. 

This international system dctects and locates distress 

signals from ships and aircraft and already has been 

credited with saving over 280 lives. 

Precise measurements of the color of the ocean can 

be used to map the distribution of marine 

phytoplankton from satellites. These microscopic 

marine plants provide the basis for marine food webs 

and perform about half of the total global photosynthesis. On a global scale, such information would provide a previously unobtainable description of ocean 

biological productivity. This novel view would expand 

our understanding of carbon and nitrogen fluxes in the 

ocean, as well as provide information directly relevant 

to the management of fisheries. In 1984, NASA initiated a Phase A study to determine the feasibility of 

flying an Ocean Color Instrument on the French 

SPOT-3 spacecraft. This instrument is an improved 

version of the Coastal Zone Color Scanner which was 

flown successfully on NASA's Nimbus-7 research 

satellites. The new instrument would provide global 

data sets and eventually could be incorporated by 

NOAA as an addition to their complement of operational environmental instruments. 

Climate 

Climate Research. A major step was taken with the 

launch of the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) 

on October 5, 1984, carried into orbit by the Space 

Shuttle Challenger. ERBS is the first of a three satellite 

system designed to carry broad band radiometers to 

measure the components of the radiation balance 

which exists between the sun, Earth, and space. The 

other two satellites are the NOAA F and G operational 

meteorological satellites to be launched in November 

1984 and in early 1986, respectively. Together, these 

comprise the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

(ERBE), the centerpiece of the NASA climate observing system. 

In a related area, it is well known that the lack of 

understanding of important physical processes governing the interaction of clouds and radiation constitutes a 

serious obstacle to improved climate modeling and 

prediction. In recognition of this problem, the World 

Meteorological Organization (WMO) and International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) are jointly 

sponsoring an International Satellite Cloud 

Climatology Project (ISCCP), whose goal is to exploit 

the international array of operational meteorological 

satellites in establishing a 5-year data set describing thc 

properties of the global cloud cover. NASA is a key 

participant in this activity as host to the project's 

Global Processing Center which is responsible for 

merging and analyzing the vast amounts of cloud imagery (from 6 satellites) and producing a final cloud 

climatology for further research. 

In September 1984, with the concurrence of the National Climate Program Policy Board, NASA 

established the National Project Office for the First 

ISCCP Regional Experiment (FIRE), in cooperation 

with NOAA, NSF, and DOE. The ob-jectives of FIRE 

are to promote coordinated studies of cloud-radiation 

processes leading to an improvement in the way that 

clouds are treated in climate models. FIRE also will 

contribute to the validation of ISCCP in con,junction 

with similar efforts to be supported by Japan and other 

countries. A university /government science team has 

been selected; and planning is underway with initial 

emphasis on the study of cirrus clouds. Although not 

well understood, cirrus clouds are of great importance 

in the transfer of infrared radiation in the atmosphere. 

It is expected that both ISCCP and FIRE results also 

will aid in the interpretation of ERBE measurements. 

Global Scale Atmospheric Processes. Advanced techniques for satellite observations of the Earth's atmosphere are being developed using laser radars. 

These laser techniques are tested from aircraft platforms to observe a number of atmospheric parameters 

which include temperature, pressure and humidity 

profiles. Additionally, techniques have been developed 

to utilize coherent laser radars to observe global wind 

profiles. Computer models of the large-scale motions of 

the Earth's atmosphere have been used to guide the 

development of these future satellite sensors. Model 

studies show that satellite observations of global wind 

profiles will improve dramatically our understanding 

of large scale atmospheric processes. This improved 

understanding enhances the ability to predict weather 

processes. 

Techniques also have been developed which use 

satellite radar data to determine wind speed and direction at the ocean surface. Fifteen days of satellite data 

have been processed to show the usefulness of these 

surface wind determinations. Large scale wind 

features, independently predicted to exist in the 

tropical oceans, subsequently were identified in the fifteen day data set. 

Mesoscale Research. The basic research program at 

NASA dealing with questions of atmospheric behavior 

leading to severe weather is called the Mesoscale Atmospheric Processes Research Program. Uses of highaltitude and space-derived data are developed for 

analysis with conventional weather observations to ob14 
tain new perspectives and interpretations of atmospheric behavior, especially in regions of the world 

where ordinary observations are scarce. In 1984, 

several special studies were conducted of small, highvelocity downdrafts called microbursts, to help increase airline safety by improving pilots’ understanding. A new sending capability, the airborne Doppler 

lidar, mapped wind fields in the clear air over the 

Pacific marine boundary layer, the California Central 

Valley circulation, air flow entering storms, and intercompared its observations with the new ground-based 

very high frequency (VHF) wind profilers at Penn 

State University. Special missions of high-altitude aircraft with remote sensors for temperature moisture, 

electric field variations, lightning spectral emissions, 

and precipitation were flown over storms to provide 

more insight for numerical studies to unlock internal 

storm processes. 

Several efforts were directed at improving mesoscale 

numerical models to include varying input data, land 

surface effects, improved handling of cumulus cloud 

effects, storm triggering factors; and initial work was 

begun on a new class of models with interactive scales 

of behavior, including feedback mechanisms. 

Emphasis was placed on new computer display 

techniques involving three and four dimensional 

presentations to help interpret hurricane evolution and 

growth mechanisms, squall line development, and 

storm initiation. Further development of these techniques in furure years will be designed to allow visual 

interpretation of complicated numerical model outputs. 

Much initial work was conducted to prepare for 

several coordinated interagency field measurement 

programs to occur in 1986 as well as plan for advanced 

U-2 sensors, a series of Space Shuttle remote sensor 

pallet flights and a geostationary research satellite that 

will extend the mesoscale satellite observables to 

precipitation, lighting and ozone, plus detailed vertical 

profiles of temperature and water vapor. 

Oceanic Processes. During 1984 the “Oceanography 

from Space, Research Strategy for the Decade: 

1985-1995” was p;blished. In concert with this 

strategy, (1) FY-85 budget approval has been obtained 

for the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) and the Navy 

Remote Ocean Sensing System (NROSS) satellite, on 

which NSCAT will fly; (2) a joint NASA/French Space 

Agency (CNES) study has been completed looking at 

the detailed definition of a cooperative scientific mission in satellite altimetry, the NASA component being 

the proposed Ocean Topography Experiment 

(TOPEX); and (3) definition and accommodation 

studies are underway for the flight of the proposed 

Ocean Color Imager (OCI), an improved version of 

the Nimbus-7 Costal Zone Scanner, aboard either 

NOAA-K or SPOT-3. If flown, these spaceflight activities- NSCAT, TOPEX, and OCI- will permit 

global observations of atmospheric wind forcing, ocean 

current response, and associated phytoplankton productivity, respectively. As such, they are key elements 

of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), 

proposed for initiation in 1989/1990. Simultaneous 

observations from these three activities will permit, for 

the first time, an assessment of the interdependence of 

atmospheric and oceanic variability, and its collective 

influence on the Earth‘s climate. 

Science 

During 1984, investigation of the physical nature of 

the universe and our solar system continued with important new findings in astrophysics. Cometary studies 

received special emphasis in preparation for observations of the comets Giacobini-Zinner (1985) and 

Halley (1986). 

Solar Sysiem Exploration 

Observations of the interplanetary medium in the 

outer solar system continued in 1984 with four active 

planetary spacecraft, Pioneers 10 and 11 and Voyagers 

1 and 2. Pioneer 10 returned data on the interstellar 

medium at a distance of nearly 35 astronomical units 

(AU) from the sun. This is well beyond the orbit of 

Neptune and in the direction opposite to the solar 

apex, which is the direction of the sun’s motion with 

respect to nearby stars. Pioneer 11 obtained similar 

data but in the direction of the solar apex and at a 

distance of only 17 AU, well inside the orbit of Uranus. 

Additional observations of the interplanetary medium 

are being returned from the two Voyager spacecraft, 

both still inside the orbit of Uranus. Voyager 2 is approaching its January 1986 encounter with Uranus. 

Study of the inner solar system is continuing with 

the fifth year of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter mission. 

This mission is still in its increasing periapsis altitude 

phase which started in 1980. The periapsis (the lowest 

altitude above Venus of the spacecraft orbit), will increase from a low of 200 km in 1980 to a maximum of 

7300 km in 1986 and then will decrease until the 

spacecraft enters the Venus atmosphere in 1992. 

Among other scientific objectives, the high altitude 

phase of the Pioneer Venus mission permits in-situ 

sampling of the interaction between the solar wind and 

the Venusian ionosphere. 

Final testing of the Galileo spacecraft in 1984 was in 

preparation for its May 1986 mission to Jupiter. TWO 

newly approved planetary missions are in the development phase. The Venus Radar Mapper will be 

launched in 1988 for extended mapping of the cloud 

covered surface of Venus, and the Mars Geoscience 

Climatology Observer will be launched in 1990 to 

study that planet’s climate and soil-atmosphere interaction over a full Martian year of nearly 700 earth days. 

Cometry studies play a prominent role in the program. Following a close flyby of the moon in 

December 1983, the International Cometary Explorer 
(ICE) spacecraft is now headed toward a September 

1985 encounter with the comet Giacobini-Zinner 

where it is targeted to pass through the comet’s tail. 

Preparations also are underway for observations of 

Comet Halley during its 1985-1986 apparition. 

American scientists will observe the comet using the 

Shuttle Astro-1 payload in March 1986 as well as participating as co-investigators on the European Space 

Agency’s GIOTTO and the USSR’s VEGA missions 

which also will encounter the comet during March 

1986. Observations of Halley near the time of its close 

approach to the sun also will be made from the Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter and a Spartan spacecraft launched and 

retrieved by the Shuttle. 

Study of The Universe. 

The NASA Astrophysics Program investigates the 

physical nature of the universe, from our own sun outward to the most distant quasars to determine the laws 

that govern cosmic phenomena, to understand the sun 

as a star, and to learn how the universe began and how 

it will end. Many observations cannot be made 

through the Earth‘s atmosphere, and so instruments 

for such observations must be carried above the atmosphere into space. 

H[yh Eneyy Ashnomy Obseruatories. During 1984, the 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAOs) 

have continued to provide significant new results on a 

wide range of astrophysical phenomena. Mission objectives were completed, and analysis of the great 

storehouse of data from the HEAOs continues to bring 

us new and exciting information about thc most 

chaotic and energetic processes occurring in the 

universe, A particularly significant finding from thc 

HEAO data is in the area of explosive nucleosynthesis 

in our Milky Way Galaxy. Through the observation of 

a galactic “ridge” of gamma rays emitted by excited 

aluminum-26 nuclei, the High Resolution Gamma 

Ray Spectrometer on HEAO-3 has yielded, firm 

rvidcnce of the recent processing of’ heavy nuclei in 

stars. This isotope must have been synthesized in thr 

recent past as its radioactive lifetime is only a million 

years, a short time scale compared to the ages of stars 

and of the Milky Way. HEAO-2 data also had yielded 

a significant new result; a spectrum of the RL Lacerta 

object designated PKS” 2155-304 revealed a sharp absorption feature attributrd to ionized oxygen in the linr 

of sight to the ob,ject. 

HI, 1,acerta ob,jvcts are 

thought to bc one variety of quasar and will bc Iirinlary 

objects of study for the instruments on the Gamma 

Ray Observatory (GRO). In 1984, the critical design 

reviews were completed on all the instrutnents; and 

fabrication and assembly was begun for flight instruGamma Ray Observatories. 

*PKS - an astronomically dvrivcd trrrn, not an 

acronym 

Two mission specialists, Astronaut George D. Nelson right, 

and James D. van Hoften, left, participants of Flight 41-C, 

repairing the recovered Solar Maximum Mission Satellite in 

the aft end of the Challenger’s cargo bay. Both use the mobile 

foot restraint and the remote manipulator system (RMS) for 

moving about. After repair, the RMS lifted the satellite into 

space once more. 

ment hardware. Also in 1984, the preliminary design 

review of the spacecraft was completed. GRO is proceeding toward its launch in 1988. 

Solar Maximum Mission. 1984 saw the first use of the 

new technology for repairing spacecraft in orbit with 

the repair of the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) by 

the Space Shuttle. During the rest of 1984, most SMM 

instruments have functioned normally. Improvements 

derived from the repair mission have made possible 

some new and revealing observations of the structure 

and dynamics of solar prominences. With the repair of 

the Coronagraph/Polarimeter, observation of the 

global structure of the solar corona has commenced. 

This is especially important because it will allow comparison with results from Skylab. If SMM had not 

been repaired, such comparison would be impossible 

until 1995. One of the most profound and significant 

results is derived from analysis of all 4 years of SMM 

solar flare data and the discovery of a 155 day period in 

16 
the occurrence of outbreaks of solar flares. This specific 

amount of time implies that the magnetic phenomenon 

that drives solar flares comes from deep within the Sun 

and not from within the surface as had been previously 

thought. 

Explorers. Perhaps the most dramatic increase in 

astrophysical knowledge in 1984 has. come from the 

continued analysis of data from the Infrared 

Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) launched in January 

1983. IRAS surveyed the sky in the wavelength range 

from 8 to 120 microns, and a catolog of rnorc than 

200,000 entries was issued in November 1984. More 

than 98 percent of the sky was covered at least twice, 

and each object in the catalog has an extremely high 

probability of being a true source. This high degree of 

completeness and reliability makes the catalog especially valuable. Previous catalogs of infrared sources have 

had only 1,000 objects. 

In August 16, 1984, three Active Magnetospheric. 

Particle Tracer Explorers- the Ion Release Module 

(IRM), the UK Subsatellite (UKS), and the Charge 

Composition Explorer (CCE)- were launched. The 

IRM injects tracer atoms at an altitude near 113,000 

km above the Earth while the UKS obscrves conditions 

at the time of release from within a few hunderd 

kilorncters of' the IRM. As these atoms are ionized and 

carried in the solar wind to the Earth's magnetosphere, 

the CCE detects their arrival in the Earth's 

magnetosphere. This collaborative mission is sponsored jointly by the Federal Rcpuhlic of' Germany 

which dt-veloped the IRM, the United Kingdom which 

developed the UKS, and the United States which 

developed the CCE and provided the launch. 

Development of the Cosmic Background Explorer 

(COBE) continueci in 1984. The most significant event 

was the successful leak test of the cryogen tank for thc 

liquid helium dewar. COBE will survey thc cosmic 

background radiation left over from the Big Hang. Thc 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer was approved as a mission in 1984. Instrument development began during 

1984; and launch is planned for the end of 1988. 

Suborbital Observations. 1984 was a very significant 

year for each of the four elements of NASA's suborbital 

program: Spartan, Balloons, Rockets, and the Kuipcr 

Airborne Observatory (KAO). The first Spartan carrier and its instrument were readied for flight in 1984 

and were manilestcd on Discovery's August 1984 

flight. It was necessary !(i reschedule this flight for 

1985. An additional Spartan mission has becn added to 

observe Comet Halley in January 1986. The carrier 

for the Hallcy mission and the third carrier iirr under 

development. A significant balloon canipaign to 

Australia was conducted in October and November of 

1984 to carry high resolution gamma ray tclcscopcs 

above the atmosphere and observe the annihilation of 

antielectrons in the ccnter of our galaxy. For Fiscal 

Ycar (FY) 1984, there were 35 suc 

11 i gh t s , 

A major compaign to study plasma physics in space 

with sounding rockets was begun in Greenland in 

December of 1984 and will continue through February 

1985. A total of seven launches will be attempted. In 

FY 1984, 38 successful rocket launches were made as 

well as 64 missions of the KAO with 51 1 hours of flight 

time. The KAO carries a one-meter telescope for infrared and submillimeter observations above the absorbing water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere. From 

August through the middle ofOctober 1984, the KAO 

underwent a major ovcrhaul in its Periodic Depot 

Maintenance 

Advanced Tech n 01o~p~ Development and Long- Ra nge Plan - 

ning. Phase B for the proposed Advanced X-Ray 

Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) began in July 1984. Proposals for scientific instrument development were 

received and reviewed in 1984, with the selection to be 

announced at the beginning of 1985. Also in 1984, 

mirror technology demonstration programs were continued with the Perkin-Elmer Corporation and the Itek 

Corporation with X-ray mirrors to be delivered in 

1985. In 1984, the decision was made to investigate an 

engineering test of the proposed Gravity Probe-B (GPB) instrument for flight on the Space Shuttle in 1988. 

Proposals were received from corporations to design 

and fabricate thc engineering test model. This may 

lead to a scientific flight mission in polar orbit in 1992. 

Investigators for the proposed Space Infrared 

Telescope Facility (SIRTF) were selected in 1984. 

During the year, redefinition of the mission as a freeflyer or as a platform mission in the Space Station 

system has continued. Studies also were begun on 

resupplying superfluid helium to this mission from the 

Space Station to extend the mission lifetime up to a 

decade. This will be the first significant increase in our 

understanding of infrared sources since the IRAS mission. Design work for the Solar Optical Telescope 

(SOT) also was continued in 1984. 

Hubble Space Telescope. The Hubble Space Telescope, 

a major astronomical observatory, is the first space 

facility designed and built from inception to be serviceable on orbit by the Shuttle Orbiter. Operating 

beyond atmospheric influence, it will be capable of 

observing objects 50 times fainter and 7 times farther 

than can be done from the largest ground-based 

telescopes. All science instruments and the structural, 

optical, and electronic components have been 

fabricated and tested. Major subsystem integration 

began in late 1984 and operational verification tests 

will begin early in 1985, The Hubble Space Telescope 

is on schedule for launch in the second half of 1986. 

Expectations are that science instrument upgrades on 

orbit can begin approximately five years after launch, 

enabling the science community to take advantage of 

advances in instrument technology as well as to replace 

degraded or failed instruments. With the advent of the 

space station, it is likely that more comprehensive onorbit servicing will bc possible, thereby obviating the 

17 
necessity to ever return the Hubble Space Telescope to 

Earth for refurbishment. 

Lfe Sciences 

Studies continued on the monitoring and 

maintenance of human pa ngers in space as well as 

with medical concerns of' short-term missions. Human 

adaptation to the gravity-free space environment 

rtxceived attcntion; and investigation continued with 

respect to treatment of space sickness. Space biology 

and the study of plant growth and development in 

space received attention as well as global biology 

research. 

Space Medicine. In 1984, as in previous years, the 

Space Medicine Program, was concerned with the 

health and safety of spacecraft crews. Primary emphasis continued to bc placed on operations of the 

Space Shuttle, on the refinement of medical standards, 

on the medical selcction of crews, on their medical 

training, and on the nionitoring and maintenance of 

their health and career longevity. 

Health trend data, acquired from the astronaut 

population in the course of regularly scheduled 

physical examinations, were compared with similar 

measurements made irnrnediately preflight, postflight 

and, in certain instances, inflight. For the most part, 

the health of Shuttle crc'ws remained excellent; and no 

evidence has been obtained to suggest that impairments in human physiology or performance will 

limit the usefulness of either thc Space Shuttle or of the 

forthcoming Space Station. 

Particular attention was directed toward the incidvnce of the signs and symptoms of the Space Adaptation Syndrome (SAS) and the efficacy of currently 

available therapeutic techniques. Several drugs have 

proven useful in treating motion sickness inflight; and 

water-salt replenishment procedures have been used 

successfully to partially prevent the development of untoward cardiovascular responses following reentry. 

In addition to this program in the Space Shuttle, 

medical research continued with respect to the medical 

concerns of both short-term and long term missions. At 

the Space Biomedical Research Institute, established 

last year at the Johnson Space Center, research on the 

SAS problem has progressed. Data have been acquired 

which document for the first time some of the changes 

in perception that have been reported by both Soviet 

and American crews. As a result of ground-based 

research, several new drugs have been shown to be 

promising candidates for inflight testing as remedies 

for motion sickness. New inflight data on cardiovascular dynamics have been obtained and have indicated that certain changes, e.g. in heart volume, 

have persisted for several days to a week postflight. 

There is now a search for procedures to prevent these 

changes and to facilitate the readaptation process. 

Elsewhere in NASA and among its academic 

grantees and industrial contractors, progress was made 

in understanding the neurophysiological basis of motion sickness and in identifying various physiological 

and chemical clues that might be useful in predicting 

who will be responsive to provocative inflight stimuli. 

Research has advanced knowledge of neuromuscular 

physiology particularly the understanding of the 

biochemical changes that occur when muscles atrophy. 

New remedies have been sought for the bone changes 

that occur in space as well as those that occur among 

the elderly on earth; and significant steps have been 

taken in the development of a Computer Tomography 

(CT) scanner able to detect small but highly meaningful changes occurring deep within the bones of the 

spine. Among other fields of intense research interest is 

the area of radiobiology. In addition to the continued 

monitoring of astronaut radiation exposures, investigations have taken place into the hitherto 

unknown effects of high energy cosmic rays on living 

organisms. In part as a result of work this work, carried out using a ground-based accelerator, radiation 

standards applied to Space Station crews undoubtedly 

will become more conservative. 

Space Bioluu. Ground based and Spacelab-1 flight 

experiments with plants have added significantly to our 

knowledge of plant growth control mechanisms. In a 

spaceflight experiment, a phenomenon of continuous 

circular oscillation exhibited by all plant shoot tips was 

proved to be gravity independent, thus settling a scientific question debated since the time of Charles Darwin. Ground research found that a complex 

biochemical mechanism including calcium movement, 

an ion gradient, and a plant hormone (auxin) is involved in the transfer and translation of a gravitational 

stimulation of a plant into a growth response. Further, 

both gravity and light play an integrated role in controlling plant growth. The exact mechanism of this 

control now is under investigation. These studies are 

providing the foundation for the future cultivation of 

plants in life support systems in space. 

In 1984, ground-based animal experiments in the 

Space Biology Program provided significant information in understanding the vestibular, skeletal, and 

muscular systems of animals. Experimental data have 

helped in understanding: (1) how the nervous system 

perceives and transmits orientation, acceleration and 

gravitational information - this research indicates that 

the nervous system functions similar to a computer; (2) 

the concept that bone growth and maturation have a 

gravity component; and (3) that properties of skeletal 

muscles are strongly dependent on pattern and level of 

load-bearing and motor unit activity. 

U.S. investigators are analyzing postflight data from 

the U.S.S.R. Cosmos 1514 biosatellite, flown 

December 14-20, 1983. This is expected to yield important information about the effects of spaceflight on 

fetal and postnatal development of rats. In 1985, 
Spacelab-2 will carry a plant experiment to explore the 

effects of weightlessness on the formation of lignin, a 

prime structural component of plants. 

Preparations continued during 1983-1984 for 5 experiments dedicated on Spacelab-4 to the fundamental 

problems of Space Biology. These experiments include: (1) observation of inflight fertilization and early 

development of frog eggs; (2) the determination of the 

time course and alterations of calcium metabolism in 

young rats in space; (3) thermoregulation in primates 

in the space environment; and (4) two plant experiments-one on gravitropism, the other on 

phototropism. 

Lije in the Universe. Studies continued in 1984 on the 

origin, evolution and distribution of life, and liferelated chemicals, on Earth and throughout the 

universe. Recent discoveries in meteorites of 

molecules, which are precursors to the genetic material 

of cells, has significantly broadened our views of the 

universality of the chemistry of life. Laboratory 

simulation experiments have demonstrated the synthesis of other biologically important molecules which 

previously had been inferred from spacecraft observations to be present in atmospheres of the outer planets. 

Examination of ancient terrestrial rock samples has 

revealed the presence of primitive life forms in samples 

as old as 3.5 billion years. These same samples also are 

providing information on characteristics of the environment (i .e., temperature, atmospheric composition, etc.) in which life arose. Such findings not only 

will describe the sequence of events of this planet, but 

also will assist in evaluating the probability of similar 

event occurring on other planets. 

Biospheric Research. The Biospheric Research program, formerly Global Biology, investigates the influence of biological processes on global 

biogeochemical cycles. Studies of biogenic gas emissions over the ocean and from selected ecosystems confirmed the large scale influence of biologically 

mediated proceses on atmospheric composition and 

dynamics. The assessment of the overall effect of 

deforestation, land use practices and changes, and 

other natural and anthropogenic perturbations is 

directly related to the characterization of representative global ecosystem functions. Selected regions and 

ecosystems are studied with the intent of correlating 

specific ecosystem parameters with remote sensing 

data in order to extend those specific regional or 

habitat functions spatially. Mathematical models are 

used to integrate field measurements, large scale 

remote sensing observations, and other ancillary data. 

Accurate projections of the state of the biosphere and 

possible perturbation effects will develop by updating 

the data and refinement of the models. 

In addition to individual research tasks to develop 

new techniques, modeling, and field measurements 

and methodologies, the following specific field projects 

were initiated in 1984 to define ecosystem behavior 

and function: 

1) Eastern Coastal Wetlands project - the characterization of key biogenic gas emissions, nutrient transport 

mechanisms, and biomass estimates combined with 

remotely ' sensed data to assess the wetland 

biogeochemical processes and large scale influences; 

2) Sequoia National Park project - in cooperation with 

the Park Service, the characterization of boreal forest 

biogeochemical cycling combined and correlated with 

remote sensing data for comparisons of other representative regions of the boreal forest. Other prqjects and 

missions will. be initiated to provide new and important 

data on large scale biogeochemical cycling as well as 

updating existing data; 

3) Amazon Basin Gas Emission Study- discussions 

have been initiated for the necessary planning and 

preparations to measure important biogenic gas emissions from the Amazon for both the development of 

aircraft concentration correlation techniques to ground 

emission measurements and initial investigations of 

large scale tropical biogeochemical cycling. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

Data analysis and results from the successful Spacelab 

1 mission are now in print. Over 50 publications in 

scientific journals have resulted from analysis of mission data. The July 1984 issue of Science magazine 

reported those results which included more complete 

information on the vestibular changes that occurred in 

flight and immediately post flight. These will be used 

by the scientific community to plan more experiments 

to explore the biomedical changes that occur during 

and after spaceflight for future missions. 

In August 1984, the OSTA-1 mission on Spacelab 

demonstrated deployment and retraction of large 

structures that could be used in the future for light 

weight solar arrays. During the mission, the dynamics 

of the structures were tested. 

During the OSTA-3 mission in October 1984, the 

SIR-B radar and Large Format Camera returned 

outstanding images of selected test sites around the 

world. Two other instruments on this mission were 

flown originally on OSTA-1 in 1981. The experiment, 

Mapping of Air Pollution from Satellites, measured 

global distribution of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere. The Feature Identification and Location 

Experiment demonstrated the capability to 

discriminate between cloud cover, water, vegetation, 

and bare ground. On future missions, this will permit 

mapping instruments to be automatically turned off 

when cloud cover prevents observations of the Earth's 

surface. 

Final preparations are now underway at the Kennedy Space Center to complete 3 integration and test 

activities for a January 1985 launch. 
Flight hardware for the first Space Life Sciences 1 

mission was delivered in 1984 to the respective 

development Centers for hardware/experiment 

Jerification and science verification tests. 

Space Transportation 

Space Shuttle 

Work on the Space Shuttle in 1984 included 

development of vehicle operational capability, Kennedy Space Center (KSC) flight and ground support, 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) activation support, Filament Wound Case Solid rocket Booster 

(SRB) integration, and ShuttleKentaur integration. 

Some items specifically considered were methods for 

verifying flight systems interfaces and operation, Shuttle characteristics encountered during various flight 

phases, optimum trajectory design, various element 

hazard analyses, avionics and software testing and 

design reviews, weathedenvironmental and earthquake effects, and logistics implementation. 

In 1984, a decision was made to augment customer 

services during 1985. For this purpose, a marketing 

contractor from the private sector will assist NASA in 

acquiring new and larger market shares for the Space 

Shuttle from the growing world demand for space 

launch services. 

The Office of Space Flight (OSF) at NASA Headquarters and its associated field centers (Kennedy 

Space Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Johnson 

Space Center, National Space Technology Laboratories) increased information management activities during 1984. Several automated systems exist, 

and others continued to be established. OSF installed a 

network of work stations sharing a common data base 

of managerial and budgetary information. This makes 

it possible for all levels of management to share, 

manipulate, and transfer information. Additionally, 

OSF began an extensive plan to exchange data electronically with its associated centers; and by the end of 

1985, OSF expects to have established total communication capability with systems at all of its centers. 

Shared data bases and electronic data transfer will 

enable all levels and locations of the Space Transportation staff to process information expeditiously for decision making and to obtain up-to-date status reports on 

their projects immediately. This ability became an 

essential managerial operating tool during 1984 and 

will continue to be enhanced during 1985. 

Space Shuttle Missions 

In April 1984, the Solar Maximum Repair Mission 

demonstrated the capability of the United States Space 

Shuttle to retrieve, repair in-orbit, checkout, and 

redeploy operational spacecraft that have experienced 

debilitating failures. The highly successful in-orbit 

Astronaut James D. van Hoften, mission specialist, using a 

special tool to work on a faulty attitude control of the Solar 

Maximum Mission Satellite (SMMS) recovered for repair on 

the 41-C Earth-orbiting Challenger. In the aft section of the 

Challenger, the astronaut is anchored to a “cherry picker” 

device which involves a foot restraint/work station connected 

to the remote manipulator system (RMS). 

repair of the Solar Maximum Mission satellite 

demonstrated another important capability of the STS, 

that of “in space” payload processing. This capability 

will be exploited in the future on such missions as the 

Space Telescope, Gamma-Ray Observatory, the proposed Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility, and 

other orbiting observatories, with significant cost savings over the life-cycle of these important programs. 

The repair mission was conducted in concert with the 

deployment of the Long Duration Exposure Facility, a 

payload itself scheduled to be retrieved within a year 

from launch. 

A malfunction of deployment equipment in the 

Space Shuttle mission in February 1984 provided the 

first opportunity to test this new retrieval capability. 

During the launch, the Payload Assist Modules 

(PAM), which were used to deploy the Westar VI and 

the Palapa B2 spacecraft, failed after a brief period of 

ignition, leaving the two spacecraft in an unusable orbit for performing their mission. However, the 

spacecraft could be maneuvered from the Space Shuttle to a position accessible for retrieval by the Space 

Shuttle. The success of the Solar Maximum Repair 

Mission encouraged the idea that these two communications spacecraft could and should be retrieved 

for future use by interested customers. Subsequently, 

plans were made; and on the November Space Shuttle 

mission, the Westar VI and the Palapa B2 satellites 

were retrieved. 

The failures of the Payload Assist Modules prompted an exhaustive examination of production practices 

by the NASA/industry team; and new test criteria for 

20 
Photo takcn from aboard the Shuttle Challenger shows 

Astronaut David C. Lwstrna (left) and Astronaut Kathryn 

D. Sullivan (right) at the orbital refueling system in the aft 

cargo bay. Dr. Sullivan’s participation in the extravrhicular 

activity (EVA) shown in this photo is the first such activity for 

an Arncrican womcn astronaut. 

qualifying the rocket motors were established. In October, the new testing procedures proved satisfactory 

when the Space Shuttle successfully deployed two communications spacecraft and the PAM’S placed them on 

precise geosynchronous transfer orbits. That same 

Shuttle mission also demonstrated the first use of a 

“frizbee” technique to deploy a new family of Shuttle 

optimized communicaitons satellites called Leasat. 

This deployment and subsequent placement in geosynchronous orbit was hightly successful. 

In addition to these firsts, others of significance in 

1984 are the first flight of the Orbiter Discovery, the 

first flight of a Manned Maneuvering Unit; the first 

landing at KSC; the first flight of a commercial 

Payload Specialist; the first flight with a 7-person crew; 

the first mission in space by two female U.S. 

astronauts and the first female U.S. astronaut to walk 

in space. 

Flight Gperations 

Flight Operations supports the Space Transportation System (STS) in mission planning, crew training, 

mission control, and the production of flight software. 

During 1984, five STS missions were supported, as 

were preparations for a number of future missions. 

There were a number of noteworthy accomplishments 

in Flight Operations during 1984. The Shuttle Mission 

Simulators now can accommodate crew training requirements for the equivalent of twelve flights per 

year. In the Mission Control Center (MCC) at the 

Johnson Space Center, a second Flight Control Room, 

along with augmented supporting systems, was completed which will enable this facility to support sixteen 

flights per year. The MCC also now has dual flight 

function capability so that it can participate 

simultaneously in two of the following classes of activities: real time mission control and launch pad test 

or mission simulation. In addition, security provisions 

were completed for support of DOD classified operations. At Vandenberg Air Force Base, launch 

capabilities preparations continue on schedule, with 

the first launch planned for October 1985. 

Also during 1984, NASA selected seventeen 

astronaut candidates who will undergo a year of probationary training prior to final appointment. Seven 

pilots and ten mission specialists are in this group. This 

was the tenth group to be selected since the original 

seven Mercury astronauts were chosen in 1959. 

Launch and Landing Operations 

Five STS missions were flowin in 1984. Two were 

on Discovery, the third member of our fleet of Orbiters. In 1984, 14 major payloads were processed for 

flight and subsequently launched. This is the highest 

number in a year to-date. The completion of the KSC’s 

Shuttle Processing Contractor (SPC) transition also 

was accomplished during the year. Additional operational experience gathered in 1984 has reduced hardware turnaround time to 52 working days. A significant contribution to this improvement has been the 

reduction in Shuttle testing requirements. The near 

term goal, to be realized in 1985, is 35 days. An indication of this trend can be seen by noting that STS-2 had 

11,369 checkout problem reports as compared to 1,043 

for STS 41-C. 

Orbiter 

The Space Transportation System continued to 

make progress in 1984 toward certification of a four 

Orbiter vehicle fleet. Challenger flew three missions 

successfully; and two of these flights (41-B and 41-G) 

landed at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, 

demonstrating the feasibility of the goal of an operational fleet launching and landing at KSC routinely. 

The initial flight of Discovery was carried out in 

August, and its second flight occurred in November. 

Columbia was returned to Palmdale, California, for 

the modifications required to bring it into an operational configuration after its success as a flight 

developmental vehicle. These modifications are 

scheduled for completion in early 1985. The delivery 

schedule of the fourth flight vehicle, Atlantis, was 

21 
delayed four months to April 1985 to allow for 

modifications necessary for the Centaur missions. 

Upon its delivery, all four Orbiters will be operational. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) 

The main engines performed excellently and reliably 

on all flights in 1984. The Discovery and Challenger 

flights, combined with the previous Columbia flights, 

validated the SSME design; verified the engine certification program; and demonstrated the validity of 

the engine inspections/maintenance plan and the concept of the SSME Line Replaceable Unit. Engines 

and/or major subsystems have been replaced on the 

Orbiter without having to re-hot fire the Orbiter prior 

to launch. In 1984, Flight Certification Extension 

testing continued. To date, two test cycles have been 

completed on one engine, qualifying the SSME for 20 

flights. The objective of the test series is to expose the 

engine to 20 additional starts and accumulate 20,000 

seconds on each of two engines. 

Plans were initiated in 1984 for improvement in 

manufacturing to increase the production of flight 

hardware. The plant modernization projects include a 

new turbopump fabrication center, an engine overhaul 

center, plant rearrangement, machine tool modernization, automatic welding and robotic welding. In 1984, 

a program was begun to increase the life of the high 

pressure pumps at SSME full power level. Pump life 

improvement also will result at the lower power levels 

at which the majority of missions are flown. Larger life 

pumps will be very beneficial in lowering operations 

costs. The certification program for the improved 

pumps will start in 1985. 

External Tank (E7J 

All Space Shuttle external tanks flown in 1984 performed as expected. Nine tanks manufactured during 

1984 were delivered on or ahead of schedule. Cost savings improvements in production continued to be implemented. The first tank for a Vandenberg launch 

was delivered to the west coast site and is being utilized 

initially as a checkout vehicle to verify the new launch 

preparation facilities. At the end of 1984, 15 tanks 

were in various stages of manufacture at the New 

Orleans, Louisiana, Michoud Assembly Facility. 

Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) 

The Shuttle’s solid rocket boosters continued to perform as predicted during ascent. Recovery of all 

boosters was successful; and they are being refurbished 

for reuse. Twenty boosters, or ten flight sets, were 

delivered in 1984. The design phase of the filament 

wound case, which will provide additional payload 

capability, has been essentially completed. The first of 

three static test firings was successful, and the composite cases have been wound for the first flight from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, scheduled for October 

1985. As a result of competitive procurement for the 

booster assembly contract exclusive of the solid propellant rocket motor, United States Boosters, Inc. 

(USBI), the current contractor, was selected. As part 

of this contract, USBI will design and construct an integrated refurbishment and assembly facility at KSC to 

support the required deliveries to KSC and VAFB for 

up to 24 launches per year. 

Sparela b 

The year of 1984 was one of transition for the 

Spacelab program. The successful Spacelab 1 development mission of 1983 was followed by preparations for 

the first operational module mission scheduled for early 1985, by deliveries of the second set of Spacelab 

flight hardware developed by the European Space 

Agency, and by the flight of various Spacelab hardware configurations. In addition to those mission 

preparations and hardware deliveries, new 

developments were initiated in 1984 to better serve the 

needs of Spacelab customers. 

NASA approved and initiated development of a 

Shuttle Payload of Opportunity carrier known as 

“Hitchhiker” that will provide to the experimenter with 

a capability greater than the Get Away Special (GAS), 

but less than that of the existing Spacelab carriers. The 

Hitchhiker-G (a Goddard Space Flight Center version) 

and Hitchhiker-M (a Marshall Space Flight Center 

version) will provide a space platform in the Shuttle 

cargo bay for a range of exploratory science and experiments that can be accommodated on short notice 

and at lower cost. Expectations are that the Hitchhikers will encourage greater use of space and attract 

new customers for the Spacelab and the Shuttle. 

Another development in 1984 was the Marshall Space 

Flight Center Payload Operations Control Center 

(POCC). The new POCC augments the Spacelab 

POCC at the Johnson Space Center and is designed to 

meet future traffic rates and to enhance service to the 

customer. It is the forerunner of remotely located 

POCC’s (i.e., not colocated with the Shuttle flight control facility) and will increase efficiency of information 

dissemination to the ultimate user. 

Spacelab flight hardware delivered from Europe in 

1984 included the Igloo Pallet, Long Module 

segments, and the first of two Instrument Pointing 

Systems (IPS). The IPS, a highly sophisticated piece of 

space hardware, interacts with the Shuttle to provide a 

directionally stable base for delicate scientific instruments. It will fly for the first time in 1985 on the 

second Spacelab development test flight. 

Preparations for that development test flight, ior the 

first operational Spacelab, for mixed cargo missions, 

and for a special spacecraft retrieval mission all were 

carried out in 1984. One of the mixed cargo missions 

was STS 41-D, which included the first operational 

22 
flight of the Multiplexer Demultiplexer (MDM) pallet 

configuration of the Spacelab Pallet System (SPS). The 

Igloo pallet configuration of the SPS will fly in a mixed 

cargo mode for the first time in 1986. The spacecraft 

retrieval mission was flown with two Spacelab pallets 

acting as the Shuttle-to-spacecraft interface to berth 

two stranded communications satellites (Palapa and 

Westar) for their return to Earth. The multitude of activities associated with processing these widely different missions has advanced the maturity of 

Spacelab’s operational resources and procedures. 

The success of the international, cooperative 

Spacelab effort was demonstrated further in 1984 by 

the decision of the Japanese Government to purchase 

space on a Spacelab module mission in 1988. The 

Japanese decision follows that of Germany to fly a 

series of dedicated Spacelab missions beginning in 

1985. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (EL Vs) 

NASA’s Expendable Launch Vehicles provided 

launch support to seven satellite missions during 1984 

using four Deltas, one Scout, one Atlas Centaur, and 

one Atlas-E/F. During this period the Delta vehicle 

completed its 43rd consecutive successful launch with 

the launching of the NATO-IIID satellite in 

November 1984. Delta was used successfully to launch 

Landsat-Dl in March, AMPTE in August, and 

Galaxy-C in September. Other payloads launched during 1984 by NASA ELVs included a Navy navigation 

satellite by Scout, an Intelsat V-A communications 

satellite by Atlas Centaur, and a NOAA weather 

satellite by an Atlas-E/F vehicle. The launch of the Intelsat V-A satellite experienced an anomaly in the 

launch vehicle which resulted in failure to orbit the 

satellite properly. A review and testing of corrective 

measures are underway with a plan to resume launching in early 1985. All missions, except the NASA 

scientific satellite AMPTE, were paid for by Government and non-US Government customers. 

Delta, Atlas Centaur, and Scout ELVs are under active consideration by commercial operators for use by 

private industry. The commercial use of these vehicle 

systems is in accordance with the President’s policy 

directive of May 1983. An interim agreement has been 

signed between NASA and Transpace Carriers, Inc. 

(TCI), for exclusive rights to market the Delta Vehicle; 

and negotiations are underway with General 

Dynamics on the Atlas Centaur. Interest for the 

private use of the Scout Launch Vehicle has been 

solicited through a Commerce Business Daily (CBD) 

announcement, published August 8, 1984. Ten companies have expressed interest in assuming a total or 

partial takeover of this vehicle system. A request for 

proposal (RFP) is in preparation for release to all interested companies. Production for these vehicle 

systems is virtually completed; however, NASA will 

British engineers shown at the Kennedy Space Center in 

Florida, conducting tests on the United Kingdom Subsatellite 

part of the three-spacecraft international Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer (AMPTE) mission from 

which scientists expect to acquire valuable new data on how 

the solar wind interacts with Earth‘s magnetic fields. 

continue to fulfill launch commitments through 1987 

for these vehicle systems. 

Upper Stages 

NASA continues design, development, and procurement of the STS/Centaur upper stage for the Galileo 

and the Ulysses missions scheduled for flight in 1986. 

Although under a tight schedule, efforts are progressing satisfactorily. The Air Force is sharing in the 

design and development costs of this stage to fulfill certain mission requirements. Qualification testing of the 

Centaur G prime test vehicle was begun in 1984 with 

completion expected in the first half of 1985. In addition, a preliminary design review for the Centaur-G 

flight vehicle was completed; and a critical design 

review was initiated in October. Efforts to resume use 

of the Air Force-developed Inertial Upper Stage for 

launching NASA’s Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System (TDRSS) are progressing satisfactorily. 

Launch of TDRSS-B is scheduled for early 1985. 

Commercially developed upper stages have played a 

significant role in space especially McDonnell Douglas 

Corporation’s Payload Assist Module (PAM-D). Ex23 
cept for two failures of the PAMs to place the Westar 

VI and the Palapa B2 payloads in proper orbits in 

February 1984, this upper stage has performed successfully for 25 missions on expendable and Shuttle 

launches since 1980, five of which occurred after the 

February 1984 failures. NASA continued to work with 

other upper stage commercial developers such as the 

Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC), currently 

developing the Transfer Orbit State (TOS), a new upper stage which has more capability than the PAM. 

The TOS will compete with other upper stages for 

selected missions. At this time, no firm mission users 

have been identified for the TOS. 

Tethered Satellite System (TSS) 

Hardware development began in early 1984 for the 

deployer part of the Tethered Satellite System (TSS). 

The U.S. and Italy are cooperating on the TSS which 

will provide the capability to conduct experiments in 

the upper atmosphere and ionosphere using the Space 

Shuttle as an orbiting base and up to lOOkm away. Its 

first use is planned for late 1987 or early 1988. 

Advanced Planning 

In 1984, development planning for an Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV) continued with the 

selection of three Phase B contractors: TRW, LTV, 

and Martin Marietta. The program objective is to extend the “reach” of the Shuttle up to 1000 nautical miles 

for deploying and retrieving spacecraft. It also would 

support the Space Station. 

The in-flight demonstration of hydrazine fuel 

transfer was completed successfully on Mission 41 -G, 

and marks an important step for satellite refueling. Additionally, other flight experiments have been undertaken, including an experiment to demonstrate 

astronaut capability and learning required for EVA 

tasks involving construction and assembly of large 

structures in space. 

A study and laboratory program to define and 

evaluate several applications of tethers in space began 

in 1984, and a Letter of Agreement was completed 

with Italy for continued cooperation in this area. Applications of tethers include: power generation, orbit 

raising without propellants, artificial gravity, constellations, and others. 

Based on Shuttle technology, definition of unmanned cargo vehicles to complement the Space 

Transportation System continued. Unmanned cargo 

vehicles will provide increased performance for potential post-1995 missions and will be applicable to potential missions for both DoD and NASA. Studies also 

were initiated on a reusable Orbit Transfer Vehicle to 

lower the cost of transportation to geostationary orbit 

and, eventually, to form the basis of manned orbital 

transport. 

Commercial Use of Space 

In 1984, this Administration announced a National 

Commercial Space Policy to encourage private enterprise in space; and the U. s. Congress endorsed this 

policy by amending the NASA Space Act of 1958 to include the following provision: 

“. . . the general welfare of the United States of 

Amefica requires that the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration seek and encourage, to 

the maximum extent possible, the fullest commercial use of space.” 

The National Policy on the Commercial Use of 

Space consists of initiatives in four major categories: 

policy, economic, legal and regulatory, and research 

and development. 

To implement policy, a Cabinet Council for Commerce and Trade Commercial Space Working Group 

has been established. It will be chaired by a representative from the Department of Commerce with a 

representative from NASA as Vice-chairman. 

Economic initiatives to encourage the commercial 

use of space will include efforts to modify tax structure 

and regulations to provide equitable benefits to space 

ventures and facilitate government use of commercial 

space products and services. Legislation was passed in 

1984 by the Congress to implement a portion of these 

goals. 

Legal and regulatory initiatives include reexamining 

regulatory policies governing commercial activities in 

space in order to provide additional protection with 

respect to proprietary information, and assure fair international competition. 

Initiatives in research and development are to encourage greater participation in space research and 

development within the private sector and broaden 

awareness of commercial space opportunities among 

non-aerospace industries. 

In 1984, the NASA Space Commercialization Task 

Force completed its efforts to develop an agency-wide 

policy and plan to enhance the agency’s ability to encourage and stimulate free enterprise in space. 

The Commercialization Task Force reached the 

following three fundamental conclusions: 

(1) Commercial activities in space by private enterprise should begin now to help the nation retain its 

leadership in science and technology, and its advantages in international trade. 

(2) Natural and bureaucratic barriers inhibiting the 

commercial use of space should be modified or 

eliminated. 

(3) Finally, the Task Force concluded that with 

determined effort and the commitment of reasonable 

resources over a number of years, a partnership between government, industry, and academia can turr, 

space into a source of immense benefit for the nation. 

24 
To support the National Commercial Space Policy 

and agency-wide commercial use of space initiatives, 

NASA established an Office of Commercial Programs 

to serve as an agency focal point for commercial space 

endeavors. 

The office will work to translate the national initiatives and the results of the NASA Task Force into 

working policies and programs. It will provide the 

direction for initiatives from the private sector, particularly new commercial high-technololgy space ventures and new commercial applications of existing 

space technologies. It will support unsubsidized initiatives aimed at transferring existing programs to the 

private sector. 

The Office of Commercial Programs will work to 

reduce the financial, institutional, and technical risks 

of doing business in space. 

Significant accomplishments in 1984 by the Office of 

Commercial Programs included the signing of a Joint 

Endeavor Agreement between NASA and the 3M 

Company for long-term research in the organic and 

polymer chemistry areas. In addition, the McDonnell 

Douglas Astronautics Company completed its fourth 

successful flight of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, with the first non-astronaut 

payload specialist, Charles Walker. 

Space Station 

In January of 1984, the President directed NASA to 

develop a permanently manned space station within a 

decade, and invited the participation of other nations. 

Pursuant to the President’s directive, the objectives 

of NASA’s Space Station program are to assure U.S. 

leadership in space in the 1990’s and beyond, promote 

international cooperation, stimulate the development 

of advanced technologies, enhance capabilities for 

space science and applications, develop and encourage 

private investment in the commercial use of space, and 

stimulate interest in scientific and engineering education. 

The Space Station is to be a multi-purpose 

“customer friendly” facility serving the interests and requirements of users in the field of science, commerce, 

and technology. It will be designed and operated to 

satisfy multiple customer requirements. 

Planning. By the early or mid 199O’s, NASA plans to 

have an operational Space Station able to grow both in 

size and function arid perform effectively for several 

decades into the 21st century. It will be assembled in 

orbit, and placed about 3R0 miles high with an inclination to the equator of 28.5 degrees. It will have a 

number of pressurized modules and support a crew of 

six to eight people. 

As part of the overall program, two or more unmanned free-flying scientific platforms may be 

developed for use with the Space Station and may include one in a polar orbit, and another co-orbiting with 

Model of a space station configuration by McDonnell 

Douglas Astronautics Company, Huntington Beach, CA. 

the Station. A maximum of common subsystems such 

as power, thermal, docking and data processing will be 

used on both the Space Station and the platforms. The 

platform(s) in the 28.5 degree inclination orbit will be 

tended and serviced by the Space Station. The platform(s) at polar orbit will be launched and serviced by 

the Space Shuttle. 

A key aspect of Space Station planning is that of 

“evolutionary” growth. As better information is obtained from living and working in space and as new requirements arise, new capabilities could be added to 

the basic Space Station. The ability to adapt to emerging requirements will enable the Space Station to serve 

many uses well into the 21st century. 

Management and Engineering Guidelines. NASA 

guidelines for Space Station planning relate both to 

management and engineering. 

Management guidelines include a three year period 

of detailed definition to minimize cost as well as 

technical and schedule risks. Throughout the planning 

process, extensive user involvement is anticipated from 

the scientific and technological communities and from 

commercial interests. 

Engineering guidelines include planning for growth 

as well as on-board maintenance and semiindependence from ground control. Station design will 

include the potential to accommodate increased 

capabilities by the use of an Orbital Transfer Vehicle. 

Consideration also will be given to ways to advance 

automation and robotics and to enhance the human 

capability to live and work in space. 

A Space Station Program Office, established at 

NASA Headquarters, is responsible for policy and 

overall program direction. This includes defining re25 
quirements, establishing overall schedule and budget 

guidelines, and handling external programmatic considerations and agreements with other departments 

and agencies, the Congress, and potential international pqrticipants. 

The Johnson Space Center has been designated the 

“Lead Center” for Space Station program management 

and technical implementation. The Center will be 

responsible for the management of systems engineering and integration (SE&I), operations, customer integration, and advanced technology development. 

Several other NASA Centers have been assigned 

discrete project mangement responsibilities for different Space Station elements. The Centers manage 

element SE&I; analyze and incorporate user requirements into elements; define, develop, and integrate system elements; implement advanced development technology projects and prepare project budgets, 

schedules and other documentation for their portion of 

the Space Station program. 

International Participation. A major objective of the 

Space Station Program is international participation, 

with funding to be provided by the participating 

governments. Foreign participants are to conduct their 

own definition and preliminary design programs 

parallel with the NASA activities. Among the 

sovereign powers interested in the Space Station Program are Canada, Japan and the nations of the European Space Agency. 

Three types of possible international participation 

are envisioned: (i) a “User” who defines missions and 

utilizes Station capabilities, (ii) a “Builder” who participates in definition and development programs and 

who contributes to station capabilities, and (iii) an 

“Operator” who supports the operational phase. 

In September of 1984, representatives of the interested countries as well as representatives from U.S. 

industry began reviewing a NASA Request for Proposal (RFP) for the definition and preliminary design 

of the Space Station. In addition, a Working Group at 

NASA Headquarters was established to develop 

guidelines for international participation. The potential for such participation also was discussed in 1984 at 

the London Economic Summit where the President explained the U.S. program to the Prime Ministers of the 

United Kingdom, Italy, Japan and others. 

NASA has more than twenty-six years of experience 

with cooperative international programs, including the 

work in 1984 with the European Spacelab and the 

Space Shuttle’s Canadian Remote Manipulator 

System. This cooperation has provided the basis for 

achieving meaningful international participation in the 

U.S. Space Station program. At the same time, within 

these cooperative efforts, preservation of the integrity 

of U.S. technology has been maintained as well as that 

of the international partners. The combined expertise 

and knowledge achieved through international 

cooperation will expand Space Station capabilities 

beyond what could be achieved by any nation alone. 

Mission Requirements. Mission or payload requirements are the starting points for Space Station 

design. They define the capabilities that are sought for 

the Space Station. During 1984, mission requirements 

were reviewed throughly, a process critical to definition and preliminary design 

Three categories of missions have been established: 

(i) Science and Applications, including Astrophysics, 

Earth Science and Applications, Solar System Exploration, Life Sciences, Material Science, and Communications; (ii) Commercial, including Materials 

Processing in Space, Earth and Oceans Observations, 

Communications, and Industrial Services; and (iii) 

Technology Development, which includes Materials 

and Structures, Energy Conversion, Computer 

Science and Electronics, Propulsion, Controls and 

Human Factors, Space Station Systems/Operations, 

Fluid and Thermal Physics, and Automation and 

Robotics. 

A p2rticularly important activity during 1984 was 

the establishment of a scientific advisory committee 

chaired by Dr. Peter Banks of Stanford University. 

This committee will provide expert advice to NASA on 

how the Space Station can best serve the various scientific communities. 

Program Status. The Space Station RFP included four 

work packages covering the definition and preliminary 

design of Space Station elements. NASA contracts to 

U.S. industry for each of the work packages will be 

awarded on a competitive basis. The work packages 

are divided as follows: 

(i) Definition and preliminary design of pressurized 

“common” modules with appropriate systems for use as 

laboratories, living areas and logistics transport; environmental control and propulsive systems; plans for 

equipping one module as a laboratory and others as 

logistics modules; and plans for accommodations for 

orbital maneuvering and orbital transfer systems. 

(ii) Definition and preliminary design of the structural framework to which the various elements of the 

Space Station will be attached; interface between the 

Space Station and Space Shuttle; mechanisms such as 

the Remote Manipulator System; attitude control, 

thermal control, communications and data management systems; plans for equipping a module with 

sleeping quarters, wardroom and galley; and plans for 

extravehicular activity (EVA). 

(iii) Definition and preliminary design of the 

automated free-flying platforms and of provisions to 

service and repair the platforms and other free-flying 

spacecraft; provisions for instruments and payloads to 

be attached externally to the Space Station; and plans 

for equipping a module for a laboratory. 

(iv) Definition and preliminary design for electrical 

power generation, conducting and storage systems. 
The RFP requires contractors to study changes to 

the Space Station elements, if the Station is to be tended initially by personnel for varying periods rather 

than permanently manned. 

Proposals for the Program Definition and 

Preliminary Design were received in November 1984 

from U.S. industry and are under review by NASA. 

Contract awards for the four work packages are expected to be of 21 months duration and to be made in 

the spring of 1985. 

Advanced Development Technology Test Beds. Advanced 

Development Technology test beds were initiated in 

1984. The purposes of the test beds are several. They 

will help identify emerging technologies for advanced 

development necessary to enhance Space Station 

design; and they will provide technology options for 

the initial station capability. Further, inter-center 

teams will carry out technology development activities 

and facilitate the incorporation of advanced technology 

into the Design, Development, Test and Engineering 

(DDT&E) phase of the Space Station program. 

The test beds, to be located at various NASA 

Centers, will be in the fields of Data Management 

Systems, Environmental Control/Regenerative Life 

Support Systems, Electrical Power Systems, Attitude 

Control, Auxiliary Propulsion, Thermal Management 

System, and Space Operations Mechanisms. 

Many significant activities were accomplished in 

1984 in response to the President’s directive for the 

Space Station Program. These emphasized management planning, technology development and 

preliminary engineering as well as the pursuit of international cooperation and increased involvement by 

U.S. industry. As NASA moves forward with the 

Space Station Program, industrial and international 

participation can be expected to grow. 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

The Space Tracking and Data Systems Program in 

1984 continued to provide support for tracking, command, telemetry, and data acquisition for all NASA 

programs by means of the Space Network, the Deep 

Space Network (DSN), the Spaceflight Tracking and 

Data Network (STDN), and various other facilities. A 

global communications system links tracking sites, 

control centers, and data processing facilities which 

provide real-time data processing for mission control, 

orbit and attitude determination, and routine processing of telemetry for space missions. 

The transition from the traditional mode of ground 

network support of low Earth orbiting spacecraft Space 

Network, which began in 1983 with the first Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), continues toward its 

ultimate objective: an operational Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), presently projected 

for 1986, when many of the existing ground stations no 

longer will be required and will be closed or transferred 

to other agencies. The stations remaining in California, Australia, and Spain will be consolidated with the 

Deep Space network under the operation and management of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL); and two 

will be dedicated to launch and landing support. This 

consolidation will provide a single ground network for 

all deep space probes and planetary missions, 

spacecraft in geosynchronous and highly elliptical orbits, as well as the few older spacecraft which are not 

compatible with the TDRSS. 

Space Network. The Space Network consists of the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellites and the White 

Sands Ground Terminal, the NASA Ground Terminal 

co-located with the White Sands Ground Terminal in 

New Mexico, the Network Control Center, the Operations Support Computing Facility, the Simulations 

Operations Center, the Compatibility Test Vans, and 

the Bilateration Ranging Transponder System. 

The launch of the first Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite (TDRS) in 1983 was a significant step toward 

an operational Space Network. Exceptional support 

was provided to a variety of Space Shuttle missions and 

numerous Landsat events in 1984 by the first TDRS. 

The launching, projected for 1986, of two additional 

TDRS and, ultimately, the completion of required 

testing, will advance the TDRSS to full operational 

capability. This will complete the transition to the new 

era of operational support of low Earth orbital missions. 

Ground Networks. The Ground networks consist of the 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN), the 

Deep Space Network (DSN), and ground tracking and 

data acquisition support for the Aeronautics, Balloons, 

and Sounding Rocket Programs. Support provided by 

the ground network was for both NASA’s near-Earth 

orbiting satellites, including the Space Shuttle operational flights, and for deep space probes. Numerous 

applications and scientific Earth orbiting missions also 

were supported in 1984, and included the Active 

Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer, Nimbus-7, 

NOAA Landsat, International Ultraviolet Explorer, 

International Sun Earth Explorers, Solar Maximum 

Mission, and the Solar Mesospheric Explorer. 

Planetary mission support continued for Pioneers 10 

and 11, Pioneer Venus, and Voyagers 1 and 2, as well 

as limited support for Helios and earlier Pioneer missions. In addition, the DSN assumed responsibility for 

tracking and data support for the International Cometary Explorer (ICE) in 1984. 

Major upgrading is underway to increase the support capability of the DSN for spacecraft bound for distant planets. The upgrading in 1984 was designed to 

enhance the ability of the DSN to receive weaker 

signals, provide support to an increasing variety of 

spacecraft, and provide more precise navigation. A 

critical milestone for this activity is to increase the 

czipability of the DSN to support Voyager 2’s encounter with Uranus in early 1986. 

27 
Control Centers, Communications, and Data Systems. The 

basic elements of this program form the vital link between the data acquisition stations and the users, and 

include communications, mission control, and data 

processing. Emphasis continued in 1984 on the 

development of a control center for dedicated support 

to the Space Telescope. Major software developments 

underway for several years are nearing completion. 

This software consists of some one million lines of code 

and manages the major operational activities of the 

mission. Modifications are underway to the existing 

multisatellite operations control center for control of 

the upcoming Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) and 

the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). 

Telemetry data processing for ongoing missions continued in 1984. Planning, systems implementation, 

and testing continued for support of upcoming new 

missions such as the Space Telescope and future 

Spacelabs. 

The Communications Program for the Office of 

Space Tracking and Data System (OSTDS) is comprised principally of two major components: NASA 

Communications (NASCOM) and Program Support 

Communications (PSC) which consist collectively of 

almost 3 million miles of circuits with associated 

switching and terminal facilities. Operational communications support for all flight projects is provided 

by NASCOM. This global network connects NASA's 

remote tracking sites with the agency's field centers; it 

will be reduced in size in concert with the closing of 

ground network stations. A Time Division Multiple 

Access (TDMA) system will serve the remaining stations using advanced digital techniques which allow 

transmit/receiving connections to be adjusted to meet 

the communications requirements. 

Programmatic and administrative operations at all 

NASA centers and Headquarters are provided by the 

Program Support Communications Network (PSCN). 

Space Research and Technology 

The NASA space research and technology program 

provides the scientific and technological advancements 

that enable the United States to lead in the exploration 

of the solar system, in communications, and in earth 

observations from space. The major disciplines include 

propulsion, space energy conversion, controls and 

human factors, space data and communications, computer science and electronics, materials and structures, 

and aerothermodynamics. In addition to these 

disciplines, the program supports R&T Space Flight 

Experiments. The NASA space research and technology program is conducted by NASA Centers, 

private industry and the university community. 

Disciplinary R&T. 

program spans several disciplines. 

The technology base for the research and technology 

Propulsion. The technology for advanced reusable 

Earth-to-orbit propulsion systems continued to make 

advances in 1984 toward developing longer life components. Analytical modeling and experiments improved understanding of the interaction between fluids 

and rotating mechanical parts. This resulted in the 

development of damping seals for high-speed turbopumps that will greatly reduce shaft dynamics and 

associated high bearing loads. In the bearing research 

program, ititial thermal modeling of rolling element 

bearings operating in a cryogenic environment was 

completed. Testing of bearings began to validate and 

upgrade the new model as necessary. For propulsion of 

orbital-transfer vehicles, the program focused on 

critical subcomponents. For example, testing to 

evaluate combustor walls designed for enhanced heat 

transfer to increase turbine drive gas temperatures was 

initiated in 1984. Hot air was used to simulate combustion gases. Tests looked for materials that could be 

used for turbine blades operating with oxygen as the 

turbine working fluid. Research efforts also sought 

material candidates and fabrication techniques for 

high-expansion-ratio, aerodynamically efficient exhaust nozzles. 

Space Energy Conversion. The joint DOE/DOD/N ASA 

nuclear reactor space power program continued to 

evaluate various energy conversion system options, 

now reduced to three: thermoelectric, thermionic, and 

Stirling cycle conversion systems. System contractors 

selected for each of the concepts made significant progress in resolving technical issues of efficiency, stability 

of high-temperature materials, and system life. 

Research on photovoltaics energy systems progressed substantially during 1984 in the technologies of 

high performance solar cells and large arrays. For 

silicon solar cells, increases in efficiency were achieved 

through surface passivation and provision for cell 

transparency to the infrared portion of the solar spectrum. Decreased weight occurred through reductions 

in cell thickness, the use of gridded back contacts, and 

increased efficiency. Significant technological progress 

occurred in 1984 on multiple bandgap cells, such as 

gallium-indium-arsenide and gallium-arsenidephosphide, potentially capable of achieving 30-percent 

efficiency. Advanced designs that result in reduced 

blockage of incident sunlight and in improved pointing 

control also have been made in gallium arsenide concentrator arrays. These arrays offer potential for 

significant reductions in size and cost compared to 

planar configurations. 

Future space systems, which may consume several 

hundred kilowatts of power, must deal with large electrical currents and heat flows. To address these needs, 

a new research program investigates high strength, 

lightweight electrical and thermal conductors made of 

intercalated graphite. Graphite fibers intercalated with 

bromine showed a factor of 5 increase in electrical con- 
ductivity and demonstrated very high current-carrying 

capability without degradation. 

Nearly all of the power generated aboard a space station must be radiated to space as waste heat. Conventional flat-plate or tube-and-fin radiators, plus their 

meteoroid armoring, would be so heavy as to dominate 

systems design tradeoffs. One promising new idea, the 

liquid drop radiator, radiates waste heat from a recirculating free stream of liquid droplets in place of a solid 

surface. In concept, the liquid absorbs space station 

heat; then it is sprayed in a tightly controlled stream to 

a distant receiver, radiating heat on the way. The liquid system would be lighter, less susceptible to damage 

by meteoroids and easier to transport to space than 

conventional systems. Laboratory spray and heat 

transfer tests in 1984 encourage continued research. 

In 1984, integrated breadboard tests of two types of 

the fuel-cell and water-electrolyzer systems were initiated to verify the concept of regenerative fuel cells 

technology for power generation and energy storage. 

Testing of a breadboard system, which uses an acidic 

solid-polymer electrolyte, successfully achieved experimental goals with 3000 hours of operation, obtained using duty cycles representative of low-earthorbit conditions. Design, fabrication, and final 

assembly of the alternative alkaline breadboard system 

were completed; and testing began at the end of 1984. 

In the technology for higher-capacity, long-life, highenergy-density batteries, experimental advanced concept primary lithium cells were produced successfully 

in the dry room facility established in 1984. 

Controls and Human Factors. Research focused on controlling such large flexible space systems as may be 

developed in the future, e.g., a space station larger and 

more complex than the initial version, large antennae, 

and large astrophysics telescopes. During 1984, the 

technology for a precision shape sensor, capable of 

simultaneoulsy measuring the motion of as many as 50 

positions on a space structure, was tested in the 

laboratory. The test demonstrated a position accuracy 

measurement of less than 2mm from a ranging 

distance of 10 meters. In teleoperation, the largest 

piece of the human factors program, the activity goes 

beyond the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) currently used on Shuttle orbiters to the development of 

free-flying, two-armed, remote manipulators which 

can be used to service satellites, the Shuttle, and Space 

Station and to assemble structures. Major accomplishments of 1984 are in the area of intelligent 

displays and augmented controls for use by an 

operator. 

Space Data and Communications. A Charge Coupled 

Device (CCD) for imaging of astronomical objects was 

demonstrated in 1984 by successfully imaging the 

radiation emanating from a laser-generated plasma at 

the University of California. It has X-ray sensitivity to 

energies as low as 277 eV with spectral resolution as 

good as 215 eV. This device can image objects in the 

wave-length region from UV to 584 angstroms. Further development may lead to a low-cost 1024 by 1024 

pixel CCD for use in solar and planetary applications 

as well as provide enhanced astrophysical performance 

such as enhanced UV and x-ray sensitivity, good spectral resolution and improved charge collection for 

spatial imaging. 

Technology for a 55-meter diameter, offset wrap-rib 

antenna that would support a nationwide mobile communications system was demonstrated for the first time 

during 1984. An antenna segment, consisting of 4 ribs 

and three gores, was fabricated and successfully 

ground tested in deployment and retraction tests. 

Computer Science and Electronics. An Optical Disk Buffer (ODB) is under development through an interagency R&D program involving NASA, the Department of 

Energy, the U. S. Air Force, the Central Intelligence 

Agency, and the Defense Mapping Agency. The objective is to provide both the Space Station and government supercomputer facilities with an ultra-high performance data storage unit. The ODB will store one 

trillion bits of information with a data transfer rate in 

excess of one billion bits per second. The optical disk 

unit delivered to Marshall Space Flight Center in 1984 

provided critical technology which has been combined 

with advances in erasable media and laser diode 

technology to make the ODB possible. The ODB will 

be designed for both space and ground usage, with a 

total volume of less than one cubic meter. 

NASA's coordination with the Department of 

Defense program in Very High Speed Integrated Circuits (VHSIC) has resulted in identification, during 

1984, of the first potential civil applications of this 

technology. Candidates include a custom processor for 

synthetic aperture radar data for use in the Venus 

Mapper Mission, a general purpose processor for the 

Space Station, a programmable logic array for the 

Shuttle propulsion system and a baseband processor 

for advanced communictaions satellites. This 

technology promises to meet the five million operations 

per second required for the Space Station general purpose processor. 

During 1984, major performance improvements 

were realized in an automated planning program 

which uses artificial intelligence techniques to plan and 

schedule spacecraft operations automatically. This 

planning system, which has been tailored for use by the 

Voyager Project during the encounter of Uranus, now 

exhibits sufficiently high levels of sophistication and 

capability for realistic planning of major mission sequences involving as many as a hundred distinct tasks. 

This computer program, known as DEVISER, is being coupled with programs for execution of monitoring 

and fault diagnosis to yield a laboratory demonstration 

of a rudimentary system for autonomy, a key capability for future space missions. 

Materials and Structures. During 1984, materials 

research and technology significantly contributed to 

29 
the national space effort. Over an area of 4000 sq. ft. 

on Shuttle Orbiter Discovery 1, 2300 flexible woven 

ceramic blankets replaced 8000 ceramic tiles. This new 

thermal protection system (TPS) is much more durable 

than the original TPS, without loss of performance or 

additional weight penalty. While research in advanced 

TPS will continue, the flexible blankets represent a 

major improvement. 

During 1984, studies conducted under space environmental effects research showed the amount of 

man-made debris in stable orbits to be much greater 

than was thought a few years ago. While the absolute 

risk of impact is small, the potential danger to both 

low-orbit and geosynchronous satellites cannot be ignored; and the effects of hypervelocity impact by 

debris and meteoroids must be considered in planning 

extended space operations. In another environmental 

effects research effort, accelerated test techniques have 

been developed and evaluated corresponding to a 

30-year exposure of polymeric materials to the conditions found in a low earth orbit. The research is being 

supported by the unique ground-based Space EnMONODISPERSE UTEX REACTOR SFJW ". 

PHOTOCRAPH MOUNTING SHEET, 51s- .L EITDlTh- FUEWTDITh&O~CR- - 1_ 

fThe advantages of space processing, the higher degree of 

refinement from materials produced in space, are evident in 

this comparison of electron microscope views of 

monodisperse latex particles made on Shuttle flight STS-6 

(top photo) with those made on Earth (bottom photo) using 

the same chemical recipe and identical hardware. Those 

made on Earth, under the pull of gravity, are deformed, offsized and show other imperfections. 

vironmental Effects Facility at the Langley Research 

Center. 

Microgravity Science andA@lications. On July 17, 1984, 

NASA officially transferred to the National Bureau of 

Standards (NBS) 10 micron diameter monodisperse 

latex beads which had been processed on board the 

Space Shuttle. NBS currently is characterizing the 

spheres; and plans are to release them for sale in 1985 

as primary standards. This is part of their Standard 

Reference Material (SRM) program which is administered in conjunction with the American Society 

for Testing Materials. The latex beads are the result of 

a NASA-sponsored program which is investigating the 

processing of monodisperse beads in low gravity for 

sizes up to 100 microns diameter. NBS would like 

samples of the larger sizes when they become available 

for possible use in the SRM program; currently NBS is 

evaluating the quality of 30 microgram diameter beads 

which were produced in limited quantities on a recent 

Shuttle flight. 

In 1984, some preliminary results were obtained for 

a Germanium Selenide (GeSe) vapor crystal growth 

experiment performed on the OSTA-2 mission. 

Typical of space processed crystals, the GeSe crystals 

are larger, more regular, with a low defect density. In 

addition, the crystals appeared to be formed in the 

center of ampoule, (away from contact with the walls), 

indicating a pattern of homogenous nucleation. In 

general, crystals formed by homogenous nucleation 

will have a lower defect density. The result should be 

high quality crystals being produced in subsequent 

space experiments which will study vapor growth of 

other materials such as the technologically interesting 

mercury cadmium telluride. 

In 1984, the McDonnell Douglas Aerospace Cor 

poration (MDAC) continued efforts to commercialize 

the processing of biomaterials in space using a Coiltinuous Flow Electrophoretic System (CFES). On a recent Shuttle flight, a "preproduction" run of proprietary materials using CFES was conducted. 

Aerothermodynamics. Rapid progress has been made in 

defining the aerodynamic heating to be encountered by 

orbital transfer vehicles, transatmospheric vehicles, 

and planetary return vehicles, which may use 

aerobraking and aerocapture for maneuvering or for 

braking upon return to Earth. Recent studies have 

shown that the use of the Earth's upper atmosphere for 

retro-braking and plane change maneuvers at orbital 

and higher speeds involves considerable nonequilibrium chemistry effects on the heat transfer to 

the spacecraft. The complex chemical reactions important in heating are difficult to verify experimentally 

and hence mathematical modeling of finite-rate 

chemistry must be carried out for the flow fields about 

the spacecraft. This requires computationally intensive 

modeling; however, a recent breakthrough in aerothermodynamics algorithms for modeling complex flows 

30 
allows rapid solution to the governing flow equations 

including the complex chemistry required. This 

breakthrough will enable rapid, accurate parametric 

studies to be accomplished with significantly reduced 

computer resource requirements. 

In a companion effort to define the flow fields and 

aerodynamic heating about advanced space transportation system (shuttle-like vehicles) at high angles of attack (greater than 30°), a flow code has been produced 

which is capable of accurate flow simulation for the 

windward side of vehicles. This flow code has been 

verified by comparison with entry flight data obtained 

on the Shuttle Orbiter. This validated code will be used 

to define the aerodynamic loads and surface heating in 

advanced concepts of space transportation systems. 

The Long-Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) suspended 

high above the Gulf of Mexico by the remove manipulator 

system (RMS) prior to releasing it into space. Carried into 

Earth orbit by the Space Shuttle Challenger, LDEF will be 

retrieved from space after nine or ten months by a future 

Shuttle mission. 

R&T Space Flight Experiments 

In Space Tests and Experiments. Two significant events 

in the use of the Shuttle to advance space technology 

occurred in 1984. First, the Shuttle Orbiter Challenger 

delivered the Long Duration Exposure Facility 

(LDEF) into orbit in April 1984. LDEF carries a total 

of 57 technological experiments on materials and components and scientific investigations of the space environment. After one year in space, LDEF returns to 

Earth via another Shuttle flight for the experiments on 

the effects of in-depth analysis of long-term exposure in 

space. The second event of significance happened during August - September, 1984, when the Shuttle Orbiter Discovery, lifted three experiments in one 

payload devoted to space solar power technology: the 

Solar Array Experiment, the Dynamic Augmentation 

Experiment, and Solar Cell Calibration Facility. At 

the heart of the payload was a large, lightweight, flat, 

folding solar array consisting of 84 panels. When fully 

extended, the array rose more than 10 stories above the 

Shuttle Orbiter cargo bay. Yet, when stored for launch 

and landing, the array folded into a package only 7 

inches thick. The Shuttle crew performed numerous 

successful deployments and retrievals of the array. 

During this operation and while the array was extended, the Dynamic Augmentation Experiment observed 

31 
The giant solar array experiment panel for the OAST-1 

payload of Shuttle Orbiter Discovery, photographed through 

aft flight deck windows with a 70 mm camera, stands out 

against the darkness of space. The vertical stabilizer of 

Discovery is silhouetted against the accordion-like aray. 

the solar array using an on-orbit method to determine 

dynamic characteristics of large highly flexible structures for space systems. The Solar Cell Calibration 

Facility performed experiments to compare in-space 

performance of solar cells with similar solar cells tested 

during high-altitude balloon flights, thus providing a 

validation of the inexpensive balloon method of obtaining predictions of solar cell characteristics for space 

missions. 

A flight test of the Feature Identification and Location Experiment (FILE) was conducted in October 

1984 aboard Shuttle Orbiter Challenger to 

demonstrate advanced sensor technology for the 

autonomous classification of Earth‘s surface features 

into vegetation, bare earth, water, clouds, snow, and 

ice. This technology has application for providing 

pointing information for future earth observation, instrumentation, and navigation systems. 

Orbiter Flight Test Experiments. Use of the Shuttle Orbiter as a test bed for the development of technology for 

advanced transportation systems moved ahead in 

1984. Work began on Columbia for installation of 

Shuttle-related flight-test instruments: an upper atmosphere mass spectrometer, the Shuttle infared 

leeside temperature sensor, and the Shuttle entry air 

data system. Data from these instruments will contribute significantly to the aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic data base in the entry flight regime. Shuttle Orbiter Challenger carries a high resolution accelerometer package which supplies data for determining the aerodynamic characteristics in the free 

molecular and transitional flow regimes. These data 

also provided information on density waves in the upper atmosphere which must be accounted for in the 

design of advanced space systems. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

The aeronautical research and technology program 

at NASA has contributed significantly to United States 

world leadership in the development of a safe and efficient civil air transportation system and superior 

military aircraft. To maintain that preeminence, 

NASA’s program is based in the technological 

disciplines and spans the flight spectrum from hovering 

to hypersonic flight. Sophisticated wind tunnels, computers, simulators and experimental flight vehicles are 

examples of the research facilities which NASA uses to 

meet today’s challenges and to provide the tools to 

design tomorrow’s aircraft. 

NASA scientists see as a major goal in aeronautics 

the ability to numerically simulate, rapidly and 

routinely, the complex three-dimensional flow of air 

around a flight vehicle. The Numerical Aerodynamic 

Simulation (NAS) program will develop the world’s 

most advanced aerodynamic computational facility, 

capable of achieving one billion operations each second 

and improving the efficiency of the design process. 

The interaction of flight crews with vehicle controls, 

displays and the air traffic environment are important 

factors in the safety and efficiency of aircraft operations. During 1984, NASA dedicated the Man-Vehicle 

Simulation Research Facility, equipped with advanced 

simulators and a computerized air traffic environment, 

to investigate aircrew limitations and capabilities. 

Research will be conducted to enhance safety, improve 

flight deck instrumentation, and solve other human 

related problems. 

Disciplinary R&T 

NASA’s disciplinary aeronautical research activities 

provide the long range effort necessary to maintain the 

preeminence of U.S. civil and military aviation. This 

research is directed at improving the understanding of 

basic physical phenomena and developing new concepts in the areas of Fluid and Thermal Physics 

Materials and Structures, Controls and Guidance 

Human Factors, and Information Sciences. 

Fluid and Thermal Physics. In 1984, a new program 

focus in computational fluid dynamics was established 

that will lead to a better understanding and analytical 

characterization of highly complex internal flows and 

processes common to gas turbine engines and other 

aeropropulsion systems. 

A series of wind tunnel and full scale flight tests to 

investigate the effects of natural laminar flow over extensive regions of wings and other aircraft surfaces was 

32 
completed. Eight different airplanes, representing 

business and commercial transport aircraft, were used 

in these flight experiments which clearly demonstrated 

the ability to achieve and maintain natural laminar 

flow on modern airplane surfaces. 

Laminar Flow Control concepts which create and 

control a laminar flow of air across difficult surfaces 

(such as the leading edge of a wing) also are being 

studied. Flight acceptance tests of two different systems 

were completed in 1984 on a JETSTAR aircraft as a 

precursor to extensive research flight evaluations and 

operational testing of these systems. 

Materials and Structures. NASA aeroelastic research 

has developed a decoupler pylon which suppresses the 

flutter characteristics of the combined wing/pylon/external ordnance system. Flight testing on an F-16 

fighter successfully demonstrated the feasibility of this 

concept. This technology could increase the amount 

and type of external ordnance carried on existing 

fighters and will reduce external systems integration 

problems on future fighters. 

Five shipsets of composite horizontal stabilizers were 

installed and are now in operational service on the Boeing 737 aircraft. Extensive use of composites in commercial aircraft will reduce gross weight and fuel consumption significantly. 

A major activity to develop ceramics for use in the 

hot section of gas turbine engines continued in 1984. 

Ceramic components will be able to operate at higher 

temperatures than metallic components without the aid 

of cooling air and thus will contribute to more efficient 

engines than those built today. An optimal structural 

tailoring procedure was completed which provides the 

capability of designing stages of engine blades 

weighing 30% less than those designed by conventional procedures. 

Controls and Guidance. A resident back-up software 

concept was flight tested successfully on the NASA F-8 

Digital-fly-by-wire aircraft. This concept provides 

reliability in case of errors in the primary software, and 

is an attractive alternative to back-up hardware. Improved aircraft flight modeling techiques were 

developed which can predict aircraft performance 

under all flight conditions and reduce expensive flight 

testing. These techniques are being evaluated in a 

cooperative program with Boeing Commercial Aircraft 

Company. 

In a joint program with the Army and the Navy, 

new phosphors were developed which will permit full 

color, high resolution, thin film electroluminescent flat 

panel displays for aircraft cockpits. 

Human Factors. NASA researchers have completed 

the first half of a crew fatigue and circadian desynchronosis (jet lag) program by gathering a data base on 

short-haul commercial airline crews. The long-haul 

portion of the study has been initiated. This study will 

assist airline crews in minimizing the effects of fatigue 

and circadian desynchronosis. In addition, researchers 

have developed methods for predicting workload and 

are compiling a handbook on workload measurement. 

Information Sciences. The Research Institute for Advanced Computer Science (RIACS) completed its first 

year of operation. RIACS was formed to advance 

agency capabilities in aerospace computer science by 

strengthening ties with the university and industry 

research communities. The on-going core research 

program focused on a project which combines concurrent processing and expert systems. 

Systems Research 

Systems research and technology programs integrate 

the results of research in the various disciplines to provide an understanding of the interactions among 

system components. The current programs are focused 

on those technologies directed at improved propulsion 

systems, short takeoffhertical landing (STOVL), advanced turboprops and supersonic cruise. 

Advanced fighter concept tested in the NASA Langley 4 x 7 

Meter Wind Tunnel using this 30 percent scale model 

General Dynamic E-7 advanced fighter, one of several 

powered-lift short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) approaches in which NASA is interested. 

Powered Lift, An ejector augmentor concept design 

for a single engine, supersonic, short takeoffhertical 

landing (STOVL) fighter successfully completed 

powered ground effect, and high speed, unpowered 

tests in two wind tunnel programs. A second concept 

33 
using plenum chamber burning also was tested in 

model scale in a high speed wind tunnel. 

Two major joint international activities were initiated in 1984. The first was a cooperative program 

with Canada to test a large scale ejector STOVL model 

in the 40 + 80 ft. wind tunnel. The second was a planning activity with the United Kingdom to define a 

cooperative advanced STOVL technolqgy prqram. 

Supersonic Cruise Technology. Dramatic improvements 

in advanced fighters to allow sustained supersonic 

cruise, long range, high maneuverability, high acceleration, rapid turn rates and perhaps even STOVL 

operation can be achieved due to rapidly evolving gas 

turbine engine technology. A twin-boom supersonic 

cruise fighter is an initial concept that incorporates 

curved leading edge supersonic wing, advanced 

titanium structure, a thrust vectored nozzle and the 

Turbine Bypass Engine concept. Studies indicate 

significant potential benefits in every area of performance to include STOVL operations. Recent improvements in computational methods have been applied to analyses of very high supersonic flight, in particular to a Mach 4.5 airplane concept. In addition, the 

design of a Mach 5.0 dual (ovedunder) inlet wind tunnel model was completed. 

Propulsion Systems R&T Research. Progress continued 

in advanced instrumentation that allows non-intrusive 

evaluation of flowfields. A color rainbow schlieren 

system was developed and used to study the shock 

waves around a supersonic inlet. Color coding of the 

disturbance magnitude in the flow provides quantitative information on expansion waves, boundary 

layers, shock waves and other flow phenomena. 

A single cylinder diesel test rig achieved the brake 

specific fuel consumption goal required for the diesel to 

be competitive with advanced spark-ignited engines. 

As a result of these tests, diesel engines, with their 

ability to use various types of fuel, could be considered 

for use in general aviation aircraft. 

Advanced Turboprop Program. The final design of the 

large-scale (nine foot diameter) propeller was completed. The high speed, swept propeller was designed 

with acceptable blade deflections and stresses, no 

predicted flutter, good performance and acceptable 

noise. Fabrication of the propeller assembly is underway in preparation for static and wind tunnel tests. Experimental programs were conducted which evaluated 

propeller configurations (single or counter-rotating), 

location on an airframe, noise radiation patterns and 

effects on low speed stability and control 

characteristics. The results will enable designers to 

chose an optimum configuration for advanced testing. 

Helicopter Technology. NASA began a program with 

the four major U.S. civil helicopter companies (Bell, 

Boeing-Vertol, Hughes, and Sikorsky) to identify 

near-term NASA technology that has a high probability of commercial application to public service uses and 

Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in particular. The 

Phase I study will identify EMS and other public service users' helicopter and on-board equipment interface 

requirements and associated technology needs. Phase 

I1 will be directed at the implementation of the 

technology and technology transfer activity. The effort 

is being coordinated with the FAA, Coast Guard, 

Naitonal Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 

DOD, and appropriate segments of the public service 

and medical community. 

Two successful helicopter icing tests were completed. A pneumatically operated rotor blade deicer 

boot was flown in artificial and natural icing conditions. In addition, ice shapes on the leading edge of a 

rotor blade and in flight performance data were obtained to correlate analytic and wind tunnel results of 

rotor performance degradation due to ice. 

Military Support 

NASA conducts numerous joint programs with the 

Department of Defense to insure the continued 

superiority of U.S. military aviation. These programs 

include both rotorcraft and high performance aircraft. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Intergrution (AFTI). The 

joint Air Force/NASA AFTI/F-16 incorporates an advanced digital fly-by-wire control system and canard 

surfaces for implementation of advance combat control 

modes. The Automatic Maneuvering Attack System 

(AMAS) phase of the program was initiated in 1984 

and will be completed during 1985. An AFTI/F-111 

was modified with a Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) 

which will demonstrate the aerodynamic performance 

improvements of a supercritical wing which uses 

smooth leading-and trailing-edge devices to assume 

many shapes for optimum performance over a wide 

operating envelope. The flight research program will 

begin in the first quarter of 1985. 

F-15 Highly Integrated Digital Engine Control (HIDEC). 

The cooperative NASA/Air Force/Industry HIDEC 

activity is a flight research experiment to develop the 

technology required for the beneficial interaction of 

engine and flight controls. Modifications of an F-15 

aircraft were completed in 1984 and the flight research 

program initiated. The automatic adjustment of 

engine operating parameters, based on flight conditions, is expected to double the excess supersonic thrust 

of the modified aircraft as compared to a standard 

Oblique Wing Research Airplane. This joint 

NASA/Navy activity consists of the design, fabrication, and flight research testing of a composite, 

aeroelastically tailored high-aspect-ratio oblique wing 

aircraft at transonic and supersonic flight conditions. 

The oblique wing concept, conceived by R. T. Jones of 

NASA, offers potential performance benefits for a 

variety of military and civil missions. A Request for 

Proposals was issued in 1984 for the preliminary design 

F-15. 
of the research airplane, and the flight research program is planned to begin in early 1989. 

X-29A Forward Swept Wing Flight Demonstrator. The 

X-29A program, funded by the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA), achieved several 

major pr,ogram milestones in 1984. The flight 

demonstrator successfully accomplished high-speed 

taxi tests and was relocated to NASA’s Dryden Flight 

Research Facility to undergo contractor functional 

flight testing. NASA and Air Force test pilots will participate jointly in the flight envelope expansion of this 

revolutionary aircraft concept. 

RSRA/X- Wing Rotor Flight Demonstration, At 

DARPA’s request, NASA is managing and supporting 

a program to develop and flight test the X-Wing Rotor 

concept on one of the two NASNArmy Rotor Systems 

Research Aircraft (RSRA). In 1984 the helicopter version of the RSRA was modified to accept the unique 

X-Wing rotor. The compound helicopter RSRA, 

which includes auxillary wings and propulsion, was 

flown in a rotorless, fixed-wing mode to clear the flight 

test envelope for the X-Wing rotor. Supporting 

research and technology conducted by NASA included 

wind tunnel investigations and piloted simulations to 

study the X-Wing rotor characteristics. 

The NASA/Army Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA), 

already flown as a helicopter and a compound 

helicopterlairplane, is shown taking off on its maiden flight as 

an airplane. It is designed to test new rotor systems that may 

be flown on the helicopter of the future. Testing is done at 

NASA Ames Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards, 

CA. 

Convertible Engine. The first full-scale testing of the 

unique “convertible” engine was completed successfully, and the feasibility of the concept was demonstrated. 

A TF-34 turbo-fan engine was modified to provide 

turbo-shaft power to drive a rotor/propeller or turbofan power for direct thrust propulsion. Potential application of this powerplant includes advanced military 

vehicles such as the X-Wing, Tilt Fan, and Folded Tilt 

Rotor concepts. 

Tilt Rotor/JVX Aircraft Support. NASA’s unique 

research facilities are providing essential data to the 

Joint Services Vertical Lift Aircraft UVX) program. 

Scale-model-wind-tunnel-powered spin tests were 

completed at NASA/s Langley Research Center. The 

Vertical Motion Simulator at NASA’s Ames Research 

Center was used in two design and development tests 

to validate the JVX math model and evaluate the flight 

control system characteristics. In addition, testing was 

completed at the Ames Outdoor Aerodynamic 

Research Facility on the XV- 15 blades, a scale version 

of the JVX blades, and the Advanced Technology 

Blades. 

Safety and Eficiency in Air Transportation 

NASA and the FAA are closely coordinating 

research activities to provide a safer, more efficient air 

transportation system for the nation. 

Aviation Safety. NASA has continued to advance 

technologies which enhance aviation safety. Direct 

lightning strikes to the Langley F- 106B research aircraft raised the total to 61 1 strikes in the five year program. The characterization of atmospheric lightning is 

being used by DoD and NASA to design new lightning 

protection concepts for advanced aircraft systems and 

structures. Wind shear data collected in the interagency doppler radar measurement program in Denver has 

been applied to the NASA Ames Boeing 727 simulator. 

This wind shear model is assisting FAA, airlines and 

aircraft manufacturers in training pilots to cope with 

this recurring hazard during inadvertent penetrations. 

At the Lewis Research Center, icing research focused 

on the correlation of inflight data, obtained on the 

Lewis Twin Otter, with computer analyses and wind 

tunnel tests conducted in the Lewis Icing Research 

Tunnel. 

In a joint activity with the FAA, NASA completed 

the development of advanced, lightweight, fireworthy 

materials to reduce the threat of fire in aircraft cabins. 

The FAA accepted the Ames fire blocking layer 

technology seat cushion concept as the technical basis 

for rulemaking. In addition, Ames completed development of cabin interior wall panels which have 

demonstrated a fourfold increase in occupant survival 

time. 

In a major research program, the remotely controlled impact of civil jet transport was successfully accomplished at the NASA Dryden Flight Research 

Facility. This program evaluated the anti-misting 

kerosene safety fuel, crashworthy passenger and flight 

crew seats, and measured structural loads. The results 

35 
of this test will assist the FAA in implementing additional safety features for civil transport aircraft. 

Advanced l’ransport Operaling System (ATOPS). An activity is underway to investigate extending the concept 

of automatic flight to rollout and turnoff for reduced 

runway occupancy times during normal and adverse 

weather conditions. Using a buried magnetic cable, the 

system has been tested with ground vehicles. Additional experiments will focus on exit design and location, touchdown dispersion, passenger acceptance, and 

cockpit displays. 

36 
Department of Defense 

In cooperation with NASA and other Federal Agencies, the Department of Defense (DoD) continues to 

provide for the security of the United States and its 

allies by advancing the effectiveness and capabilities of 

its national resources in communications, navigation, 

surveillance, aeronautics and strategic defense. During 

1984, the DoD initiated plans to acquire a limited 

number of expendable launch vehicles to complement 

the Space Transportation System and the Air Force 

began final preparations for a first launch of the Space 

Shuttle, in early 1986, from the West Coast Shuttle 

launch and landing facilities at Vandenberg AFB. The 

complementary expendable launch vehicles and the 

new facilities support the President’s National Space 

Policy for assured access to space. 

Recognizing that space based command, control, 

and communication capabilities are crucial to the 

deterrence and containment of hostilities, efforts to increase the survivability, autonomy, performance, 

reliability and life of satellites continued during 1984. 

Also, the Global Positioning System, which will provide precise geodetic positions for military and civilian 

uses, has produced test results that meet or exceed 

operational requirements. 

The Naval Space Command, which was established 

in 1983 to consolidate Navy space activities, has 

assumed operational command of various space 

systems including the Navy Astronautics Group, 

Naval Space Surveillance System, Fleet Satellite Communications System, and TRANSIT/NOVA navigation satellite system. 

The Strategic Defense Initiative, which began in 

1983, has progressed to the definition of five major 

areas requiring extensive research on key technologies 

so that informed decisions can be made in the 1990s 

concerning the possible deployment of defensive 

systems 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Corn mu nications 

MILSATCOM. Space based communications systems 

continue to be reponsive to the needs of command and 

support forces of the commanders-in-chief, military 

services and agencies, strategic and tactical nuclear 

forces, and strategic and tactical conventional forces. 

The rapidly evolving uncertainties of the world situation and the increasing destructiveness of weapons 

have made rapid, reliable communications a crucial 

element in the deterrence and containment of 

hostilities. Military Satellite Communications 

(MILSATCOM) meets this challenge by providing 

nearly instantaneous links between decision makers 

and forces, deployed worldwide. MILSATCOM uses 

coordinated systems of specialized satellites and 

ground terminals to provide reliable and survivable 

communications to strategic and tactical forces over 

the full range of conflict and national emergencies. 

The development of the MILSATCOM systems has 

been an evolutionary process. Older systems are constantly improved while new ones are entering the inventory. During 1984, military satellite communications links depended primarily on the Defense Satellite 

Communications System (DSCS), the Fleet Satellite 

Communications System (FLTSATCOM), and 

selected commercial SATCOM circuits. The strategic 

and tactical nuclear-capable forces also were served by 

Lined up and ready for space-a dozen U.S. Navy Transit 

navigation satellites designed to provide accurate position 

fixes anywhere in the world, day or night in any weather. 

With each launch, one satellite will be kept in orbital 

“storage” to maintain the life of the Navy’s Strategic Systems 

through 1992. The system provides navigation services for 

thousands of commercial ships equipped with receivers. 

37 
the Air Force Satellite Communications System 

(AFSATCOM), which uses additional transponder 

packages on FLTSATCOM, the Satellite Data 

Systems (SDS), and other host satellites. Full operational capability for the AFSATCOM system was 

achieved in 1984. In the future, strategic and tactical 

satellite communications will depend on DSCS, 

Milstar, and follow-on ultra high frequency (UHF) 

satellite systems. 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS). The 

DSCS segment, which presently operates with three 

DSCS Phase I1 and one DSCS Phase Ill satellites, continues to serve the needs of the command and support 

forces for long haul, moderate-to-high data rate communications. This super high frequency (SHF) service 

is being provided to a growing number of stationary 

and mobile terminals. To ensure a robust control 

capability for the worldwide DSCS system, a total of 

five fixed DSCS Operations Centers (DSCSOC) and 

as many as six mobile DSCS control assets are planned 

for deployment. The Army is responsible for satisfying 

ground subsystem requirements for DSCS and a second Operations Center is now operational at Ft. 

Detrick, Maryland. This center has control responsibility for the Atlantic DSCS area. 

Efforts continue to procure, install, and activate new 

digital communications subsystems and anti-jam 

equipment to provide a secure, reliable, and survivable 

worldwide command, control, and communications 

capability. Four AN/MSQ-114 terminals approved for 

use and operation with the DSCS I11 control subsystem were accepted and deployed to the field for tactical use. Final acceptance testing of the AN/TSC-85A 

multi-channel and the AN/TSC-93A single channel 

tactical terminals was initiated. The Navy’s SHF SATCOM terminal, AN/WSC-6 with the OM-55 modem, 

will be installed aboard all fleet flagships to provide 

jam-resistant communications for commanders of 

numbered fleets. The first flagship installations were 

initiated in October 1984. The AN/WSC-6 also is being installed aboard 12 surface-towed array 

surveillance systems (SURTASS) ships with the MD1030A modem. 

To provide increased capabilities and more survivable communications, the ground terminals and 

control elements of DSCS continue to be upgraded and 

expanded. The deliverv of 39 AN/GSC-52 medium 

terminals is scheduled to begin in the middle of 1985. 

The upgrade of 21 AN/GSC-39 medium terminals was 

completed by the end of 1984. During the 1985-86 

period, selected DSCS control facilities will receive the 

Satellite Configuration Control Elements (SCCE) providing an automated means of controlling competing 

users. Moreover, modernization to improve the 

capacity and capabilities of the DSCS terminals by the 

integration of Digital Communications Subsystems 

continues with some forty sites scheduled for modernization between 1985 and 1988. 

Predicated on the need to achieve an evolutionary 

transition from a limited manual capability to a vastly 

more efficient semi-automated system control, other 

procurements are planned to occur by 1987. Included 

are Frequency Division Multiple Access Control Subsystems which monitor network terminal performance 

and relay information to major control terminals, 

Smart Multi-Circuit Terminals, and the Ground 

Mobile Forces Control Link. These components in the 

DSCS operations control system will provide an 

enhanced capability to monitor, control and reconfigure the DSCS to support communications vital to 

the national security under stressed and unstressed 

conditions. 

Milstar. Development of the EHF Milstar satellite 

continued under the managment of the Air Force Joint 

Milstar Program Office. Full-scale development activities were performed by the Lockheed Missile and 

Space Corporation, Sunnyvale, California. Half of the 

spacecraft subsystem Preliminary Design Reviews 

were completed in 1984. The Air Force has responsibility for developing Milstar terminals for all airborne platforms. The Navy is developing shipboard 

terminals; and the Army will acquire the Single Channel Objective Tactical Terminal (SCOTT) to support 

the National Command Authorities, Joint Chiefs of 

Staff, and general terminal requirements of the Services, Advanced development of SCOTT has been completed. By the end of 1984, most of the Air Force Phase 

I terminal development work was completed; and the 

Air Force will select a primary Phase I1 Full Scale 

Development contractor. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System (FL TSA TCOM). 

The Navy managed UHF satellite communications 

systems continued to provide worldwide coverage between latitudes 70 degrees north and 70 degrees south 

to strategic and tactical forces including the Navy, 

Commanders-in-Chief of the Unified and Specified 

Commands, the National Command Authority and 

other high priority users. UHF SATCOM is the 

primary military communications link for strategic and 

tactical mobile forces and is the backbone of day-to-day 

command, control and communications to forces 

afloat. It consists of three satellite constellations: 

FILLERS replacement). GAPFILLER is a threesatellite system which has provided coverage of three 

ocean areas since 1976. A leased package on the 

Marisat satellites, GAPFILLER has provided 25 

spacecraft-years of service and will be replaced by the 

four-satellite LEASAT constellation during FY 85. 

LEASAT is under contract to Hughes to provide leased services for five years and will become fully operational by October 1985. Two satellites of this system 

were launched from the Space Shuttle in 1984; and the 

remaining two are expected to be launched during 

February and July 1985, respectively. The four 

satellites of the FLTSAT constellation were launched 

FLTSAT, GAPFILLER AND LEASAT (GAP- 
February 1978 through October 1980 and are expected 

to provide service until 1988. Continued service will be 

provided by launching the FLTSAT 6, 7, and 8 

replacement satellites in the 1985-87 time period. 

Follow-on evaluation of the Army UHF manpack 

and vehicular mounted satellite terminals, the 

AN/PSC-3 and VSC-7, was completed and distribution of these terminals to special operations forces 

began in 1984. Operating with the AFSATCOM and 

FLTSATCOM satellites, these terminals will provide 

Army tactical commanders a new and highly reliable 

capability to satisfy critical command, control, and intelligence communications in a secure mode. 

The need for DoD UHF SATCOM capability will 

continue at least into the 21st century. FLTSATCOM/LEASATCOM will provide service until the 

early 1990s. Plans are underway for a Follow-On UHF 

Space Segment, consisting of high capacity satellites, 

that will be deployed in late 1991 or early 1992. 

Army Satellit e Communications Act iu it ies . The Army 

Satellite Communications Program provides funds for 

ground terminal development and is the framework for 

the procurement of ground terminals by all the Armed 

Services and other Government agencies. Satellite 

ground terminals are developed in response to 

validated requirements of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to 

replace or supplement existing communicaitons 

systems which do not have the capability or survivability required on the modern battlefield. This program 

supports command and control requirements of the 

tactical and strategic commanders, as well as those of 

the National Command Authorities and the Defense 

Communications System for rapid, reliable, and effective communications. 

Tactical satellite communication links with ground 

forces are rapidly becoming an integral part of command, control, and communications on the battlefield. 

Production of super high frequency AN/TSC-85A and 

AN/TSC-93A multi-channel tactical terminals will improve anti-jam and traffic handling capabilities. This 

improvement will upgrade interoperability with the 

AN/TSC-94 and AN/TSC-100 terminals. Follow-on 

production contracts for the ultra high frequency manpacked and vehicular mounted AN PSC-3 and 

AN/VSC-7 satellite terminals will be initiated in 1985. 

Navigation and Geodesy 

Global Positioning System. Procurement of operational 

satellites for the Navstar Global Positioning System 

completed its third year under a multi-year 28 

spacecraft contract. The first operational launch is 

scheduled for the last quater of 1986 with full operational capability planned by the end of 1988. Development of the GPS receivers continued in 1984 with the 

two user equipment contractors: Rockwell/Collins and 

Magnavox. The test results obtained from a variety of 

host vehicles (M-60, F-16, B-52, UH-60, submarines, 

and carriers) indicate that overall system performance 

is meeting or exceeding requirements. In addition, the 

Defense Mapping Agency continued acceptance 

testing of GPS geodetic receivers. These units will be 

phased into operation in 1985. 

Developmental GPS satellites 9 and 10 were successfully launched in 1984, leaving one remaining 

satellite to be launched. The ground control segment of 

the system has been deployed and is currently 

undergoing final testing. Although the current control 

center is located at Vandenberg, AFB, California, it 

will be transferred to the Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC) at Falcon AFS, Colorado in 

1986. 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite. The Navy’s geodetic 

and geophysical satellite (GEOSAT) is scheduled to be 

launched in February 1985 to determine a precise 

marine geoid by measuring accurately small variations 

in the height of the ocean surface. This precision is 

necessary to support the increased accuracy requirements of the Trident I1 (D-5) missile. After the 

geoid measurements are completed about 19 months 

following launch, the satellite will be repositioned into 

an exact repeat orbit to optimize oceanographic 

measurements of wave height and surface wind speed 

and to locate ocean fronts and eddies. Spacecraft 

testing was completed at the end of 1984, and 

spacecraft integration with the Atlas E launch vehicle is 

scheduled to begin in January 1985 at Vandenberg 

AFB, California. 

Meteorolog and Oceanography 

Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System. The Navy’s Remote 

Ocean Sensing System (N-ROSS) satellite is designed 

to measure ocean surface winds, sea surface 

temperatures, ocean fronts and eddies, polar ice conditions, atmospheric water vapor and significant wave 

heights. The sensor suit of the N-ROSS derives its 

heritage from the SEASAT, NIMBUS, GEOSAT, 

and NOSS satellite projects. NASA will build the scatterometer sensor (ocean surface winds), the Air Force 

will manage the launch, command and control functions, and the Navy will process the N-ROSS data at 

the Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center at 

Monterey, California. After processing, the data will 

be provided to the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for distribution to 

other federal agencies, private industry, and the 

academic community. Current plans are to launch this 

satellite in June-of 1989. 

In October 1984 a Navy Oceanographer flew aboard 

Shuttle mission STS 41-G to view and record discreet 

ocean phenomena from low earth orbit. The initial examination of data and observations from this flight 

point to new discoveries in ocean structure. The Navy 

will continue to work with NASA to exploit fully the 

unique opportunities afforded by the direct observation of oceanic parameters from space by man. 

39 
Surveillance and Warning that informed decisions can be made in the 1900s on 

Early warning satellites provide warning of ballistic 

missile attacks to the National Command Authorities, 

Strategic Air Command, and North American 

Aerospace Defense Command. Additionally, the DoD 

is developing cruise missile surveillance techniques 

which may lead to a warning system similar to that for 

ballistic missiles. The purpose is to investigate the 

feasibility of cruise missile detection and tracking 

technology from space platforms, develop the key 

technologies required, evaluate their performance, and 

provide a confident basis for any future decision on full 

scale development. The Air Force has initiated 

technology concept assessments and infrared 

phenomonology measurements associated with cruise 

missile flights against low contrast earth backgrounds. 

Included will be mission data analysis of the Teal Ruby 

program, a joint Air Force and DARPA on-orbit test 

to demonstrate infrared detection of air-breathing 

vehicles. When launched, the Teal Ruby program will 

provide the initial demonstration of a space-based infrared sensor designed to acquire, identify, and track 

aircraft and cruise missiles. Specifically, Teal Ruby 

will collect measurements against low intensity 

signatures such as those of strategic and tactical aircraft 

and cruise missiles. These data are vital for development of a space based, wide area surveillance system. 

In 1984, the Teal Ruby flight sensor construction was 

completed; and it is currently undergoing integration 

testing. Also in 1984, the spacecraft was taken to 

Vandenberg AFB for a totally successful open-loop 

compatibility check with the remote satellite tracking 

station there. 

Antisatellite (ASAT) Program. The ASAT is an airlaunched antisatellite missile system consisting of a 

modified Short Range Attack Missile (SRAM) first 

stage, a modified Altair second stage, and a miniature 

warhead. ASATs will be launched from designated air 

defense F-15s. The primary purposes of a U.S. ASAT 

capability are to deter threats to space systems of the 

United States and its allies and, if necessary, to deny 

any adversary the use of space-based systems that provide support to hostile military forces. Captive-carry 

flight tests began in December 1982; and a point-inspace flight test was completed successfully in January 

1984. Tests against instrumented satellites designed to 

measure the performance of the ASAT missile are 

planned for fiscal year 1985. 

Strategic Defense Initiative. U.S. research and technology projects on strategic defenses against ballistic 

missiles have been consolidated under the Strategic 

Defense Initiative Organization which is responsible 

for directing the applicable programs of the Army, 

Navy, Air Force, Defense Nuclear Agency, Department of Energy, and Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency. The Strategic Defense Initative program goal is to conduct research on key technologies so 

whether to develop and deploy defensive systems. 

The Strategic Defense Initiative research is divided 

into the following five major program elements. 

The first of these, Surveillance, Acquistion, Tracking, and Kill Assessment (SATKA), is chartered to 

conduct research on the technologies needed to detect, 

identify, locate, and track ballistic missiles or their 

components during the boost, mid-course, and terminal phases of a ballistic missile trajectory. 

The next consolidates the directed energy weapons 

projects, directing research into the four general classes 

of directed energy weapons applicable to missile 

defense: space based lasers, ground based lasers, X-ray 

lasers, and particle beams. 

The third program element has to do with research 

on kinetic energy weapons designed to destroy ballistic 

missiles or their components by direct impact. 

Research is focused here on “smart bullets” which could 

be fired from the ground or space. An example of 

kinetic energy weapons research is the U.S. Army’s 

successful demonstration last June of the technologies 

needed to intercept and destroy a ballistic missile 

warhead in space using non-nuclear techniques. 

One of the most critical program elements is Battle 

Management and Command Control, and Communications Systems. The research goal is to determine how positive command and control might be 

structured for a defensive system. During 1984, ten 

contracts were awarded for the study of strategic 

defense architecture options. 

The fifth and final program element of the Strategic 

Defense Initiative is Survivability, Lethality, and Key 

Technologies. Here, research is being focused on the 

problems of space electrical power, launch vehicle requirements, and the critical areas of lethal capability of 

ballistic missiles and defensive system survivability. 

This approach provides a coordinated and focused 

research program that will permit decision makers, in 

the early 199Os, to make informed choices on whether 

to develop and deploy defenses against the ballistic 

missile threat to the United States and our allies. 

Space Transporation 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (EL Vs). During 1984, 

DoD launched eight Titan I11 and four Atlas E 

vehicles, in addition to two Scout vehicles and one 

Delta launched for DoD by NASA. In support of the 

President’s National Space Policy for assured access to 

space (August 1984), DoD initiated plans to acquire a 

limited number of ELVs for launch during the 

1988-1992 period. The ELVs will be used as a complement to the Space Shuttle; and will be capable of 

launching Shuttle-class, DoD payloads which are 

critical to the nation’s security. 

Space Shuttle. The National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration and DoD are involved in developing 

40 
and operating the Space Shuttle. NASA has the 

development and operation responsibilities for the 

Space Shuttle vehicles. These include the East Coast 

Shuttle launch and landing facilities at Kennedy Space 

Center, Florida, and the Mission Control Center at 

Johnson Space Center, Texas. DoDs responsibilities 

for the Shuttle include development of the inertial upper stage (IUS) and operation of the West Coast Shuttle launch and landing facilities at Vandenberg AFB, 

California. The Air Force also is funding modifications 

of existing NASA facilities and equipment to accommodate classified operations at Johnson, Kennedy, 

and Goddard Space Centers. Construction of the major facilities at Vandenberg is essentially complete, and 

installation of support equipment is well underway. 

Preparation has begun for a first launch early in 1986. 

Vandenberg will provide a Shuttle capability to launch 

satellites into polar orbit which cannot be reached from 

the Eastern launrh site at Kennedy. 

Upper Stage Programs. Space Shuttle upper stages include the commercial PAM-D and PAM-A which can 

carry 450 to 1,400 kilograms (kg) to geosynchronous 

orbit; the Air Force IUS which can carry 2,300 kg to 

geosynchronous orbit; and the joint NASA-Air Force 

Centaur which can carry 4,500 kg to geosynchronous 

oribt. In October 1983, the Air Force awarded a multiyear contract for 28 PAM-D IIs, a more powerful version of the PAM-D. These vehicles will support the 

Navstar Global Positioning System. 

Following the first launch of the IUS on a Titan 111 

in October 1982, successfully placing a DSCS I1 

satellite in orbit, the first Shuttle IUS launched the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite TDRS 1 in 1983. 

Because of a malfunction in the second stage motor of 

the IUS, the satellite was placed in an elliptical orbit. 

Subsequent orbit adjustments by the TDRS propulsion system moved the satellite into its proper orbit. A 

recovery plan to correct the motor problem was 

established in 1984, and IUS flights are expected to 

resume in early 1985. 

The Joint Centaur program will develop two configurations. The first is the Centaur G which will be six 

meters loag and have a 4,500-kg-to-geosynchronous 

capability; it will be the basic configuration for common use by NASA and DoD. The second configuration will be a stretched Centaur G with increased performance for the NASA Galileo and Ulysses missions 

in 1986. 

Advanced Spacecraft Technology. The Air Force continues with an advanced spacecraft technology program. The primary objectives are to increase satellite 

survivability, autonomy, performance reliability, and 

lifetime. Secondary objectives are to employ lighter, 

less complex, and more economical units than currently exist. The focus is in four major areas: computers 

and electronics, space guidance, power, and 

technology planning. In 1984, the space-qualified 16k 

RAM chip development was completed and commercial production was initiated. Development of larger, 

more capable, hardened components was started. The 

satellite autonomy project completed its two year study 

effort and a preliminary design review was conducted. 

Development of a high efficiency solar panel for testing 

in a high radiation environment was completed. 

Space Test Program. The Space Test Program (STP) 

provided space flights for 14 experiments on various 

missions during 1984. STP had 5 experiments aboard 

the NASA Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) 

launched from STS-41C on 6 April 1984. These experiments will study space environment and background effects on new materials for use in future DoD 

space systems. NASA plans to recover LDEF on STS 

51-D in 1986. In June 1984, two experiments measuring aerosols and performing spectrometry were flown 

on a host spacecraft. Seven Quick Response Shuttle 

type payloads were flown on six Space Shuttle flights. 

These experiments were flown in NASA Get-Away 

Special canisters in the Shuttle payload bay or were 

flown and performed on the Shuttle aft/mid-flight .deck 

by the astronauts. 

NASA and STP completed agreements to work on 

the Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

(CRRES) mission. This joint program will develop 

and launch from the Shuttle a free-flying spacecraft to 

perform a NASA chemical release mission during its 

three month flight profile in low earth orbit and then 

boost itself into a high-altitude, elliptic orbit for a DoD 

mission to evaluate the performance of advanced 

microelectronic components in a high-radiation space 

environment. The Air Force will fund the CRRES 

spacecraft, and NASA will fund the Shuttle integration 

and launch the spacecraft. Data from both CRRES 

missions will support development of future DoD and 

NASA spacecraft. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Fixed- Wing P~ograms 

Bomber Development. The first production B-1 B, produced by Rockwell International, was rolled out on 4 

September 1984. Its first flight lasted three hours and 

was conducted on 18 October 1984. Designated B-1B 

number one, this aircraft will join the B-1 test progam 

at Edwards AFB, California. To date, the B-1 test program has flown more than 2,150 flight-test hours. The 

B-1A number four, which appeared at the Farnborough Air Show in September 1982, began its portion of the flight testing program in July 1984. This 

B- 1A prototype, being modified with the complete 

B-1B offensive and defensive systems, is conducting 

heavyweight buildup tests, offensive and defensive 

avionics tests, and terrain-following evaluations. B- 1A 

number two, a fully instrumented prototype, conducted test and evaluation flights from March 1984 until its loss on 29 August 1984. Its test accomplishments 

41 
included weapon carriage and separation, vibration 

and acoustics, and stability and control tests. The first 

production B-1B will expand upon the testing begun 

by B-1A number two and supplement the testing done 

with B-1A number four. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (A TF). The ATF program is 

developing the USAF's next-generation air superiority 

fighter. It is a follow-on to the F-15, with enhanced 

capabilities to support the offensive counterair role. 

Enhancements in performance, survivability, and support are designed to provide new tactical capabilities to 

defeat the Soviet threat in the 1990s and beyond. The 

ATF Concept Definition Phase was completed during 

the summer of 1984. Boeing Aerospace Corporation, 

General Dynamics Corporation, Grumman Aircraft 

Company, McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Company, 

Northrop Corporation, Rockwell International, and 

Lockheed all participated in the concept development 

studies. The Air Force will continue evolving the ATF 

design with competitive demonstration and validation 

of ATF concepts and key technologies starting in 1985. 

The Joint Advanced Fighter Engine, another part 01 

the ATF development program, began in September 

1983 with the award of competitive engine development contracts to the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group 

and the General Electric Company. Both contractors 

are building engine components, full-scale and flightweight engines, and nozzles for testing. Engine teststand operations will begin in the summer of 1985. The 

program objective is to have a mature engine design 

when the ATF enters full-scale development during the 

late 1980s. Initial Operational Capability is planned 

for the mid-1990s. 

C-5. The wing modification production program for 

the C-5A fleet proceeded on schedule in 1984, with 

modifications completed on 30 aircraft. Modification 

of the entire fleet of 77 aircraft is scheduled to be completed by July 1987. This modification will permit thc 

C-5A to attain full mission capability and will extenc 

aircraft service life by 30,000 flight hours. The new 

production program for the C-5B will use a wing of the 

same basic design. The projected service life of the 

C-5B also is 30,000 flight hours. Both the C-5A and 

C-5B are expected to be operable well into the next 

century. The fixed-price contract for production of 50 

new C-5B aircraft was awarded in late 1982. The program is on schedule, with the first aircraft to be 

delivered in December i985. The C-5A wing 

modification production program is managed by the 

Air Force Logistics Command, and the C-5B production program is under the Air Force Systems Command. 

C-17. The C-17 transport aircraft, designed to meet 

U.S. airlift needs into the 21st century, will provide the 

final increment of intertheater airlift capability to reach 

the minimum specified by the Congressionally Mandated Mobility Study, replace the capability lost from 

retiring early model C-130s and some C-141s in the 

1990s and provide needed modernization of airlift 

force structure. The aircraft will combine FAAcertified engines with the powered lift technology 

originally demonstrated on the YC- 15 Advanced 

Medium Short Takeoff and Landing (AMST) prototype. Congress approved the Air Force fiscal 1985 request for $123.3 million to begin full-scale development. This development effort will continue through 

1986, leading to a production start in 1988 and an initial operational capability by 1992. 

T-46. The T-46 will replace the aging and operationally deficient T-37 trainer aircraft which currently 

is used in Air Force pilot training, navigator training, 

and Strategic Air Command's copilot enrichment program. The prime contractors, Fairchild Republic 

Company and Garrett Turbine Engine Company, 

completed their critical design reviews and proceeded 

in 1984 with the fabrication of two flight test aircraft in 

preparation for a first flight in April 1985. Production 

deliveries will begin in April 1986, and the first pilot 

class using the T-46 will start training in January 1988. 

T-45A. In October 1984, the Secretary of Defense 

authorized development of a fully integrated Naval 

Aviator training system (aircraft, simulator, and 

academic equipment) to replace the capability currently provided by the T-2C (intermediate) and TA-4J (advanced) jet training aircraft. Replacement need is 

underscored by aircraft shortfalls and escalating 

ownership costs. The T-45A, carrier capable 

derivative of the British Aerospace Hawk aircraft, and 

the associated ground training subsystems will be 

developed by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. 

Aircraft first flight is scheduled for 1987 with production deliveries to begin in 1989. Initial Operational 

Capability for the system is planned for 1990; and production of 300 aircraft, 32 simulators and associated 

training equipment will continue through 1995. The 

T-45As will require 40 percent fewer hardware and 

manpower resources than are currently employed. 

Cruise Missile Programs 

Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The ALCM, a 

key element in the Triad of U.S. land, air and sea 

forces, provides the bomber force with weapon accuracy, flexible routing and targeting, reduced exposure to enemy defenses, and saturation of defenses. 

Production started in 1980. The B-52G aircraft carry 

12 ALCMs loaded on two external pylons, while still 

retaining the internal capability of carrying Short 

Range Attack Missiles and gravity weapons. Beginning in fiscal 1986, ALCMs also will be loaded externally on B-52H aircraft. Future plans include internal 

loading of cruise missiles on B-52Hs for a total of 20 

missiles per aircraft. The B-1B also will be capable of 

carrying cruise missiles. A total of 1715 missiles are to 

be delivered to the Strategic Air Command. At the end 

of 1984, five B-52G aircraft squadrons were opera42 
tional with the ALCM; and the Strategic Air Command was conducting follow-on operational test and 

evaluation. 

Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). The Air 

Force GLCM possesses high prelaunch and enroute 

survivability, 2500 kilometer range, and high accuracy 

which enhances the NATO deterrent nuclear force. 

The deployment plan, unless altered by arms talks, 

calls for 464 missiles based in five countries by 1988. 

GLCM deployment and testing continues on 

schedule. After reaching its initial operational capability in December 1983 at Greenham Common, United 

Kingdom, operational capability was achieved in 

March 1984 at Comiso, Italy. Follow-on Operational 

Test and Evaluation (FOT&E) Phase I was completed 

in June 1984, demonstrating that the GLCM weapon 

system can perform its mission effectively in an operational environment. FOT&E Phase I1 was ihitiated in 

July 1984 and will continue to gather data from ground 

testing, communication testing, and flight testing 

through December 1985. 

Helicopter Programs 

APACHE, (AH-64), Advanced Attack Helicopter. The 

APACHE is the Army’s top aviation procurement program and will provide a lethal anti-tank capability 24 

hours a day. The APACHE, armed with a laser guided 

HELLFIRE missile, provides significant improvements over existing systems in tank killing ability. The 

first production lot of 11 aircraft has been delivered to 

the Army. Two of those aircraft were in flight test in 

1984 to verify successful transition to production. Initial pilot and mechanic training has begun and the 

AH-64 will be deployed at Fort Hood, Texas, early in 

1986. 

CH-47 Modernization. The Initial Operational 

Capability for the CH-47D was met on schedule at 

Fort Campbell, Kentucky, in February 1984. Deployment of the aircraft was highly successful, achieving an 

operational readiness rate of 78 percent against an 

Army standard of 70 percent. A production contract to 

modernize 36 additional CH-47 helicopters was 

awarded in June 1984. A contract to modernize 48 

CH-47 helicopters is planned for fiscal 85, the first year 

of a 5-year contract. A total of 436 CH-47s will be 

modernized. 

HH-GOA Night Hawk. The Air Force has begun to 

flight test its version of the Army’s UH-GOA, which is 

designed for combat rescue operations. The Air Force 

is modifying the basic UH-60A airframe for extended 

range and increased hover performance while adding 

improved avionics for long range, low level, precision 

navigation. The program has been restructured from a 

155 aircraft, $2.8 billion program to a more affordable 

90 aircraft, $1 billion program. Production is scheduled to begin in 1986 with initial operational capability 

in 1988. 

V/STOL Programs 

Joint Service Advanced Vertical L$t Aircraft (JVX). The 

JVX is under development as a vertical lift aircraft using advanced technology to provide the USMC, USN, 

USAF, and USA with a self-deployable, multi-mission 

VerticaUShort Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) 

capability for the 1990s and beyond. The JVX weapon 

system will be capable of satisfying various operational 

requirements, such as Marine Corps assault vertical 

lift, Navy combat search and rescue, Air Force special 

operations, and Army medium cargo assault lift. 

A 23-month Preliminary Design Phase began in 

April 1983 and is a two-part program leading to a fullscale development decision in mid-1985. The first part 

of the Preliminary Design Phase is to substantiate JVX 

design capability, discover potential problems early in 

the program to reduce technical and schedule risks, 

and then conduct design trade-off studies among 

specific operational requirements, design criteria and 

configuration variations to obtain the most missioneffective system. 

The second phase of the Preliminary Design effort, 

began in May 1984 to protect 1991 deliveries by concentrating on critical areas to reduce program risk during Full Scale Development. This phase builds upon 

the wind tunnel testing and trade studies accomplished 

during the first phase. Three important wind tunnel 

tests were completed: powered model testing, aeroelasticity testing, and large scale rotor performance 

testing. The results of these tests will lead to detail 

design of the Ground Test Vehicle, which is critical to 

a first flight in early 1988. 

The Navy has formed a panel of high level civilians 

and military officers from all major elements of the 

Navy to investigate the potential for JVX to accomplish other missions. The main objective of the 

panel is to identify and study mission applications that 

look promising for JVX, without requiring major airframe changes. The Air Force also is investigating 

other potential mission applications for JVX. 

Aeronautical Research and Development 

X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator. The X-29, the 

first X-series aircraft in over a decade, will 

demonstrate and evaluate eight advanced high risk, 

and high payoff technologies. The exploitation of these 

technologies will advance future fighter performance 

and reduce the time, risk, and cost of future 

developmen’ts. This joint DARPA-NASA-USAF 

technology development program will expand 

significantly earlier advanced composite research, 

aerodynamic and structural analytical design methods, 

digital flight control system design techniques, system 

integration experience, and test and evaluation 

capabilities. Following extensive ground testing and 

Simulation, the aircraft was shipped to the Dryden 

43 
Flight Research Facility at Edwards AFB, California, 

in October 1984 and prepared for flight testing. 

Evaluation of the flight test program, jointly by 

government and industry, began in late 1984. The initial flight was made December 14 and lasted for nearly 

one hour. Strong emphasis will be placed on achieving 

the rapid transfer of test results to corporate and 

government users through the DARPA X-29 Future 

Applications Committee, and on validating advanced 

concepts to provide new viable design options and performance improvements for future fighters. 

Advanced Fighter jr’echnology Integration (AFTI). The 

Air Force AFTI test aircraft is a modified F-16 that integrates an advanced digital flight control system with 

canard control surfaces to achieve increased agility. 

Completed in August 1983, the first phase flight test 

validated the digital control system. The second phase 

is evaluating an automated maneuvering attack 

system. After Phase I, the test aircraft was returned to 

the General Dynamics factory in Fort Worth, Texas, 

where it was modified with an advanced fire control 

system and provisions for a new infrared sensor and 

tracker. Flight testing for the second phase began at 

Edwards AFB, California, in September 1984. The infrared sensor and tracker, being built by the 

Westinghouse Corporation of Baltimore, Maryland, 

will be installed in the AFTI test aircraft at Edwards 

AFB early in 1985. The fully integrated system provides for highly accurate, maneuvering attack against 

ground targets at very low altitude, as well as for improved air-to-air effectiveness. Technologies 

demonstrated in the AFTI program will be used to improve the performance of future aircraft such as the 

Advanced Tactical Fighter. 

X- Wing. This concept is a major innovation in vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft design. It 

combines the vertical lifting efficiency of a helicopter 

with the speed, range, and altitude performance of a 

transonic fixed-wing aircraft. The X-Wing operates as 

a rigid rotor helicopter that uses circulation control instead of blade pitching for lift and control. When aloft, 

the X-Wing aircraft converts to a fixed-wing configuration in forward flight. With the rotor stopped 

and the fixed blades swept both forward and aft, the 

aircraft will be capable of high transonic speeds. During fiscal 84, the joint DARPA/NASA X-Wing program passed a major milestone at its Critical Design 

Review. The major X-Wing components approved 

are: the 56 ft diameter rotor and bearingless hub, the 

pneumatic valving system for blade cyclic lift control, a 

high torque clutch and brake, and a highly advanced 

digital fly-by-wire control system with provisions for 

active rotor stabilization and high harmonic vibration 

suppression. The winged version of the rotor system 

research aircraft (RSRA) also was flight tested during 

this period. 

In fiscal 85, the full-scale rotor system, with all drive 

components will be fabricated and tested. The flight 

44 

control computer will be tested in a full vehicle simulation laboratory which includes all flight hardware. 

Following completion of these tests, the RSRA airframe will be integrated with these and other subsystems and readied for integrated vehicle ground 

testing in late fiscal 85. Flight testing of the vehicle is 

planned for early fiscal 86. 

Oblique Wing Research Aircraft (0 WRA). The Navy 

and NASA have joined in an Oblique Wing Research 

Aircraft (OWRA) program to investigate the unique 

aerodynamic, structural, and required control systems 

for various aircraft missions. Under the joint OWRA 

program, an oblique wing and associated systems will 

be designed, fabricated, installed, and flight-tested on 

the NASA F-8 Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW) research 

aircraft. The F-8 DFBW aircraft provides a unique 

research capability because its general configuration 

allows easy modification of the oblique wing and has a 

readily modified, highly flexible flight control system 

with fully developed ground based control facilities. 

The program will involve four contracted phases. 

Phase A, which has been completed, was a feasibility 

study which showed concept viability. Phase B will be a 

competitive preliminary design phase which will provide the general size and configuration of an aeroelastically tailored, composite oblique wing and corresponding wing assembly, and also will provide 

necessary details and trades to support the completion 

of the specifications. Phase C will include the detailed 

design work, fabrication, aircraft modification, and 

flight qualification testing. Phase D is the flight test 

support of the government flight test program. 

A successful OWRA program will provide the technology data base necessary for oblique wing concepts 

to become viable candidates for future Naval aircraft 

designs. An oblique wing aircraft could increase the 

Carrier Air Patrol (CAP) radius, thus increasing the 

intercept range to threatening air-launched missiles 

and missile platforms, or could increase time on target 

for ground, surface ship or submarine attack aircraft. 

In either case, with increased carrier deck loading, due 

to a decreased spotting factor, more aircraft can be 

directed at the threat targets. 

Command Flight Path Display (CFPD). Investigations 

continued in 1984 into the Command Flight Path 

Display system formerly titled Maneuvering Flight 

Path Display System. In a non-combat environment, 

the CFPD has demonstrated successfully a new allweather flight-guidance-display concept for integrating 

guidance information in a single “highway in the sky” 

which the pilot follows. Efforts now are being directed 

to combat maneuvering and simulated missile launch 

under all-weather conditions. Reference data (altitude, 

airspeed, weapons, targets, etc.) can be provided on 

the display in accordance with pilot needs. The system, 

which requires extensive computational capability to 

maintain real-time path-guidance, is installed in a 

fighter combat simulator for verification before flight 
testing in an F-14 aircraft. Future efforts will be 

directed to extending its application to helicopter combat maneuvering and low-altitude terrain-following in 

all weather conditions. 

Rotorcraft System Integration Simulator (RSZS). TheArmy is developing an aviation engineering research 

simulation capability through a joint development program with NASA. Called the Rotorcraft System Integration Simulator (RSIS), the program will enable 

the Army and NASA to simulate rotorcraft flight 

dynamics, thereby providing vital information for the 

development of helicopters, validating system designs, 

and producing information for future aircraft improvements. Through the use of the RSIS, the Army 

will be able to resolve many of the problems associated 

with developing new or improving rotorcraft, flying 

qualities, system integration, and weapon system effectiveness. Furthermore, from the aircraft engineering 

software developed as part of the RSIS program, the 

Army will develop a software package for potential use 

in all flight training simulators. Through this joint 

NASAIArmy program, rotary wing development and 

product improvement will be greatly enhanced. The 

RSIS demonstration and validation will be completed 

in fiscal 86; the air combat upgrade will be completed 

in fiscal 87. 

ARTZ. The Army has initiated a program entitled 

Advanced Rotorcraft Technology Integration (ARTI) 

in support of the full-scale development of a family of 

light helicopters (LHX) which is currently planned for 

fiscal 86. Previous research efforts have demonstrated 

that a highly integrated and automated cockpit could 

provide the LHX and existing helicopters with 

numerous desirable operational characteristics. 

Among these are improved communications and 

navigation accuracies, reduced target acquisition, 

weapons system management, and overall pilot workload reduction. The objectives of the ARTI program 

are the development of the design requirements and 

system specifications for an Advanced Integrated/ 

Automated Cockpit and associated electronic architecture as applied to the LHX development, and to determine the practicality of a single crew member concept 

as effected by the rapidly emerging electronic 

technologies. 

Five contracts for ARTI were awarded in December 

1983. The initial contracts are for a two year effort 

which will include LHX mission analysis, cockpit and 

architecture system design and fabrication, flight 

simulation, and flight test. These efforts will result in 

recommended design requirements and system concepts for the LHX FSD. 

Microwave Landing System. The Air Force continued 

its efforts as the lead service for the DoD Microwave 

Landing System (MLS) program. In 1984, the Air 

Force issued a directive to initiate acquisition of Tactical MLS equipment and commercial MLS avionics. 

Studies leading to a DoD decision on military standard 

MLS avionics in fiscal 86 were started. The DoD continued to work closely with the FAA on Fixed Base 

MLS acquisitions which are planned for fiscal 87. The 

August 1983 DoD MLS Implementation Plan was updated in June 1984. The Army avionics program in 

1984 centered on modernization and standardization 

of avionics components and subsystems. Participation 

continued in the National Microwave Landing System 

(MLS) and the Tri-Service Tactical MLS. The Army 

will procure two National MLS systems in 1985 under 

a Federal Aviation Administration contract for the 

aviation training center at Ft. Rucker, Alabama. This 

will provide a smooth transition and insure the Army’s 

ability to continue operation in the civil and NATO 

aeronautical structure. 

Avionics. Other tri-service efforts included the Digital 

Audio Distribution System (DADS). Source selection 

for this development effort was completed with two 

parallel competitive contracts awarded. In another advance development, dual contracts were awarded on 

the Joint Air Force-Army Integrated Communications, Navigation, Identification Avionics (ICNIA) 

program. ICNIA will consolidate all the aircraft radio 

signals into one unit with the use of digital avionics. 

Extensive efforts continued in 1984 on programs to improve electronics which reduce pilot workloads and 

enhance combat effectiveness. The development of the 

Airborne Target Handoff System (THS), which will 

provide airborne data communications over existing 

aircraft radios, was completed and successfully 

demonstrated. This can be applied to the AH-64, 

AHIP, and LHX helicopters. Other technologies 

developed and demonstrated included: the ring laser 

gyro, High Reliability Attitude Heading and 

Reference System (HRAHRS) for improved performance and navigational capability, the digital map 

generator for displaying, inputting and updating map 

information in a tactical mission environment, and 

Voice Interactive Avionics (VIA) for allowing the pilot 

to call up selected displays or functions to reduce pilot 

workload and increase system response. These advances in technology will enhance single crew member 

capability and allow serious consideration of these options in future helicopters. 

Armyi Aeronautical Technology Research. The objectives 

of this program are the expansion of knowledge in 

varous scientific disciplines and technical areas which 

then can be exploited to advance aeronautical 

technologies, resulting in improving the operational effectiveness of helicopters. Technologies and areas of 

study involved in this program include aerodynamics, 

structures and propulsion systems, reliability and 

maintainability, safety and survivability, flight simulation, and ergonomics. This program is a continuing effort which produced the following representative accomplishments in 1984: flight testing a ring fin tail 

rotor for improving directional control; testing an oil 

debris detection system; designing rotor hubs made of 

45 
composite materials for the CH-47 and UH-60 

helicopters; achieving a 15 to 1 pressure ratio in an experimental centrifugal compressor; and initiating environmental flight testing of an icing severity level indicator system. 

Advanced Composite Airframes. The Army’s Advanced 

Composite Airframe Program (ACAP) is a developmental engineering effort to establish the design data, 

fabrication approach and test experience needed to 

facilitate the use of advanced composite materials in 

building primary and secondary airframe structures 

for helicopters. Contracts with Bell Helicopter and 

Sikorsky Aircraft provide a broad base for ACAP 

development. The Bell ACAP aircraft is using components from their Model 222 commercial helicopter; 

Sikorsky is using their S-76 commercial helicopter in a 

similar manner. Such application of composites is expected to reduce airframe acquisition cost by 17 percent and weight by 22 percent, with collateral improvements in ballistic tolerance, reduced radar 

signatures, and improved repair and maintenance 

features. The improvements in structural repair and 

maintenance should result primarily from significant 

reductions in the number of structural parts and 

mechanical fasteners. 

Sikorsky has completed fabrication of the static test 

article and flight test vehicle airframes. Laboratory 

static testing of the full scale test article has been completed and the first flight of all composite airframe occurred on 16 August 1984. Static testing of portions of 

the Bell airframe was initiated in 1984 with final 

assembly and flight testing planned for 1985. Analysis 

of laboratory and flight test data and comparisons of 

these results with analytical design predictions will be 

used to substantiate the manufacture and structural integrity of composite airframes. 

Advanced Digital-Optical Control System (ADOCS). The 

objectives of the ADOCS program is the installation of 

digital-optical flight control systems on the next 

generation of Army Aircraft, rather than the continued 

use of mechanical flight control systems. The benefits 

expected from this effort are: improved aircraft handling characteristics, decreased pilot work load, improved reliability and survivability, reduction in control system weight, and reduced life cycle costs. The 

preliminary design, detailed design, and modification 

phases of the program have been accomplished for the 

UH-60 aircraft. The program is presently in the test 

and evaluation phase, which is 30 percent complete. 

Flight testing is planned for early 1985. 

Space and Aeronautics Support 

Satellite Control Facility (AFSCF). The Air Force controls satellites for ‘the DoD from the Satellite Test 

Center at Sunnyvale, California, and a worldwide network of seven tracking stations. During 1984, the network supported 21 launches, including 10 DoD and 5 

NASA orbited missions and 6 ballistic flight tests. 

The Data System Modernization (DSM) program 

continued its development with operations scheduled 

to begin at the AFSCF and the Consolidated Space 

Operations Center (CSOC) in 1986 and 1987, respectively. The new system will form the core dataprocessing system for this evolving Satellite Control 

Network. A contract was awarded in June 1984 for the 

development of the Advanced Remote Tracking Station (ARTS) program. ARTS will replace or refurbish 

the existing remote tracking stations and complement 

DSM. 

Consolidated Spam Operations Center (CSOC). Construction of CSOC facilities continued throughout 1984 at 

Falcon AFS, Colorado Springs, Colorado. The CSOC 

buildings were closed in during the fall of 1984 to allow 

interior work to continue through the winter months. 

Occupancy of the buildings is planned for October 

1985. Contracts for communications systems and the 

satellite operations complex were awarded in 1984 to 

provide the operational satellite mission control center, 

with an additional center to be activated in 1988. Two 

competitive contracts were awarded in 1984 for definition of the Shuttle Operations and Planning Complex 

segment. Initial Shuttle operations will begin with an 

emergency backup recovery capability at CSOC in 

1988. Remaining Shuttle operations activities will be 

implemented in close coordination with NASA to ensure a safe and smooth transition of the appropriate activities to CSOC. 

Eastern SpaGe and Missile Center (ESMC). ESMC, at 

Patrick AFB, Florida, provides launch, range-safety, 

and data-acquisition support for developmental and 

operational test launches of ballistic missiles, such as 

the Navy’s Poseidon and Trident fleet, Army’s Pershing I and I1 missiles, and the Air Force’s short-range 

attack missile (SRAM). ESMC also supports lowinclination-orbit DoD, NASA, and NASA-sponsored 

space programs. During 1984, ESMC supported 15 

major space test operations, including six space shuttle 

launches. 

Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC). WSMC, at 

Vandenberg AFB, California, provides launch, rangesafety and data-acquisition support for development 

and operational test launches of Minuteman and 

Peacekeeper missiles and for DoD and NASA space 

programs requiring polar orbit. The cruise missile and 

B-1 B bomber dominated the aeronautical tests supported during 1984. In 1984, WSMC supported nine 

major space test operations and three launches of the 

Peacekeeper missile. Construction of the Space Transportation System’s Western Launch Site continued at a 

fast pace. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). WSMR continued to provide support to DoD and NASA 

aeronautics and space programs. NASA programs 

were the Space Shuttle, upper atmospheric soundings 
using rockets and balloons, and a variety of 

astronomical test programs. The full spectrum of 

launch, flight, and recovery services were provided including both ground and flight safety, range 

surveillance, necessary command and control activities, and associated data acquisition and analysis. 

Space Shuttle activities at WSMR include post 

qualification tests on the orbital maneuvering system 

and on forward and aft reaction control systems, 

evaluation of the Shuttle spacecraft, operation of the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System to track and 

relay Shuttle data back to earth, and Shuttle flight and 

landing support. Past efforts include construction of a 

second landing strip, construction of facilities for postlanding deservicing, preparation for ferrying, preparation of a public affairs plan to handle the multitude of 

visitors to WSMR during and after a landing, provision of overall security support, conduct of astronaut 

recovery exercises and established Shuttle night landing capability. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). Kwajalein Missile 

Range continued support for DoD and other users as 

the major test range for defensive missile forces and 

terminal-area testing of strategic missile forces. Fiscal 

84 firing missions at the range included Munuteman 

operation tests, Peacekeeper developmental tests, and 

support to the Homing Overlay Experiment. Mission 

workload and space surveillance support is expected to 

continue in 1985. KMR is unique in that there is no 

other comparable U.S. facility to collect signature data 

on objects outside the earth's atmosphere, record 

missile reentry phenomena, provide terminal trajectory and impact data, recover reentry vehicles, and 

transmit nearly immediate data to mission sponsors. 

The data collected on nearly all KMR missions met requirements of both strategic offensive and defensive 

developmental communities, for mutual accomplishments of test objectives and continuous interchange of 

data at a significant saving in costs. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC). AEDC 

at Tullahoma, Tennessee, participates in developing 

and continuing the operational effectiveness of 

advanced-technology aerospace systems by conducting 

tests, engineering analyses, and technical evaluations. 

A national facility with both government and commercial users, AEDC over the past year supported such 

projects as the Peacekeeper, Space Shuttle, B-lB, 

F-16, F-100 and F-110 engines, next-generation 

trainer, and advanced medium-range air-to-air 

missile. AEDC operates and maintains some 25 

aerospace ground-test facilities, which support 

aerodynamics, propulsion testing, and space simulations. 

Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC). AFFTC, at Edwards AFB, California, conducts development tests 

and evaluations of manned and unmanned aircraft 

systems, aerospace research vehicles, and aerodynamic 

deceleration devices. Tests range from engineering 

simulations before flight to flight tests of fully integrated weapons systems. Its large air space, dry lake 

beds, isolation, and highly instrumented ranges provide a unique support capaility for many users including three major tenants: NASA's Dryden Flight 

Research Facility, Army's Aviation Engineering Flight 

Activity, and the Air Force Rocket Propulsion 

Laboratory. During 1984, the center supported space, 

tactical, and strategic systems including the Space 

Shuttle, F-15, F-16, F-16XL, advanced fighter 

technology integration (AFTI), F-20, X-29, B-52 integrated weapon system, KC-l35R, and air and 

ground-launched cruise missiles. 

4950 Test Wing. The 4950th Test Wing, an Air 

Force Systems Command (AFSC) unit based at 

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, flight-tests military 

systems, subsystems, and components. It operates and 

modifies test and test support aircraft and is the AFSC 

test organization responsible for Class I1 aircraft 

modification policy. One of its primary support aircraft is the advanced range-instrumentation aircraft 

:ARIA), which serves key telemetry, data processing, 

and command and control functions during both 

aeronautical test flight and space missions. A major 

project is improving ARIA capabilities by converting 

from the existing C-135 to the C-18 (Boeing 707) aircraft while concurrently updating installed dataacquisition equipment. 

Relations With NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB), cochaired by the Under Secretary of 

Defense for Research and Engineering and the NASA 

Deputy Administrator, is the major forum for reviewing, discussing and coordinating yolicies and program 

issues of mutual interest to DoD and NASA. Most of 

the interagency coordination process is accomplished 

by the following AACB panels: Aeronautics Panel, 

Manned Space Flight and Launch Vehicles Panel, 

Space Flight Ground Environment Panel, Space 

Research and Technology Panel, and the Unmanned 

Spacecraft Panel. 

During 1984, the AACB held its 91st meeting to 

review and discuss various matters relating to 

aeronautics and astronautics, such as the development 

of carbon filment wound cases for the Shuttle's solid 

rocket boosters, the Shuttle-Centaur integration 

schedule, performance anomalies experienced with the 

Inertial Upper Stage, proposal for the construction of a 

test cell for large solid rocket motors, status of the 

Space Station, and the DoD/NASA National Space 

Transportation System Master Plan. 

47 
Department of Commerce 

Agencies of the Department of Commerce involved 

in the nations’s aeronautics and space program during 

1984 were the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Bureau of Standards 

(NBS), and National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) conducts research and gathers 

data about the oceans, atmosphere, space, and sun, 

and applies this knowledge to products and services 

beneficial to all Americans. NOAA operates the nation’s civil environmental satellite systems. Data from 

these systems are used by NOAA to assess the effect of 

natural factors and human activities on global food and 

fuel supplies and on environmental quality; to observe 

and forecast weather conditions, provide warnings of 

severe weather, and assist community-preparedness 

programs for weather-related disasters; to prepare 

charts and coastal maps for geodetic research; to aid in 

the assessment and conservation of marine life; to meet 

the needs of public and private users, including scientists; and to help researchers to improve the nation’s 

environmental monitoring and warning service. 

The National Bureau of Standards is responsible for 

establishing and maintaining national standards of 

measurement and provides government, industry, and 

academia with the measurement services and fundamental physical, chemical, and engineering data to 

serve national goals. NBS supports space systems, atmospheric and space research, and aeronautical programs. 

The National Telecommunicaitons and Information 

Administration, the principal communications adviser 

to the President, develops and coordinates executive 

branch policy in telecommunications and information. 

NTIA also is responsible for managing the radio spectrum assigned for Federal use and provides technical 

assistance to other federal agencies. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

Polar Orbiting Satellites. During 1984, NOAA 6 and 

NOAA 7, the primary data-gathering weather satellites, orbited the Earth about the poles in sunsynchronous orbits and provided environmental observations of the entire earth four times each day. NOAA 

6 crosses the Equator southward at 7:30 a.m. local 

time, and NOAA 7 in a Northward direction at 2:30 

p.m., each carrying four primary instruments: the Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR), the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder 

(TOVS), the Argos Data-Collection and PlatformLocation System (DCLS), and the Space Environment 

Monitor (SEM). 

NOAA 8, launched in March 1983, was the first in a 

series of new Advanced TIROS-N (ATN) spacecraft 

and carries additional instruments for Search and 

Rescue (SAR). A failure in the clock oscillator, which 

caused loss of all spacecraft timing signals, made 

NOAA 8 inoperative on June 12, 1984. This failure interrupted the search and rescue mission until the 

launch of the next NOAA spacecraft. Reactivated as a 

replacement for NOAA 8, NOAA 6 was able to support most of the primary mission requirements in 

1984. 

NOAA F. This satellite became NOAA 9 after its 

launch on December 12, 1984. It is not a true replacement for NOAA 6 or 8. Both 6 and 8 are “morning 

satellites” engineered for equatorial crossings at about 

7:30 a.m., local times; NOAA 9, like NOAA 7 is an 

“afternoon satellite,” with thermal controlling louvers 

and sunshades adjusted for 2:OO p.m. equatorial crossings, local times. However, NOAA G, scheduled for 

launch in 1985, will be a replacement for NOAA 8. 

Meanwhile, in addition to its regular complement of 

sensors and data relay functions, NOAA 9 carries a 

three-instrument array of NASA sensors for the 

measurement of earth radiation budget factors, including backscatter to space of solar ultraviolet light, 

and Earth-radiated thermal (infrared) radiation. These 

’ instruments will fly on NOAA 9 and G spacecraft in 

concert with the NASA Earth Radiation Budget 

satellite. 

NOAA H, I, and J. These polar orbiting satellites are 

under contract for delivery in the last years of this 

decade. Beginning with NOAA H (October 1986), all 

NOAA-series afternoon satellites will be configured for 

earlier afternoon equatorial crossings at approximately 

1:00 p.m. local times. This orbit change will permit 

earlier remote sensing of the Eastern Pacific region adjacent to the U.S. west coast to feed atmospheric 

temperature profiles and surface temperatures to the 

49 
National Weather Service in time for its numerical 

prediction computations. 

Geostationary Satellites. The year 1984 began with two 

of NOAA's geostationary operational environmental 

satellites (GOES). The primary imaging spacecraft of 

GOES systems were GOES 5 at 75" West and GOES 6 

at 135' West. On July 30, the imager on GOES 5 

failed, requiring a repositioning of GOES 6, over the 

central U.S. to provide, as best it could from that location, visible and infrared imagery coverage of the 

Atlantic and Pacific coasts using its Visible Infrared 

Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Atmospheric Sounder 

(VAS). GOES 6 was relocated from 135" West to 98" 

West for the hurricane season and then to 108" West 

for maximum coverage of winter weather coming off 

the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Alaska. To compensate 

for moving GOES 6 away from 135" West, GOES 1, a 

standby spacecraft, was reactivated on August 27, 

1984 at 130' West to provide visible imagery to extreme western users. Goes 1 subsequently failed on 

September 7, 1984, leaving GOES 6 as the lone imaging spacecraft. Failure of the GOES 5 imager did not 

impact the operation of its Data Collection System 

(DCS), its Space Environment Monitor (SEM), or its 

Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) broadcast capability. 

The next launches of GOES spacecraft are scheduled for the winter of 1985/86 and spring/summer 

1986. 

"GOES-Next." Acting for NOAA, NASA will purchase "GOES-Next" satellites for flight during the 

1990's. The Request for Proposals was released June 

29, 1984, proposals were received August 27, and expected contract award is Spring 1985. Improvements 

include concurrent imaging and atmospheric sounding 

(not available with the present GOES), additional information for atmospheric movement of water vapor, 

and relocation of picture elements to permit better 

calculation of winds from images showing cloud motions. 

Land Satellites. The Landsat Earth observation 

system in 1984 consisted of two Earth-orbiting 

satellites (Landsat 4 and 5) and a control and data 

processing facility located at Goddard Space Flight 

Center (GSFC). This system originally was developed 

by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), and the first satellite (Landsat 4) waslaunched successfully by that organization on July 16, 

1982. Authorized to manage the system by Presidential 

Directive PD/NSC-54, NOAA assumed operational 

responsibility for Landsat 4 on January 31, 1983. 

During its first seven months in orbit, Landsat 4 

developed a series of technical problems that severely 

zurtailed its capability to achieve mission objectives. 

As a result, the decision was made to launch Landsat 5. 

This was accomplished successfully on March 1, 1984. 

Both Landsat 4 and 5 carry indentical Earthobservation sensor packages. The multi-spectral scanner (MSS) measures reflected solar radiation over four 

50 

Landsat-5 thematic mapper image of Oklahoma/ 

MissoudArkansas tri-state area, shows Tulsa, Oklahoma 

and the northeastern corner of Oklahoma, as well as the very 

southwestern corner of Missouri and the northwestern corner 

of Arkansas. 

bands in the visible and near-infrared wavelength 

regions at 80-meter resolution, and its experimental 

thematic mapper (TM) measures over 6 bands in the 

visible infrared wavelengths at 30-meter resolutions 

and 1 band in the thermal infrared. While Landsat 4 is 

capable of supporting only the MSS portion of its mission, Landsat 5 is supporting full mission requirements 

for both MSS and TM. 

MSS data are available for most of the contiguous 

United States, Alaska, most of Central and South 

America, northern Europe and northwest Russia, 

Japan, and near neighboring areas of Asia and 

Australia. Limited TM data are available for the contiguous United States and the areas of coverage of 

NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS). Data are distributed through the Department of the Interior's Earth Resources Observation 

System (EROS) Data Center in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, and through foreign facilities in countries with 

Landsat ground stations (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, 

Canada, India, Italy, Japan, South Africa, Sweden, 

and Thailand). 

During 1984, through the agreement with the 

Department of Interior (DOI), NOAA added 33,000 

MSS scenes and 4,000 TM scenes to its archives. Some 
3,000 digital products and 35,000 photographic products were distributed to Landsat customers as well, 

These are sold at prices designed to recover a higher 

percentage of the cost of operating and managing the 

Landsat system. 

Commercialization 

On February 28, 1983, the President directed the 

Secretary of Commerce to investigate the possible 

transfer of weather and land satellites to the private 

sector. In April 1983, the Secretary of Commerce 

established two interagency groups to undertake this 

determination: 

The Interagency Board on Civil Operational 

Earth-Observing Satellite Systems (IB-COESS), 

and 

The Source Evaluation Board for Civil Space 

Remote Sensing (SEB). 

These two groups had complementary functions. 

The IB-COESS, composed of assistant secretary-level 

policy officials and chaired by the Deputy Administrator of NOAA, provided policy review and 

guidance for the Department’s activities. The SEB, 

composed of representatives from IB-COESS member 

agencies and chaired by a representative from the 

Department of Commerce, was to accomplish the 

following: 

Define the policy and technical issues for resolution by the IB-COESS or the Secretary of Commerce, 

Develop the Request for Proposals (RFP) for the 

satellite systems, and 

Evaluate responses to the RFP for the Secretary of 

Commerce. 

The Congress passed several non-binding resolutions in mid-1983 indicating little support for the possible “sale” of the weather satellites. Finally, in late October 1983, the Congress passed the Department of 

Commerce’s appropriation bill which included an 

amendment prohibiting any further consideration of 

weather satellites for “commercialization.’’ 

However, before the Congress stopped the process 

for the weather satellites, the SEB had completed a 

draft RFP that had been approved by the IB-COESS 

and released for public comment. The draft RFP was 

issued on October 21, 1983, and asserted that these 

civil systems support traditional government roles to 

provide for the health, safety, and economic well being 

of its citizens. 

P.L. 98-365, passed in June 1984, also reaffirmed 

the priority of these traditional roles in the context of 

newly evolving Government-commercial relationships. 

On September 19, 1984, the Department of Commerce Civil Space Remote Sensing (CSRS) Commercialization Group, (formerly Source Evaluation 

Board), presented its Report to Congress per requirements of PL 98-365. Titles I1 and I11 require a 

report to Congress prior to implementation of 

Secretary Baldrige’s decision to contract for commercialization of the Landsat system. The report 

documents the history of the administration’s efforts to 

move civil satellite remote sensing into the private sector and updates events since the selection of Eastman 

Kodak and EOSAT for final negotiations. 

Initial meetings were held with each firm on June 

29, 1984. At these meetings, both firms were informed 

that their technical approaches were acceptable, but 

their financial proposals were unacceptable as submitted. Each offerer was given until July 9, 1984, to revise 

its proposal to reduce the cost andlor financial risk to 

the U.S. government. The revised proposals and the 

Government’s refined financial analyses confirmed 

that, in the worst case, Government liability over the 

life of the program would have an adverse impact on 

efforts to reduce the Federal Budget. After consultation 

within the Administration, the President concurred in 

a decision by Secretary Baldrige and Office of 

Management and Budget Director Stockman that 

government financial support for the establishment of 

the commercial system should be limited to (1) the runout of Government cost for operating Landsats 4 and 

5; plus (2) a maximum of $250 million of new budget 

authority for the development and procurement of the 

commercial follow-on system of not less than 10 

satellites. 

Both offerers were notified of this decision on July 

20, 1984, and were requested to revise their proposals 

accordingly. EOSAT reduced requested Federal financial support in a proposal revision that also included 

certain technical changes, but Eastman Kodak declined to revise its proposal to meet the Government’s 

conditions. 

Satellite Data Services 

DCS. The GOES Data Collection System (DCS) 

relays in real time environmental data from remotely 

located Data Collection Platforms (DCP’s). At the end 

of 1984, there were 4,970 DCP’s an increase of 394 

during the year. Data are distributed to 76 national 

and 27 international users, and there are 27 passive 

direct readout stations (21 domestic and 6 non-U.S.). 

GOES DCS reliability has been at the 99% level for 

the year. The Random Reporting Operating Mode 

was tested operationally for 24 months and in 1984 was 

declared operational for the GOES DCS. The 1984 

NOAA ground system is expected to reach saturation 

during calendar year 1985 when more than 5000 

DCP’s will be in the system. A revised User Interface 

Manual and a Users Guide to Random Reporting were 

published in 1984. Also completed in 1984 was the 

channel realignment program, whereby all evennumbered channels are on the west spacecraft and odd51 
numbered channels on the east. New 80 M bite disks 

were installed at the DCS installation in Camp 

Springs; and the 22 M bite disks, formerly at Camp 

Springs, were moved to the Wallops Station to replace 

the 10 M bite disks. These disk changes have increased 

ground system message storage by 100%. 

WEFAX. The Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) service 

in 1984 continued to use three of the GOES spacecraft 

to broadcast satellite imagery, meteorological analyses 

and prognoses, and operational and ephemeris 

messages. The number of known WEFAX users total 

200 (96 domestic and 104 non-U.S.). Broadcast 

schedules were expanded in 1984, and 567 products 

are broadcast each day on a 24-hour basis. A new 

7-meter antenna to support WEFAX broadcasts was 

installed recently at Wallops Station. 

Ocean Products Center. An Ocean Products Center 

staffed by personnel from the National Ocean Service 

(NOS), the National Weather Service (NWS), and the 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) was established on October l, 

1984. The Center is colocated with the National 

Meteorological Center at the World Weather Building 

in Camp Springs, Maryland. The mission of the center 

is to develop, prepare, and disseminate various marine 

meteorological and oceangraphic guidance products in 

support of NOAA field offices. Products currently produced or under development fall into the following five 

basic categories: marine weather; waves and wave 

dynamics; ocean thermal structure and dynamics; ice 

and ice dynamics; and estuarine circulation and coastal 

processes. 

GOES VZSSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) Assessment. In 

support of the NOAA Operational VAS Assessment 

(NOVA) program, a prototype VAS processing work 

station was installed in the NWS National 

Meteorological Center (NMC). The work station is 

connected to a prototype VAS Data Utilization Center 

which is under development at the University of 

Wisconsin by the NESDIS Development Laboratory 

and the Space Science and Engineering Center. The 

VAS work station at NMC is being evaluated by scientists from NMC’s Heavy Precipitation Branch and 

NESDIS’s Interactive Processing Branch and Satellite 

Applications Laboratory. Initially, new GOES-VAS 

products being evaluated include temperature and 

moisture profiles, cloud drift winds, several instability 

indices, and new image products. During the winter of 

1983-84, GOES-VAS data over the eastern Pacific 

region were added into NMC’s synoptic forecast 

models to determine their impact. 

Geophysical Dah Bases. The National Geophysical 

Data Center (NGDC) archives, publishes, and 

analyzes various geophysical data bases including 

space environment and cryospheric data recorded on 

NOAA satellites and some NASA and DOD satellites. 

Satellite data archives during 1984 included the new 

GOES Space Environment Monitor data, the new 

DMSP electron and ion data, the DMSP night-time 

auroral imagery, and the DMSP images of clouds, 

snow and ice illuminated by sunlight or moonlight. 

Most of the users of these data bases are in the scientific research community. Data from GOES, IMP, 

and Pioneer spacecraft are published monthly in SularGeuphyszcal Data reports, largely for use by scientists 

and operators of near-Earth communication systems. 

Analysis of ground-based magnetic variations records 

was undertaken to support ISEE-3 and DE satellite 

programs of NASA. Research was initiated to build an 

improved model of the near-Earth particle and field 

environment in the polar region upper atmosphere in 

support of DOD requirements. 

Cryospheric Data Management System. The National 

Snow and Ice Data Center started a Cryospheric Data 

Management System to process, archive, and 

distribute passive microwave data recorded on DMSP 

satellites. These data offer continuous measurement of 

the distribution of sea ice and snow cover and the 

percentage of new sea ice versus multiyear ice cover for 

use by the climate research and energy development 

communities. 

Satellite Anomaly Data Base. Within the SolarTerrestrial Physics Division of NGDC, a data base was 

started to document the relationship between solar activity, space environment changes, and consequent 

problems with operation of geostationary and polar orbiting satellites. The objective is to provide information to improve routine satellite operations, assist users 

of communications satellites in interpreting causes of 

problems, and to provide satellite and instrument 

designers with a basis for future improvements. This 

systematic data and information collection also should 

support research into the different enviromental effects 

of solar emissions, galactic cosmic rays, and any other 

sources of energetic charged particles in near-Earth 

space. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Space Shuttle Support. The use of NOAA polar satellite 

information, imagery, and digital data was established 

and is now integrated into segments of the NOAA 

Space Shuttle Program at the Johnson Space Center, 

Houston, Texas. NOAA satellite imagery is used in 

pre-flight crew briefings and during a mission to plan 

orbit by orbit photographic activities. The digital data 

are used in posi mission evaluations. Shuttle 

photography is compared to satellite data to study environmental trends and survey meteorologic, 

hydrologic, and oceanographic phenomena. 

vegetation Index Service. In May 1984, NESDIS and 

NWS initiated a new experimental service- the production and distribution of a Vegetation Index image. 

The goals of the 4 month experiment were to distribute 

the Vegetation Index image to NWS field offices twice 

weekly and to determine its usefulness to agricultural 

52 
interests. The Vegetation Index image is distributed 

by the NWS-Washington Satellite Field Services Station through its GOES-Tap network. The image is in a 

mapped mercator format with imbedded annotation. 

Created by a hydrologist using an interactive computer 

system, the imbedded annotation is designed to direct 

first time users of this new product to specific areas of 

interest within the image. Continuation of the product 

and its transition from experimental to operational 

mode will be dependent upon the user evaluations of 

product usefulness and demand. 

Fire Detection. The 3.8 micrometer thermal infrared 

channel on the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites continued to be used to detect and monitor fire activity 

throughout the world. This channel is very sensitive to 

high temperature sources such as fires and, in conjunction with the other thermal channels on the satellites, 

can be used to calculate fire area and temperature. 

Over 300 fires related to seasonal slash and burn 

agricultural activities were detected on just one day in 

Mexico. In Siberia, 60 detected lightning-induced 

forest fires created a 1.5 x 106 kmz area of smoke 

lasting over 2 weeks. Of particular concern to those interested in deforestation was the detection of a huge 

area (approximately 2” latitude x 2” longitude) of 

clear cutting and associated fire activity in western 

Brazil. The National Climate Program Office also expressed interest in using the NOAA satellite 

capabilities for fire and smoke detection as a method 

for providing data to check the “nuclear winter” 

studies. 

Volcano Monitoring. Seven volcanic eruptions were 

detected and monitored using NOAA polar-orbiting 

satellite data. The volcanoes are Pavlof (Alaska), 

Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Pagan (Mariana Islands), 

Merapi (Java), Mt. Etna (Italy), Kliuchevskoi 

(U.S.S.R.), and Soputan (Indonesia). The satellite information was sent to the Smithsonian Scientific Event 

Alert Network for dissemination to the scientific community, other Federal and state agencies, and foreign 

governments. 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and 

NOAA continued to work to implement an operational 

plan for detection and monitoring of volcanic hazards 

to aviation using NOAA satellite data. NOAA has 

responded to a draft statement of the requirements 

from the FAA. 

Bennett Island, U. S. S. R. “Mystery Plumes.’’ The 

“mystery plumes” originating near Bennett Island 

(76.7ON, 149.3OE) and first detected in 1983 using 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellite data, continued to be 

detected. Fifteen cases were observed in 1984, including a plume event detected by the Landsat-5 

satellite. Several of the plume events were 50-100 krn 

long. It is believed now that the plume events are not 

volcanic in origin but are the result of methane gas 

venting from the continental shelf below the island. 

The world’s largest gas fields are in northern Siberia, 

and what may have been discovered on the NOAA 

satellite imagery is evidence of the world’s largest gas 

seep. If so, it could have commercial value for the 

Soviet Union. 

Rainfall. NOAA has developed and implemented 

new software for the Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer 

(IFFA) that has improved the timeliness and accuracy 

of satellite-derived rainfall estimates. In the first full 

year of operation, the IFFA system was used in more 

than 5,000 hours of satellite estimates. Messages relaying these estimates instantly to flash flood forecasters 

provided extremely critical data for decision making 

about timing and location of flash flood warnings. Recent studies have verified the reliability of these 

estimates as one of the primary sources of guidance for 

the issuance of flash flood watches and warnings. During Hurricane Diana, NOAA meteorologists 

calculated maximum rainfall estimates of 20 inches 

over eastern North Carolina in a 2-day period. Actual 

reports were as high as 18 inches. During the winter of 

1984, the IFFA operation was expanded to include 

estimates of heavy rain and heavy snow in winter 

storms. These estimates also provided short-range 

outlooks that supplied forecasters with on-going trends 

for the location and intensity of heavy precipitation. 

Severe Storm Support. In preparation for operational 

implementation of temperature and moisture data obtained from the geostationary satellites, NESDIS, in 

cooperation with the University of Wisconsin, provided support to the National Weather Service in three 

phases. First, data were provided over the eastern 

Pacific Ocean for the numerical forecast model at the 

National Meteorological Center during the winter. 

Second, data were provided to the National Severe 

Storms Forecast Center during the spring and summer. Third, data were prepared for the National Hurricane Center during the fall. However, the failure of 

GOES-5 sharply curtailed this last activty. The value 

of the geostationary soundings and of new applications 

with water vapor imagery is gaining increased acceptance as methods are developed to make these data 

reliable and informative. Small computer interactive 

techniques to exploit these data are being incorporated 

into systems to upgrade the national centers. 

Food Shortage Alerts. NOAA continued to use and test 

a crop monitoring system that relies on data obtained 

from radiation measurements by the NOAA-7 

satellite. This supplements the existing system, which 

uses surface rainfall reports, plus cloud cover information from the NOAA-7, to monitor crop health. The 

possibility of drought in developing countries and 

regions in the tropics is examined. Assessments 

concerning drought-related food shortages are sent 

weekly to Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of the 

Agency for International Development (AID) officials 

in the affected countries. 

The new supplement provides two more tools for 

assessments: a time-series of weekly crop-health indices 
for a specific crop region and a color-coded image for a 

large part of any continent for a specific week. The 

technology to process the satellite data is being 

transferred to those countries with the required computer and satellite-signal reception equipment enabling 

them to make their own crop-signal reception 

assessments. A meeting with nine Southeast Asia nations in Thailand during May 1984 started the 

technical transfer process. 

Global Mapped Vegetation Index. NOAA funding from 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resource Inventory 

Surveys through Aerospace Remote-Sensing) -a joint 

program of NASA, NOAA, and Department of 

Argiculture- is evaluating the use of satellite data in 

providing crop estimates. The NOAA global mapped 

vegetation index depicts the extent and “greenness” of 

vegetation worldwide. Global AVHRR data are collected daily, and a vegetation index is computed and 

mapped to a polar stereographic (PSG) projection. A 

weekly composite vegetation index is produced from 

the daily data. 

Production of PSG mapped vegetation indices are 

provided in tape and image form to AgRISTARS for 

evaluation, and copies are available to any interested 

party. Production began in April 1982 and will continue through September 1986. 

Fisheries. At the Southeast Fisheries Center, 

SEASAT-A scatterometer data in 1984 have been used 

to compute wind-induced surface currents and to 

delineate areas of upwelling and downwelling, information valuable for determining the direction of 

transport of fish eggs and larvae. Shrimp, for example, 

spawn offshore and depend on currents to transport 

their eggs and larvae into estuarine nursery grounds 

where the shrimp mature. If surface currents are moving offshore during peak spawning periods, the 

number of shrimp entering the estuaries will be reduced and the fishery impacted. The short life of 

SEASAT-A prevented verification of this technique, 

but comparisons of derived current patterns from 

SEASAT-A and patterns computed from conventional 

wind data show that SEASAT-A data provide a more 

detailed quantitative picture of ocean currents. Refinement of this technique will provide a valuable tool for 

forecasting recruitment and yields of shrimp and other 

species dependent on this transport mechanism. 

The Southeast Center also continues to use data 

from the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) to detect 

and map areas of hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Hypoxia, a condition where oxygen concentrations in bottom waters is near zero, is not well 

understood and appears to occur frequently in the 

northern Gulf. Location of areas of hypoxia is important to fisheries because these waters with low oxygen 

content will support few, if any, shrimp or finfish and 

may block normal migration patterns of these animals. 

Additionally, the Southeast Center has used successfully satellite data transmission links to transmit 

fisheries and environmental survey data from survey 

ships to data users. Daily transmissions of survey data, 

made from the ships to shore-based computers through 

the ATS-3 satellite and through portable ARGOS 

transmitters, were summarized on charts and 

distributed weekly to fishermen, fishing associations, 

State fishery management organizations, and others 

for various applications. 

The ATS system also was used by fishery scientists 

participating in the AMERIEZ (Antarctic Marine 

Ecosystem Research at the Ice-Edge Zone) program to 

study physical and biological processes active during 

the retreat of the ice edge. The scientists at the Northeast Fisheries Center received near realtime ice maps 

from NASA/Goddard derived from NIMBUS-7 

microwave data. The maps were sent to research 

vessels by means of the ATS system. In return the 

scientists at sea transmitted wind data back to 

NASA/Goddard for use in analyzing changes in ice 

cover. 

At the Southwest Fisheries Center, CZCS, and 

AVHRR data are used to produce charts showing the 

location of ocean color boundaries or fronts. These 

charts are used widely by tuna fishermen to locate 

favorable areas for fishing. Studies at the Center have 

shown that the tuna tend to concentrate in the warm, 

bluish oceanic water along the fronts. Very few or no 

tuna are found in the cooler, greenish colored coastal 

waters. In 1984, satellite information was particularly 

useful in locating fish. Because of the abnormal warming of ocean waters resulting from the El Nino 

phenomenon, many fish have been displaced northward and are not found in their usual areas. The 

satellite data have provided the information required 

to locate the areas where appropriate temperature conditions exist for fish that are hundreds of miles from 

their traditional location. 

The CZCS imagery also is used by the Southwest 

Center to describe ocean processes related to spawning 

of northern anchovy. Imagery was collected coincident 

with fine grid oceanographic ship observations. 

Preliminary results indicate that anchovy avoid areas 

of low chlorophyll concentrations, presumably because 

of insufficient food availability. Additionally, CZCS 

data are being used to investigate distribution and 

abundance of juvenile salmon off the OregonWashington coast. 

Scientists at the Northeast Fisheries Center have 

used satellite infra-red imagery and digital data in a 

study of the distribution of Illex squid in outer continental shelf waters off the northeastern United States. 

Analysis of 1,100 commercial catch records and coincident satellite data for fall seasons of 1980, 1981, and 

1982 showed that 80-100 percent of the high catch rates 

were found within 10 miles of the shelf-slope front, 

even though only 50-60 percent of the fishing effort 

was directed there. 

54 
The Northeast Fisheries Center has joined with a 

community of Federal, state, and private users of 

remote sensing data to form the Northeast Remote 

Sensing System (NEARSS) Association. The Association focuses on solution to the problems of member institutions in acquiring and using, efficiently and 

economically, remote sensing data collection and data 

analysis techniques. Through contributions from these 

institutions, a regional net for distribution of analog 

images transmitted by NOAA over the GOES-tap has 

been established. The long-term goal is to obtain nearreal-time access to full resolution digital data from 

NOAA’s polar orbiting satellites. 

The Coastal Habitat Assessment Research and 

Mensuration (CHARM) program at the Northeast 

Center, designed to respond to the national goal of 

zero net loss of wetlands productivity, is particularly 

concerned with the effect of wetland loss or modification because the wetlands provide and support habitats 

suitable as spawning, nursery, and feeding area for 96 

percent of the commercial fisheries and 50 percent of 

the recreational catch. The approach is to use LANDSAT data to provide a uniform format to classify and 

monitor wetlands and to integrate the results to determine the effects on fisheries. 

Satellite infra-red imagery also has been used by the 

Northeast Center to delineate the areas affected by the 

plumes from the Chesapeake, Delaware, and Raritan 

Bays. The plumes contain biostimulants, contaminants, and other materials which can have an effect on benthic and pelagic resources. 

Marine Assessment Application of Satellite Data. The 

Chesapeake Bay is the site of an assessment to evaluate 

meteorological and oceanographic processes in conjunction with their possible impact on fishery recruitment. The physical processes (i.e., winds, currents, 

tides) which control the exchange of waters between 

the Chesapeake Bay and adjacent continental shelf also 

influence the passive transport of fish eggs and larvae. 

Recruitment of several fish species in the Bay, particularly menhaden, depends in part on the quality of 

larvae transported from the shelf into the Bay. Satellite 

data are being used to observe the behavior of large 

water masses and the generation and interaction of 

fronts and eddies as water enters and exits the Bay. 

Visible and thermal infrared data from the Nimbus-7 

Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), the NOAA-N 

series of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometers 

(AVHRR), and Landsat are all being analyzed for this 

assessment. Since pelagic fish eggs and larvae are 

transported in the surface layer, satellite observations 

of surface sediment and temperature plumes by 

AVHRR and Landsat can be utilized as markers for 

fish transport. The CZCS data are used to identify 

water masses by their chlorophyll concentration in addition to temperature. Satellite data from 1977 to 1983 

are analyzed in conjunction with current, tide, and 

wind data to track surface plume movements. The 

results of this analysis then will be correlated with 

fishery data and the surface transport values generated 

by the Limited Fish Mesh (LFM) wind mode. This 

study will yield further insights into climate-fishery interactions, improve our ability to assess fishery recruitment in the Cheaspeake Bay, and provide for better 

utilization of fishery resources. 

Other Uses of Satellites 

International Activities 

CGMS. The Coordination of Geostationary 

Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) group met in 

Geneva, Switzerland in April 1984. Representatives 

from the European Space Agency, Japan, U.S.S.R. 

and the U. S. participated. Meeting highlights included 

determining an acceptable method for assigning data 

collection system resources to support the new Aircraft 

to Satellite Data Relay, refining plans to make the different meteorological satellite systems compatible, and 

reviewing satellite born sensor calibration techniques 

and products made from these instruments with a view 

to making them interchangeable. 

ARGOS. The ARGOS Data Collection and Location 

System (DCLS) provided by France operates on the 

present NOAA polar-orbiting spacecraft. Of the nearly 

500 active platforms operated by organizations from 17 

countries, 70% require location calculations; and 10% 

disseminate data via the Global Telecommunications 

System. Including the U.S., 14 countries were 

members of a joint tariff agreement for use of the 

ARGOS DCLS in 1984. 

Training for Foreigners. The National Environmental 

Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) 

conducts in-house training and participates in training 

seminars and workshops to improve the quality and exchange of satellite data and to contribute to cooperative 

research activities. During 1984, NESDIS conducted 

training for ten foreign nationals from five countries in 

such fields as meteorological satellite data processing, 

agrometeorology, and seismology data management. 

Each of approximately sixteen trainees from nine 

countries received 6 weeks of training at NESDIS 

under the NOAA/AID Project called Global Climatic 

Impact Assessment Technology for Drought/Disaster 

Early Warning and Technical Assistance. 

International Radio Regulations. The National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA) is responsible for developing the Federal 

Government’s proposals to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations agency 

that establishes and administers international regulations concerning the use of the radio spectrum, including its use by spacecraft. The Radio Regulations 

are modified when the need arises by the convening of 

an Administrative Radio Conference. The ITU held a 

Regional Conference in 1983 concerning the develop55 
ment of a plan for the use of broadcast satellite frequencies affecting the Western Hemisphere. In 1984, 

several meetings under the ITU took place concerning 

the development of technical recommendations for 

space communications by the International Radio 

Consultative Committee (CCIR). NTIA participated 

in all these activities. 

World Radio Conference on Space Communications. NTIA 

continued to lead government agencies in preparations 

for the two-part 1985 and 1988 World Administrative 

Radio Conference for space services (Space WARC). 

NTIA played a key role in the U.S. delegation to the 

technical preparatory meeting of the CCIR, which was 

convened in June 1984. This meeting provided a 

balanced technical input on various planning techniques to be considered sequentially by the Space 

WARC. NTIA has been coordinating the development of proposed positions and strategies on behalf of 

Federal agencies for use in subsequent Space WARC 

negotiations. Also, NTIA has been developing a 

computer-based model, the Geostationary Satellite Orbit Analysis Program (GSOAP), for analyzing orbit 

and spectrum use. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite Experimentation. In 1984, NTIA also began preliminary planning 

for communication experimentation to be accomplished via the NASA Advanced Communications 

Technology Satellite (ACTS). These plans provide the 

basis for advanced satellite communication technology 

assessments including systems performance 

measurements, antenna directivity and pointing accuracy, and other relevant factors. In this connection, 

NTIA has reached agreement with NASA for loan of a 

portable earth terminal for initial experimentation. 

COMSAT Corporation. In cooperation with the 

Department of State and the Federal Communications 

Commission, NTIA participates in overseeing the 

Communications Satellite Corporation’s activities in 

the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) and the International 

Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). INTELSAT’s annual circuit growth rate was decreasing 

in 1983 and through the first half of 1984. Its revenues 

for full time services grew at a rate of approximately 

13% in 1983. Its capital ceiling remains at $2.3 billion. 

No additional orders were placed above the initial 

orders of five Intelsat VI series communications 

satellites. These satellites have about 25 percent 

greater capacity than the Intelsat V series. COMSAT 

retains options to order up to seven more Intelsat VI 

satellites. 

Network Protocols. The National Bureau of Standards 

is working with COMSAT in a joint research project 

to evaluate the performance of computer network protocols over satellite networks. The network protocols, 

now being developed by international and national 

voluntary standards groups with NBS assistance, are 

designed to work over different communications 

technologies. The objective of the work of NBS with 

COMSAT is to develop needed test methods for 

measuring the reliability of data transmitted through 

global satellite networks. Results of the research will 

advance development of network products that implement the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) concept 

and that operate in a multi-vendor and mixed communications network environment. 

Geodesy 

Global Positioning. The application of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to geodetic position 

determinations has been shown to be more efficient, 

more economical, and more accurate than classical 

geodetic survey methods. But the full potential of this 

new system cannot be realized until experience has 

been gained in its use; the full satellite coverage 

planned has been effected; and the data processing, 

handling, and analysis procedures have been worked 

out. During 1984, the National Geodetic Survey 

(NGS) worked toward the achievement of these goals 

by carrying out over 20 GPS survey projects at various 

locations throughout the country. Data from GPS 

surveys will be incorporated into the National Geodetic 

Reference System. In April 1985, at Rockville, 

Maryland, Charting and Geodetic Services (C&GS) 

will co-sponsor with the Defense Mapping Agency, the 

International Association of Geodesy, and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, the “First International Symposium on Precise Positioning with the 

Global Positioning System.” Some of the topics to be 

discussed are: physical modeling, algorithms, processing, orbit determination, instrumentation, applications, precise positioning results, and comparisons 

with other precise positioning systems. 

POLARIS Network. In January 1984, the Richmond 

POLARIS (Polar Motion Analysis by Radio Interferometric Surveying) Observatory, near Miami, 

Florida, became operational, thus completing the 

three-station Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

(VLBI) network in the United States that provides 

high accuracy determinations of Earth rotation and 

polar motion. The other stations in the network are 

located near Fort Davis, Texas (the George R. Agassiz 

Station), and near Boston (the Westford Observatory). 

Radio telescopes at two or more of the observing stations simultaneously observe signals emitted by faint, 

distant radio sources (typically quasars), believed to be 

billions of’light-years from Earth. Also in January 

1984, the Wettzell Observatory in the Federal 

Republic of Germany became operational. The combined POLARIS-Wettzell network now forms the 

primary International Radio Interferometric Surveying (IRIS) system. The Onsala Space Observatory in 

Sweden participated with IRIS by joining in one 

observing session per month. As the operational center 

for IRIS, NGS develops and distributes schedules for 

the observations, reduces the observational data, and 

56 
distributes the polar motion and Earth rotation data. 

VLBI measurements have shown that this technique 

can be used to study large-scale interactions between 

the Earth's mantle, atmosphere, and oceans, thereby 

contributing to an understanding of the processes 

underlying geophysical and climatological phenomena. 

Satellite Altimetry. The use of space technology also 

has been applied to the determination of other geodetic 

parameters that heretofore were thought to be unattainable. The most important example is the measurement of sea surface by satellite altimetry. The form of 

the ocean surface is determined predominantly by the 

Earth's gravity field, allowing accurate geoid determinations of nearly all the oceans, an achievement impossible to carry out using classical shipboard gravity 

measurements. The remainder is due to time varying 

ocean dynamic processes. Although this is a relatively 

small contribution to sea height, it still is large enough 

to be detected and measured by satellite altimetry providing both regional and global views of ocean circulation. Satellite altimetry has been applied to the study of 

the undulations of the geoid which correlate with sea 

floor topography- the gravitational attraction of 

massive sea floor features such as sea mounts, 

trenches, ridges, oceanic rises, and fracture zones 

which produce bumps on the sea surface that can be 

mapped by satellite altimetry. In 1984, NGS produced 

32 overlays of sea surface topography profiles for 16 

maps of the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans 

series. The overlays display sea surface slopes along the 

satellite tracks, In poorly charted areas, the satellite 

altimeter has revealed many undetected features of the 

sea floor. Nearly 100 previously undiscovered sea 

mounts were found in the South Pacific. 

Surface currents can be measured as sea surface 

slopes relative to the geoidal surface. In 1984, progress 

was made toward the ulimate goal of determining longterm general circulation of the oceans with the 

preparation of a global map of ocean circulation 

altimeter data together with a model of the gravity 

field. Last year NGS developed a new technique based 

on satellite altimetry data to monitor the sea level 

changes caused by the occurrence of El Nino with an 

accuracy of a few centimeters. When used with the absolute global reference frame provided by the 

VLBI/GPS network, it should be possible to monitor 

large-scale sea level variability in the tropical oceans 

with data provided by the Navy's GEOSAT altimeter 

satellite scheduled for launch early in 1985. 

Geodynamical Measurement Methods. Scientists at NBS 

are helping NASA improve the accuracy of its geodetic 

experiments. One such experiment involves the use of 

the passive Laser Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS) to 

determine worldwide crustal movements. By measuring the time taken for a laser pulse from a ranging station to reach the satellite and return, position on the 

Earth's surface is determined to an accuracy of 3 cm. 

Measurements from two stations at the same site 

established instrumental errors. A program to colocate 

a mobile laser ranging station with a fixed station for 

brief periods to provide additional information on the 

quality of data was proposed to the NASA Crustal 

Dynamics Project. 

A less accurate but faster and less expensive way of 

measuring crustal movements involves the use of 

microwave signals from the Global Positioning 

Satellite (GPS). LAGEOS measurements take about 1 

month per site, but GPS data can be obtained in 2 or 3 

hours per site. The University of Colorado and Columbia University have formed a University 

NAVSTAR Consortium with Caltech, Harvard, 

MIT, Princeton, and the University of Texas, to make 

portable GPS terminals available in academic research 

programs. NBS scientists are helping the Consortium 

evaluate the accuracy of the GPS data to be obtained in 

studies of crustal movements in seismic zones. 

The accuracy of any microwave distance measurement is limited mainly by the uncertainty in the correction for water vapor in the atmosphere. To determine 

the microwave distance correction, NBS scientists are 

constructing an instrument to measure the integrated 

water vapor content between a transmitter on the 

ground and a receiving package in an aircraft. Since 

optical distance measurements are much less sensitive 

to water vapor, the difference between the measured 

optical and microwave distances can determine the 

correction. NASA and the NAVSTAR Consortium 

are expected to use the NBS instrument to test the accuracy of water vapor radiometers and radiosonde 

data. 

Aeronautical Charting 

In 1984, the National Ocean Service (NOS), which 

produces aeronautical charts and related products for 

navigation under control of the U.S. national airspace 

system, continued its support of the Federal Aviation 

Administration's National Airspace System Plan 

(NASP). The NASP is intended to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the airspace system by improving services to the public. To support this effort, 

NOS developed new aeronautical prototype products 

during 1984. 

A prototype visual chart was designed and 

distributed to the public for evaluation in early 1984. 

The results of this evaluation may require the entire 

visual chart series to be redesigned. Prototype instrument charts also were developed and evaluated during 

1984. 

NOS continued its efforts to develop products to 

satisfy demands generated by advancing technology in 

aviation. These products may include charts and 

navigational data in digital format. Alternative 

methods of presentation, such as charts stored on video 

57 
disks for playback on cockpit-mounted video displays, 

also are being investigated. 

Orbital Research 

Low-Gravity Alloy Processing. NBS developed a 

theoretical model that can predict instabilities during 

the solidification of alloys that arise from gravity 

driven flows in the liquid state. Experiments which 

demonstrate these flows and the resultant instabilities 

were conducted at NBS. This work will help identify 

the kind of experiments aboard the Space Shuttle and 

the Space Station that will be of scientific value and 

benefit. NBS also measured fundamental physical 

parameters, such as surface tension, necessary for containerless processing techniques to be employed in 

space processing. 

First Space-Made Product In July 1984, NASA 

presented the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) 

with billions of tiny, uniformly-shaped polystyrene 

spheres, 10 micrometers (1/2500 of an inch) in 

diameter, which were produced on space shuttle flights 

by means of a chemical process developed for NASA 

by Lehigh University. Once their size and uniformity 

have been certified by NBS, these tiny spheres will 

become the first space-made commercial product; a 

micro-length reference standard. The near perfect 

spheres are produced in the gravity free environment 

of space. 

On Earth spheres are not uniform and tend to be 

egg-shaped due to the force of gravity. When certified, 

the spheres made in space will be an important calibration tool for manufacturers and users of instruments 

that measure small particles. Accurate measurements 

of small particles are especially important in equipment to monitor air pollution particulates, in medical 

instruments to count blood cells or to measure capillary 

size, and in processing equipment for finely ground 

products such as paint pigments, inks, ceramic 

powders, explosives, and chemicals. 

Interfacial Wetting. NBS is conducting studies on 

fluid-fluid and fluid-solid interfaces as prototype experiments for low-gravity research in an orbiting 

laboratory. An unique optical system for studying how 

a liquid wets other liquid surfaces and solid surfaces 

was designed and tested. This pioneering work has 

stimulated the development of novel techniques for 

making new material such as those whose composition 

varies in a well-defined, reproducible manner. The 

thickness of wetting layers and their persistence with 

variations in temperature and other key parameters, 

including gravity, are being studied. Experiments 

show that current theories are inadequate for explaining the data and that wetting persists over surprisingly 

large temperature ranges. 

High Temperature Liquids. NBS is exploring the 

feasibility of using low-gravity space environments to 

measure very high-temperature thermo-physical properties of solids and liquids. Such accurate 

measurements have heretofore been difficult or impossible on Earth because of the high-temperature containment. An unique thermophysical measurement 

system developed at NBS, which is capable of making 

very rapid measurements, provides the key technology 

for these studies. There is interest in high-melting 

point refractory metals and alloys such as are used in 

the construction of nuclear reactors, weapon systems, 

and spacecraft. Initial measurements conducted 

aboard a NASA KC 135 aircraft verify the ability of the 

NBS system to sustain a well-defined geometry of liquid for a period of time that is sufficient to complete the 

required thermophysical measurements. 

Space Support Activities 

Materials Research 

Ablative Coatings. Carbonaceous materials are commonly proposed as protective coatings for shielding 

spacecraft against laser attack. Upon impact by high 

energy laser irradiation, these materials dissipate the 

input energy by converting it into chemical energy in 

the form of carbon vapor. Understanding of this conversion requires chemical information concerning 

properties of the intermediate graphite-like layers. 

Such information is the objective of a research program sponsored by the Air Force Office of Scientific 

Research at the National Bureau of Standards. 

Fiber- Rein forced Composites. N B S is cooperating with 

NASA’s-Langley Research Center, the University of 

Illinois, and several manufacturers of composites to 

study the basic failure mechanisms in composites and 

to develop tests that measure their resistance to crack 

growth. The use of fiber-reinforced composites in aircraft bodies substantially reduces the overall weight, 

thereby allowing an increase in fuel or payload. 

However, the development and growth of cracks in the 

polymeric material binding the fibers together is a major concern. This program has established guidelines 

for laboratory tests that measure the resistance of composites to such crack growth. The use of toughened 

matrix polymers to increase the fracture resistance of 

their composites also was studied. Based on these 

results a relationship important in the design and 

fabrication of improved materials was established between the polymer toughness and the composite 

toughness. 

Measurement Sewices 

Antenna Performance. NBS assisted NASA in defining 

the design of an advanced antenna measurement facility for the NASA Lewis Research Center. The new 

facility will enable NASA to measure the performance 

of large antennas (about 40 feet in diameter) with 

operating frequencies to 60 gigahertz for such 

58 
spaceborne applications as satellite communications. 

The large size and high frequency capability of this 

new facility will support the development and evaluation of high performance antennas with such special 

characteristics as very high directivity for sending the 

strongest signal to the desired location, very low 

sidelobes for reducing interference with adjacent communication systems, and multiple beams for transmitting a signal simultaneously to separate locations. 

Thmnoacoustic Refrigeration. Various sensors used in 

spacecraft often require refrigeration at temperatures 

below 150' to improve their sensitivity. NBS is studying the feasibility of a new thermoacoustic refrigeration 

method to provide high reliability, low temperature 

refrigeration for spacecraft. The new refrigerator 

device has no moving parts at low temperature, no 

orifices to plug, and no valves on the roomtemperature compressor. Three different concepts for 

this device were studied and compared; a demonstration model is anticipated late in 1985. 

Surface Roughness. NBS is developing an optical instrument to measure the surface roughness of aircraft 

models that will be used in the new National Transonic 

Facility wind tunnel. The new facility will simulate air 

flow conditions around planes flying at the speed of 

sound or slightly faster. Under these extreme air flow 

conditions, the surfaces of aircraft models must be very 

smooth for the simulation to yield accurate results. The 

NBS optical instrument, to be used in the shop where 

the model aircrafts are produced, will detect roughness 

by measuring the light scattered out of a laser beam illuminating an area on the surface. 

Heat Transfer. NBS is conducting theoretical heat 

transfer studies on the behavior of liquid oxygen and 

liquid hydrogen in low-gravity environments such as 

those experienced on the space shuttle and the proposed space station. Computer simulation of the effects 

of low-gravity on heat transfer processes in liquids will 

provide a basis for more accurate estimates of the 

quantity of fuel remaining on board the space shuttle 

and will thus provide improved mission planning. 

Results for space-based storage tanks will be used in 

planning orbital and deep space missions associated 

with a space station. 

Calibration Services 

Space Telescope Slectrograph. NBS is calibrating a 

wavelength standard for the High-Resolution Spectrograph (HRS) which will make it possible to identify 

a discrete spectral feature as coming from a particular 

chemical element and to know to an accuracy of 1 

km/sec or better how fast the material forming that 

feature was moving. The HRS, to be the most powerful spectrograph used in space, is one of five instruments on the Hubble Space Telescope, an 

astronomical satellite that will be launched in 1986. 

Spectral features, seen as broad, single features on 

previous astronomical telescopes, will be resolved into 

a multitude of discrete features on this instrument. 

Ultraviolet Radiometry. The improved Spectrometer 

Calibration Facility at the NBS Synchrotron 

Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF 11) was used for 

further pre-flight calibrations of the Solar Ultraviolet 

Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM) experiment of 

the Naval Research Laboratory. Periodic evaluations 

and calibrations of the onboard deuterium lamps, 

which act as secondary in-flight standards, were completed in 1984. The flight and sister lamps were 

selected after exhaustive tests. NBS also performed extensive calibration work with the Space Telescope Optical Simulator (STOS), designed and constructed by 

the Martin Marietta Aerospace Company, using 

laboratory tests of Pt-Cr-Ne hollow cathode lamps and 

rf-dimer rare gas lamps. These lamps are to be flown 

on the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) of the Space 

Telescope as secondary vacuum ultraviolet irradiance 

standards. The lamps were mounted in the STOS and 

extensively evaluated in preparation for calibrating the 

Faint Object Spectrograph before launch. 

Consultation Services 

Computer Software. NBS continued, in 1984, to provide technical assistance to NASA in the development 

and management of software for NASA's Space Station 

project. Because of the greater demands for cooperation among NASA field centers, this program requires 

a new approach to managing software. NBS is helping 

NASA establish a program of software support activities which includes guidance, training, and information services. 

Fire Safeg. NBS is working with the NASA Lewis 

Research Center to develop a method for evaluating 

fire safety design proposals using equivalency concepts 

for various NASA facilities. NBS is developing a Life 

Safety Evaluation System (LSES) for comparing the 

safety level of proposed design with the objective level 

prescribed by NASA. Initial efforts in 1984 involved 

visits by NBS staff to various NASA facilities to identify fire safety features. Analysis of these features will 

determine those which control the level of fire safety in 

general purpose buildings. Coordination conferences 

between NASA and NBS were held in October 1984. 

When completed, the LSES will enable NASA to meet 

life safety objectives at minimum cost. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Agricultural Monitoring (AgR ISTA RS) 

Satellite data are being processed routinely into 

quantities useful for agricultural monitoring. Daily 

estimates of solar radiation incident at the surface maximum and minimum temperature, and vegetation indices are being evaluated for accuracy and usefulness 
in crop models and assessment of abnormal weather 

events affecting crops. 

Procedures to estimate 24-hour precipitation 

amounts from satellite data are being implemented on 

interactive computer systems. These techniques allow 

a meteorologist to look at cloud temperature and cloud 

type on a TV screen and use that information to 

retrieve rainfall amounts for areas where there are no 

conventional data. This will be useful over 

agriculturally important parts of the world where there 

are few routinely reported weather data. 

Meteorology 

Precipitation. During 1984, work continued on refining techniques for precipitation estimates for convective extratropical cyclones and tropical cyclones. In addition, a shortrange forecasting technique was 

developed for experimental satellite-derived heavy 

convective rainfall. Also, a study of the characteristics 

of eastern United States and convective flash flood 

events in the GOES imagery was completed. 

Representatives from NOAA and NASA have 

begun discussions concerning a joint effort to develop 

special purpose automatic convective cloud detectors 

and tracking techinques for use with rapid scan GOES 

data. One of the products would include an immediate 

“first-guess” of precipitation accumulation based on a 

fully automatic technique to estimate precipitation. 

Hurricanes. The Hurricane Research Division 

(HRD) is part of NOAA’s Atlantic Oceanographic and 

Meteorological Laboratory (AOML). During 1984, 

HRD continued to use satellite and other remotesensing data and satellite communications facilities to 

support its hurricane research activities. 

HRD is conducting a joint research program with 

the Development Laboratory of NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. 

The goal is to determine the feasibility of using visible 

infrared spin-scan radiometer (VISSR) atmospheric 

sounder (VAS) data to improve the accuracy of operational numerical hurricane forecast models in a realtime mode. 

Tropospheric deep-layer mean (DLM) winds, derived from the VAS data, are used to enhance the 

large-scale DLM wind analysis of SANBAR, the National Hurricane Center’s (NHC) operational 

barotropic hurricane-track forecast model. The 

anlaysis scheme of the SANBAR model has been 

modified to allow for the incorporation of the VASderived winds (VDW). For each forecast case, the 

DLM winds initially are calculated from the VAS data 

over an area that is centered on a tropical cyclone. The 

VDW’s then are combined with the analysis first-guess 

field and also are used as station data at selected 

geographical locations. 

Test forecasts have been made, based upon HRDs 

modified analysis package, with and without the VDW 

data, for a number of 1982 and 1983 storm cases. 

These tests have demonstrated the potential for improving the accuracy of the SANBAR model’s 

hurricane-track forecasts. Additional modifications, to 

optimally incorporate the VDW data in the model’s 

analysis scheme, are being tried by HRD. 

The communications capabilities of NOAA’s Orbiting Satellite System were employed in support of 

HRD’s 1984 Hurricane Field Program. On October 

11, HRD conducted its planetary boundary-layer experiment in Hurricane Josephine. Surface pressures, 

surface winds, and ocean responses were measured 

concurrently by an array of sensor systems positioned 

within the storm area. These instruments consisted of a 

line of NOAA Data Buoy Center (NDBC) drifting 

buoys, deployed ahead of the storm by U.S. Air Force 

weather reconnaissance aircraft; a stepped-frequency 

microwave radiometer, located on the NOAA aircraft 

that overflew the NDBC buoys; and airborne expendable current profilers (AXCP), which measured 

changes in the ocean’s thermal structure and current, 

with depth, in response to the moving storm. 

Data from the NDBC drifting buoys were transmitted to Service ARGOS (in France) via the NOAA-6 

and NOAA-7 orbiting satellites. Through facilities 

established at NHC and HRD, the buoy data were accessed by computer and made available to hurricane 

forecasters within about 3 hours of collection. These 

data were used in the preparation of NHC’s surface 

analyses. 

This was the first such use of drifting buoys and only 

the second time that AXCP’s were positioned in a hurricane. In addition, a side-looking airborne radar provided observations of the storm’s directional wind 

properties. 

An automated technique for obtaining hurricane intensity has been developed. The method uses the infrared temperature of the edge of the storm and the 

cold temperature around the eye to calculate storm intensity. The technique has been programmed on a 

man-machine interactive computer system, enabling 

the hurricane analyst to compute hurricane intensities 

in real time at 1-hour intervals. The system, tested 

operationally in September 1984 on Hurricane Diana, 

showed good correlation with intensity estimates derived from reconnaissance aircraft. 

Ocean Thunders@ms. A study using satellite and conventional data has determined many of the 

characteristics of thunderstorms that form in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream current. Situated just off the East 

Coast of the U.S., the Gulf Stream is an important 

feature to the fishing and maritime industries. 

Guidelines were developed to assist meteorologists in 

preparing short range marine and aviation 

thunderstorm forecasts for the Gulf Stream. 
Solar Physics 

Gravitational Waves. Scientists at the National Bureau 

of Standards are exploring the feasibility of a laser experiment to detect gravitational wave pulses in space. 

The detection of gravitational wave pulses with periods 

of minutes to hours will provide an entirely new way of 

studying events in the universe involving very large 

masses. These events include collisions of massive 

black holes, both now and during the early history of 

the universe when galaxies were forming. Black holes 

are thought to exist at the centers of many galaxies and 

probably provide the energy source for quasars. 

Planetary Systems. NBS is developing ultra-sensitive 

techniques to measure low light flux to a precision of 1 

part in 100,000 for observations lasting several days. 

These measurements are an effort to discover 

planetary systems outside of the solar system to 

characterize oscillations in stars. Distant planets orbiting a star should be detectable by the way the light 

from the star is blocked off when the planet passes the 

line of sight between the star. In an experiment to be 

attempted at the Lick Observatory, the highly stable 

and sensitive detectors developed by NBS will look for 

small changes in the faint radiation coming from 

various stars as the characteristic signature of a planet’s 

passage. The same capability also will be used to 

measure brightness variations in certain stars to 

elucidate their internal dynamics. 

Planetary Atmospheres 

Earth’s Atmospheric Chemistry. Through cooperative 

agreements with NASA and the Chemical Manufacturer’s Association, NBS scientists conducted research 

designed to elucidate the chemical dynamics (reaction 

rates and mechanisms) of gas phase processes selected 

for their importance in atmospheric modeling. Results 

of the NBS studies advance understanding of various 

atmospheric phenomena, including the effects of 

natural and anthropogenic emissions on the stratospheric ozone layer, the atmospheric radiation budget 

(greenhouse effect), and acid precipitation in the 

troposphere. While homogeneous atmospheric 

chemistry involves the interactions of numerous free 

radical and stable species, its study has been facilitated 

by a subdivision into several reaction subcycles whose 

elementary steps often can be detailed through individual laboratory studies. 

One NBS effort in 1984 was on one such class of 

reactants, HO,. Most notable, this included the 

radicals OH and HO,, both of which play an important role as reaction chain carriers in the aforementioned atmospheric areas as well as in combustion 

systems. NBS scientists refined current measurement 

technologies for studying HO, reactions (primarily 

with other free radicals). Additional efforts concentrated on applying state-of-the-art diode laser spectroscopy to measurements of such radical transients at 

very low concentrations. Other spectroscopy involved 

measurements for HCL, HF, the NOx family of compounds, and the long-lived sulfur-containing species 

cos. 

Ozone Concentration Measurements. NBS completed the 

program of measurement of the ultraviolet absorption 

cross-section of ozone necessary to obtain the concentration of ozone in the earth‘s atmosphere. These data 

cover the wavelength range 240 to 340 nm (Hartley 

and Huggins Bands) and the temperature range 200 to 

300°K, and are needed for accurate analysis of atmospheric total ozone and ozone profile observation. 

Application of these new cross-sections to observational data from satellites and from ground-based 

(Dobson) stations has greatly improved the accuracy 

and consistency of the results. The NBS cross-section is 

expected to be adopted by the World Meterorological 

Organization (WMO) as the reference data set for the 

reduction of atmospheric ozone observations. 

Outer Planets and Moons. NBS continued its long-term 

effort to determine the far-infrared spectra of significant gaseous and liquid constituents of the outer 

planets and their moons. A theory was developed that 

describes the far-infrared spectrum of a liquid of 

diatomic molecules, such as liquid nitrogen, and which 

provides a simple interpretation of the collisioninduced translational band shape and its density 

dependence. Furthermore, a comprehensive review of 

10 years of careful experimental and theoretical work 

verified that a coherent description of collision-induced 

processes in atomic liquids now is available. This is 

particularly significant now that considerable efforts 

have been initiated to study collision-induced processes 

that occur in the more complex molecular fluids. Work 

has begun on the major constituents of the atmosphere 

of Titan. 

Stellar Atmospheres 

Solar Activity. In analyzing data obtained from the 

Solar Maximum Mission satellite, an NBS scientist 

discovered rapid changes in the ultraviolet emission 

from bright sites in active regions of the solar atmosphere. The data suggest that the spectrum of 

heating responses extends all the way from flares and 

relatively large amplitude, sustained bursts down to 

smaller, short-lived brightenings. These results are of 

considerable significance in discussions of overall 

energy input and heating of the upper solar atmosphere. 

Stellar Spectroscopy. Spectroscopic studies of ultraviolet 

emission lines can provide sensitive probes of the 

plasma properties of stellar atmospheres. NBS has 

pioneered techniques for deriving these properties 

from analyses of collisionally excited ultraviolet 

resonance lines observed with the International 

Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) satellite. In 1984, NBS 

scientists analyzed an excellent high-resolution spectrum of the star Beta Draconis, the longest exposure 

61 
yet made with the IUE satellite. From this data they 

derived a detailed model for the outer atmosphere of 

this star, which is nearly an order of magnitude less 

dense than the Sun. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aeronautical Research. With the use of an integrated 

surface and remote sensing network, NOAA's National Severe Storms Laboratory in Norman, 

Oklahoma, continues to study weather-related hazards 

to aviation, space shuttle, and the public. Lightning 

discharges from cloud-to-cloud and from cloud-toground, their polarity, and other physical characteristics are receiving increasing emphasis while turbulence, wind shear, hail, and downbursts are being 

more effectively studied with improved theoretical and 

observational tools. The observational network consists of weather radar, dual-Doppler weather radars, 

automated surface observations, rawinsondes, a 444 

meteorologically instrumented tower, satellite, lightning location systems, and aircraft. The detection, 

identification, and characterization of the hazards for 

warning and accident prevention purposes, as well as 

the investigation of precursors that may be used in the 

forecast of these hazards, are included in cooperative 

projects with NASA, FAA, and DOD. In conjunction 

with the multiagency Next Generation Radar (NEXRAD) Joint Systems Program Office (JSPO), techniques for data acquisition, processing, and display of 

aviation weather hazards are being investigated. 

Development of siting criteria and operating techniques for effective utilization of the Doppler weather 

radars are being developed to service aviation and 

public interests. 

62 
Department of Energy 

The Department of Energy (DOE), as did its 

predecessors (Energy Research and Development Administration and Atomic Energy Commission), has the 

responsibility for advancing the technology of nuclear 

space power systems and the development, fabrication, 

and delivery of compact, reliable and safe radioisotope 

thermoelectric electric power systems to meet the requirements of NASA and DoD for space and other 

special applications. Radioisotope thermoelectric 

generator (RTG) power systems provided to NASA by 

DOE over the past two decades have met effectively 

power and reliability requirements for the Nimbus, 

Apollo, Pioneer, Viking and Voyager NASA programs. Advanced RTGs are essential power systems 

for both contemporary missions such as Galileo and 

Ulysses, scheduled for launch in 1986 and future 

NASA deep space planetary missions, planned for the 

1990’s. Higher power nuclear space power systems, 

beyond the practical range of RTGs and spanning the 

power range of 1 to 100 + KW (electrical), are in the 

planning or initial stages of development. Together 

with the MOD-RTG, these isotopic or reactor 

powered systems are directed toward prospective 

NASA and DoD requirements of the 1990’s. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Research and development in the Nuclear Power 

System Program provide safe, compact, and environmentally acceptable energy systems to Federal 

agencies for earth-orbital and interplanetary space missions, as well as for other special-purpose applications. 

The program in 1984 consisted of three major projects: 

(1) the static outer-planetary radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) project, developing RTGs for 

NASA’s Galileo spacecraft, to be launched to Jupiter in 

1986, and the Ulysses (formerly International Solar 

Polar Mission) spacecraft, to be launched in 1986 to 

study the Sun; (2) the space reactor technology program (SP-100); and (3) advanced power system 

technology. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

The United States has used 34 RTGs, developed by 

DOE and its predecessors, as electrical power supplies 

in 19 space systems since 1961, including navigation 

and communication satellites launched by DoD and 

the Nimbus, Apollo, Pioneer, Viking, and Voyager 

spacecraft launched by NASA. These RTG’s have encompassed six design concepts spanning beginning-ofmission power ranges from 2.7 to 159.2 watts of electricity. The performance of these generators has 

demonstrated that nuclear power sources can be 

engineered safely and reliably to meet or exceed power 

level and mission duration requirements for a wide 

variety of space missions. 

In each of the past RTG designs, DOE has attempted to improve generator performance, efficiency, and 

specific power (electrical watts per pound) in order to 

enhance the objectives of the mission. This has led to 

improvements in the technology of thermoelectric 

materials, from the lead telluride (PbTe) used in the 

first five RTG designs to the silicon germanium (SiGe) 

used in the MHW-RTG and the RTG’s being built for 

future space missions. 

In 1984, research and development continued on the 

fabrication of thermoelectric converters for qualification and flight-unit general-purpose heat source 

(GPHS) RTGs to be used in an advanced silicongermanium generator for the Ulysses and Galileo Missions. The 55.5-kilogram GPHS-RTG is designed to 

provide a minimum of 285 watts of electricity, with a 

fuel loading of 4,410 thermal watts. During 1984, thermal and dynamic testing of the qualification unit was 

completed; and life testing was begun. 

The GPHS-RTG electrically-heated full-size 

engineering unit has been performing normally since 

its life test was begun in June 1983. The six 18-couple 

module life tests also are performing normally, some 

with over 15,000 hours of thermal vacuum operation. 

Safety efforts included Safety Verification Testing 

(SVT) of full-up GPHS fueled modules used to power 

GPHS-RTG’s. Ten SVT tests were completed in 

1984. The Updated Safety Analysis Report (USAR) 

for Galileo and Ulysses missions also was completed in 

1984. 

The Space Nuclear Reactor Program (SP-100) 

The SP-100 program is a cooperative effort jointly 

sponsored by DoD, DOE, and NASA to develop space 

nuclear reactor power system technology to enable a 

broad class of military and civilian space missions. It 

was established formally on February 11, 1983, by a 

63 
Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) involving DoDs 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, DOE’S 

Office of Nuclear Energy, and NASA’s Office of 

Aeronautics and Space Technology. 

The program calls for the three agencies to: 

Assess and advance the technology for 100 KWe 

and multimegawatt space nuclear power systems, 

Provide engineering development and production 

systems for users, as warranted, and 

Ensure the nuclear safety of all missions. 

To accomplish these objectives, a number of functional requirements for a design reference point have 

been established. These include required power output 

(100 KWe through end of life), and design lifetime (7 

years at full power; 10 years total system lifetime), 

mass (less than 3000 kilograms), size (less than 6.1 

meters long and able to fit in the space shuttle cargo 

bay with a payload and booster), and safety (must meet 

all applicable NASA aerospace safety and DOE 

nuclear safety requirements). In addition, a major 

feature must be the ability to grow to higher power 

levels without major changes in overall design. A 

three-phase program has been laid out to meet these 

requirements, including a technology assessment and 

advancement phase, a ground engineering test phase, 

and a flight qualification phase. 

The objectives of the program during the present 

phase are to: (1) define missions which need nuclear 

power and to determine specific characteristics and 

needs as a basis for design, (2) perform conceptual 

design studies of attractive powerplant concepts and 

define the critical technological issues associated with 

each concept, and (3) conduct experiments and 

analyses to confirm that presently uncertain areas can 

be resolved in ways that will not affect the technical or 

safety feasibility of the concept. 

The program is carried out by the SP-100 Project 

Office, centered at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

UPL). The NASA Lewis Research Center (LeRC) 

and the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) provide major support to the project office in the areas of 

aerospace technology and nuclear technology, respectively. The work of the SP-100 Project is organized into four major elements: 

(1) System Definition Element- Earlier in 1984, the 

program completed its initial 9-month effort by a 

number of industrial contractors to produce a careful 

evaluation of potential candidates. Two concepts 

selected were: a fast flux liquid metal cooled reactor 

coupled to a thermoelectric power converter, and a fast 

flux in-core thermionic reactor/power conversion 

system. In addition, it was decided to investigate a low 

temperature fast flux liquid metal cooled reactor coupled to a Stirling engine conversion system. 

(2) Safety-At this stage of the SP-100 project, an 

important objective is to apply as much of the prior experience as possible to the decision-making process. 

This includes the development of preliminary design 

guidelines and criteria. 

(3) Mission Requirements and Analysis 

Element - Three major generic missions categories 

have been identified as probably the first users of space 

nuclear reactor power. These are communications 

satellites for both commercial and military use, radar 

surveillance and remote sensing satellites for civil and 

military applications, and a power system to support 

manufacturing and other aspects of a developing space 

station. Of these, the military space radio is the most 

likely first application. 

(4) Technology Element - Significant progress has 

been made in many key technology areas. For example: 

Fabrication of a 25 KWe free piston Stirling test 

unit. 

Fabrication and test in a reactor environment of 

thermionic diodes to demonstrate the potential for 

7-year life. 

Progress in high-temperature thermoelectric 

materials with a figure of merit in excess of 1 .O x 

10. 

Compatibility of reactor construction materials 

and reactor coolants. 

Reestablishment of the ability to fabricate UN 

fuel elements which has been reestablished and an 

ongoing effort now underway to demonstrate the 

capability to fabricate refractory metal fuel pins. 

Fabrication and life test of refractory metal heat 

pipes. 

A major effort is underway to develop a test plan for 

the next phase of the program. This plan is to be 

established at the time the decision on phase I1 is 

made, which will include the selection of a site for the 

conduct of the ground test of the reactor system. 

Preliminary ground engineering test program 

guidance and schedules were issued to the potential test 

sites. A draft site selection plan is to be completed and 

developed concurrently with potential options for the 

scope and content of the ground test program. 

Advanced Power Syskm Technology 

Significant progress continued in 1984 in the 

development of a new RTG concept, the modular 

isotopic thermoelectric generator (MITG). DOE completed fabrication and began performance-testing eight 

MITG test modules; and the test data will be used to 

determine further development of this new concept. 

Design of a ground demonstration system using the 

MITG approach also began in 1984, and program 

plans call for fabrication of thermoelectric modules for 

assembly of the ground demonstration system in 1985, 

and testing in 1986. 

64 
The MITG promises substantially higher specific 

power (electrical watts per pound) for future space missions than provided by the present RTGs, with no 

reduction in safety and with increased reliability. The 

basic design will be adaptable for many space uses, 

since the power output can be scaled in 20-watt increments by varying the number of generator slices 

(identical sections of the standard design), usually 

without any major design changes. It also permits performance checking of individual thermoelectric 

modules in the assembled converter and replacement 

of any that are deficient. Thus, it should be more 

economical to produce because of modular, scalable, 

and flexible characteristics. 

Advanced technology developments at Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, initiated in 1984 in support of 

the MITG-RTG system, include the following three 

activities: 

(1) State-of-the-art NDT (nondestructive testing) 

methods were evaluated and adapted to the inspection 

of the multicouple type thermoelectric module, the 

basic power conversion building block for the MITG 

generator, and module subassemblies. 

(2) An iridium DOP-26 alloy process improvement 

activity directed toward improved product yield and 

quality was initiated. The DOP-26 iridium alloy sheet 

is the fuel clad material employed in the GPHS. 

(3) Also, a CBCF (carbon bonded carbon fiber thermal insulation utilized in the GPHS module) process 

development program was undertaken. This program 

is directed toward accommodating new raw materials 

and improved process controls. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

The DOE designs and develops spaceborne nuclear 

detector systems used to monitor adherence to nuclear 

test ban treaties. Support for this national mission consists of supplying optical and radiation detectors flown 

as secondary payloads on DOD and NASA systems. 

These satellite systems enable worldwide surveillance 

for nuclear testing in the Earth’s atmosphere as well as 

outside the atmosphere. 

The DOE national laboratories design, develop, 

fabricate and test the various detection systems flown 

on the DoD and NASA satellites. A major element of 

the DOE program in 1984 was a research and development effort to provide increased radiation hardened 

detector systems. Overall objectives of the DOE 

satellite nuclear detection program continued to be improvement in sensitivity, coverage, and data processing techniques for distinguishing background signals 

from nuclear events to prevent false alarms. As in 

1983, the DOE delivered a number of detection 

systems in 1984 for space monitoring. 

65 
Department of the Interior 

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior has responsibility for most 

of the nationally owned public land and natural 

resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of land 

and water resources, protecting fish and wildlife, 

preserving the environmental and cultural values of 

the national parks and historical places, and providing 

for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. 

The Department assesses energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is 

in the Nation’s best interests. The Department also has 

a major responsibility for American Indian reservation 

communities and residents of Island Territories under 

U.S. administration. 

The Department frequently relies on data acquired 

by satellite and aircraft sensors to inventory and 

monitor vast, often inaccessible areas and maintains an 

active program of research and technique development 

in remote sensing and digital spatial data technology. 

Innovative techniques have been developed by Department scientists and resource specialists for merging the 

results of remote sensing analysis with other types of 

data. This report of 1984 activities includes several examples of digital data base development and application to Department resource management problems. 

Interior scientists and resource managers are aggressively developing and utilizing remote sensing, 

digital cartography, and geographic information 

system technologies, and the Department was recently 

assigned the responsibility of coordinating digital cartography activities for the Federal government. 

Bureaus and agencies of the Department of the Interior participating in remote sensing and digital data 

applications during 1984 included the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of 

Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 

Water Resources, Geologic, and National Mapping 

Divisions of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Processing 

The Geological Survey continues to use the Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center 

to maintain archives on Landsat data and handle the 

processing and distribution of such data for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. During 1984, 35,000 Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and 

Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images were added to 

the archive, and approximately 38,000 film and digital 

products were generated and distributed to worldwide 

users. 

The Geological Survey side-looking airborne radar 

(SLAR) program continued in 1984 with the award of 

a contract to acquire SLAR data of approximately 

360,000 sq. km. in the conterminous United States. 

Through this program, which began in 1980, partial or 

complete SLAR coverage has been made of 33 States, 

including Alaska (approximately 1,340,000 sq. km. of 

areal coverage). These data aid both private-sector and 

Government scientists and managers in studies of 

energy and mineral resources and in assessing Earth 

hazards. In addition, the Geological Survey has supported more than 60 studies on the geologic, 

hydrologic, cartographic, and engineering applications 

of SLAR data. 

The goal of obtaining complete, first-time highdtitude photographic coverage at uniform scales of the 

conterminous United States has nearly been achieved 

through the National High Altitude Photography 

(NHAP) Program. The program began in 1980 as a 

cooperative effort by 12 Federal agencies. To date, the 

Seological Survey, acting as the lead agency, has contracted for coverage of 95 percent of the conterminous 

United States; over 75 percent of the photography is 

now available. During the first coverage cycle, 

1 :80,000-scale black-and-white and 1 : 58,000-scale 

color-infrared aerial photographs were acquired in 

blocks of 1’ latitude and 1’ longitude during the dormant season. The cooperating agencies met in April 

1984 and developed a 6-year plan for the second 

NHAP program. New photography will be acquired 

during the growing season by state units. There is no 

planned change in the film types and scales. Participating agencies are expecting the follow-on program to meet their continuing requirements for 

resource and environmental management. 

Digital Data Processing and Analysis 

Digital Data-Base Development and Applications 

The Geological Survey’s National Mapping 

Geologic Divisions have continued development 

and 

of a 

67 
,\\ i* * .$ *’ \A 

1 ’\ 

i‘ 

: i: data base for Alaska. Surface ownership data from the 

Bureau of Land Management’s Alaska Automated 

:, Land Record System are being converted to digital 

form and combined with information on mineral 

resources. Information on subsurface ownership and 

restrictions to mineral entry also are derived from the 

i, Bureau of Land Management system. The system is 

designed to answer questions regarding status and 

,I availability of minerals for development on Federal 

lands. Both tabular and graphic products are being 

generated. 

In 1984, the National Park Service used Landsat 

b and aircraft MSS data, as well as Landsat TM data, to 

develop digital data bases for several National Park 

+, System units. Landsat MSS data and digital terrain 

data were used to map vegetative land cover in North 

A Cascades National Park and to derive fire fuels models 

for fire management. Aircraft MSS data continued to 

, be used in 1984 to develop a computerized geographic 

information system for Yosemite National Park. A 

primary use of this system will be in fire management. 

The completed system will allow the park manager to 

+ integrate predictive models of fire behavior with actual 

park resource values (for example, vegetation, wildlife, 

and historic and archeological sites) in order to determine optimum fire management strategies. Digital 

data bases also are being developed for major park 

units in the National Capital Region using a combina- 

-; tion of Landsat TM data, aircraft MSS data, and 

color-infrared aerial photographs. 

During 1984, digital data bases were prepared for 

160,000 sq. km. of land in the Arctic, Kanuti, and 

Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska as 

part of a cooperative program between the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service and the Geological Survey. These 

data bases will be used to develop comprehensive conservation plans for these refuges as directed by the 

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 

1980. Data bases now exist for 10 refuges covering 

more than 240,000 sq. km. of land in Alaska. The 

main components of the data bases are vegetative cover 

derived from Landsat MSS data, and elevation, slope, 

and aspect derived from digital terrain data. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Geological 

Survey are using a previously developed digital data 

base with processed Landsat data on the Fort Berthold 

Indian Reservation, North Dakota, to assess land 

potential for irrigation. Digital data bases also are 

being developed, using remotely sensed data, for the 

Hopi and Papago Indian Reservations, Arizona. The 

Hopi project uses data in a geographic information 

system to show spatial effects of management influences on semiarid lands. Time-series analysis is 

being investigated using Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer data to monitor vegetative growth 

and range utilization on the Papago Reservation. 

The Bureau of Reclamation also is analyzing 

remotely sensed data and entering the results into 

. 

digital data bases. For example, maps of submersed 

aquatic vegetation were produced for national wildlife 

refuges along the James River in North Dakota as part 

of environmental studies for the Garrison Diversion 

Project, North Dakota. These data were interpreted 

from aerial photographs and entered into a digital data 

base for each individual refuge. 

The Geological Survey’s National Mapping Division 

and the South Dakota district of the Survey’s Water 

Resources Division used registered spatial data sets to 

obtain a more complete description of the hydrologic 

cycle in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Topographic, 

planimetric, hydrologic, geologic, and land cover data 

were prepared as geometrically registered data sets. Effective procedures for automated delineation of 

drainage lines and drainage basins with digital elevation data were developed as part of the project. Several 

parameters were automatically calculated, including 

flow direction, area, and the linkage tolerances 

necessary to include closed (noncontributing) basins. 

Subsequent measurement of a selected group of 

drainage basin characteristics has been made to 

prepare a statistical model for streamflow and basin 

characteristics of the full study area. 

A digital vegetatiodland cover data base was 

developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the 

States of Wyoming and Montana. A map was prepared by manually interpreting 1 : 1,000,000-scale 

Landsat MSS color-composite images, digitizing the 

intepretations, and then entering the data into a digital 

data base. The data will be used by field offices for 

wildlife habitat assessment. This approach permits the 

development of a uniform data set over a large 

geographic area. 

Landsat Thematic Mapper Data Analysis 

The Landsat TM imaging system provides new and 

much more comprehensive data than the data collected 

during the past 10 years by the Landsat MSS system. 

A major challenge in working with TM data is to process and analyze efficiently the much larger volume of 

data resulting from the TMs higher spatial resolution 

and the increased number of spectral bands. 

Geological Survey scientists have used a variety of processing techniques on TM data over several sites to (1) 

reduce the amount of data to be processed and analyzed, (2) digitally process data from small sub-areas to 

improve the visual appearance of large-scale products 

or to merge image data having different resolutions, 

and (3) evaluate and compare the information content 

of the different three-band composite images that can 

be made using the TM data. Results indicate that, for 

some applications, the added TM spectral information 

(compared to MSS data) is even more important than 

the TM’s increased spatial resolution. 
Information Systems Development 

The Geological Survey’s National Mapping Division 

signed a cooperative agreement in 1984 with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s 

(NASA) Goddard Space Flight Center to develop a 

Land Analysis System, a comprehensive geographic 

and spatial data processing system. System objectives 

include: (1) development of a broad array of 

algorithms for processing remotely sensed data and for 

statistical analysis, (2) development of the capability to 

handle a variety of data formats and products, and (3) 

installation of these capabilities in transportable software to permit utilization on a variety of computer 

systems. The first phase of software for the Land 

Analysis System was released in October 1984. 

Image Processing Workstations 

The transition of the Geological Survey’s Remote 

Information Processing System (RIPS) from a 

research environment to an operational capability continued. A baseline software package was released to 

make the system more useful for specialized applications. This package includes 69 applications programs, 

100 support routines, and more than 500 pages of 

documentation. The first RIPS users conference was 

held in 1984 and led to the development of additional 

capabilities and recommendations for system improvement. Approximately 80 RIPS workstations are in use 

at Federal, State, and university locations, and the 

workstations now are available on a commercial basis. 

The Geological Survey also has developed the MiniImage Processing System (MIPS) as an office research 

and development digital image processing system, with 

potential of use in a field environment. The main objective in designing MIPS was to assemble a relatively 

inexpensive system powerful enough to be a standalone system. The program documentation, video 

display, screen formatting, and user prompting 

modifications recently made to MIPS have greatly improved its efficiency and ease of use. 

Monitoring the Environment 

Hydrologic Monitoring 

Approximately f ,400 Geological Survey hydrologic 

gaging stations are now equipped with automated instrumentation that provides for data transmission using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES) for data relay. The Survey operates 

the telemetry at 1,000 of these stations for Federal 

agencies such as the Corps of Engineers, Bureau of 

Reclamation, and National Weather Service, and for 

State and local cooperators. The data transmissions are 

received from the satellite relay at nine direct-readout 

ground stations operated by the Survey. Data are 

transmitted automatically from the ground station 

computer controllers to host computers for data computation, storage, and dissemination over the Survey’s 

nationwide Distributed Information System, Satellite 

telemetry provides near real-time data for river 

forecasting, reservoir management, hydropower 

generation, and irrigation and water control. 

The Bureau of Reclamation developed techniques in 

1984 for monitoring certain water quality parameters 

on inland lakes and reservoirs using satellite and airborne multispectral scanners, and limited ground 

reference information. These techniques now are 

being used operationally on Bureau reservoirs in the 

western United States. In addition, portable hydrometeorological monitoring stations, which transmit 

data hourly through the GOES system, also support 

such diverse activities as wind energy research, highelevation precipitation measurement, and reservoir 

and stream monitoring. 

Land Cover Inventories 

The use of satellite and aircraft image data has 

become common for inventory of land resources on 

Bureau of Reclamation projects. Land cover features 

have been mapped and digitized for a variety of studies 

including wildlife habitat, agricultural crop patterns, 

hydrology, irrigation consumptive use, and geology. 

For example, a cooperative study has been completed 

between the Bureau and the State of Wyoming to apply remote sensing techniques to assess the beneficial 

consumptive use of water in the upper Green River 

Basin. A practical technique was developed to apply 

both satellite images and aerial photographs to monitor 

the extent of irrigated cropland. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been 

evaluating the accuracy, precision, and cost of producing land cover maps from different types of remotely 

sensed data. Three different mapping techniques were 

evaluated for the shale-oil-rich Piceance Basin, Colorado: (1) supervised classification of Landsat MSS 

digital data; (2) visually interpreted Landsat MSS 

1 :250,000-scale false-color composite images; and (3) 

visually interpreted 1 :24,000-scale color-infrared aerial 

photographs. Preliminary results indicate that interpretation of color-infrared aerial photographs is most 

effective for producing maps with the detail and accuracy required. 

The U.S. Forest Service cooperated with the 

Geological Survey in Alaska to produce land cover 

classifications from digital processing of Landsat and 

digital elevation model data for use in one of four 

sampling phases designed to estimate statewide 

acreages of land cover types and biomass. Forest Service personnel used digital analysis equipment at the 

Survey’s EROS field office in Anchorage to complete a 

land cover classification for the Tanana River Basin. 

Eight-hectare sample blocks were located systemati69 
cally at the intersections of a 5-km. grid throughout the 

basin. Data for each sample block were extracted from 

the area-wide land cover classifications and used to 

estimate land cover type and biomass. The Forest 

Service is incorporating these data into a multiphase 

sampling framework which includes resource estimates 

from two scales of aerial photographs and ground sample measurements. 

Forested Wetlands Mapping 

Research was conducted by the Geological Survey to 

determine the utility of Seasat radar images to map 

forested wetlands. It is difficult to distinguish forested 

wetland from dry forest using aerial photographs 

because photograghs often do not reveal the presence 

of water below the tree canopies. Images obtained during the summer months of 1978 by Seasat’s L-band (23 

cm) radar revealed that forested wetland in the Atlantic 

coastal plain between Maryland and Florida had patterns of high radar reflection. A test revealed that accuracy in image interpretation was significantly higher 

when the Seasat radar images were used with conventional data types such as aerial photographs and 

topographic maps than when only conventional data 

types were used. The potential exists for Seasat radar 

images to complement aerial photographs in the 

preparation of wetland maps. 

Mine Development and Safe9 Monitoring 

The Bureau of Mines is investigating a composite 

methodology to construct mine hazard evaluation 

maps using Landsat data, aerial photographs, and 

digital terrain data in combination with other geologic, 

geophysical, and geochemical information from field 

studies in mining regions. Many researchers have used 

visual interpretation of satellite images and aerial 

photographs for geologic lineament analysis to detect 

potentially hazardous areas before and during mining 

in underground coal mines. To reduce the subjectivity 

inherent in visual interpretation of remotely sensed 

data, the Bureau is using digital processing techniques 

to identify lineaments from Landsat digital data. An 

interagency cooperative research project between the 

Bureau and the Geological Survey has resulted in an 

automatic lineament mapping method which permits 

processing the Landsat data to enhance those natural 

features of interest while suppressing extraneous information. While it is not expected that lineament studies 

will identify all mine hazards, the remote sensing 

technique is considered a valuable tool in identifying 

potential problem areas. 

The Bureau of Mines also concluded a contract project to investigate the feasibility of using the GOES 

system as a communication link to monitor remotely 

the stability of coal mine waste embankments. Field 

data from a group of 17 geotechnical sensors installed 

in an embankment at Montcoal, West Virginia, were 

transmitted through an unmanned solar-powered data 

collection platform at the site to a central computer 

facility in Washington, D.C., via the GOES system. 

The results from the year-long field test indicated that 

the reliability and resolution of the data received 

through the satellite link were excellent. However, due 

to malfunction of many sensors, no correlations were 

established between the received data and the ground 

conditions of the test embankment. 

Low-altitude aerial photographs of active surface 

coal mine areas in the Appalachian and western U.S. 

coalfields were used by the Office of Surface Mining to 

monitor active mining areas. Aircraft thermal-infrared 

scanner images aided in mapping and detecting outcrop and underground mine fires. Landsat images and 

aerial photographs of alluvial valley floor areas in the 

western coal States were used to assess and document 

the impact of mining. 

The Bureau of Land Management compared aerial 

photographs taken in 1951 and 1984 to calculate the 

volume of pits and mine spoils requiring environmental reclamation in New Mexico. Spoil areas were 

stereoscopically viewed, contours were digitized, and 

the resulting data were analyzed to determine the 

volume change between the two dates. 

GEOLOGY 

Lithologic Discrimination Studies in Antarctica 

The Geological Survey’s Geologic Division used 

computer-enhanced (band-ratio and linear-stretched) 

Landsat MSS data to discriminate successfully sandstone, granite, felsic igneous, and dolerite units in the 

dry valleys region, Antarctica. Surficial deposits such 

as glacial till versus alluviudcolluvium were also 

delineated based on relative particle size and composition. The Landsat spectral reflectance data were found 

to be superior to medium-altitude color and colorinfrared aerial photographs for reconnaissance 

geologic mapping of lithology and surficial deposits. 

Planetary Studies 

Over the past 20 years, the Geological Survey has 

cooperated with NASA to produce 270 topographic 

and planimetric maps and 124 geologic maps of 14 extraterrestrial bodies within the solar system. The total 

area mapped is approximately 1.5 billion sq. km., or 

about 11 times the land area of the Earth. To date, 

planimetric mapping by the Survey has included Mercury (45 percent of surface); the Moon (100 percent); 

Mars (100 percent); the larger satellites of Jupiter 

(Ganymede and Callisto, 80 percent, and Io and 

Europa, 40 percent); and the larger satellites of Saturn 

(Rhea, Iapateus, Enceladus, Mimas, Dione, and 

Tethys, 75 percent). 

70 
As part of this effort, the Geological Survey's Branch 

of Astrogeology in Flagstaff, Arizona, has completed a 

series of 140 controlled photomosaics of Mars for 

NASA. The photomosaics cover the entire planet at a 

scale of 1:2,000,000 and were made from rectified Viking Orbiter spacecraft images. The photomosaics were 

designed to support a wide variety of educational and 

planetary science research activities. Most of the 

10,000 images in the mosaics were returned to Earth in 

1978 via radio transmission from the two Viking Orbiters. 

Scientists from the Geological Survey and the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory have been studying Io, the 

volcanically active moon of Jupiter, which has the 

greatest surface heat flow in the solar system. 10's heat 

flow is induced by tidal heating caused by the gravitational pulls of Jupiter and the other large Jovian 

satellites. Data from the infrared spectrometer on the 

Voyager 1 spacecraft were used in this study and it was 

concluded that the heat is transferred primarily 

through lava lakes of liquid sulfur. 

Magsat Data Investigation 

The Geological Survey also has been analyzing data 

from NASA's Magsat. Global magnetic anomaly maps 

have been interpreted, with an emphasis on the 

African and South American continents. Procedures 

were developed for spatial filtering of the gridded to& 

field Magsat anomaly data. Geologic interpretation 

revealed that anomalies in the Magsat data correlate 

with uplifts of specific age and with basins of specific 

depth. One spatially filtered anomaly trending through 

South America was interpreted as being characteristic 

of conventional upwelling in the Earth's mantle. This 

suggests that a metallogenic province for rift-related 

mineral deposits may be located along this trend. Interpretation of Magsat anomalies also should be useful 

in developing models of large-scale crustal processes. 

Cartography 

Imge Mapping 

The Geological Survey continues to develop improved techniques for producing Landsat image maps. 

Advances in image mapping science include the 

development of innovative techniques for computer 

processing for enhancement of digital image data, 

photographic and digital mosaicking, and lithographic 

printing. Research in 1984 included: (1) implementing 

software for production of large-area digital mosaics of 

Landsat data for areas as large as 6' in both latitude 

and longitude, and extracting individual quadrangles 

for more efficient image map production; (2) developing methods to prepare map separates for printing 

directly from digital data; (3) improving digital techniques for geometric correction and image enhancement; 

and (4) combining Landsat data with other digital data 

sets, such as elevation data, for analysis in computerbased geographic information systems. 

Several new image map products were generated 

from Landsat TM, MSS, and Return Beam Vidicon 

(RBV) data during 1984: 

The following color image maps were prepared 

using TM data: 

Washington, D. C., and vicinity- 1: 100,000-scale 

TM image map covering a 1' by 30' area 

centered on the Nation's capital, and a 

graphical display of 24 false-color composite 

TM images with accompanying statistical 

analysis and ranking of the images according to 

their information content. 

Great Salt Lake and vicinity- 1: 125,000-scale 

Landsat TM image map which displays the 

area in July 1984 when the lake was at its 

highest level in 111 years. Portions of four 

Landsat scenes were combined in a mosaic, and 

contour lines were added to show the elevation 

and position of the shoreline at various times. 

This image map will be useful for planning 

reclamation activities and protective works. 

Image maps from Landsat MSS data were produced at 1:250,000 scale for four standard 1' by 

2O quadrangles (Norfolk and Richmond, 

Virginia; Needles, California; and Tonopah, 

Nevada). The Geological Survey cooperated with 

other U.S. and foreign agencies to produce Landsat MSS image maps of portions of Western 

Sahara, Saudi Arabia, and Central America. 

Black-and-white image maps were prepared at 

1:250,000 scale from MSS and RBV data for 

several quadrangles in Alaska north of 68'N. 

latitude. Coverage of the North Slope of Alaska is 

now complete. 

Future research will emphasize techniques for merging high-resolution data from new satellite sensors with 

conventional cartographic and earth resources data 

sets in digital form for rapid analysis to allow more 

timely and effective assessment of earth resources. 

National 1 :loo, 000-Scale Digital Cartographic Data Base 

The Geological Survey is beginning a major new 

program to create a nationwide digital cartographic 

data base from 1:100,000-scale maps by mid-1987. 

This data base will supplement the currently available 

1 :2,000,000-scale national data base and selected 

coverage of digital data from 1:24,000-scale source 

materials. It will provide complete coverage of 

transportation features (roads, railroads, powerlines, 

pipelines) and hydrographic features (streams, rivers, 

water bodies). Implementation of the production process has been facilitated by an agreement between the 

Survey and the Bureau of the Census to complete a national data base by 1987 for use as the cartographic 

71 
framework for the 1990 Decennial Census. A pilot 

project for the entire State of Florida (corresponding to 

forty-eight 1 : 100,000-scale quadrangles) was completed successfully. This project enabled the Survey 

and Census to develop and test new production procedures and software. During 1984, these procedures 

were implemented, and 385 digital line graph files 

were completed. 

Aerial Profiling of Terrain System 

The Aerial Profiling of Terrain System has been 

under development by the Geological Survey since 

1974. It is a precision airborne surveying system 

capable of measuring elevation profiles across various 

types of terrain from a Twin-Otter aircraft at flying 

heights up to 600 m. above the ground. Flight tests of 

the system in 1984 indicate that accuracy goals of 

+ 0.15 m. (vertical) and + 0.60 m. (horizontal) were 

achieved. 

The first in a series of application tests was completed to determine the effectiveness of the system for 

gathering data for Geological Survey earth-science 

programs. For this purpose, the system was used to 

determine the horizontal and vertical positions of water 

! wells along the Charles River near Needham, 

Massachusetts, and to determine the level of the river 

at over 60 locations. Other tests will establish terrain 

profiles for measuring the accuracy of several 

7.5-minute quadrangle maps and will determine elevations of more than 200 kettle ponds in New England. 

After completion of these tests, plans are to use the 

system as an operational earth-science data collection 

system. 

lnternatlonal Activities 

Workshops 

Geological Survey scientists held two 5-week remote 

sensing workshops during 1984. A workshop in May 

for eight scientists from five countries emphasized application of remotely sensed data to geologic and 

hydrologic resource problems; a September workshop 

for seven scientists from five countries applied remotely sensed data to vegetation and land use analysis. 

Hydrologic Studies 

The Bureau of Reclamation has entered into a 

cooperative agreement with Spain to transfer 

technology for monitoring reservoir ecology using 

Landsat MSS data. Bureau scientists are training 

Spanish scientists and engineers to use techniques 

which were developed for use on lakes and reservoirs in 

the western United States. 

Landsat and Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer data are being used to monitor snowcovered areas in gaged drainage basins of the High 

Atlas Mountains of Morocco. The work is a part of the 

Moroccan Winter Snowpack Augmentation Project, a 

cooperative program between the United States and 

Moroccan governments. 

72 
Department of Agriculture 

The Department of Agriculture (USDA) is engaged 

in a broad-based research effort to develop efficient 

and cost-effective ways to use remotely sensed data 

from space for ongoing programs to assess agricultural 

conditions and management of renewable resources., 

A pioneer in the use of aerial photography, USDA 

recognizes the potential of remotely sensed data from 

space as a valuable source of information for the 

decisionmaking process in programs and operations. 

The use of remotely sensed data from space sensors is 

considered a logical and evolutionary development 

following the use of aerial photography, long a vital 

source of information for such diverse USDA activities 

as forest management, soils mapping, farm conservation planning, and monitoring crop acerage. 

This was reflected in 1984 by the continued emphasis given by USDA to its multiagency program for 

Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys 

Through Aerospace Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS). 

Among the major objectives of AgRISTARS are to 

monitor crop conditions and to provide more accurate 

statistics on land use. This program includes research 

to develop and test various applications of data transmitted from Landsat and polar-orbiting meteorological 

satellites to Earth. Principal agencies of USDA participating in AgRISTARS are the Statistical Reporting 

Service and Agricultural Research Service. The Soil 

Conservation Service also is involved in the program. 

Other USDA agencies using aerospace remote sensing 

are the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation 

Service, Forest Service, Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, Foreign Agricultural Service and Economic 

Research Service. 

During 1984, USDA continued research on the 

potential utility of data from the advanced-very-highresolution-radiometer (AVHRR) sensors aboard the 

polar-orbiting satellites of the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOM). Studies were 

undertaken concerning changes in data resulting from 

atmospheric conditions and distortions that occur as 

sensors look at the ground from different scan angles 

(angles of view). Precise measurements of the variations resulting from atmospheric conditions and scan 

angle have not been possible to date. However, other 

data characteristics were identified; and several useful 

analytical techniques have been developed for future 

use in these and other studies. Preliminary results from 

other research show relationships between vegetative 

indices (conditions of vegetation) and changes in 

temperature indices from day to night. They may prove useful in detecting plant stress. In addition, an improved cloud-screening technique was developed and 

currently is in use to stabilize vegetative indices for 

predefined conditions. The Foreign Agricultural Service now is employing the new cloud screening technique in operational image analysis procedures. 

New ways to use Landsat Multispectral Scanner 

(MSS) digital data in forest management is under 

development by the Forest Service. In 1984, major advances were achieved using such data and other information for forest inventories. Landsat data also are important for the mapping of forest fuels- the materials 

accumulated on the forest floor that ignite easily and 

spread wildfires. This information is used in computersimulated fire-spread models, together with other data 

such as slope, aspect and weather, to predict wildfire 

behavior. 

The Soil Conservation Service began a pilot test in 

Oklahoma using remotely sensed techniques to collect 

data on land cover and land use patterns in support of 

the 1987 National Resources Inventory. The primary 

source of data collection will be aerial photo interpretation using high altitude color infrared photography. In 

addition, digital techniques will be tested using data 

collected by'the thematic mapper of the Landsat 5 

satellite. 

Assessment of soil moisture conditions prior to 

planting can provide valuable information on the crops 

that will perform best under, for example, limited 

moisture conditions. After the crops are planted, frequent soil moisture mapping would enable farmers to 

tailor irrigation to a crop's exact needs, thus saving 

water and energy. Soil moisture readings should also 

have a major impact on U.S. and world crop production estimates because of the importance of soil 

moisture to yield. 

In the Texas panhandle, the Agricultural Research 

Service, in cooperation with the Soil Conservation 

Service, monitored a 10-county area (about 1,000 

square miles) with two instruments carried on aircraft: 

the 4-beam L-band radiometer and the L-band synthetic aperature radar. The data collected now are 

being processed to generate soil moisture maps that 

will be compared with conventional maps of soil 

73 
moisture. The objective is to discover whether reliable 

measurements of soil moisture can be made before the 

planting season begins in order to determine which 

crops will do well under specific moisture conditions. 

In October 1984, scientists from USDA’s 

Agricultural Research Service tested highly specialized 

radar (Shuttle Imaging Radar-B) carried by the space 

shuttle Challenger to determine its effectiveness in 

measuring soil moisture. The experiment focused on 

target farms near Fresno, California; the California 

State University of Fresno and the University of 

California’s West Side Field Station arranged ground 

sites for the tests. The California experiment, as well as 

earlier soil moisture research activities, was a 

cooperative venture of USDA and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center. 

In June 1984 the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC) initiated an operational test of the Landsat 

Emergency Access and Products (LEAP) Program. 

The LEAP Program was established by NOAA, 

Department of Commerce, to provide Landsat data, 

products and services in minimum time to Federal, 

State and local agencies with the authority and responsibility for protecting lives and property during a civil 

emergency resulting from a natural or man-made 

disaster. 

The FCIC insures 38 different crops and 17,868 

crop programs throughout the United States from 

losses caused by unavoidable natural hazards such as 

drought, excess moisture and hail. The test initially 

was used to determine if timely delivery of Landsat imagery could benefit both FCIC’s Acturial Division 

(underwriters) and Claims Division by improving 

damage surveys, building data bases for crop insurance rate schedules, and facilitating deployment of 

field personnel for damage assessment and loss adjustment. 

In the 1984 field test, Landsat scenes were selected 

in Lubbock, Texas, and Glendive, Montana, to compare the 1984 drought effect in those areas to a 

previous non-drought year. Two additional scenes 

were requested covering areas of flood or hail and/or 

wind damage in 1984 in IowdNebraska and 

MissouriIArkansas. The final scene selected was 

Spokane, Washington, to detect possible insect 

damage. 

FCIC field offices are continuing to evaluate the 

utility of Landsat to imagery to refine crop insurance 

schedules and more precisely locate and delineate 

disaster areas. Ground truth, including crop types, 

planting dates, and crop conditions, is being collected 

in selected areas to test the efficiency of Landsat. 

For the 1985 crop year, the FCIC Acturial and 

Claims Division plan to expand these tests for the 1985 

crop year for winter and speciality crops by using the 

same ground techniques in conjunction with Landsat 

multispectral scanners and thematic mapper data. 

74 
Federal Comrnunications Commission 

During 1984, international and domestic satellite 

communications networks continued to expand; and 

new services were introduced employing the lastest 

technology to serve the demands of a growing market. 

The International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) network consists of 17 

satellites positioned over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Seven new domestic satellites were 

launched; and orbital spacings between several 

domestic satellites were reduced to 2 degrees to permit 

growth of existing systems and the introduction of additional new systems. In 1984, as in 1983, the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) 

requested proposals from industry for additional 

maritime satellite capability. INMARSAT has a lease 

agreement with INTELSAT to provide maritime communications service through 1985 by means of Intelsat 

V and V-A satellites. Several new specialized satellite 

systems for mobile and radiodetermination services 

were proposed. A total of five new commercial satellite 

systems have been proposed for international services 

in the Atlantic Ocean Region. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSA T 

At the beginning of 1984, the INTELSAT global 

communications system consisted of two Intelsat IV 

satellites, five Intelsat IV-A's and seven Intelsat V's (an 

increase of two Intelsat V's). During 1984, the operational satellites were reconfigured in operational zones 

as follows: 2 Iv's, 2 IVA's and 4 V's in the Atlantic 

Ocean Region (AOR); 2 V's in the Indian Ocean 

Region (IOR); and 2 IVA's in the Pacific Ocean 

Region (POR). COMSAT inaugurated its third east 

coast earth station at Roaring Creek, PA and provided 

satellite services from its Santa Paula earth station for 

the 1984 Olympics. The Commission approved 11 new 

earth station facilities to access the INTELSAT system 

in the AOR for international (digital) business service. 

The Commission authorized COMSAT to participate 

in the construction of five INTELSAT VI satellites to 

be built by Hughes Aircraft Company. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellitej 

In 1984, the domestic commercial communications 

satellite network increased from 16 to 23 satellites with 

18 satellites operating in the 4/6 GHz bands and 7 using the 12/14 GHz bands. Two of the satellites operate 

in both the 4/6 GHz and 12/14 GHz bands. Four 

satellites, Westar I, Satcom I, Comstar D1 and D2, 

have been retired and replaced with higher efficiency 

satellites. The Commission has authorized the launch 

and assigned orbital positions for a total of 38 domestic 

satellites. Estimates are that the 38 locations will be occupied by 1987. In addition, there are currently 85 additional applications on file with the Commission for 

new domestic satellites. These applications are under 

review with respect to 2 degrees spacing and consideration for expanding the orbital arc available for assign75 

Atlas-Centaur-62 boosted upward from Pad B at Launch 

Complex, Kennedy Space Center, June 9, 1g84, to put in orbit the ninth in a series of two-ton Intelsat v communications 

for the 108-member-nation International Telecommunications Satellite Organization. 
changes in the rules which clarified protection for earth 

stations from terrestrial interference. These subjects 

were addressed; and 2 degrees orbital spacing remains 

as a viable means for accommodating additional 

satellite systems. The Commission established an advisory committee as an effective vehicle for obtaining 

expert technical and operational advice on how to better implement 2 degrees spacing in the 4/6 GHz and 

12/14 GHz bands. 

The Commission’s action on reduced orbital spacing 

of U.S. domestic satellites does not prevent other 

Region 2 administrations from implementing their 

own domestic satellite systems and has reaffirmed its. 

commitment to cooperate fully with other countries in 

the Western Hemisphere through the frequency coordination procedures of the international radio regulations. The Commission is in the final stages of coordination of domestic satellite systems with the Brazilian 

satellite system to provide operations with spacings of 1 

degrees between satellites. Also, 18 U.S. domestic 

satellite locations have been coordinated with the INTELSAT systems under the INTELSAT Agreements 

for both domestic and transborder satellite services. 

New technology continues to bring economic 

benefits and improved services to satellite users. Such 

new techniques as companded (compressing voice 

channel for transmission and then expanding the 

received transmission) frequency division multiplexedfrequency modulation (CFDM-FM) permits up to 

2892 voice channels per 36 MHz transponder and 

companded single sideband (CSSB) permits up to 

78,000 voice channels per 36 MHz transponder. The 

Commission has authorized a digital data transmission 

service that transmits a low-data-rate spread-spectrum 

signal (SSS) from 1.2 meter ground station antennas in 

the 6 GHz band where many data channels are 

operated simultaneously on a single carrier. An SSS 

medium digital data system has been authorized that 

operates with only a single channel per carrier but is 

capable of operating with presently installed unimproved antennas without affecting 2 degrees spacing. 

The Intelsat V-F-9 satellite, the last of the V-F series of INTELSAT spacecraft, shown here in the clean room of 

Hanger AO, being checked out by technicians. 

ment. The additional applications consist of a mixture 

of new satellite applicants, expansion of existing and 

planned systems, and replacement satellites for existing systems. 

In 1983, the Commission ordered the reduction in 

the orbital separation between domestic satellites in 

12/14 GHz bands from 3 degrees to 2 degrees and 

adopted 2 degrees as the basic, long term orbital spacing criterion in the 4/6 GHz bands instead of the present 4 degrees separation. Upon review, it again concluded that 2 degrees orbital separations in the 12/14 

GHz bands are technically feasible immediately with 

little cost to users, but the cost and difficulties in the 4/6 

GHz bands warrant a more cautious approach, combining 3 degrees, 2.5 degrees and 2 degrees spacing. 

The variable orbital spacing of satellites in the 4/6 GHz 

bands provides a transition to uniform 2 degrees 

separations in the future and permits several years for 

amortizing and upgrading or replacing existing ground 

stations for the 4/6 GHz bands before all satellites are 

operated with 2 degrees spacing. The Commission 

acted on a request by several parties for a partial reconsideration of its 2 degrees spacing plan in the area of 

improved antenna performance standards, full frequency re-use as related to usable bandwidth, 

minimum power for 12/14 GHz satellite, and language 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service 

In January, 1984, each of the eight DBS companies 

previously granted permits in 1983 to construct Direct 

Broadcast Satellites (DBS) submitted modifications to 

their system proposals, as ordered by the Commision, 

to conform to the parameters established at the 1983 

Regional Administrative Radio Conference 

(RARC-83). The original proposals called for two, 

three or four satellites to cover the continental United 

States; the modified proposals uniformly accomplished 

this “full-CONUS” coverage with two satellites, each 

satellite covering half-CONUS. Four of these companies now have been granted modified construction 

permits and launch authority. One is to provide six 

channels of half-CONUS service from each of two 

76 
satellites at separate locations; another will provide six 

channels of half-CONUS service plus four channels of 

“spot beam” service (serving three limited geographic 

areas) from each of two satellites at separate orbital 

locations; a third will provide six channels of halfCONUS service for two satellites located at the same 

orbital position; and the fourth will provide six fullCONUS signals from one orbit position (with 2 three 

channels satellites). This last service is expected to be 

launched in early-to-mid- 1986. The others expect their 

first launch in mid-to-late 1987, with the second launch 

approximately six months later. All systems will use 

200-240 watts per channel. The system using fullCONUS signals and the system using colocated 

satellites are not provided for explicity in the Region 2 

Plan adopted at RARC-83, but computer model 

analysis predicts that these operations will not ‘impose 

constraints on the Plan. They are sufficiently flexible to 

permit adjustment, if necessary. The change of fullCONUS signals without an increase in power output 

by one company is accomplished allegedly without 

deterioration in service quality, due to advances in 

antenna and receiver technology. The remaining four 

original companies granted construction permits have 

had their permits cancelled for failure to comply with 

the terms of those permits. 

Three additional applicants, previously placed on a 

“second-round” cut-off list, have been joined by four 

more applicants, each proposing delivery of six to sixteen channels from each of two satellites. In addition, 

two of the permittees currently constructing have requested the assignment of two additional channels per 

satellite; and one of the original permittees which had 

put its DBS plans on hold has now requested consideration of a modified DBS proposal for immediate 

implementation. 

Aeronautical 

The International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO) has, in conjunction with INMARSAT, begun 

to consider how the aeronautical mobile-satellite 

allocation may be utilized. ICAO has approached INMARSAT to investigate the possibility of shared use of 

satellite facilities. INMARSAT subsequently specified 

the inclusion of a small part (1 MHz) of the 

aeronautical mobile-satellite band in the frequency 

range to be covered by INMARSAT’s second generation satellites for which bids currently are under 

evaluation. 

ICAO has established a Special Council Committee 

on Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS) to develop 

the requirements of the aviation community for 

aeronautical mobile satellite service. The FANS committee met for the first time during 1984. 

Maritime 

National and international efforts continue towards 

establishing a future global maritime distress and safety system (FGMDSS). The System will use satellite 

emergency-position-indicating radio beacons (satellite 

EPIRBs) for providing initial distress alerting information from ships in distress to shore based rescue coordination centers (RCCs). Present plans envisage 

satellite EPRIBs operating through the INMARSAT 

(geostationary) and COSPAS/SARSAT (polar) 

satellite systems. The FGMDSS is expected to be fully 

implemented by 1996. 

IMOs subcommittee on Radiocommunications 

(SCR) agreed in principle to recommend to IMOs 

Maritime Safety Committee that the FGMDSS should 

be introduced in stages between 1990 and 1996. This 

represents a significant change in philosophy since 

originally completion of implementation was expected 

by 1990. Coordinated trials to evaluate the satellite 

EPIRB continue. The SCR endorsed the suggestion of 

Study Group 8 of the International Radio Consultative 

Committee that INMARSAT should organize preoperational trials of the 1.6 GHz satellite EPIRB 

system. 

INMARSAT currently has available three satellites 

to serve each of the Atlantic and Indian ocean regions 

and one to serve the Pacific. An additional satellite to 

serve the Pacific area is expected early in 1985. INMARSAT serves about 2800 vessels with the present 

facilities. INMARSAT is evaluating bids on its second 

generation space segment with a projected service date 

to commence service on these satellites in 1988 

(1988-1995). 

New Satellite Services 

On July 12, 1984, in response to a petition from 

Seostar Corporation, the Commission issued a Notice 

of Proposed Rulemaking in General Docket no. 

84-689, which proposes to implement a radiodetermination satellite system domestically that would allow 

subscribers to determine latitude, longitude and 

altitude, and to exchange brief coded messages using 

inexpensive hand-held transceivers. Geostar requests a 

spectrum allocation of 33 MHz where the ground-tospace transmissions would be in the 1610.0-1626.5 

MHz band, the space-to-ground transmissions would 

be in the 2483.5-2500.0 MHz band. An additional 

non-exclusive allocation of 16.5 MHz centered at 

5125.0 MHz and 5175.0 MHz also were requested for 

communications between the satellites and a single 

computer processing and a control facility. Geostar‘s 

use of this spectrum would preclude other uses only 

within a small radius of the control facility. The 

1610.0-1626.5 MHz band is allocated internationally 

to the Aeronautical Radionavigation Service and 

Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service on a primary, 

co-equal basis and is reserved for use and development 

of airborne electronic aids to air navigation. The other 

bands are allocated to the fixed and mobile terrestrial 

services and industrial users. 

77 
International Conference Activities 

The Commission continues to prepare for the World 

Administrative Radio Conference (Space WARC), the 

first session scheduled for August 1985. The second 

session will be held in 1988. The objective of the conference is to guarantee all countries equitable access to 

the geostationalry satellite orbit and the frequency 

bands allocated to space services. The Commission 

Advisory Committee for Space WARC, bringing the 

non-government participants into the preparations, 

met from May through December 1984 and completed 

the majority of its work, This will be transmitted to the 

Commission early in 1985. 

In mid-1984, the Commission began its preparations for the planned 1987 World Administrative 

Radio Conference (WARC) for the mobile Services. 

That conference is expected to address the majority of 

the ITU Radio Regulations concerning the mobile and 

mobile-satellite services. The Commission released a 

first Notice of Inquiry in June, 1984, requesting public 

comment on a list of items for the agenda for that conference. An Advisory committee is expected to be 

established shortly to assist the Commission in preparing for the conference. A number of on-going domestic 

activities in the radiodetermination and land mobile 

satellite areas will have an impact on the U.S. proposals to be developed for the 1987 WARC. 
Department of Transportation 

Aviation Safety 

Aircraft Safe9 Research 

On December 1, 1984, after five years of research 

and planning, the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted a cooperative “Controlled Impact Demonstration” that simulated a survivable takeoff or landing accident by intentionally flying a four-engine Boeing 720 into the ground. FAA 

thus was able to collect data on the effectiveness of antimisting kerosene (AMK) and the behavior of various 

aircraft components and equipment under the heavy 

stresses of a survivable accident. During the remotely 

controlled flight, which lasted approximately nine 

minutes, the aircraft climbed to 2,300 feet before 

beginning its descent into a prepared impact area at 

Edwards Air Force Base, California. The flight was 

flawless until the last few seconds when an unplanned 

adverse yaw roll altered but did not invalidate the impact scenario. 

The postcrash fire, larger than expected, raised 

questions about the effectiveness of antimisting 

kerosene, on which research and development had 

been recommended in 1980 by the Special Aviation 

Fire and Explosion Reduction (SAFER) Advisory 

Committee. By the end of 1984, the postcrash fire still 

was being evaluated, and a final judgment on the effectiveness of antimisting kerosene has not yet been 

made. 

The impact demonstration yielded other results. 

The test aircraft carried instrumented dummies, highspeed cameras, and more than 350 sensing devices. 

Aircraft and performance data from the various 

crashworthiness experiments on board the airplane 

were transmitted by telemetric link to ground 

recorders and should be useful in improving future aircraft design, structures, and safety systems. The instrumentation in the B-720 continued to transmit data 

for 10 minutes after impact. A review of the films of the 

interior indicated that all seats and simulated occupants remained in place, except for one row of three 

seats near the break in the fuselage, which dislodged 

and came to rest in the center aisle. The impact was 

judged to be survivable. 

The FAA also promoted fire safety through 

rulemaking. In 1984, the agency adopted two new 

regulations to increase the chances of passengers surviving airline accidents involving fire and smoke. One 

applies to operators of transport aircraft weighing 

12,500 pounds or more and having thirty or more seats 

and calls for the installation, within three years, of seat 

cushions that meet new, more stringent flammability 

standards. The seat cushions will have an outer layer of 

highly fire-resistant material that will cover the seat’s 

foam core. FAA tests have demonstrated that such seat 

cushions could delay the onset of “flashover” in the aircraft cabin by as much as 40 seconds, thus providing 

crucial added time for passenger evacuation. Flashover 

is the point where vapors trapped near the cabin ceiling 

will suddenly ignite and spread fire the length of the 

cabin, consuming oxygen and making survival virtually impossible. 

Before flashover occurs, smoke from burning fuel 

and cabin material can totally obscure overhead 

emergency lighting and fill the cabin down to near 

floor level, making it difficult for passengers to see and 

reach emergency exits. The second regulation addressed this problem by requiring new emergency 

escape path markings or lighting on or near the floor to 

help guide passengers to safety. Several types of 

lighting or markings mounted in locations such as aisle 

seat frames, armrests, aisle floors, and wall panels can 

be used to satisfy the regulation’s performance standards. The rule requires the operators of large airline 

aircraft under Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) 

Part 121 to install the new markings within two years. 

In another fire-safety related action, the FAA issued 

a notice of proposed rulemaking on cargocompartment interiors. All aircraft cargo compartments must have a liner constructed of materials that 

meet the basic requirements set forth in FAR 25 and 

must be tested in accordance with applicable portions 

of Appendix F of that FAR. These regualtions had last 

been amended in 1972. As a result of a 1980 in-flight 

fire that originated in the aft Class D cargo compartment of a Saudia L-1011 Tristar, which was lined with 

materials complying with FAR 25, FAA undertook a 

project to develop a more stringent “burnthrough” requirement for testing cargo lining materials under fullscale conditions. This upgraded requirement was the 

subject of the proposed rule. 

Finally, in March 1984, the agency issued a notice of 

proposed rulemaking (NPRM) requiring air carriers 

to install fire extinguishers and smoke detectors in the 

galleys and lavatories of their large or transport 

79 
category passenger-carrying aircraft operated under 

FAR Part 121. The smoke detector system would provide a fire warning to the cockpit or to the passengercabin crew. The NPRM also proposed that each 

lavatory trash receptacle be equipped with a fire extinguisher that discharges automatically whenever a 

fire occurs in the receptacle. In addition, the notice increased the number of hand-held fire extinguishers 

located in the cabin of aircraft capable of seating more 

than sixty passengers. At least two of these would have 

Halon 1211 as the extinguishing agent. In December 

1984, the final rule was sent to the Office of the 

Secretary of Transportation for executive coordination. 

Aviation Security Research 

The agency continued efforts to develop improved 

systems for detecting explosives concealed on 

passengers, in baggage, or cargo. During 1984, FAA's 

Office of Civil Aviation Security substantially increased the minimum performance requirements for 

such detection systems; and, as a result, certain projects that appeared unlikely to yield products capable of 

meeting the new standards were terminated 

FAA placed increasing emphasis on seeking out new 

methods of detection. The agency undertook an assessment of state-of-the-art technologies and several 

feasibility studies in order to identify and evaluate 

promising alternative techniques. One study evaluated 

a novel laser opto-acoustic method of detecting 

fragmented explosive molecules. Another assessed a 

fast neutron inelastic scattering technique for identifying the element composition of explosives. Methods of 

detecting flammable liquids carried by passengers also 

received attention. While the vapor signature of 

gasoline has been identified, commercial vapor detectors now available appear to fall short of the sensitibity 

and specificity requirements for aviation security use. 

The agency will continue work on this project into 

1985. 

FAA also continued working in more traditional experimental areas of weapon and explosive detection. 

One is thermal neutron activation, in which explosives 

are bombarded by neutrons that trigger a nuclear reaction peculiar to the target material, thus permitting its 

identification. In previous years, this system had been 

tested at Pittsburgh and Boston airport and showed 

promise in detecting explosives in sealed containers. In 

the fall of 1984, FAA tested the system at the United 

Airlines cargo facility at Chicago's OHare International Airport. More than two thousand packages were 

screened by the system. The results established this 

concept as the best available for air cargo application. 

FAA plans additional airport tests for early 1985 to 

evaluate further the system's effectiveness on checked 

baggage. 

In recent years, FAA has concentrated much effort 

to develop a device that would routinely detect the 

vapors of explosives carried by individuals. In 1984, 

design concept studies were made by FAA on three 

competing vapor detection technologies. Preliminary 

results proved promising; and FAA decided to go forward with the development of a prototype system 

based on a technique known as chemiluminescence. 

Another detection device, nuclear magnetic 

resonance, subjects the molecules of explosives to 

magnetic fields and pulsed radio frequencies. The 

characteristic responses of the molecules are captured 

and displayed. During 1984, FAA field tested this 

technique at the Dallas-Fort Worth Regional Airport. 

It also tested and evaluated an experimental digital 

X-ray system called MAX-E. One objective of this investigation was to determine whether a dual-energy 

x-ray approach could be employed to differentiate between the elemental composition of explosives and objects commonly found in baggage. Both of these investigations were undertaken to satisfy FAA's original 

explosive detector performance goals, which they did. 

However, the test results did not show potential for 

meeting the newly established detector performance. 

As a result, further development of these devices will 

not be made. 

Airport Pavement Research 

FAA is undertaking a project to develop a pavement 

maintenance management system (PMMS). The 

PMMS will be based on automated records of pavement conditions, maintenance frequency, and 

rehabilitation costs. Conditions and costs would be 

given a numerical rating and then stored in a 

microcomputer data file. The file and associated software will provide managers with timely information 

for selecting cost-effective maintenance and rehabilitation strategies and allow them to forecast future pavement conditions under a variety of budgetary levels. 

Such a program will optimize expenditures on either a 

network or project basis. It also will assist in setting 

project priorities and making realistic estimates of current and projected needs. 

Assisted by the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research 

and Engineering Laboratory at Hanover, New Hampshire, FAA also studied the pavement problems caused 

by weather conditions in cold climates. The results of a 

previous study were used to modify pavement design 

to minimize frost heave and thaw, which weaken 

pavements. During 1984, the study sought to make 

modifications to asphalts, soils, and other pavement 

materials in order to improve their thermal stabilities. 

When the results of these studies are applied, 

pavements in cold regions are expected to improve on 

performance and serviceability. 

Late in 1984, FAA began a project to determine the 

feasibility of developing soft-ground aircraft arresting 

systems. Such systems would be incorporated in the 

80 
extended runway safety area. Studies will be made of 

various materials- sand, gravel, foam, and others- to 

determine their suitability as “soft ground” and the 

length of “soft ground“ needed to decelerate an aircraft 

safely. If the soft concept proves feasible, FAA will 

issue a standard to aid airports in providing such a 

safety feature from the end of the runway pavement 

outward. The project had its genesis in a recommendation made to the FAA by the National Transportation 

Safety Board. 

FAA also conducted research leading to the development of detailed standards for the new Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI), which was adopted by 

the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 

as the new world standard for approach lights, replacing the long-used Visual Approach Slope Indicator. In 

preparing for the issuance of specifications for the new 

system, FAA developed photometric parameters, including brightness, angular coverage, and transition 

zones. Developed in the United Kingdom, PAPI will 

be required at all U.S. airports that serve international 

flights. 

In other runway-related developments, FAA conducted research on equipment that can be used in 

adverse weather to denote the holding position at intersections of taxiways and/or runways. Current markings on pavements at such intersections are difficult to 

see in fog or poor weather; hence, FAA will supplement current markings with an alternating light known 

as a “wig wag.” This light also was developed in the 

United Kingdom and tested at London’s Heathrow 

Airport. During 1984, FAA’s research concentrated on 

determining the wig wag‘s optimum flash rate, 

brightness, light size, and positioning. 

Aviation Weather 

In July 1984, in the Denver-Stapleton Airport area, 

the FAA and the National Center for Atmospheric 

Research (NCAR) began an operational evaluation of 

wind shear forecast and detection system based on the 

forecast use of Doppler radar information in conjunction with other air mass data. During the evaluation, 

NCAR meteorologists issued a daily microburst 

forecast and kept FAA controllers up to date on actual 

and potential microburst activity within a five-mile 

radius of Stapleton Airport. A microburst is a violent 

downward rush of air associated with thunderstorms 

that flattens out when it hits the ground and spreads in 

all directions, creating wind shear conditions. Aircraft 

caught in these conditions first encounter a head wind 

that causes extra lift as it moves over the wings. This is 

suddenly replaced by a tail wind that produces a sharp 

loss of lift that can cause aircraft at low altitude to lose 

flying speed. 

Doppler radar has proven effective in detecting 

microburst activity in research situations. Unlike conventional radar, it can “see” inside storms and measure 

changes in wind speed and direction. The Denver area 

was selected for the wind shear studies because of the 

high incidence there of microbursts. 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

National Airspace System Plan 

FAA continued to strengthen its management structure to implement the massive, 450-page National 

Airspace System (NAS) Plan. First issued in December 

1981 and updated each year at the request of Congress, 

the plan is a technological blueprint for modernizing 

FAA’s air navigation and air traffic control system to 

meet the projected air traffic activity of the next two 

decades. 

In January 1984, the NAS modernization program 

reached a significant milestone when FAA awarded the 

Martin Marietta Corporation a contract for systems 

engineering and integration support. As a function of 

this contract, Martin Marietta will share responsibility 

for assuring that the major components of the NAS 

Plan are properly designed, integrated, tested and 

installed and that they work as intended, in a timely 

and cost-effective manner. The contractor’s specific 

tasks include: 

Verifying the soundness and feasibility of the plan 

and identifying areas for improvement. 

Performing independent verification and validation of the software produced for specific traffic 

control systems with significant software content, 

including the advanced automation system, which 

enables FAA to handle air traffic more expeditiously and at less cost than the current 

system. 

Providing program management support in areas 

such as cost, schedule, benefits, performance, 

planning, and configuration control. 

Providing FAA managers with technical support 

for some NAS Plan systems, reviewing the 

performance of and providing technical guidance 

to other system contractors, and assuring the proper integration and transition of these systems into the National Airspace System. 

Preparing a “blueprint” of the entire system, 

showing locations, performance requirements, 

and system linkages. 

The contract runs for an initial period of five years, 

with options for, three- and two-year extensions. 

Earlier in 1984, another significant element of the 

NAS Plan was initiated when FAA awarded the 

Hazeltine Corporation a $90.6 million contract to 

begin equipping airports throughout the country with 

microwave landing systems (MLSs). These will replace 

the existing instrument landing systems (ILSs), which 

have been in use since the 1940s. The new landing 

system avoids some of the inherent technical problems 

of the ILS. The MLS signal, for example, is less 

vulnerable to environmental effects and less sensitive 

81 
to structural or terrain influences. The new system also 

provides precision guidance with a flexibility that is not 

achievable with present ILS equipment, thus enhancing airport capabilities by offering pilots a broader 

range of approach paths to the runway. This will mean 

fewer flight delays, cancellations, or diversions because 

of bad weather. The contract called for Hazeltine to 

deliver 172 MLS units over a five-year period, beginning in 1985. The first units are expected to be installed in 1986 at airports in New England, Alaska, and 

Colorado. Current plans call for the installation of 

1,250 units at U.S. airports by the year 2000. 

Another major ground-to-air component of the NAS 

Plan is the Mode S radar beacon system, a new secondary radar system of advanced ground sensors and 

radar beacon transponders that will replace the existing 

air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS). In 

October 1984, FAA awarded a $163.3 million contract 

to two corporations, Westinghouse and Burroughs, 

who are participating in a joint venture to produce 78 

of the Mode S systems, with an option for 59 additional 

units. Unlike ATCRBS, which has no discrete address 

capability, Mode S will give controllers a “private line” 

to any airline cockpit in the air. The new radar beacon 

system thus will enable controllers to interrogate 

transponder-equipped aircraft individually and selectively to determine their position, identity, and 

altitude, without having to use voice communications. 

This eliminates overlapping and garbled signals that 

can be a problem in busy terminal areas. Delivery of 

the first ground station is expected in 1987. 

In August 1984, FAA launched the competition for 

the Advanced Automation System by awarding two 

competitive design contracts, totaling nearly $247 

million, to IBM and Hughes Aircraft. The contracts 

call for a three-year design competition to determine 

which company will produce the Advanced Automation System. Meanwhile, in July 1984, the competition 

for the host computer that will be used in the new 

system reached an important milestone. IBM and the 

Sperry Corporation, which had been awarded competitive design contracts in the fall of 1983, installed 

their computer systems for testing and evaluation at 

the FAA Technical Center. FAA is expected to select a 

winning host computer design in 1985. 

Air Traffic Controller Selection 

One of the most remarkable feats of large scale staffing for a highly technical occupation was the replacement by the Federal Aviation Administration and the 

Office of Personnel Mangement (OPM) of approximately 11,000 air traffic controllers following the 

August 1981 strike by the Professional Air Traffic 

Controllers Organization. The job was made easier by 

a new air traffic controller selection test battery, which 

had been developed by FAA. The battery is described 

in an FAA-sponsored book, published in 1984. 

The controller test battery must be regarded as a 

major advance in the application of scientific, actuarial 

methods to the pre-employment selection of personnel 

for highly skilled technical specialties. Compared to the 

approaches that had become standard since World 

War 11, the battery involves both innovation in test 

content and comprehensive concern with virtually 

every detail of a complex, sensitive area. The story of 

the development of this test is a research document of 

major importance and a valuable reference work for 

professionals and students in the field of personnel 

selection. 

Almost simultaneously with the development of the 

new battery, FAA announced the National Airspace 

System Plan, which will gradually automate air traffic 

control. This meant that changes would be required in 

the selection program, perhaps within the next 10 

years. The degree of change will depend on the rate at 

which new computers, radar, and communication 

systems come on line and preempt the customary functions of the controllers, and the extent to which the 

resulting changes would impose new requirements on 

those who perform the new functions. These issues are 

addressed in the final part of the book, which suggests 

new research and development to bring future selection procedures in line with requirements. 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

Under Executive Order 12465 and the Commercial 

Space Launch Act, the Department of Transportation 

(DOT) is the lead agency within the Federal government for encouraging, facilitating and coordinating the 

development of commercial expendable launch vehicle 

(ELV) operations by private United States enterprises. 

In carrying out these responsibilities, DOT reviews 

government policies affecting commercial ELVs, provides a single point of contract for the licensing of commercial ELV launches, and promotes and encourages 

commercial ELV operations in domestic and foreign 

markets. 

A wide variety of firms responded to the Administration’s initiative to encourage the private sector’s participation in providing space transportation services on 

a commercial basis. While two new firms (Space Services, Inc. and Starstruck, Inc.) were pursuing space 

transportation activities on a commercial basis, companies like General Dynamics and Transpace Carriers, 

Inc. were approaching NASA about commercializing 

the Atlas Centaur and Delta rockets. 

Secretary Dole established the Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation to act as the focal point for 

government and industry contacts regarding the initiative to promote and regulate commercial ELVs. A major emphasis is to streamline the regulatory requirements governing commercial space launch operations. To accomplish this, working relationships have 

82 
been established with each of the government agencies 

that have major interests in space transportation and 

licensing. 

Since the establishment of the Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation, a central licensing authority 

formerly under the International Traffic in Arms 

Regulations, has been transferred from the Department of State to the Department of Transportation. In 

October 1984, the Commercial Space Launch Act (PL 

98-575) was enacted, confirming the DOT as lead 

agency and establishing the necessary statutory 

authority for the Department to carry out its licensing 

and promotional responsibilities. 

Regulatory Activities 

The Commercial Space Launch Act requires DOT 

to issue regulations implementing the provisions of the 

Act. The first of these regulations, a major regulatory 

policy statement, was completed in December 1984 

and will be published for public comment in late 

January 1985. 

In the near term, most commercial launch activity 

will occur on national (i.e., government-owned and 

operated) sites. Firms such as General Dynamics and 

Transpace Carriers, Inc. have vehicles that require the 

launch facility and resource support currently available 

only on national sites. In its first year, the Office of 

Commercial Space Transportation addressed the 

needs of both these large, established aerospace firms 

as well as smaller, emerging enterprises such as Space 

Services Inc. and Starstruck, Inc. In 1984, DOT 

licensed a test and demonstration launch, developed a 

new regulatory policy and licensing process for commercial launch sites, including requirements for safety 

and use, and established uniform guidelines for insurance requirements for private firms that conduct commercial launches. 

As its first effort in connection with a specific launch 

proposal, DOT facilitated the Federal approval of a 

test launch conducted successfully by Startruck, Inc. 

off the coast of California on August 3, 1984. DOT 

staff worked with representatives of various approving 

agencies- the Departments of State and Defense, 

NASA, the Federal Aviation Administration, 

Materials Transportation Bureau, the U.S. Coast 

Guard, and others- to set licensing priorities, coordinate review activities, and expedite Federal approval. Additionally, DOT helped Starstruck to 

resolve problems at the State and local level. Once the 

license was issued, the Department of Transportation 

worked closely with other Federal agencies to identify 

acceptable offshore launch sites and to secure necessary 

clearances. 

This experience helped DOT develop a streamlined 

licensing procedure to substantially simplify and 

shorten the Federal approval process by: (1) reducing 

or eliminating sequential coordination, (2) eliminating 

duplicative reviews through voluntary reliance of one 

agency upon another‘s work wherever possible, and (3) 

specifying each agency’s information requirements in 

advance. 

Under the Federal government’s commercial space 

policy, the extensive resources and facilities at the national sites are to be made available to commercial 

launch firms. DOT has worked closely with private 

launch firms to encourage them to use the 

government’s facilities, and assisted government 

launch site operators in their efforts to attract new 

developing launch companies as customers. In 

September, DOT acted as a “sponsor” for Space Services, Inc., formally introducing that firm to the national launch sites at Wallops Island and Vandenberg 

Air Force Base. DOT also is working with NASA and 

DoD to develop concepts and criteria for commercial 

ranges regarding launch site selection, site design, 

range and vehicle safety, flight safety corridors, and 

flight termination systems for commercially operated 

launch vehicles. 

Liability insurance is a particularly important commercial space transportation issue because of the 

government’s international obligations under existing 

outer space treaties. To establish a consistent government policy in this area, DOT and the Department of 

Justice, with cooperation from NASA and the Air 

Force, developed an arrangement to govern how 

future insurance requirements will be established for 

commercial launch operations. 

Promotional Activities 

DOT participated in two interagency policy groups, 

the Senior Interagency Group on Space and the 

Cabinet Council on Commerce and Trade, to draft a 

national space strategy and evaluate initiatives to promote and encourage private sector participation in 

commercial space endeavors. 

DOT worked with other executive agencies to 

establish a pricing policy for the commercial use of national range facilities and services. Secretary of 

Defense Caspar Weinberger directed the DoD to promote the use of national launch sites within the private 

sector and to charge commercial users for the direct 

cost of services and facilities provided by the government. An additional set of waivers and other policy 

statements implementing this decision will be made 

public in January 1985. 

During 1984, DOT worked with the Departments of 

State and Commerce, the Office of the U.S. Trade 

Representative (USTR) and NASA to develop policies 

to enhance the competitive posture of U.S. commercial 

ELVs in the world market. DOT representatives worked with the Commerce Department in preparing policy 

papers for spring 1984 meetings of the Organizaion for 

Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 

These efforts sought to establish an equitable and effi- 
cient international trading regime for space products 

and services. 

DOT also is assisting USTR in an investigation and 

consultations relating to an alleged violation of section 

301 of the 1974 Trade Act. Transpace Carriers, Inc., a 

new entrepreneurial launch firm that markets the 

Delta rocket, brought the initial complaint of unfair 

pricing practices, seeking fair and reasonable competitive market conditions. After an investigation by 

an interagency group, of which DOT is a member, the 

USTR will recommend to the President what action, if 

any, should be taken. 

To institutionalize the flow of information between 

the private sector and the Federal Government, the 

Secretary of Transportation established the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee to 

identify and eliminate barriers to ELV commercialization. The committee includes representatives of major 

aerospace manufacturers, large and small launch companies, satellite manufacturers, communications companies, investment firms, the space law community, 

insurance brokers and underwriters, the research and 

academic communities, and other experts in the space 

field. At its first meeting, held in October, the Committee made in eight recommendations which were forwarded to the Secretary for her consideration. 

84 
lhvjronrnental Protection Agency 

The Environmental Protection Agency has 

cooperated with NASA in the development of various 

LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) laser systems 

for monitoring the environment, and in the analysis of 

observations of special regional scale atmospheric field 

studies. In a special application, the airborne UVDIAL (Ultra-Violet - Differential Absorption LIDAR) 

system was deployed in the summer of 1981 to provide 

an observational basis for examining pollutant deposition above the mixing layer resulting from convective 

cloud activity. In 1984, analysis focused on the 

character of the cloud residue. The results supported 

an earlier hypothesis that convective clouds induce 

significant exchanges of pollution concentrations between the mixed and cloud layers. Moreover, the 

character of the cloud residue evolved into highly correlated layers of ozone and aerosols which elongate and 

tilt in the vertical as a result of mean wind shear. 

The Environmental Protection Agency partially 

supported the development of the NASA UV-DIAL 

option (a working model that was flown in aircraft). 

The results, as noted above, were excellent. However, 

the NASA option, because of its size, requires a large 

aircraft. Consequently, there is a need to reduce its size 

for more cost effectiveness. 

Toward this objective, recent advances in laser and 

electronic technology are being utilized to miniaturize 

the UV-DIAL system for subsequent use in a light 

twin engine (cost-effective) aircraft. In 1984, EPA was 

constructing such a device. Still in a laboratory testing 

phase, the miniaturized system will allow the 

simultaneous measurement of sulfur dioxide and 

ozone. Using its experience in laser technology (UVDIAL in particular), NASA is aiding EPA in this project. NASA’s assistance concentrates on advanced 

technologies for determining pollutant concentrations 

for LASER signal returns; correcting pollutant concentration values of interferences from other atmospheric pollutants; and for calibrations of the 

system. The Environmental Protection Agency system 

incorporates a RAMAN shifted eximer laser and 

multi-wavelength receiver - detector system. NASA is 

partially supporting the evaluation and testing of the 

EPA system in order to establish the utility of this instrument for potential use in its satellite/shuttle 

systems. 

Future Activities 

Remote sensing devices (like airborne and 

spaceborne LIDAR) will provide powerful, cost effective tools for analyzing the dynamics of pollutant 

transport and transformation phenomena. Expectations are that this approach will make it possible to 

distinguish between gases and aerosols in atmospheric 

concentrations of pollution and to trace in the air the 

transport path of each of the agents that are of concern. 

This knowledge can lead both to better understanding 

of pollutants and ultimately to their control. 

85 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports 

research in both astronomy and atmospheric science. 

In the first area, NSF’s 1984 support for ground-based 

and theoretical astronomy came through five grant 

programs benefiting more than 140 universities, plus 

funding for 3 National Astronomy Centers. 

In the atmospheric sciences, NSF provides the 

primary backing for research by universities and other 

groups (nonprofit and profit-making) in the United 

States. It also supports the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the Upper Atmospheric Facilities (UAF) program. NCAR, in 

Boulder, Colorado, conducts large scientific research 

programs that could not be done easily by a single 

university. The UAF supports four incoherent-scatter 

radar facilities in a chain stretching from Greenland 

through the United States and from Puerto Rico to 

Peru. 

Astronomy 

Far-reaching scientific advances made in 1984 in 

astronomy included significant achievements in highresolution radio maps. These maps, made by the Very 

Large Array and other telescopes through the technique of very long baseline interferometry, display unprecedented detail in the cores of the Milky Way and 

other galaxies. The maps reveal surprising similarities 

in those cores, such as the probable presence of supermassive, gas-accreting black holes. 

The use of sensitive electronic detectors and imageprocessing techniques such as speckle interferometry is 

being extended from the optical region to other regions 

of the spectrum. These include the infrared, where 

cool, low-mass stars were discovered as a result. Also, 

detailed analysis of starlight has confirmed the existence of solar-type phenomena such as spots on other 

stars. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Atmospheric science combines knowledge of 

physics, chemistry, mathematics, and other sciences to 

improve our understanding of the earth’s atmosphere - from the planet’s surface to outer space. 

The Foundation aided basic atmospheric research on a 

wide range of subjects in 1984. It also continued as the 

chief supporter of academic research in the atmospheric sciences. 

In 1984, atmospheric scientists emphasized these activities: 

Planning, observations, analyses, and expanded 

instrument development for atmospheric 

chemistry research and for mesoscale phenomena 

(those 10 to 100 kilometers in spatial extent). 

0 Climate studies on interaction between the atmosphere and the oceans, especially conditions in 

the Pacific that influence U.S. climate. 

0 Early development of a prototype, interactive, 

computing network to link universities to NCARs 

data-bases and computing capabilities; acquisition of a mass storage system for NCAR’s computing facility. 

Development and use of new instruments to 

measure vibrations on the sun’s surface - with the 

goal of probing the sun’s interior. 

Use of supercomputers for numerical simulation 

of space plasma phenomena that are responsible 

for solar-terrestrial interactions. This is a new 

development because of the availability of supercomputers now. 

University acquistion of computer hardware for 

networks that aid data exchange; remote use of 

computers; and computer code development. 

87 
Smithsonian Institution 

National space goals are implemented and advanced 

by the Smithsonian Institution’s programs of basic 

research at its Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and through the 

exhibits, public programs, and educational activities of 

its National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in 

Washington, D.C. The NASM also conducts research 

in both planetary science and space history. 

Space Sciences 

High Energy Astrophysics 

During 1984, the reduction and analysis of HEAO-1 

and HEAO-2 satellite data continued. Observations 

made between 1978 and 1981 by the HEAO-2 or Einstein satellite still represent the most sensilive X-ray 

data available; and ongoing research programs involve 

all types of astronomical objects. New gains in science 

reported in 1984 included the determination of the 

onset of coronal activity in some stars, the discovery of 

a rapidly spinning Crab-like pulsar in the Large 

Magellanic Cloud, and the use of X-ray coronae to 

determine size and masses for halos around many 

galaxies. 

Other research projects based on Einstein data 

ranged from studies of stellar x-ray emission to the 

source of the extra-galactic x-ray background. Investigations resulted in the discovery of two more compact objects in supernova remnants, the identification 

of the COS-B gamma-ray source GEMINGA with a 

probable neutron star, observations of scattering of 

x-rays from interstellar dust, the use of observations of 

clusters of galaxies to probe the intergalactic medium, 

and extension of the x-ray survey of quasars. 

Approximately 70 Guest Investigators participated 

in the Einstein research program during 1984; and a 

data bank was established at SA0 to allow full access to 

the Einstein data by the international scientific community. 

Infrared Astronomy 

A small, helium-cooled, infrared telescope (IRT), 

designed for the Spacelab 2 mission of the Space Shuttle, underwent functional and environmental testing at 

Marshall Space Flight Center and was delivered to 

Kennedy Space Center for integration tests 

preparatory to flight. The IRT will map the diffuse infrared flux from celestial sources and measure, as well, 

any Shuttle-induced contamination. 

A 102-cm balloon-borne infrared telescope, used for 

photometry, spectroscopy, and high-resolution mapping of far-infrared celestial sources, was flown from 

the National Scientific Balloon Facility, Palestine, 

Texas, in April 1984. Nine hours of observations were 

obtained on more than seven molecular cloud complexes thought to be regions of star formation. 

Geophysics 

Research at NASM included the study of surface 

hydrology, soils, and soil erosion in the Inland Niger 

Delta of Mali, and the establishment of a program to 

study dune migration and soil erosion in other arid 

regions, using a variety of data provided by remote 

sensors on satellites such as Landsat. Among early 

results of the Niger Delta study are the development of 

preliminary fluvial system and soils maps. Intitial work 

in dune migration is focused on characterizing the 

spectral reflectance properties of the actively moving 

portions of the Abu Muharik dune system near ElHarra oasis in Egypt, using the Landsat’s multispectral scanner (MSS) data. These results are being 

used to model the migration of longitudinal dunes. 

Planetary Sciences 

Data from the Voyager spacecraft contributed to a 

number of observational programs involving a variety 

of phenomena on Jupiter, Saturn, and the satellites of 

these planets. For example, rapid progressive waves in 

Jupiter‘s haze layer were seen in frames of the Jovian 

crescent; Enceladus was observed to be the source of 

Saturn’s E rings; and asymmetry of Saturn’s rings was 

seen at large phase angles and from the unilluminated 

side. A study of the morphology of the spokes on both 

faces of Saturn’s B Ring was completed as well as a 

preliminary geological map of a section of the Jovian 

satellite Ganymede, using Voyager photographs. 

In other programs using satellite data, a new model 

of the geomagnetic variation in the Earth’s thermosphere and exosphere was completed and integrated 

into a comprehensive atmospheric model. Additionally, techniques were developed for the analysis of the 

Doppler tracking data from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

89 
(PVO) and its geophysical interpretation in conjunction with Venus topography derived from radar images. 

Research on the structural evolution of the planets at 

NASM’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies concentrated on relating the locations and orientations of 

tectonic surface features, ,uch as ridges, rilles, and 

lineaments, to presumed or known structural trends. 

These studies were applied to basins on Moon and 

Mercury as well as ridge orientations in the Tharsis 

region of Mars. 

The dichotomy between the smooth plains of its 

northern hemisphere and the ancient, heavily cratered 

terrain of its southern hemisphere is a problem unique 

to Mars. The boundary between the two hemispheres 

is characterized by diverse geologic units and morphologic features, ranging from the outflow channels of 

Chryse Planitia to the small volcanic cones of Cydonia. 

Portions of this boundary may have formed originally 

as a scarp north of its present position, followed by 

southward migration through cliff retreat to the current location. 

90 
Department of State 

International cooperation has been an important element of the United States’ civil space program since the 

program’s inception more than two decades ago. The 

United States derives important foreign relations 

benefits from this international effort, of which the 

Department of State is a vigorous proponent. An active program of international cooperation in the exploration of space as well as in space-related fields will 

zontinue to characterize the United States approach to 

the use and exploration of outer space. 

An example of the U.S. commitment to international cooperation in space is the Manned Space Station Program announced by the President in his 1984 

State of the Union Address. This major initiative inviting international participation in a large, long-term 

complex project will employ the latest developments in 

space technology. During 1984, the Department of 

State worked closely with NASA and other interested 

agencies to assure that this program will support and 

promote United States foreign policy interests. Our 

allies and other nations have welcomed the Space Station Program because it provides the opportunity for 

new cooperative arrangements in the space field and 

once again clearly puts the United States and the West 

in the forefront of space developments. 

In addition to the opportunities for cooperation, the 

United States today faces the challenges of competition 

in space. Leadership in space remains a factor between 

the United States and the Soviet Union. While this 

aspect of East-West rivalry has diminished since the 

196O’s, it still catches the imagination of people around 

the world. NASA’s Space Station Program should give 

a solid leadership advantage to the United States. 

Recently, the United States has taken steps to 

enhance its international competitive position, among 

the most important of which must be counted commercial initiatives: the authorization and encouragement 

of commercial expendable launch vehicles and the expanded opportunities for commercial remote sensing 

applications anticipated in the transfer of the Landsat 

program to the private sector. A strong supporter of 

these steps, the Department of State, in coordination 

with other agencies, worked in 1984 to create an international environment in which United States commercial mace activities can compete effectively. 

The principal role of the Department of State in international civil space activities is to harmonize U. s. 

international objectives and interests, and to integrate 

those interests into our overall foreign policy objectives. Of special importance to the Department of State 

has been U.S. participation in multilateral institutions 

concerned with outer space issues. Foremost among 

these institutions has been the U.N. Committee on the 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space - COPUOS. 

Activities Within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS) began its 1984 cycle of meetings with the 

annual session of the Scientific and Technical SubCommittee in New York, February 13-24, 1984. At 

that time, the U.S. delegation reviewed unfortunate 

developments relating to COPUOS in the 38th Session 

of the U.N. General Assembly and delivered a statement noting that the Committee was embarked upon 

an agenda of confrontation and politicization, requiring the United States to consider its future relationship 

to the Committee. That statement also announced that 

the United States had decided for the foreseeable 

future to reduce considerably its involvement and support for various activities under the Committee’s 

auspices, while expressing a willingness to work with 

all delegations interested in finding more constructive 

ways of doing business in the Committee, as well as 

what the Committee’s proper business should be. Thus 

during 1984 the future relevancy of the 53-member 

Committee was threatened as a result of the wholesale 

break with the consensus procedure in the 38th Session 

of the U.N. General Assembly. Over the objection of 

the United States and other Western states, this break 

was used to place on the Committee’s agenda “questions relating to militarization” as well as a mandate for 

its Legal Subcommittee to negotiate new legal principles to govern the geostationary satellite orbit. By the 

end of 1984, however, progress had been made in 

restoring the principle of consensus and a businesslike 

agenda in the Committee and its Sub-Committees. 

For the remainder of 1984, U.S. delegations to 

COPUOS meetings continued to emphasize serious 

concerns with the course of the Committee, and to 

focus those concerns specifically on the following areas: 

restoration of the consensus principle; 

removal of the “militarization” item from the 

91 

COPUOS agenda; 
removal of a negotiating mandate in the Legal 

Sub-committee on the geostationary orbit item; 

re-invigoration of Committee’s scientific and 

technical work; and 

examination of the Committee’s work process and 

organization. 

Most of these concerns also were emphasized by 

other Western delegations during the Scientific and 

Technical Sub-committee session, the Legal SubCommittee Session, March 19-April 6, 1984, in 

Geneva, and at the plenary meeting of COPUOS, 

June 11-22, 1984, in Vienna. To a large extent, 

Western concerns with the Committee dominated 

discussions in the Committee’s sessions throughout 

1984, with no substantive progress achieved on any 

agenda item. The June session of COPUOS also included the refusal of the United States delegation to 

participate in the debate scheduled on the “militarization” item. 

U. N. General Assembly 

By the time of the 39th Session of the UN General 

Assembly, the pressures for reform mounted by the 

United States and other Western states, began to produce some results. During the 39th session, the US 

Delegation delivered a detailed statement recounting 

the original objectives and terms of reference for the 

COPUOS, as proposed by the United States in 1958 

and approved by the General Assembly at that time. 

The statement by the United States detailed the 

historical discussion underlying the General 

Assembly’s original decision, when it established 

COPUOS, to separate the disarmament aspects of 

outer space from international cooperation in the 

peaceful uses of outer space. 

Following a seven-week period of intensive negotiations in the Special Political Committee over a future 

agenda for COPUOS and its Sub-Committees, the 

General Assembly adopted resolution 39/96 by consensus. That resolution accommodated several important 

concerns of the United States, including the removal of 

militarization questions from the COPUOS agenda 

and the removal of a negotiating mandate in the Legal 

Sub-committee regarding the geostationary satellite 

orbit. As a result of the return to consensus and the 

reformulation of the Committee’s agenda, the United 

States expects to participate actively during 1985 in 

COPUOS and its Sub-committees and will continue 

to work with other delegations to bring about constructive changes. 

Communications Satellites 

International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSA 7J 

The Board of Governors of INTELSAT approved 

the introduction of improved efficiencies in the 

92 

organization by realignment of the executive organ, 

streamlining procedures for documentation, and 

transferring certain routine functions to the Director 

General. Many new services also were introduced in 

1984. Provision of full and fractional transponder uses 

for digital TV distribution, integrated video and data, 

and international business leases were approved. A 

new micro-terminal service called INTELNET was 

approved in principle. It permits use of very small inexpensive antennas for very low speed data. New 

preemptible and non-preemptible leased international 

video services were agreed to and revisions were made 

for booking procedures to aid in advance planning for 

occasional use of television worldwide. INTELSAT 

has undertaken a review of its general charging policies 

in view of the introduction of so many new services. 

At INTELSAT’s annual meeting, its signatories expressed opposition to developments in the United 

States towards establishment of separate international 

satellite systems. The meeting adopted a resolution 

urging all signatories to refrain from entering into any 

arrangements which may lead to the establishment and 

subsequent use of these types of systems. 

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSA T) 

INMARSAT has grown to 41 member countries 

representing more than 85 percent of the world’s merchant shipping. About 2700 ships are outfitted with 

satellite terminals. In 1984, INMARSAT continued its 

leasing services through INTELSAT V satellites, a 

MARECS leased satellite from the European Space 

Agency and MARISAT satellites leased from COMSAT General, USA. 

Our April 2, 1984, proposals for the second generation INMARSAT system were received from two international consortia, one led by British Aerospace 

with Hughes Aircraft and SAI‘COM International, 

the other led by Marconi with Ford Aerospace and 

Aerospatiale. The Director General has been authorized to conduct negotiations with both bidders to improve their basic offers and to provide conclusions and 

recommendations in early 1985. 

In October 1984, Norway and the United Kingdom 

proposed amendments to the INMARSAT Convention and Operating Agreement to enable INMARSAT 

to provide aeronautical communications services. The 

proposals are generally consistent with the U.S. view 

that INMARSAT not be granted a monopoly in the 

provision of these services. 

The organization continues to maintain a close 

working relationship with the International Maritime 

Organization, particularly in relation to development 

of the Future Global Maritime Distress and Safety 

System (FGMDSS). 

Remote Sensing 

The Department concluded its involvement in the 

Source Evaluation Board exercise to transfer the 
government Landsat earth remote sensing system program to commercial operation. In early June 1984, the 

Board made its recommendations to Secretary of Commerce Baldrige, who then assumed responsibility for 

final negotiations with the successful bidder. The 

Department also actively participated in the development of Public Law 98-365, the “Land Remote- tions. 

Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984,” signed into 

law July 17, 1984. The Department’s interest was to 

assure an appropriate oversight role in any private 

commercial activities in land remote sensing by the 

United States that would have an effect on either 

foreign policy or bilateral or multilateral foreign rela93 
Arms control 

and Disarmament Agency 

An important part of the work of the United States 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) is 

concerned with issues related to Outer Space arms control. ACDA also is involved in policy formulation for 

many U.S. activities in space. 

On July 4, 1982, the President stated as National 

Space Policy that the United States will continue to 

study space arms control options and will consider 

verifiable and equitable arms control measures, compatible with U.S. national security, to ban or otherwise 

limit testing and deployment of specific weapon 

systems. 

In a Report to the Congress on U.S. Policy on AntiSatellite (ASAT) Arms Control on March 31, 1984, 

the President reaffirmed that policy and addressed as 

well potential benefits and problems of ASAT arms 

control and national security considerations regarding 

space. 

Space Arms Control Activities 

During 1984, the Agency participated in an intensive U.S. study of the options, benefits, and problems 

of space arms control, laying a sound foundation for 

any future negotiations. 

On June 29, 1984, the Soviet Government announced that it had proposed to the United States that 

talks be held to “prevent the militarization of outer 

space.” In its response accepting the Soviet proposal, 

the United States noted that “militarization of space 

began when the first ballistic missiles were tested,” and 

added that, in addition, it would be prepared to discuss 

any other arms control concerns of mutual interest. 

Subsequently, the Soviets changed their antisatellite testing moratorium “offer” to a precondition. 

In late July, to facilitate agreement on holding talks, 

the United States proposed a possible joint SovietAmerican announcement on the content and objective 

of the talks, and included an explicit statement that the 

aim of the talks should be to work out and conclude 

agreements concerning the militarization of outer 

space, including antisatellite systems and other aspects 

of the issue. The Soviet Union did not accept the 

positive US response to their proposal and the Vienna 

talks were not held. 

International Discussions on Space 

Arms Control 

ACDA continues its efforts in support of U.S. space 

policy objectives in two multilateral arms control fora 

each year: the United Nations General Assembly (First 

Committee) and the Conference on Disarmament in 

Geneva. For several years, the basic issue in both 

bodies has been whether the United States will agree to 

a resolution or committee mandate calling for 

multilateral negotiation of a treaty or treaties limiting 

or banning certain activities in outer space. The position of the United States is that all aspects of arms control in outer space should be studied or debated, but 

that there has been insufficient analysis of the need for 

and verifiability of a major agreement for the control of 

weapons in outer space to justify acceding to 

multilateral negotiations. 

Space Policy 

ACDA is involved in all aspects of the formulation of 

US space policy. The Agency shares responsibility 

with the State Department for the interagency group 

which addresses space arms control issues and had a 

leading role in the intensive studies of potential ASAT 

arms control options and in the Administration’s 

March 31, 1984, Report to the Congress on US Policy 

on ASAT Arms Control. ACDA also participated fully 

in the interagency effort to define the Strategic Defense 

Initiative (SDI) research program. Although not 

directly involved in the ongoing effort to determine the 

technical feasibility of eliminating the threat posed by 

strategic ballistic missiles, ACDA has a leading role in 

examining the arms control implications of the SDI. 

In addition, the Agency participates in the work of 

the Senior Interagency Group on Space which considers a broad variety of space issues on which arms 

control considerations often are relevant, such as commercialization of expendable launch vehicles and the 

Presidentially mandated space station. Another Interagency Group in which ACDA is involved reviews 

the arms control implications of bilateral governmental 

space activities and sales of space-related items. 

The United States remains committed to achieving 

effective arms control. In his remarks to the 39th Ses95 
sion of the United Nations General Assembly on 

September 24, 1984, President Reagan pledged to 

redouble “efforts to meet the legitimate expectations of 

all nations that the Soviet Union and the United States 

will substantially reduce their own nuclear arsenals” 

and emphasized U.S. interest in space arms control. 

96 
United States Information 

The public diplomacy efforts ofihe United States Information Agency (USIA) reflect its committment to 

the promotion of worldwide awareness of U.S. 

achievements in the exploration and peaceful uses of 

space. USIA has made effective use of direct satellite 

television and live radio braodcasts, on-the-spot news 

coverage, feature stories, interviews, exhibits, overseas 

visits by astronauts and scientists, and video tape programs for television. USIA maintained a focus on 

Space Shuttle Flights, stressing the increasingly international flavor of these missions and their growing 

commercial, as well as scientific value. Significant 

attention was also given to the initiative for an internaional effort to build a permanently manned space 

station. 

Space Shuttle 

Worldnet, USIA’s interactive, state-of-the-art television network which links Washington via satellite with 

U.S. embassies and posts overseas, has received enthusiastic reaction to live press conferences with Shuttle astronauts in flight. “Astronet,” the world’s first extraterrestrial news conference, connected the Columbia astronauts orbiting the earth, President Reagan in 

Washington, and West German Chancellor Kohl in 

Athens, with over 70 European journalists in eight 

countries. President Reagan called the broadcast “one 

heck of a conference call.” In October “Astronet 11,” 

telecast to posts in East Asia, featured live, two-way 

TV interviews by correspondents in Sydney with the 

seven member crew of the Space Shuttle Challenger. 

Media response to the program was extensive; USIS 

Canberra commented that the programs received the 

best TV coverage of any Agency production since “Let 

Poland be Poland.” 

USIA’s television service also featured the October 

flight of the Challenger in a thirty minute VCR produced for window box displays at Eastern European 

posts. These displays proved highly popular with the 

East European public, so much so that USIS posts 

faced a variety of attempts to keep people away, 

disrupt the displays or block the film from public view. 

Other USIA television programs such as the monthly 

“Science World” series and the weekly “TV Satellite 

File” newsfeed featured scientific advances deriving 

from the Shuttle and highlighted key events such as the 

retrieval, repair and relaunch of the Solar Maximum 

Mission Satellite. Acquired films of Shuttle missions 

and press conferences with Shuttle crews were popular 

items for showing to audiences at USIS posts. 

Lift-offs, flights and landings of each manned mission are covered at the scene by VOA News correspondents and frequently by ‘reporters from key 

foreign language services. VOA’s reporters have been 

at the Cape for space launches since Alan Shepard’s 

flight. Today, VOA’s on the scene coverage serves 

both tradition and program policy. VOA intends to 

continue fulfilling its listener’s expectations for news of 

mission events - successful or unsuccessful - as they occur. In 1984, VOA news and foreign-language broadcasters covered the launches and landings of all seven 

Shuttle flights and key mission events such as the 

recovery of two satellites which had been placed in erratic and useless orbit. In a somewhat off-beat assist, 

VOA has loaned to a group of NASA staffers who have 

formed the Goddard Amateur Radio Club a cartridge 

machine which enables them to transmit shuttle communications with ground control for ham operators the 

world over. 

Audience relations activities at VOA provided 

another avenue for communicating with listeners 

about America’s exploration of space. One of the most 

frequent requests received from VOA listeners is for 

information on U.S. space exploration. Several 

brochures are available for responding to these 

requests. VOA’s promotional activities include a 

postcard picturing a Challenger lift-off and several 

brief stories on space carried in the “Voice” magazine, 

which has a distribution of over 100,000. The 1984 

VOA calendar “Dateline USA,” which carried the 

theme “how VOA covers news events,” featured on its 

cover a photo of Mission VI astronauts working in the 

open shuttle bay. 

USIA’s Press and Publications Service provided 

USIS posts and offices worldwide with numerous articles for background, post publications, and placement in the local media. Extensive coverage of Shuttle 

missions, scientific experiments, direct and spin-off 

benefits, and future goals was carried on the “Wireless 

File” to 214 posts in 134 nations and jurisdictions. Particular emphasis was given to items which would be of 

most interest to foreign audiences, such as the proposed development of a space station with international 

97 
cooperation and plans to include more foreign 

astronauts on Shuttle flights. Several pamphlets related 

to space flight and international cooperation were also 

produced. The USIA magazines Topic, America Illustrated, and Economic Impact featured stories on the 

Shuttle and its economic and scientific benefits. In 

addition to two covers of America Illustrated, USIA’s 

monthly Russian language magazine disributed in the 

Soviet Union under a reciprocal exchange agreement, 

Topic (distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa) and Dialogue 

also sported space related covers. 

The American Participant program continued to arrange meetings of U.S. astronauts with foreign scientists, government officials, academics and journalists. 

Speaker programs featuring astronauts are highly 

popular and invariably generate extensive media 

coverage. In 1984, three astronauts visited a total of 

eleven countries. Astronaut Bruce McCandless spent 

most of May traveling to Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Zambia, 

Tanzania, Saudi Arabia, and Spain. Also in May, Dr. 

Ronald McNair visited Hong Kong, Thailand, India 

and Bahrain. The dedication of a “space house” in 

Kiruna, Sweden, north of the Arctic circle was a 

highlight of Astronaut Karol Bobko’s September visit 

to Sweden. 

Telepress conferences, a telephone hookup of 

spokemen in the U.S. with foreign newsmen abroad, 

provided another effective means to bring astronauts 

and foreign audiences together. In March, reporters in 

Guatemala City interviewed Bruce McCandless about 

the success of the backpack in untethered spacewalks. 

In July, Kathryn Sullivan discussed the U.S. Space 

Program with media in Abidjan. 

In Washington, the Foreign Press Center held a 

briefing for foreign media by NASA Administrator 

James Beggs, discussing space station plans. The 

Foreign Press Center also provided facilitative 

assistance to journalists from nine countries whose requests included information on future shuttle flights, 

interviews with spokesmen or astronauts, tours of 

NASA facilities, and even one request for information 

on if and when journalists may go on a fdture space 

mission. 

Other Programs 

The scientific/technical side of USIA’s relationship 

with NASA is another significant link between the two 

agencies. In a continuing effort, VOA and NASA are 

jointly pursuing studies to determine the technical 

feasibility and cost effectiveness of Direct Broadcast 

Satellite systems. Similarly, advanced satellite communications were central to “Videcon ’84,” a five day 

joint USIA-COMSAT experimental demonstration of 

live, two-way, compressed, digital, video transmissions between USIA studios in Washington and BTI 

studios in London. Advances in space science and 

technology were highlighted in numerous Wireless File 

and magazine articles and TV productions such as 

“Science World.” 

In cooperation with USIA’s Exhibits Service, 

Astronaut Norman E. Thagard visited the U.S. 

exhibit at the Pacific National Exhibition held in 

August in Vancouver. He acted as grand marshal1 for 

the opening day parade and participated in the official 

opening day ceremonies. This annual exhibition draws 

approximately one million persons from Canada and 

the U.S. In October, NASA provided three exhibits 

which were displayed at the annual International Salon 

of Food and Agriculture in Montreal. This event, important to the Quebec agri-food sector, promotes all 

activities related to the production, processing and 

marketing of agricultural and food products. 

USIA’s Exhibits Service is organizing the official 

U.S. participation in World’s Fairs scheduled for 1985 

and 1986. Preparations are underway for the U.S. national exhibition of Expo ‘85 in Tsukuba, Japan, which 

will include displays of the Martin Marietta Manned 

Maneuvering Unit, a Space Shuttle suit and a 1:30 

scale model of McDonnell Douglas’s proposed Space 

Station. In keeping with efforts to promote international cooperation in space, the major theme of the 

U.S. exhibition at Expo ‘86 in Vancouver, Canada will 

be space exploration, with the U.S. pavilion featuring 

the proposed space station. 

98 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A- 1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea 

Year Year 

Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ... 0 

1958 .................. 5 

1959 .................. 9 

1960 ..... 16 

1961 .................. 35 

1962 .................. 55 

1963 .... 62 

1964.. ................ 69 

1965 .................. 93 

1967.. ................ 78 

1969 .................. 58 

1970 .................. 36 

1971 ............. 45 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

lb 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1972 .................. 33 

1973 .................. 23 

1974 .................. 27 

1975 .................. 30 

1976 .................. 33 

1977 .................. 27 

1978 .................. 34 

1979 .................. 18 

1980 .................. 16 

1981 .................. 20 

1982. ................. 21 

1983 .................. 31 

1984 .................. 35 

Total ............ .1,064 

2 8 0 

2 3 0 

2 1 0 

4 4 0 

0 1 0 

2 2 0 

2 7 0 

0 0 0 

4 0 0 

1 0 0 

0 0 0 

0 0 0 

3 0 0 

137 79 15 

a The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the earth. 

This earth-escape failure did attain earth orbit and therefore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People’s United European U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom ASPaCe India Calendar United 

Year States of China eencv 

.............. 

............... 

............... ............. 

............. 

.................... 

.................... 

.................... 

.................... 

a Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. 

99 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful US. Launches-1984 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (mi.), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Jan. 31 Objective: development of spaceflight techniques and Not available 

Defense technology. 

9A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan 34D 

Feb. 3 Objectives: To deploy Westar-6 and Palapa-B2; 

rendezvous test operations using Integrated Rendezvous Target (IRT); testing and evaluation of Manned 

Spacecraft: Shuttle carrying two communications satellites, balloon rendezvous target, Cinema 360, 5 getaway specials (GASs), Acoustic Containerless Experiment System (ACES), Isoelectric Focusing (IEF), 

Monodisperse Latex Reactor (MLR), 1 student experiment, Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-OlA). Total 

payload weight (including 1,814 kg for crew equipment): 37,358 kg. 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger (STS-4lB) 

llh maneuvering Unit (MMU). 

Feb. 3 

Westar-6 

11B 

Feb. 5 

IRT 

11c 

Feb. 5 

Defense 

12A 

Atlas H 

Feb. 6 

Palapa-B2 

11D 

March 1 

Landsat-5 

21A 

Delta 3920 

Objective: To launch Westar-6 satellite to stationary 

geosynchronous orbit with sufficient stationkeeping 

propulsion fuel on board to meet support requirements 

and to initiate user support services. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped telescoping cylinder 6.8 m 

high when deployed in space; 2.16 m in diameter; spin 

stabilized. Carries 24 color TV channels. Weight in orbit after apogee motor fire: 1099 kg. 

Objective: To deploy balloon and perform rendezvous 

Spacecraft: Balloon, 2 m in diameter, inflated autousing balloon as passive target. 

matically with nitrogen to pressure of .3 psia. 

297 

278 

90.3 

28.5 

1220 

307 

100.1 

27.7 

267 

26 1 

89.8 

28.5 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit of sufficient accuracy to permit spacecraft to achieve geosynchronous orbit for communications. 

Spacecraft: drum-shaped, identical to Westar-6. Weight 

in orbit after reaching geosynchronous orbit: 630 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into circular, near polar 

Sun-synchronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow 

imaging the same 185 km swath of earth's surface every 

16 days. 

Spacecraft: Main spacecraft body consists of multimission modular spacecraft (MMS) and instrument 

module (IM); high-gain antenna mounted at end of 4 m 

mast for Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TRDSS) communications, single-wing solar array. 

Principle instruments are thematic mapper (TM) and 

multispectral scanner (MSS), both in instrument 

module. Weight: 1947 kg. 

1190 

280 

99.5 

28.2 

700 

699 

98.8 

98.2 

Still in orbit. 

Fourth flight of Orbiter Challenger 

piloted by astronauts Vance D. Brand 

and Robert L. Gibson. Mission 

specialists were Bruce McCandless, 

Ronald E. McNair and Robert L. 

Stewart. Shuttle liftoff from KSC at 

8:OO a.m. EST. Satellites were 

deployed from cargo bay. PAM-D on 

both communications satellites failed, 

leaving satellites in low orbit. First use 

of MMU in space. Challenger landed 

on KSC runway 15 at 7:16 a.m., EST, 

Feb. 11. Total mission time: 7 days, 

23 hours, 16 min. 

Launched Feb. 3 from Shuttle orbiter 

Challenger, PAM-D failure in low orbit. Satellite retrieved by orbiter 

Discovery (STS-51A) Nov. 14, 

returned to earth Nov. 16 for refurbishment. 

Launched Feb. 5 from Shuttle orbiter 

Challenger, failed to inflate. Rendezvous Radar work successfully done using deflated target. 

Still in orbit. 

Launched Feb. 6 from Shuttle Challenger for Republic of Indonesia. 

PAM-D failure in low orbit. Satellite 

retrieved by orbiter Discovery (STS51A) Nov. 12, returned to earth Nov. 

16 for refurbishment. 

Launched by NASA into circular, nearpolar Sun-synchronous orbit, replacing ailing Landsat-4 launched July 16, 

1982. MSS and TM providing excellent imagery. 

100 
APPENDIX A-3 -Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1984 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Uosat-2 Objective: To launch satellite for amateur radio comSpacecraft: Rectangular shape, 355 mm square and 645 mm 

21B munication relay. 

high. Weight: 60.5 kg. 

April 6 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

34A 

(STS-4 1 C) 

Long Duration 

Exposure Facility 

34B 

(LDEF-I) 

April 14 

Defense 

37A 

Titan 34D 

April 17 

Defense 

39A 

Titan IIIB 

June 9 

Intelsat V F-9 

5 7A 

Atlas-Centaur 

June 13 

Navstar-9 

59A 

Atlas E 

June 25 

Defense 

65A 

Titan 34D 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Rem arks 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

694 Secondary payload to Landsat-5 for 

673 University of Surrey (United 

98.4 Kingdom). Satellite sponsored by the 

98.2 Radio Amateuir Satellite Corporation 

(AMSAT). 

Objective: To deploy the Long Duration Exposure 464 

Facility (LDEF) and repair the Solar Maximum Mis- 218 

sion (SMM) satellite. 91.4 

Spacecraft: Shuttle carrying satellite with accommoda- 28.5 

tions for experiments requiring long-term exposure to 

space. Cinema 360, IMAX, Radiation Monitoring 

Equipment (RME) and 1 student experiment. Crew 

and equipment weight: 1675 kg. Payload weight: 

14,687 kg. 

Objective: To place scientific, applications and technology experiments into earth orbit for substantial 

483 

473 

period of time. 94.2 

Spacecraft: 12 sided, open-grid structure, 9.14 m long, 28.5 

4.27 m in diameter, passively stabilized. Weight: 

9670 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous 1220 

orbit for INTELSAT to provide 12,000 voice circuits 233 

Spacecraft: Three axis stabilized, 6.4 m high and 15.9 

m across extended solar panels. Weight at launch: 

2,016 kg. 

and 2 color TV channels simultaneously. 99.3 

28.7 

Objective: To launch satellite into planned orbit. 20,619 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as Navstar-8, 20,317 

launched in 1983. Weight: 873 kg. 729.6 

62.5 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and 230 

technology. 170 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.9 

96.1 

Eleventh flight of Space Transportation 

System. Orbiter Challenger piloted by 

Robert L. Crippen and Frances R. 

Scobee. Mission specialists Terry J. 

Hart, George D. Nelson and James 

D. Van Hoften. Shuttle lifted off from 

KSC at 8:58 a.m., EST. LDEF-1 SUEcessfully deployed from cargo bay. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) 

satellite retrieved and repaired in 

cargo bay, redeployed April 12. 

Challenger landed on runway 17 at 

Edwards AFB, CA, 8:39 a.m., EST, 

April 13. Total mission time: 6 days, 

23 hrs, 41 min. Orbiter returned to 

KSC for overhaul for next flight. 

Successfully deployed, satellite originally scheduled for retrieval about 

10 months after launch, but due to 

shuttle scheduling changes capture 

delayed. 

Still in orbit. 

Reentered Aug. 13. 

Seventh of series of 9 satellite, launched 

by NASA for 108-member nation International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Launch vehicle failed to boost satellite 

to useful orbit. Reentered Oct. 25 

Global Positioning System satellite 

launched by DoD in joint military 

services' developmental network. Still 

in orbit. 

Reentered Oct. 18. 

101 
APPENDIX A-3 -Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1984 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Aug. 16 

Charge Composition 

Explorer (CCE) 

88A 

Delta 3924 

Ion Release Module 

(IRW 

88B 

United Kingdom 

Satellite (UKS) 

88C 

Aug. 28 

Defense 

91A 

Titan IIIB 

Aug. 30 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

93A 

(STS-41D) 

SBS-4 

93B 

Syncom IV-2 

(Leasat-2) 

93c 

Objective: To place satellite in near-equatorial elliptical 

Spacecraft: Structure is a closed right octogonal prism. 

orbit to detect ions within earth's magnetosphere. 

Weight in orbit: 242 kg. 

Objective: To place satellite in highly elliptical orbit 

Spacecraft: 16 chemical release containers (8 barrium 

for study of earth's magnetosphere. 

and 8 lithium). Weight: 705 kg. 

Objective: To observe barrium and lithium released 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical satellite, 1 m in diameter and 

by IRM. 

0.45 m in height, spin-stabilized. Weight: 77 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To check out Space Shuttle, launch Syncom 

IV-2, Telstar-3C, and SBS-4; complete assigned experiments and test objectives. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellites Syncom 

IV-2, Telstar-3C, SBB-4 and scientific payloads, 

OAST-1, Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System 

(CFES), IMAX, Radiation Monitoring Equipment 

(RME), Clouds Photograph Experiment and 1 student 

experiment. Total payload weight (including 1,799 kg 

for crew and crew equipment): 23,631 kg. 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit permitting spacecraft propulsion system to place it in stationary synchronous orbit for communications 

coverage. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, spin-stabilized. Weight: 

3,344 kg. 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful transfer 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, telescoping satellite. Weight: 

orbit. 

6,889 kg. 

49,663 

1,130 

939.5 

5.1 

113,741 

553 

2655.7 

28.7 

113,741 

553 

2655.7 

28.7 

38,156 

287 

702.8 

63.6 

296 

296 

90 

29.45 

35,796 

35,777 

1,436.1 

0.3 

35,798 

35,776 

1,436.1 

3.2 

One of 3 satellites comprising Active 

Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers (AMPTE) Mission. Satellite 

contains 5 instruments: Hot Plasma 

Composition Measurement Spectrometer (HPC), Charge Energy 

Mass Spectrometer (CHEM), 

Medium Energy Particle Analyzer 

(MEPA), Magnetometer (MAG) and 

Plasma Wave Experiment (PWE). 

Data being returned. Still in orbit. 

Second of 3 AMPTE satellites. Built 'by 

the Federal Republic of Germany. 

Results of chemical releases being 

analyzed. 

Third of 3 AMPTE satellites. Built in 

the United Kingdom. Spacecraft 

operated in close proximity to IRM 

when barrium or lithium released. 

Results obtained. Satellite failed in orbit. January 1985. 

Still in orbit. 

Twelfth flight of Space Transportation 

System, first flight of orbiter 

Discovery. Piloted by Henry W. 

Hartsfield, Michael L. Coats. Mi,- 

sion specialists: Richard M. Mullane, 

Steven A. Hawley, Judith A. Resnik. 

Payload specialist: Charles D. 

Walker. Shuttle launched from KSC 

at 8:42 a.m., EDT. Deployed three 

communications satellites, carried out 

experiments, including OAST-1 solar 

array structural testing. Discovery 

landed on runway 17 at Edwards 

AFB, CA, 9:38 a.m., EDT. Total mission time 6 days, 56 min. Orbiter 

returned to KSC for overhaul for next 

flight. 

Launched Aug. 31 from orbiter Discovery for Satellite Business Systems, 

Inc. In orbit. 

Successfully deployed Aug. 31 from Discovery for Hughes Communication 

Service, Inc. for lease to the US Navy. 

Still in orbit. 
APPENDIX A-3 -Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I984 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Telstar 3-C 

93D 

Sept. 8 

Navstar-10 

97A 

Atlas E 

Sept. 21 

Galaxy-3 

l0lA 

Delta 3920 

Oct. 5 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

108A 

(STS-4 lG) 

Oct. 5 

Earth Radiation 

Budget Satellite 

(ERBS) 

108B 

Oct. 12 

Nova-3 

110A 

scout 

Nov. 8 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

113A 

(STS-51A) 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, spin-stabilized. Weight: 

3,402 kg. 

Objective: To launch satellite into planned orbit. 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as Navstar-9, 

launched June 13. Weight: 873 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft with sufficient accuracy 

to allow propulsion system to place satellite in stationary geosynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical telescoping design. 277 crn high 

and 216 cm in launch configuration. In orbit aft solar 

panel deploys, antenna reflector erects, 683 cm high. 

Weight: 519 kg. 

Objective: To launch Earth Radiation Budget Satellite 

(ERBS), perform scientific experiments using OSTA-3 

and other payloads. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying OSTA-3 payload: 

Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B), Large Format 

Camera (LFC), Measurement of Atmospheric Pollution from Satellites (MAPS) and Feature Identification 

and Location Experiment (FILE); IMAX, Orbital 

Refueling System (ORS), Canadian Experiment 

(CANEX), Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME), 

Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD), and Auroral 

Photography Experiment (APE). 8 Getaway Special 

(GAS) experiments in cargo bay. Weight (including 

ERBS, not crew): 8,203 kg. 

Objective: To launch sateliite enabling it to provide 

global measurements of the Sun's radiation reflected 

and absorbed by earth. 

Spacecraft: 4.6 m wide, 3.8 m high and 1.6 m long, 

three-axis momentum biased. Instrumentation: ERBE 

Non-Scanner (ERBE-NS), ERBE Scanner (ERBE-S) 

and Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE 

11). Weight: 2,250 kg. 

Objective: To launch Navy navigational satellite. 

Spacecraft: Same configuration of Nova-1 launched 

Mav 15, 1981. 

Objective: To launch Anik-D2 and Syncom IV-1 and 

retrieve and return Palapa-B2 and Westar-6. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellites Anik D2 

and Syncom IV-1, as well as experiments Diffusive 

Mixing of Organic Solutions (DMOS) and Radiation 

Monitoring Equipment (RME). Total payload weight: 

17,375 kg. 

35,790 

35,785 

1,436.1 

0.0 

20,410 

19,954 

718.0 

63.3 

35,795 

35,783 

1,436.2 

0.0 

225 

216 

88.9 

57.0 

608 

598 

96.8 

57.0 

1,198 

1,152 

108.9 

90.1 

299 

288 

90.4 

28.5 

Deployed successfully from Discovery 

Sept. 1, for American Telephone and 

Telegraph Company. Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit 

Third in a series of three successfully 

launched by NASA for Hughes Communications, Inc. Positioned above 

equator at 93.5O west longitude. 

Thirteenth flight of Space 'l'ransportation System. Orbiter Challenger 

piloted by astronauts Robert L. Crippen, Jon A. McBride. Mission 

specialists: Kathryn D. Sullivan, Sally 

K. Ride and David C. Leestma. 

Payload specialists: Paul D. ScullyPower and Marc Garneau 

(Canadian). Challenger lifted off from 

KSC at 7:03 a.m., EDT, and landed at 

KSC, at 12:27 p.m,, ELK. Total mission time: 8 days, 5 hrs, 24 min. 

Spacecraft returned to KSC for refurbishment and overhaul for next flight. 

Successfully deployed by Challenger 

using Remote Manipulator System 

(RMS). ERBS one of three satellites 

in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Research Program. NOAA-9 

launched Dec. 12 and NOAA-G to be 

launched in late 1985. Instruments 

returning data. 

Second in series of improved TRANSIT 

satellites launched by NASA. Still in 

orbit. 

Fourteenth flight OF Space Transportation System, second mission of orbiter 

Discovery piloted by Frederick H. 

Hauck and David M. Walker. Mission specialists Joseph P. Allen, Anna 

L. Fisher and Dale A. Gardner. 

Palapa-B2 retrieved Nov. 12, and 

Westar-6 secured in cargo bay Nov. 

14. Discovery launched from KSC at 

7:15 a.m., ESY and landed at KSC, 

runway 15 7:OO a.m., EST, Nov. 16. 

Total mission time: 7 days, 23 hrs, 45 

min. 

103 
APPENDIX A-3 -Continued 

Successful US. Launches4984 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (”) 

Anik-D2 Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit of 

113B sufficient accuracy to permit spacecraft to achieve 

geosynchronous orbit for communications. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.2 m diameter, 2.8 m high, 

in orbit deploys to height of 6.6 m, spin-stabilized. 

Weight: 730 kg. 

Syncom IV-1 

113C 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit permitring spacecraft propulsion system to place it in stationary synchronous orbit for communications 

coverage. 

Nov. 14 

NATO IIID 

115A 

Delta 3914 tionary synchronous orbit. 

Objective: To launch satellite into a synchronous transfer orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow the spacecraft 

propulsion system to place the spacecraft into a staSpacecraft: Drum-shaped, 2.18 m in diameter, 2.23 m 

long, with overall length of 3.1 m including antennas. 

Spin-stabilized. Designed lifetime: 7 years. Weight at 

launch 761 kg, after firing of apogee kick motor, 388 

kg. 

Dec. 4 

Defense 

122A 

Titan IIID 

Dec. 12 

123A 

Atlas E 

NOAA-9 

35,800 

35,772 

1,436.0 

1 .8 

35,847 

35,727 

1,436.2 

3.4 

35,612 

35,571 

1,426.2 

5.9 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and Not available 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into Sun-synchronous 862 

orbit, conduct in-orbit evaluation and checkout of 841 

spacecraft. 102.0 

Spacecraft: “stretched” version of Tiros-N series, launch 

configuration 491 cm high, 188 cm in diameter. Solar 

array deploys in orbit. Weight: 1,712 kg. 

98.9 

Dec. 22 Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and Not available 

Defense technology, 

129A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan 34D 

Successfully launched Nov. 9, by Discovery for Telsat Canada; positioned 

over equator at 11 1.5” west longitude 

due south of Salt Lake City, UT. Still 

in orbit. 

Launched Nov. 10, from Shuttle Discovery, second of four satellites to be 

leased by the DoD to replace FleetSatCorn spacecraft for worldwide UHF 

communications between ships, 

planes, and fixed facilities. Still in orbit. 

NASA successfully launched fourth in 

series of NATO defense-related communications satellites, on reimbursable cost basis. Satellite placed at 50” 

west longitude above the equator over 

the Atlantic Ocean. Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Fifth NOAA-funded operational spacecraft of Tiros-N series, successfully 

launched by NASA, satellite replaced 

NOAA-7 as afternoon satellite in 

NOAA’s two polar satellite system. 

Also onboard second set of Earth 

Radiation Budget Experiment 

(ERBE) instruments, Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectral Radiometer, 

Mod-2 (SBUV/2) and Search and 

Rescue instruments. Spacecraft returning data. Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

104 
U.S.=Launched Applications Satellites 1978-1984 

-~ ~ 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Jan. 7, 1978 

Feb. 9, 1978 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Mar. 31, 1978 

Apr. 7, 1978 

May 11, 1978 

June 29, 1978 

Nov. 19, 1978 

Dec. 14, 1978 

Dec. 16, 1978 

May 4, 1979 

Aug. 9, 1979 

Nov. 21, 1979 

Dec. 2, 1979 

Jan. 18, 1980 

Oct. 31, 1980 

Nov. 15, 1980 

Dec. 6, 1980 

Feb. 21, 1981 

May 23, 1981 

Aug. 6, 1981 

Sept. 24, 1981 

Nov. 20, 1981 

Dec. 15, 1981 

Jan. 16, 1982 

Feb. 26, 1982 

Mar. 5, 1982 

Apr. 10, 1982 

June 9, 1982 

Aug. 26, 1982 

Sept. 28, 1982 

Oct. 27, 1982 

Oct. 30, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Nov. 12, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 11, 1983 

May 19, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

June 19, 1983 

June 28, 1983 

July 28, 1983 

Aug. 31, 1983 

Sept. 8, 1983 

Sep. 22 1983 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Intelsat IVA F-3 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

Intelsat IVA F-6 

BSE (Yuri) 

OTS 2 

Comstar D-3 

NATO IIIC 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS 11-11,12 

DSCS II-13,14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

Fltsatcom 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-1 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intelsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Westar 5 

Anik D-1 

Intelsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11, 

DSCS 111 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

TDRS 1 

RCA-Satcom 6 

Intelsat V F-6 

Anik C-2 

Palapa B-1 

Galaxy 1 

Telstar 3A 

Insat 1-B 

RCA-Satcom 7 

Galaxy 2 

Westar-6 

Feb. 6, 1984 Palapa-B2 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

A tlas-Cen taur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan III(34) D/IUS 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, IUS 

Delta 3924 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 3920/PAM-D 

Delta 3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, PAM-D 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; doEuropean Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite. 

Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. 

Final one of this military series. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Second of new DoD series. 

Launched for Western Union Co. as part of its domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic communications links. 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fourth in series for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELSAT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. 

Third in series. To be positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in series for RCA. 

First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. 

Fourth in series; positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; replaces 

Launched for Telesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satellites. 

Fifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series of 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Second in new series for Telesat Canada. 

First in series. System to provide continuous satellite communication. 

Leased by NASA from Space Communications Co. (Spacecom). 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. 

Sixth in series; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. 

Launched for Telesat Canada. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Indian domestic communications. 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. 

Second in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, 

amateur radio communications. 

mestic satellite. 

munications links. 

Westar 2. 

uprated satellites. 

satellite retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for 

refurbishment. 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved and 

returned to earth by Shuttle. 

105 
APPENDIX B-1 -Continued 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites 1978-1984 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mar. 1, 1984 

June 9, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Sept. 1, 1984 

Sept. 21, 1984 

Nov. 9, 1984 

Nov. 10, 1984 

Nov. 14, 1984 

May 1, 1978 

June 16, 1978 

Oct. 13, 1978 

Oct. 24, 1978 

June 6, 1979 

June 27, 1979 

May 29, 1980 

Sept. 9, 1980 

May 22, 1981 

June 23, 1981 

Dec. 21, 1982 

Mar. 28, 1983 

Apr. 28, 1983 

Nov. 18, 1983 

Dec. 12, 1984 

Mar. 5, 1978 

Apr. 26, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

July 16, 1982 

Mar. 1, 1984 

Apr. 9, 1975 

May 4, 1976 

Feb. 22, 1978 

May 13, 1978 

Oct. 7, 1978 

Dec. 11, 1978 

Feb. 9, 1980 

Apr. 26, 1980 

May 15, 1981 

July 14, 1983 

Feb. 5, 1984 

June 13, 1984 

Sept. 8, 1984 

Oct. 12, 1984 

Uosat-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS-4 

Syncom IV-2 

Telstar-3C 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

Syncom IV-1 

NATO IIID 

AMS 3 

GOES 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

AMS 4 

NOAA 6 

NOAA-B 

GOES 4 

GOES 5 

NOAA 7 

DMSP F-6 

NOAA 8 

GOES 6 

DMSP F-7 

NOAA-9 

Landsat 3 

Delta 3920 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle, 

Dalta 3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Secondary payload with Landsat-5, for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION a 

Thor-Burner 2 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Delta 3914 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Third of this series for NOAA. 

First of third-generation for NOAA, also experimental satellite for 

Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Second of 8 planned third-generation satellites for NOAA; first was 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

Replacement for NOAA-B. 

DoD meterological satellite. 

Joined NOAA 7 as part of 2-satellite operational system; launched for 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. 

Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-7. 

NASA. 

Tiros-N. 

NOAA. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) \, 

HCMM (AEM 1) Scout 

Seasat 1 Atlas F 

Landsat 4 Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Landsat-5 Delta 3920 

Geos 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Lageos Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Navstar 1 

Navstar 2 

Navstar 3 

Navstar 4 

Navstar 5 

Navstar 6 

Nova 1 

Navstar 8 

IRT 

Navstar-9 

Navstar-10 

Nova-3 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas E 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

scout 

Third experimental earth resources satellite. 

Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping misProof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. 

Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of thematic 

Fifth experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing Landsat-4. 

sion for earth resources. 

mapper (TM). 

GEODESY 

To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

Laser geodynamic satellite. 

NAVIGATION 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

aDoes not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

106 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.=Launched Scientific Satellites 1978- 1984 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 26, 1978 

July 14, 1978 

Aug. 12, 1978 

Oct. 24, 1978 

Nov. 13, 1978 

Jan. 30, 1979 

Feb. 18, 1979 

Feb. 24, 1979 

June 6, 1979 

Sept. 20, 1979 

Oct. 30. 1979 

Feb. 14, 1980 

Aug. 3, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Jan. 26, 1983 

May 26, 1983 

June 22, 1983 

June 27, 1983 

Apr. 6, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Oct. 5, 1984 

IUE 

Geos 2 

ISEE 3 

Cameo 

Heao 2 

Scatha 

Sage 

Solwind 

Ariel 6 

Heao 3 

Magsat 

SMM 

Dynamics 

SME 

UOSAT 

IRAS 

EXOSAT 

SPAS 01 

Explorers 1, 2 

(Oscar 9) 

HILAT (P83-1) 

Long Duration 

Exposure Facility (LDEF-1) 

Charge Composition Explorer 

WE) 

Ion Release 

Module (IRM) 

United Kingdom 

Satellite (UKS) 

Earth Radiation 

Budget Satellite 

(ERBS) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Delta 3910 

Delta 3914 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Space Shuttle 

Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geoEuropean studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer in halo orbit near earth-sun libration point; moved in 1983 to path to meet Comet Giacobini-Zinner in 

1985. 

Barium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of Nimbus 7 launcher. 

High-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. 

Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. 

Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, 

Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed current description of earth's magnetic field and of sources of 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy coupling, 

Solar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric 

Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science 

Infrared sky survey. 

European Space Agency study of x-ray sources. 

Reusable free-flying platform deployed and retrieved during STS 7; 6 

scientific experiments from West Germany, 2 from ESA. NASA 

experiments tested spacecraft technology. 

Propagation effects of disturbed plasma on radar and communication 

systems, for DoD. 

Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by Shuttle. 

synchronous orbit. 

and ozone. 

variations. 

electric currents and fields, plasmas. 

ozone. 

experiments. 

Measurement of earth's magnetosphere, one of three satellites 

composing Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers 

Mission (AMPTE). 

Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

Third of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

Research Program, NOAA-9 and NOAA-G carrying other 

instruments in Program. 

107 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1975-1984 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIE- Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all 

data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil 

samples for signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Centaur 

Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 

Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIE- Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all 

data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil 

samples for signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Centaur 

Titan IIIE- Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of sun, 

Centaur measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload 

had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus 

cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Aug. 20, 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIE- Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 

1989. 

Centaur 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIE- Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed 

for outer solar system. 

Centaur 

May 20, 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and 

data. 

Aug. 8, 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

None in 1984 

through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

108 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1984 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Highlights 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; astronaut 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of Vostok 5. 

First 3-man crew. 

safe. 

Vostok 1 

Mercury - Redstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

0: 1:48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4.55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9.13 

1 : 10 : 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0.17 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4.53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1.51 

0 : 10 : 41 

3: 0.21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2:23: 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10:20: 9 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). 

First U.S. 2-man flight; lirst manual maneuvers 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

in orbit. 

with Agena target rocket). 

then Agena 8). 

highest earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km). 

hrs 37 min). 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

3 : 22 : 51 

6: 3: 1 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; lirst manned 

departure from earth's sphere of influence; 

highest speed attained in manned flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 10: 1: 1 Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the 

lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight without actually docking. Each conducted certain 

experiments, including welding and earth and 

celestial observation. 

Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 8: 0: 3 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 8: 3: 9 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12. 1969 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

Soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 4 : 22 : 50 

109 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1984 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Highlights 

Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Ckrnan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

10 : 4 : 36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23 : 18 : 22 

12 : 7 : 12 

11 : 1 : 51 

12 : 13 : 52 

28 : 0 : 50 

59 : 11 : 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1 : 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1.28 

48 : 1 : 32 

7 : 21 : 54 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored surface of moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms 

on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recovered 

Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied 

space station for 22 days. Crew perished during 

final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on 

June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo ‘y 

series mission, which carried Lunar Roving 

Vehicle, Worden’s inflight EVA of 38 min 12 sec 

was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources exDocked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

periments. 

space station. 

after abort. 

ments of ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

system. 

110 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1984 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Highlights 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

37 : 10: 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79 : 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

Soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

SOYUZ T-3 

Soyuz T-4 

soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Colu rn bia 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

SOYUZ T-5 

Feb. 25, 1979 

Apr. 10, 1979 

June 6, 1979 

Apr. 9, 1980 

May 26, 1980 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Mar. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1981 

Apr. 12, 1981 

May 14, 1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1982 

May 13, 1982 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizirn 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

108: 4: 24 

1:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55 : 1 : 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12 : 19 : 8 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7 : 20 : 41 

2: 6:13 

8: 4.49 

211 : 9: 5 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; 

crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; 

crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first 

Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 min. Jaehn was 

first German Democratic Republic cosmonaut 

to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

crew duration 175 days 36 min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. 

Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 min. Farkas was 

first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of newgeneration ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 min. Pham 

was first Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was tirst Cuban to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man llight in Soviet 

program since 197 1. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha tint Mongolian 

cosmonaut IO orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in 

orbit. First landing of airplanelike craft from 

orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian 

cr)smonaut to whit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scicntilic payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. 

Returned for reuse. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific 

payload (0% 1). Second test of remote 

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day because 

of flooding at primary landing site; alternate 

landing site used. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. 

Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

111 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spacefllghts 1961-1984 

Spacecraft 

SOYUZ T-6 

Launch Date 

June 24, 1982 

Crew 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) 

7 : 21 : 51 

Highlights 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD payload, 

additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. 

Completed orbital flight testing program. 

Re turned for reuse . Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet 

woman to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational flight; 

launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik 

C-3); first flight with 4 crewmembers. EVA test 

canceled when spacesuits malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched TDRS 1. 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

SOYUZ T-7 

June 27, 1982 7: 1: 9 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen . William B. Lenoir 

Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksander Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. Van Hoften 

Vladmir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

7 : 21 : 52 

Space Shuttle 5: 2:14 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

SOYUZ T-8 

Apr. 4, 1983 5: 0:24 

Apr. 20, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

2: 0:18 

6: 2:24 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station. 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa B-1), also 

launched and retrieved SPAS 01; first flight with 

5 crewmembers, including first woman U.S. 

astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth Flight of Space Shuttle, launched one commercial satellite (Insat 1-B), first flight of U.S. 

black astronaut 

149 : 9 : 46 

6: 1: 9 

SOYUZ T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Nov. 28, 1983 10; 7 : 47 Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of Spacelab 

1, first flight of 6 crewmembers, one ofwhom was 

West German, first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in 

U.S. space program. 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41B) 

Feb. 3, 1984 7 : 23 : 16 Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication 

satellites failed to achieve orbit. First use of 

Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) in space. 

SOYUZ T-10 Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

62 : 22 : 43 

181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space 

duration record of 237 days. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment of 

LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar Maximum 

Satellite retrieved, repaired, and redeployed. 

SOYUZ T- 11. 

SO~UZ T- 11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41C) 

SO~UZ T-12 July 17, 1984 

Aug, 30, 1984 

11 : 19 : 14 

6: :56 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

U.S. non-astronaut. 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

112 
APPENDIX C -Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1984 

Spacecraft Launch Date Flight Time 

(daw : hrs : minl Crew Highlights 

Space Shuttle Sept. 5, 1984 Robert L. Crippen 8 : 5 : 24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Challenger Jon A. McBride 7 crewmembers, including first flight of two 

(STS-4 1 G) Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

U.S. women and one Canadian. 

Space Shuttle Nov. 8, 1984 Frederick H. Hauck 7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first retrieval 

Discovery David M. Walker and return of two disabled communications 

(STS-51A) Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

satellites (Westar 6, Palapa B2) to earth. 

113 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kg)b 

Vehicle Stages 

. __ Thrust Max. Dia. First Height 185-Km Ge0Synch.- Circular 

Orbit Transfer Sun-Synch. Propellanta (kiloOrbit Orbit newtons) (4 

scout 

Delta 2900 Series 

(Thor-Delta) 

Delta 3900 Series 

(Thor-Deltay 

Atlas E 

Atlas-Centaur 

1. Algol IIIA ....... .Solid ............. 2. Castor IIA ....... .Solid ............. 3. Antares IIIA Solid ............. Solid ............. LOXIRP-1 

Solid ............. 2. Delta ............ Nz0,/Aerozine-50 .. Solid ............. LOX/RP-1 ....... 9 TX 526-2 .... .Solid .. 

2. Delta ............ N20,/A 

1.. Atlas booster 

1. Atlas booster 

2. Centaur ......... .LOX/LHz. ........ 

LOX/RP- 1 ....... 

LOXIRP- 1 ....... 

431.1 1.14 x 22.9 

285.2 

83.1 

25.6 

912.0 2.44 x 35.4 

147 each 

44.2 

65.8 

912.0 2.44 x 35.4 

375 each 

44.2 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

3.05 x 28.1 

3.05 x 45.0 

255 - 155” 1979(60) 

205d 

2,000 705 1,250d 1973(60) 

1,410d 

3,045 1,275 2,135d 1982(60) 

2,180d 

2,090d‘ - 1,500d 1972(67) 

6,100 2,360 - 1984(62) 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Titan III(34)D/ 

IUS 

Titan III(34)DI 

Transtage 

SunDirect Synch. 

185-Km Geosynch. Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

1. LR-87 ........... Nz04/Aerozine .... 2,341.0 3.05 x 48.4 3,600d - 3,060d 1966 

2. LR-91 .......... .Nz04/Aerozine .... 455.1 

3. Agena ........... IRFNA/UDMH ... 71.2 

1. Two 5 %-segment, 

3.05 m dia ...... Solid ............. 1 1,564.8 3.05~48.0 14,920 1,850d - 1982 

2. LR-87 ........... N204/Aerozine .... 2,366.3 

3. LR-91 ........... N204/Aerozine .... 449.3 

4. IUS 1st stage ..... .Solid ............. 275.8 

5. IUS 2nd stage .... .Solid ............. 115.7 

Same as Titan III(34)D plus: 3.05 ~46.9 14,920 1,855” - 1984h 

4. Transtage ........ Nz04/Aerozine .... 69.8 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) 

fire in parallel 

with SRBs ...... LOX/LHz ........ 2. Two-solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with 

SSMEs ....... .AL/NH,CL04/ 

Mounted on external tank (ET) ................................ 

1,670 each 

PBAN .......... 11,790 each 

29,500 1981 

in full 

performance 

23.79 x 37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

3.71 x 45.45 

8.40 x 46.88 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen and 

a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a 

single mixture both fuel and oxidizer - Solid; inhibited red-fuming 

nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine = 

IRFNANDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/NzH, - N20,/ 

aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOX/LHz; 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer - AL/NH4CLOJPBAN. 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning 

Due east launch except as indicated. 

Support Programs. 

114 

~. 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

Polar launch. 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

e Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM configurations. PAM - payload assist module (a private venture). 

With dual TE 364-4. 

Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation System 

g With 96O flight azimuth. 

scheduled as needed. 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year NSF Total 

Total Space" merce ture Space 

NASA 

Defense Energy 'Om- Interior Agricul1959 .........._....... 

1960 ,................. 

1966 __........_....... 1967 ,_.._....._....... 

1970 .................. 1971 .........__....... 

1972 _.._.....__....... 

1974 .................. 

1979 ,._._........_.... 

1980 .................. 1981 . . . . . 

1982 _................. 1983 ............. 

1984 ..._.....__.. 1985 est. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986 est. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.9" 

6,875.3' 

7,248.0 

7,510.7 

7,886.0 

4,595.5 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3,440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,881.4 

7,263.9 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1,298.2 

1,549.9 

1,599.3 

1,688.8 

1,663.6 

1,921.8 

2,013.0 

1,678.4 

1,512.3 

1,407.0 

1,623.0 

1,766.0 

1,892.4 

1,983.3 

460.4 

2,411.9 

2,738.3 

3,035.6 

3,848.4 

4,827.7 

6,678.7 

9,018.9 

10,194.9 

12,813.8 

15,846.5 

1,573.9 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

58.6 

39.6 

40.5 

60.6 

38.9 

34.1 

36.7 

37.0 

... ... 50.7 ... 

43.2 ... 2.8 ... 12.2 ... 

26.5 ... 

29.3 ... 

28.1 0.2 

20.0 .2 

8.0 1.1 

27.4 1.9 

31.3 5.8 

39.7 10.3 

60.2 9.0 

64.4 8.3 

71.5 10.4 

22.2 2.6 

90.8 9.5 

102.8 9.7 

98.4 9.9 

92.6 11.7 

87.0 12.3 

144.5 12.1 

177.8 4.6 

236.0 3.0 

373.6 2.8 

364.5 3.6 

... ... ... 0.1 

... .6 

... 1.3 

... 1.5 

... 3.0 

... 3.2 

... 3.2 

... 2.8 

0.5 3.2 

.7 1.9 

.8 2.4 

.8 2.4 

1.6 2.8 

1.9 2.6 

3.1 1.8 

2.3 2.0 

3.6 2.4 

.9 .6 

6.3 2.4 

7.7 2.4 

8.2 2.4 

13.7 2.4 

15.5 2.4 

15.2 2.0 

19.4 0.0 

13.2 0.0 

13.4 0.0 

20.4 0.0" 

784.7 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,831.4 

6,955.5 

6,969.8 

6,709.5 

6,528.9 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,574.7 

4,824.9 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,319.9 

1,340.5 

5,982.8 

6,518.2 

7,243.5 

8,688.8 

9,977.8 

12,440.7 

15,588.5 

17,135.7 

20,121.5 

23,528.9 

Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). 

I' Includes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed. ' 

' Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

NSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

115 
u. s. 

llil IIT 

YXllCl OlllCl 0, U*LOIYC*..*O.UXI.. 

APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Space Programs 1984 1985 1986 1984 1985 1986 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal agencies: 

NASAa .... ....... 

Defense ................................... Energy .................................... Commerce .......... ........... 

Interior .................................... NSF~ ..................................... Agriculture ..... .... 

Total ................................... 

6,648.3 6,881.4 7,263.9 6,461.4 6,690.3 7,155.7 

10,194.9 12,813.8 15,846.5 8,000.2 10,444.3 13,067.2 

34.1 36.7 37.0 33.4 38.0 37.0 

236.0 373.6 764.5 208.7 374.3 287.7 

3.0 2.8 3.6 3.0 2.7 3.7 

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

19.4 13.2 13.4 19.4 13.2 13.4 

17,135.7 20,121.5 23,528.9 14,726.1 17,562.8 20,564.7 

NASA: 

Space flight ................................ 4,101.1 3,901.8 4,022.0 4,028.2 3,914.4 4,004.0 

Space science, applications, and technology ...... 1,747.0 2,021.3 2,264.9 1,686.9 1,890.2 2,144.4 

Supporting operations ....................... 800.2 954.3 977.0 746.3 885.7 1,007.2 

Total NASA ............................. 7,248.0 7,510.7 7,886.0 7,047.7 7,320.9 7,771.5 

Air transportation ........................... 599.7 633.3 622.1 586.3 630.6 615.9 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation. Includes $37.6 million 

for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

b NSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA. 

SOURCE: Ofice of Management and Budget. 

116 
APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Aeronautics Programs 1984 1985 1986 1984 1985 1986 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

NASA” ...................................... 599.7 633.3 622.1 586.3 630.7 616.0 

Department of Transportation‘ .................. 263.5 265.0 196.5 146.2 300.0 196.1 

Total ..................................... 4,087.2 4,331.3 5,686.6 3,726.9 4,107.7 4,860.6 

Department ofDefenseh ........................ 3,224.0 3,433.0 4,868.0 2,994.4 3,177.0 4,048.5 

a Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research 

and Program Management. 

Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and 

related equipment. 

Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and 

Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Ollice of Management and Budget. 

117 
APPENDIX F -1 

State of the Union Address 

Space Station 

Excerpt from Address Delivered Before a Joint Session of the Congress. 

January 25, 1984 

Nowhere is this more important than our next frontier: 

space. Nowhere do we so effectively demonstrate our 

technological leadership and ability to make life better on 

Earth. The Space Age is barely a quarter of a century old. 

But already we’ve pushed civilization forward with our advances in science and technology. Opportunities and jobs will 

multiply as we cross new thresholds of knowledge and reach 

deeper into the unknown. 

Our progress in space-taking giant steps for all 

mankind- is a tribute to American teamwork and excellence. 

Our finest minds in government, industry, and academia 

have all pulled together. And we can be proud to say: We are 

first; we are the best; and we are so because we’re free. 

America has always been greatest when we dared to be 

great. We can reach for greatness again. We can follow our 

dreams to distant stars, living and working in space for 

peaceful, economic, and scientific gain. Tonight, I am directing NASA to develop a permanently manned space station 

and to do it within a decade. 

A space station will permit quantum leaps in our reach in 

science, communications, in metals, and in lifesaving 

medicines which could be manufactured only in space. We 

want our friends to help us meet these challenges and share in 

their benefits. NASA will invite other countries to participate 

so we can strengthen peace, build prosperity, and expand 

freedom for all who share our goals. 

Just as the oceans opened up a new world for clipper ships 

and Yankee traders, space holds enormous potential for commerce today. The market for space transportation could surpass our capacity to develop it. Companies interested in putting payloads into space must have ready access to private 

sector launch services. The Department of Transportation 

will help an expendable launch services industry to get off the 

ground. We’ll soon implement a number of executive initiatives, develop proposals to ease regulatory constraints, 

and, with NASA’s help, promote private sector investment in 

space. 

APPENDIX F-2 

Commercial Expendable Launch Vehicle Activities 

Executive Order 12465 (February 24,1984) 

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and laws of the United States of America, and in order to 

encourage, facilitate and coordinate the development of commercial expendable launch vehicle (ELV) operations by 

private United States enterprises, it is hereby ordered as 

follows: 

Section 1. The Department of Transportation is designated 

as the lead agency within the Federal government for encouraging and facilitating commercial ELV activities by the 

United States private sector. 

Sec. 2. Responsibilties of Lead Agency. The Secretary of 

Transportation shall, to the extent permitted by law and subject to the availability of appropriations, perform the following functions: 

(a) act as a focal point within the Federal government for 

private sector space launch contacts related to commercial 

ELV operations; 

(b) promote and encourage commercial ELV operations in 

the same manner that other private United States commercial enterprises are promoted by United States agencies; 

(c) provide leadership in the establishment, within affected 

departments and agencies, of procedures that expedite the 

processing of private sector requests to obtain licenses 

necessary for commercial ELV launches and the establishment and operation of commercial launch ranges; 

118 

(d) consult with other affected agencies to promote consistmt application of ELV licensing requirements for the private 

sector and assure fair and equitable treatment for all private 

sector applicants; 

(e) serve as a single point of contact for collection and 

dissemination of documentation related to commercial ELV 

licensing applications; 

(9 make recommendations to affected agencies and, as appropriate, to the President, concerning administrative 

measures to streamline Federal government procedures for 

licensing of commercial ELV activities; 

(g) identify Federal Statutes, treaties, regulations and 

policies which may have an adverse impact on ELV commercialization efforts and recommend appropriate changes to affected agencies and, as appropriate, to the President; and 

(h) conduct appropriate planning regarding long-term 

effects of Federal activities related to ELV commercialization. 

Sec. 3. An interagency group, chaired by the Secretary of 

Transportation and composed of representatives from the 

Department of State, the Department of Defense, the 

Department of Commerce, the Federal Communications 

Commission, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, is hereby established. This group shall meet at 

the call of the Chair and shall advise and assist the Department of Transportation in performing its responsibilities 

under this Order. 
Sec. 4. Responsibilities of Other Agencies. All executive departments and agencies shall assist the Secretary of Transportation in carrying out this Order. To the extent permitted by 

law and in consultation with the Secretary of Transportation, 

they shall: 

(a) provide the Secretary of Transportation with information concerning agency regulatory actions which may affect 

development of commercial ELV operati'ons; 

(b) review and revise their regulations and procedures to 

eliminate unnecessary regulatory obstacles to the development of commercial ELV operations and to ensure that those 

regulations and procedures found essential are administered 

as efficiently as possible; and 

(c) establish timetables for the expeditious handling of and 

response to applications for licenses and approvals for commercial ELV activities. 

Sec. 5. The powers granted to the Secretary of Transportation to encourage, facilitate and coordinate the overall ELV 

commercialization process shall not diminish or abrogate any 

statutory or operational authority exercised by any other 

Federal agency. 

Sec. 6. Nothing contained in this Order or in any procedures promulgated hereunder shall confer any substantive 

or procedural right or privilege on any person or organization, enforceable against the United States, its agencies, its 

officers or any person. 

Sec. 7. This Order shall be effective immediately. 

Ronald Reagan 

The White House, 

February 24, 1984. 

[Filed with the Oflice of the Federal Register, 3:25 p. m., February 

24, I9841 

119 
APPENDIX F-3 

Public Law 98-365-July 17, 1984 

98th Congress 

An Act to establish a system to promote the use of land remote-sensing satellite data, and for other purposes. 

PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 451 

Public Law 98-365 

98th Congress An Act 

Toe&ablishasgetemtopromotetheuneoflandmm~ ’ ~atellite data, md for July 179 1984 

-r Purpoeea. [H.R. 51551 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Re mentatives of the 

United States of America in CO 

beded as the “Land Remoaing commercialization Act of crssern6leb)That this Act may Land Remote ~ 

1984”. tion Act of 1984. 

Communicatione 

g:C”?catione. 

note. 

TITLE I-DECLAEWTION OF FINDINCfs, PuRposEs, AND 

PoLICIEs 15 USC 4201 

FINDINGS 

SEC. 101. The Congress finds and declares that- Con 

(1) the continuous civilian collection and utilization of land 15f14204201- 

remotesensing data from space are of ‘or benefit in managing many other activities of economic importance; (2) the Federal Government’s experimental Landsat system Landaatsystem. 

has establmhed the United States as the world leader in land 

remotesensing technology; (3) the national interest of the United States lies in maintaining international leadership in civil remote sensin$ and in 

broadly romoting the beneficial use of remotesenslng data; 

of the United States &ects international commitments and national 

policies and national security concerns of the United States; (5). the broadest and most beneficial use of land remote 

sensmg data will result from maintaining a policy of nondiscriminatory access to data; 

(6) competitive, marketdriven private sector involvement in 

land remote sensing is in the national interest of the United 

Stam 

(7) use of land remotesensing data has been inhibited b slow 

market development and by the lack of assurance otdata 

continuity; 

(8) the private sector, and in particular the “value-added” 

industry, is best suited to develop land remotesensing data 

markets; 

(9) there is doubt that the private sector alone can current1 

risk and large capital expenditure involved; 

(10) cooperation between the Federal Government and rivate 

indust can help assure both data continuity and UnitecfStates 

leadem% p; 

(11) the time is now appro riate to initiate such cooperation 

(12) such cooperation should be structured to involve the 

minimum practicable amount of support and regulation by the 

ing the Earth s natural lre~ourcea and in Y p anning and conduct- 

(4) lan x remote sensin by the Government or private parties Defense and 

develop a total land remotesensing system because of the hig i 

with phased transition to a fu P ly commercial system; 

1 20 
93 STAT. 452 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

15 USC 4202. 

Defense and 

national 

security. 

15 USC 4203. 

Defense and 

national 

security. 

15 USC 4204. 

Federal Government and the maximum practicable amount of 

competition by the private sector, while assuring continuous 

availability to the Federal Government of land remote-sensing data; 

(13) certain Government oversight must be maintained to 

assure that private sector activities are in the national interest 

and that the international commitments and policies of the 

United States are honored, and 

(14) there is no compelling reason to commercialize meteorological satellites at this time. 

PURPOSES 

SEC. 102. The purposes of this Act are to- 

(1) guide the Federal Government in achieving proper involvement of the private sector by providing a framework for 

phased commercialization of land remote sensing and by assuring continuous data availability to the Federal Government; 

(2) maintain the United States worldwide leadership in civil 

remote sensing, preserve its national security, and fulfill its 

international obligations; (3) minimize the duration and amount of further Federal 

investment necessary to assure data continuity while achieving commercialization of civil land remote sensing; (4) provide for a comprehensive civilian program of research, 

development, and demonstration to enhance both the United 

States capabilities for remote sensing from space and the appli- cation and ytilization of such capabilities; and 

(5) prohibit commercialization of meteorological satellites at 

this time. 

POLICIES 

SEC. 103. (a) It shall be the policy of the United States to preserve its right to acquire and disseminate unenhanced remote-sensing data. 

(b) It shall be the policy of the United States that civilian unenhanced remote-sensing data be made available to all potential users 

on a nondiscriminatory basis and in a manner consistent with 

applicable antitrust laws. 

(c) It shall be the policy of the United States both to commercialize 

those remotesensing space systems that properly lend themselves to 

private sector operation and to avoid competition by the Government with such commercial operations, while continuing to preserve 

our national security, to honor our international obligations, and to 

retain in the Government those remote-sensing functions that are 

essentially of a public service nature. 

DEFINITIONS 

SEC. 104. For purposes of this Act: 

(1) The term “Landsat system” means Landsats 1,2,3,4, and 

5, and any related ground equipment, systems, and facilities, 

and any successor civil land remote-sensing space systems oper- ated by the United States Government prior to the commencement of the six-year period described in title 111. 

(2) The term “Secretary” means the Secretarv of Commerce. 

121 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 453 

(3MA) The term “nondiscriminatory basis” means without 

preference, bias, or any other special arrangement (except on 

the basis of national security concerns pursuant to section 607) regarding de€ivery, format, financing, or technical considerations which would favor one buyer or class of buyers over 

another. 

(B) The sale of data is made on a nondiscriminatory basis only 

if (i) any offer to sell or deliver data is published in advance in 

such manner as will ensure that the offer is equally available to 

all prospective buyers; (id the system operator has not established or changed any price, po!icy, procedure, or other term or 

condition in a manner which @ves one buyer or class of buyer de facto favored access to data; (E) the system operator does not 

make unenhanc$ data available to any purchaser on an exclusive basis; and (iv) in a case where a system operator offers 

volume discounts, such discounts are no greater than the 

demonstrable reductions in the cost of volume sales. The sale of 

data on a nondiscri-minatory basis does not preclude the system 

o rator from offenng discounts other than volume discounts to 

sions of this par aph. (C) The sale ydata on a nondiscriminatory basis does not 

require (i) that a system operator disclose names of buyers or 

their purchases; (ii) that a system operator maintain all, or any particular subset of, data in a working inventory; or (iii) that a 

system operator expend equal effort in developing all segments of a market. 

(4) The term “unenhanced data” means unprocessed or minimally processed signals or film products collected from civil 

remote-sensing space systems. Such minimal processing may include rectification of distortions, registration with respect to 

features of the Earth, and calibration of spectral response. Such 

minimal processing does not include conclusions, mani ulaor combination of the signals or film products with other data or 

information. 

(5) The term “system operator” means a contractor under 

title I1 or title I11 or a license holder under title IV. 

t R“ e extent that such discounts are consistent with the provitions, or calculations derived from such signals or film pr OB ucts 

TITLE 11-OPERATION AND DATA MARKETING OF LANDSAT 

SYSTEM 

OPERATION 

SEC. 201. (a) The Secretary shall be responsible for- 

(1) the Landsat system, including the orbit, operation, and 

dis sition of Landsats 1,2,3,4, and 5; and 

&provision of data to fore’ ound stations under the 

nited States Government 

and nations that operate such ground stations which are in 

force on the date of commencement of the contract awarded 

pursuant to this title. 

(b) The provisions of this section shall not affect the Secretary’s authority to contract for the operation of part or all of the Landsat 

system, so long as the United States Government retainsterms of agreements between t YB e 

(1) ownership of such system; (2) ownership of the unenhanced data; and 

15 USC 4211. 

122 
98 STAT. 454 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(3) authority to make decisions concerning operation of the 

system. 

CONTRACT FOR MARKETING OF UNENHANCED DATA 

15 UW 4212. SEC. 202. (a) In accordance with the requirements of this title, the 

Secretary, by means of a competitive process and to the extent 

provided in advance by appropriation Acts, shall contract with a 

United States private sector party (as defined by the Secretary) for 

the marketing of unenhanced data collected by the Landsat system. Any such contract- 

(1) shall provide that the contractor set the prices of unenhanced data; 

(2) may provide for financial arrangements between the Secretary and the contractor including fees for operating the 

system, payments by the contractor as an initial fee or as a 

percentage of sales receipts, or other such considerations; 

(3) shall provide that the contractor will offer to sell and 

deliver unenhanced data to all potential buyers on a nondiscriminatory basis; 

(4) shall provide that the contractor pay to the United States 

Government the full purchase price of any unenhanced data 

that the contractor elects to utilize for purposes other than sale; 

(5) shall be entered into by the Secretary only if the Secretary has determined that such contract is likely to result in net cost 

savings for the United States Government; and 

(6) may be reawarded competitively after the practical demise 

of the space segment of the Landsat system, as determined by the Secretary. 

(b) Any contract authorized by subsection (a) may specify that the 

contractor use, and, at his own expense, maintain, repair, or modify, such elements of the Landsat system as the contractor finds necessary for commercial operations. (c) Any decision or proposed decision by the Secretary to enter 

into any such contract shall be transmitted to the Committee on 

Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the Committee on Science and Technology of the House of Representatives for their review. No such decision or proposed decision shall be 

implemented unless (A) a period of thirty calendar days has passed after the receipt by each such committee of such transmittal, or (B) 

each such committee before the expiration of such period has agreed 

to transmit and has transmitted to the Secretary written notice to 

the effect that such committee has no objection to the decision or 

proposed decision. As part of the transmittal, the Secretary shall 

include information on the terms of the contract described in subsection (a). 

(d) In defining “United States private sector party” for purposes of 

this Act, the Secretary may take into account the citizenship of key personnel, location of assets, foreign ownership, control, influence, and other such factors. 

Congress. 

CONDITIONS OF COMPETITION FOR CONTRACT 

15 USC 4213. SEC. 203. (a) The Secretary shall, as part of the advertisement for 

the com tition for the contract authorized by section 202, identify and pubEh the international obligations, national security concerns 

(with appropriate protection of sensitive information), domestic 

123 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 455 

legal considerations, and any other standards or conditions which a 

private contractor shall be required to meet. 

(b) In selecting a contractor under this title, the Secretary shall 

consider- 

(1) ability to market aggressively unenhanced data; 

(2) the best overall financial return to the Government, 

including the potential cost savings to the Government that are 

likely to result from the contract; 

(3) ability to meet the obligations, concerns, considerations, standards, and conditions identified under subsection (a); 

(4) technical competence, including the ability to assure continuous and timely delivery of data from the Landsat system; 

(5) ability to effect a smooth transition with the contractor 

selected under title 111; and 

(6) such other factors as the Secretary deems appropriate and 

relevant. 

(c) If, as a result of the competitive process required by section 

202(a), the Secretary receives no proposal which is acceptable under 

the provisions of this title, the Secretary shall so certify and fully 

report such finding to the Congress. As soon as practicable but not 

later than thirty days after so certifying and reporting, the Secre 

tary shall reopen the competitive process. The period for the subsequent competitive process shall not exceed one hundred and twenty 

days. If, after such subsequent competitive process, the Secretary receives no proposal which is acceptable under the provisions of this 

title, the Secretary shall so certify and fully report such finding to 

the Congress. In the event that no acceptable proposal is received, 

the Secretary shall continue to market data from the Landsat 

system. 

(d) A contract awarded under section 202 may, in the discretion of 

the Secretary, be combined with the contract required by title 111, 

pursuant to section 3046). 

Report. 

SALE OF DATA 

SEC. 204. (a) After the date of the commencement of the contract 15 USC 4214. 

described in section 202(a), the contractor shall be entitled to revenues from sales of copies of data from the Landsat system, subject to 

the conditions specified in sections 601 and 602. 

(b) The contractor may continue to market data previously gener- ated by the Landsat system after the demise of the space segment of 

that system. 

FOREIGN GROUND STATIONS 

SEC. 205. (a) The contract under this title shall provide that the 15USC4215. 

contractor shall act as the agent of the Secretary by continuing to 

supply unenhanced data to foreign ground stations for the life, and 

according to the terms, of those agreements between the United 

States Government and such foreign ground stations that are in 

force on the date of the commencement of the contract. 

(b) Upon the expiration of such agreements, or in the case of 

foreign ground stations that have no agreement with the United 

States on the date of commencement of the contract, the contract 

shall provide124 
98 STAT. 456 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(1) that unenhanced data from the Landsat system shall be 

made available to foreign ground stations only by the contractor; and 

(2) that such data shall be made available on a nondiscriminatory basis. 

TITLE 111-PROVISION OF DATA CONTINUITY AFTER THE 

LANDSAT SYSTEM 

PURPOSES AND DEFINITION 

15 USC 4221. SEC. 301. (a) It is the purpose of this title- 

(1) to provide, in an orderly manner and with minimal risk, 

for a transition from Government operation to private, commer- cial operation of civil land remotesensing systems; and 

(2) to provide data continuity for six ears after the practical demise of the space segment of the LanLt system. (b) For purposes of this title, the term “data continuity” means 

the continued availability of unenhanced data- 

(1) including data which are from the point of view of a data 

(A) functionally equivalent to the multispectral data gen- 

(B) compatible with such data and with equipment used 

(2) at an annual volume at least equal to the Federal usage 

(c) Data continuity may be provided using whatever technologies 

usererated by the Landsat 1 and 2 satellites; and 

to receive and process such data; and 

during fmal year 1983. 

are available. 

DATA CONTINUITY AND AVAILABILITY 

Contracts with 

U.S. 

l5 uSC 4222. 

SEC. 302. The secretary shall solicit proposals from united states 

private sector parties (as defined by the Secretary pursuant to 

section 202) for a contract for the development and operation of a 

remotesensing space system capable of providing data continuity for a period of six years and for marketing unenhanced data in 

accordance with the provisions of sections 601 and 602. Such proposals, at a minimum, shall specify- (1) the quantities and qualities of unenhanced data expected from the system; (2) the projected date u n which operations could bee; (3) the number of sategtes to be constructed and their 

expected lifetimes; 

(4) any need for Federal funding to develop the system; (5) any percentage of sales receipts or other returns offered to 

the Federal Government; 

(6) plans for expanding the market for land remotesensing data, and 

(7) the prored procedures for meeting the national security 

concerns an international obligations of the United States in 

accordance with section 607. 

AWARDING OP THE CONTRACT 

15 USC 4223. SEC. 303. (ax11 In accordance with the requirements of this title, 

the Secretary shall evaluate the proposals described in section 302 

and, by means of a competitive process and to the extent provided in 

125 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 457 

advance by appropriation Ads, shall contract with the United 

States private sector party for the capability of providing data 

continuity for a period of six years and for marketing unenhanced 

data. 

(2) Before commencing s ace operations the contractor shall 

obtain a license under title d. 

(b) As part of the evaluation described in subsection (a), the 

Secretary shall analyze the expected outcome of each proposal in 

tern of- 

(1) the net cost to the Federal Government of developing the 

(2) the technical competence and financial condition of the 

recommended system; 

contractor; 

(3) the availability of such data after the expected termination 

of the Landsat sysGm; (4) the quantities and qualities of data to be generated by the 

recommended system; (5) the contractor’s ability to supplement the requirement for 

datacontinuit by adding, at the contractor’s expense, remote- sensing capabifities which maintain United States leadership in 

remote sensing; (6) the potential to expand the market for data; 

(7) expected returns to the Federal Government based on any 

percentage of data sales or other such financial consideration 

offered to the Federal Government in accordance with section 

305; 

(8) the commercial viability of the proposal; (9) the proposed procedures for satisfying the national security concerns and international obligations of the United States, 

(10) the contractor’s ability to effect a smooth transition with 

any contractor selected under title II; and 

(11) such other factors as the Secretary deems appropriate and relevant. 

(c) Any decision or proposed decision by the Secretary to enter Congress. 

into any such contract shall be transmitted to the Committee on 

Commerce, Science, and Trans rtation of the Senate and the Committee on Science and Techno& of the House of Representatives for their review. No such decision or proposed decision shall be 

implemented unless (1) a period of thirty calendar days has passed after the receipt by each such committee of such transmittal, or (2) each such committee before the expiration of such period has aped 

to transmit and has transmitted to the Secretary written notice to 

the effect that such committee has no objection to the decision or 

proposed decision. As part of the transmittal, the Secretary shall 

include the information specified in subsection (a). (d) If, as a result of the competitive process required by this Report. 

section, the Secretary receives no proposal which is acce table 

under the provisions of this title, the Secretary shall so certif and 

fully report such finding to the Congress. As soon as pradicabL but 

not later than thirty days after so certifying and reporting, the 

Secretary shall rmpm the competitive process. The period for the 

subsequent competitive process shall not exceed one hundred and 

eighty days. If, after such subsequent com titive process, the Secrethis title, the Secretary shall so certify and full report such finding 

to the Congress. Not earlier than ninety days a&er such certification 

and report, the Secretary may assure data continuity by procuretary receives no proposal which is accepta ge le under the provisions of 

126 
98 STAT. 458 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

ment and operation by the Federal Government of the necessary 

systems, to the extent provided in advance by appropriation Acts. 

TERMS OF CONTRACT 

15 USC 4224. SEC. 304. (a) Any contract entered into pursuant to thisJitk- 

(1) shall be entered into as soon as practicable, allowing for 

the competitive procurement process required by this title; 

(2) shall, in accordance with criteria determined and ubperiod of six years, beginning as soon as practicable in order to 

minimize any intern tion of data availabilit ; 

deliver unenhanced data to all potential buyers on a nondiscriminatory basis; 

(4) shall not provide a guarantee of data purchases from the 

contractor by the Federal Government; 

(5) may provide that the contractor utilize, on a space-avail- able basis, a civilian United States Government satellite or 

vehicle as a platform for a civil land remotesensing space 

system, ifto reimburse the Government 

immediately for all re ated costs incurred with respect to 

such utilization, including a reasonable and proportionate share of fmed, platform, data transmission, and launch 

costs; and 

(B) such utilization would not interfere with or otherwise 

compromise intended civilian Government missions, as determined by the agency responsible for the civilian plab form; and 

(6) may provide financial support by the United States Government, for a portion of the capital costs required to rovide 

loan guarantees, or ents pursuant to section 305 of the 

Federal Property anrr dministrative Services Act of 1949 (41 U.S.C. 255). 

(bM1) Without regard to whether any contract entered into under 

this title is combined with a contract under title 11, the Secretary shall promptly determine whether the contract entered into under 

this title reasonably effectuates the pu and policiea of title 11. 

Such determination shall be submitxthe President and the 

Congress, together with a full statement of the basis for such 

determination. 

(2) If the Secretary determines that such contract does not reawnably effectuate the requirements of title 11, the Secretary shall 

promptly carry out the provisions of such title to the extent pre vided in advance in appropriations Acts. 

lished by the Secretary, reasonably assure data continuity P or a 

(3) shall provide t R at the contractor wil I offer to sell and 

Y (A) the contractor 

data continuity for a period of six years, in the form o f loans, 

MARKEMNO 

15 USC 4226. SEC. 305. (a) In order to promote aggressive marketing of land 

remotmensing data, any contract entered into ursuant to this title 

the Federal Government shall decrease according to stipulated increases in sales levels. 

(b) After the six-year period described in section 304(aX2), the 

contractor may continue to sell data. If licensed under title IV, the 

may provide that the percentage of sales paid i y the contractor to 

127 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 459 

contractor may continue to operate a civil remotesensing space 

system. 

SEC. 306. Two ears after the date of the commencement of the 

six-year period &scribed in section 304(aX2), the Secretary shall 

report to the President and to the Congress on the progress of the 

transition to fully private financin ownership, and operation of 

for actions, including actions necessary to ensure United States 

leadership in civilian land remote sensing from space. 

REPORT 

remotesensing space systems, toget 8' er with any recommendations 

TERMINATION OF AUTHORITY 

SEC. 307. The authority granted to the Secreta by this title shall 

terminate ten years after tbe date of enactment ythis Act. 

TITLE IV-LICENSING OF PRIVATE REMOTESENSING 

SPACE SYSTEMS 

GENERAL AUTHORITY 

SEC. 401. (aX1) In consultation with other appropriate Federal agencies, the Secretary is authorized to license private sector parties 

to operate private remotesensing space systems for such period as 

the Secretary may specify and in accordance with the provisions of 

this title. 

(2) In the case of a private space system that is used for remote 

sensing and other purposes, the authority of the Secretary under this title shall be limited only to the remotesensing operations of 

such space system. 

(b) No license shall be granted by the Secretary unless the Secre 

tary determines in writing that the applicant will comply with the 

requirements of this Act, any regulations issued pursuant to this 

Act, and any applicable international obligations and national security concerns of the United States. 

(c) The Secretary shall review any application and make a determination thereon within one hundred and twenty days of the receipt of such a plication. If final action has not occurred within such 

time, the gcretary shall inform the applicant of any pending issues 

and of actions required to resolve them. 

(d) The Secretary shall not deny such license in order to protect 

any existing licensee from competition. 

CONDITIONS FOR OPERATION 

SEC. 402. (a) No person who is subject to the jurisdiction or control 

of the United States may, directly or through any subsidiary or 

affiliate, operate any private remote-sensing space system without a 

license pursuant to section 401. 

(b) Any license issued pursuant to this title shall specify, at a 

minimum, that the licensee shall comply with all of the requirements of this Act and shall- 

(1) operate the system in such manner as to preserve and 

promote the national security of the United States and to 

observe and implement the international obligations of the 

United States in accordance with section 607; 

15 USC 4226. 

15 USC 4227. 

15 USC 4241. 

Review date 

15 USC 4242. 

Defense and 

national 

security. 

128 
98 STAT. 460 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(2) make unenhanced data available to all potential users on a 

nondiscriminatory basis; 

(3) upon termination of operations under the license, make 

disposition of any satellites in space in a manner satisfactory to 

the President; 

(4) promptly make available all unenhanced data which the 

Secretary may request pursuant to section 602; (5) furnish the Secretary with complete orbit and data collection characteristics of the system, obtain advance approval of 

any intended deviation from such characteristics, and inform 

the Secretary immediately of any unintended deviation; 

(6) notify the Secretary of any agreement the licensee intends 

to enter with a foreign nation, entity, or consortium involving foreign nations or entities; 

(7) permit the inspection by the Secretary of the licensee’s 

equipment, facilities, and financial records; 

(8) surrender the license and terminate operations upon notification by the Secretary pursuant to section 403(aX1); and 

(9XA) notify the Secretary of any “value added” activities (as 

defined by the Secretary by regulation) that will be conducted 

by the licensee or by a subsidiary or affidiate; and 

(B) if such activities are to be conducted, provide the Secretary with a plan for compliance with the provisions of this Act 

concerning nondiscriminatory access. 

ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY 

15 USC 4243. SEC. 403. (a) In order to carry out the responsibilities specified in 

(1) grant, terminate, modify, condition, transfer, or suspend licenses under this title, and upon notification of the licensee 

may terminate licensed operations on an immediate basis, if the 

Secretary determines that the licensee has substantially failed 

to comply with any provision of this Act, with any regulation issued under this Act, with any terms, conditions, or restrictions 

of such license, or with any international obligations or national 

security concerns of the United States; 

(2) inspect the equipment, facilities, or financial records of 

any licensee under this title; 

(3) provide penalties for noncompliance with the requirements of licenses or regulations issued under this title, mcluding civil penalties not to exceed $10,000 (each day of operation in violation of such licenses or regulations constituting a separate violation); 

(4) compromise, modify, or remit any such civil penalty; 

(5) issue subpenas for any materials, documents, or records, 

or for the attendance and testimony of witnesses for the purpose of conducting a hearing under this section; 

(6) seize any object, record, or report where there is probable 

cause to believe that such object, record, or report was used, is 

being used, or is likely to be used in violation of this Act or the 

requirements of a license or regulation issued thereunder; and 

(7) make investigations and inquiries and administer to or 

take from any person an oath, affirmation, or affidavit concerning any matter relating to the enforcement of this Act. 

(b) Any applicant or licensee who makes a timely request for 

review of an adverse action pursuant to subsection (a)(l), (aX3), or 

this title, the Secretary may129 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 461 

(aX6) shall be entitled to adjudication by the Secretary on the record 

after an opportunity for an agency hearing with respect to such 

adverse action. Any final action by the Secretary under this subsection shall be subject to judicial review under chapter 7 of title 5, 

United States Code. 5 USC 701 et seq. 

REGULATORY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY 

SEC. 404. The Secretary may issue regulations to carry out the 15 USC 4244. 

provisions of this title. Such regulations shall be promulgated only after public notice and comment in accordance with the provisions 

of section 553 of title 5, United States Code. 

AGENCY ACPIVITIES 

SEC. 405. (a) A private sector party may apply for a license to 15uSC4245. 

operate a private remotedsensing space system which utilizes, on a 

spaceavailable basis, a civilian United States Government satellite 

or vehicle as a platform for such system. The Secretary, pursuant to 

the authorities of this title, may license such system if it meets all 

conditions of this title and- 

(1) the system o rator agrees to reimburse the Government 

immediately for xrelated costs incurred with respect to such 

utilization, including a reasonable and proportionate share of 

fued, platform, data transmission, and launch costs, and 

(2) such utilization would not interfere with or otherwise 

compromise intended civilian Government missions, as determined by the agency responsible for such civilian platform. 

(b) The Secretary may offer assistance to private sector parties in fmding appropriate opportunities for such utilization. 

(c) To the extent provided in advance by appropriation Acta, any Federal agency may enter into agreements for such utilization if 

such agreements are consistent with such agency's mission and 

statutory authority, and if such remote-sensing space system is 

licensed by the Secretary before commencing operation. 

(d) The provisions of this section do not apply to activities carried 

out under title V. 

(e) Nothing in this title shall affect the authority of the Federal 

Communications Commission pursuant to the Communications Act 

of 1934, as amended (47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.), 47 USC 609. 

TERMINATION 

SEC. 406. If, five years after the expiration of the six-year period 15 USC 4246. 

described in section 304(aX2), no private sector party has been 

licensed and continued in operation under the provisions of this 

title, the authority of this title shall terminate. 

"LE V-RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

CONTINUED FEDERAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

SEC. 501. (ax11 The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and 15 uSC 4251. 

Space Administration is directed to continue and to enhance 

such Administration's programs of remote-sensing research and 

development. (2) The Administrator is authorized and encouraged to130 
98 STAT. 462 

Report. 

PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(A) conduct experimental space remote-sensing programs (including applications demonstration programs and basic 

research at universities); 

(B) develop remote-sensing technologies and techniques, including those needed for monitoring the Earth and its environment; and 

(C) conduct such research and development in cooperation with other Federal agencies and with public and private research entities (including private industry, universities, State 

and local governments, foreign governments, and international 

organizations) and to enter into arrangements (including joint ventures) which will foster such cooperation. (bX1) The Secretary is directed to conduct a continuing program of- 

(A) research in applications of remote-sensing; (B) monitoring of the Earth and its environmenk and 

(C) development of technology for such monitoring. (2) Such program may include support of basic research at universities and demonstrations of applications. (3) The Secretary is authorized and encouraged to conduct such 

research, monitoring, and development in cooperation with other 

Federal agencies and with public and private research entities 

(including private industry, universities, State and local govern- ments! foreign governments, and international organizations) and to 

enter into arrangements (including joint ventures) which will foster -- such cooperation, (cX1) In order to enhance the United States ability to manage and 

utilize its renewable and nonrenewable resources, the Secretary of 

Agriculture and the Secretary of the Interior are authonzed and 

encouraged to conduct programs of research and development in the 

applications of remote sensing using funds appropriated for such 

Purposes. (2) Such .programs may include basic research at universities, 

demonstrations of applications, and cooperative activities involving other Government agencies, private sector parties, and foreign and 

international or anizations. 

(d) Other Feferal agencies are authorized and encouraged to 

conduct research and development on the use of remote sensing in 

fulfdlment of their authorized missions, using fun'ds appropriated for such purpwes. (e) The Secretary and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration shall, within one year after the date 

of enactment of this Act and biennially thereafter, jointly develop and transmit to the Congress a report which includes (1) a unified 

national plan for remote-sensing research and development applied 

to the Earth and its atmosphere; (2) a compilation of progress in the 

relevant ongoing research and development activities of the Federal 

agencies; and (3) an assessment of the state of our knowledge of the 

Earth and its atmos here, the needs for additional research (includprograms), and opportunities available for further progress. 

ing research rela te8 to operational Federal remotesensing space 

USE OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA 

15 USC 4262. SEC. 502. Data gathered in Federal experimental remote-sensing 

space programs may be used in related research and development programs funded by the Federal Government (including applications 

131 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 463 

programs) and cooperative research programs, but not for commercial uses or in competition with private sector activities, except 

pursuant to section 503. 

SALE OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA 

SEC. 503. Data gathered in Federal experimental remotesensing 

space programs may be sold en bloc through a competitive process 

(consistent with national security interests and international obliga- tions of the United States and in accordance with section 607) to any United States entity which will market the data on a nondiscriminatory basis. 

TITLE VI-GENERAL PROVISIONS 

15 USc 4263. 

NONDISCRIMINATORY DATA AVAILABILITY 

SEC. 601. (a) Any unenhanced data generated by any system Public 

operator under the provisions of this Act shall be made available to gt$y&l. all users on a nondiscriminatory basis in accordance with the 

requirements of this Act. 

(b) Any system operator shall make publicly available the prices, policies, procedures, and other terms and conditions (but, in accordance with section 104(3XC), not necessarily the names of buyers or 

their purchases) upon which the operator will sell such data. 

ARCHIVING OF DATA 

SEC. 602. (a) It is in the public interest for the United States 15 Use 4272. 

(1) to maintain an archive of land remotesensing data for 

historical, scientific, and technical purposes, including longterm global environmental monitoring; (2) to control the content and scope of the archive; and 

(3) to assure the quality, integrity, and continuity of the 

archive. 

(b) The Secretary shall provide for long-term storage, maintenance, and upgrading of a basic, global, land remote-sensing data set 

(hereinafter referred to as the “basic data set”) and shall follow 

reasonable archival practices to assure proper storage and preserva- tion of the basic data set and timely access for parties requesting data. The basic data set which the Secretary assembles in the 

Government archive shall remain distinct from any inventory of 

data which a system operator may maintain for sales and for other 

purposes. 

(c) In determining the initial content of, or in upgrading, the basic 

data set, the Secretary shall- 

(1) use as a baseline the data archived on the date of enactment of this Act; 

(2) take into account future technical and scientific develop 

ments and needs; 

(3) consult with and seek the advice of users and producers of 

remote-sensing data and data products; 

(4) consider the need for data which may be duplicative in 

terms of geographical coverage but which differ in terms of 

season, spectral bands, resolution, or other relevant factors; 

Government132 
98 STAT. 464 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(5) include, as the Secretary considers appropriate, unenhanced data generated either by the Landsat system, pursuant 

to title 111, or by licensees under title W, 

(6) include, as the Secretary considers appropriate, data collected by foreign ground stations or by foreign remote-sensing 

space systems; and 

(7) ensure that the content of the archive is developed in 

accordance with section 607. 

(d) Subject to the availability of appropriations, the Secretary shall request data needed for the basic data set and pay to the 

providing system operator reasonable costs for reproduction and 

transmission. A system operator shall promptly make requested data available in a form suitable for processing for archiving. (e) Any system operator shall have the exclusive right to sell all 

data that the operator provides to the United States remote-sensing data archive for a period to be determined by the Secretary but not 

to exceed ten years from the date the data are sensed. In the case of 

data generated from the Landsat system prior to the implementa- tion of the contract described in section 202(a), any contractor 

selected pursuant to section 202 shall have the exclusive right to 

market such data on behalf of the United States Government for the 

duration of such contract. A system operator may relinquish the 

exclusive right and consent to distribution from the archive before 

the period of exclusive right has expired by terminating the offer to 

Marketing. 

sell particular data. (9 After the expiration of such exclusive right to sell, or after 

relmqulshment of such right, the data provided to the United States 

remotesensing data archive shall be in the public domain and shall 

be made available to reauestine Darties bv the Secretarv at prices 

- 

Public 

reflecting reasonable cos& of recrhuction Lnd transmitd. 

(g) In carrying out the functions of this section, the Secretary shall, to the extent practicable and as provided in advance by appropriation Acts, use existing Government facilities. 

- 

NONREPRODUCTION 

15 USC 4273. SEC. 603. Unenhanced data distributed by any system operator under the provisions of this Act may be sold on the condition that 

such data will not be reproduced or disseminated by the purchaser. 

REIMBURSEMENT FOR ASSISTANCE 

15 USC 42'74. SEC. 604. The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, the Secretary of Defense and the heads of 

other Federal agencies may provide assistance to system operators under the provisions of this Act. Substantial assistance shall be 

reimbursed by the operator, except as otherwise provided by law. 

ACQUISITION OF EQUIPMENT 

SEC. 605. The Secretary ma by means of a competitive process, allow a licensee under title I or any other private party to buy, lease, or otherwise acquire the use of equipment from the Landsat 

system, when such equipment is no longer needed for the o ration 

other Federal civilian agencies are authorized and encouraged to 

cooperate with the Secretary in carrying out the provisions of this 

section. 

B 15 USC 4275. 

of such system or for the sale of data from such system. Of p" icials of 

133 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 465 

RADIO FREQUENCY ALIDCATION 

SEC. 606. (a) Within thirty days after the date of enactment of this pui~;;~J.S. 

Act, the President (or the President's delegee, if any, with authority 

over the assignment of frequencies to radio statiom or classes of 

radio stations operated by the United States) shall make available 

for nongovernmental use spectrum presently allocated to Government use, for use by United States Landsat and commercial remote 

sensing space systems. The spectrum to be so made available shall 

conform to any applicable international radio or wire treaty or 

convention, or regulations annexed thereto. Within ninety days thereafter, the Federal Communications Commission shall utilize 

appropriate procedures to authorize the use of such spectrum for 

nongovernmental use. Nothing in this section shall preclude the 

ability of the Commission to allocate additional spectrum to commercial land remote-sensing space satellite system use. 

(b) To the extent required by the Communications Act of 1934, as 

amended (47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.), an application shall be filed with the 47 USC 609. 

Federal Communications Commission for any radio facilities involved with the commercial remote-sensing space system. (c) It is the intent of Congress that the Federal Communications 

Commission complete the radio licensing process under the Communications Act of 1934, as amended (47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.), upon the 

application of any private sector party or consortium operator of 

any commercial land remote-sensing space system subject to this 

Act, within one hundred and twenty days of the receipt of an 

application for such licensing. If final action has not occurred within 

one hundred and twenty days of the receipt of such an application, 

the Federal Communications Commission shall inform the applicant of any pending issues and of actions required to resolve them. 

(d) Authority shall not be required from the Federal Communications Commission for the development and construction of any United States land remote-sensing space system (or component thereof), other than radio transmitting facilities or components, 

while any licensing determination is being made. 

(e) Frequency allocations made pursuant to this section by the 

Federal Communications Commission shall be consistent with international obligations and with the public interest. 

CONSULTATION 

SEC. 607. (a) The Secretary shall consult with the Secretary of Defenseand 

Defense on all matters under this Act affecting national security. gzt' The Secretary of Defense shall be responsible for determining those 15 ~d4n.r. 

conditions, consistent with this Act, necessary to meet national 

security concerns of the United States and for notifying the Secre 

tary promptly of such conditions. 

@XU The Secretary shall consult with the Secretary of State on 

all matters under this Act affecting international obligations. The 

Secretary of State shall be responsible for determining those conditions, consistent with this Act, necessary to meet international 

obligations and policies of the United States and for notifying the 

Secretary promptly of such conditions. 

(2) Appropriate Federal agencies are authorized and encouraged 

to provide remote-sensing data, technology, and training to develop ing nations as a component of programs of international aid. 

134 
98 STAT. 466 PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 

(3) The Secretary of State shall promptly report to the Secretary 

any instances outside the United States of discriminatory distribu- tion of data. 

(c) If, as a result of technical modifications imposed on a system 

operator on the basis of national security concerns, the Secretary, in 

consultation with the Secretary of Defense or with other Federal 

agencies, determines that additional costs will be incurred by the 

system operator, or that past development costs (including the cost 

of capital) will not be recovered by the system operator, the %retary may require the agency or agencies requesting such technical 

modifications to reimburse the system operator for such additional 

or development costs, but not for anticipated profits. Reimbursements may cover costs associated with required changes in system performance, but not costs ordinarily associated with doing business abroad. 

AMENDMENT TO NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

AUTHORIZATION, 1983 

SEC. 608. Subsection (a) of section 201 of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration Authorization Act, 1983 (Public Law 97- 

324; 96 Stat. 1601) is amended to read as follows: 

‘‘(a) The Secretary of Commerce is authorized to plan and provide for the management and opdration of civil remotesensing space 

systems, which may include the Landsat 4 and 5 satellites and 

associated ground system equipment transferred from the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration; to provide for user fees; and 

to plan for the transfer of the operation of civil remotesensing space 

systems to the private sector when in the national interest.”. 

15 USc 1517 

note. 

AUTHORIWTION OF APPROPRIATIONS 

15 USC 4278. SEC. 609. (a) There are authorized to be appropriated to the 

Secretary $75,000,000 for fiscal year 1985 for the purpose of carrying 

out the provisions of this Act. Such sums shall remain available 

until expended, but shall not become available until the time periods specified in sections 20%~) and 303(c) have expired. 0 The authorization provided for under subsection (a) shall be in 

addition to moneys authorized pursuant to title II of the National 

15 USc 1517 Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act, 1983. 

note. 

TITLE VII-PROHIBITION OF COMMERCIALIZATION OF 

WEATHER SATELLITES 

PROHIBFIlON 

F’rwidentofU.9. 

l6 4291- 

SEC. 701. Neither the President nor any other official of the 

Government shalkmake any effort to lease; sell, or transfer to the 

private sector, commercialize, or in any way dismantle any portion of the. weather satellite systems operated by the Department of 

Commerce or any successor agency. 

135 
PUBLIC LAW 98-365-JULY 17, 1984 98 STAT. 467 

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS 

SEC. 702. Regardless of any change in circumstances subsequent to 

the enactment of this Act, even if such change makes it appear to be 

in the national interest to commercialize weather satellites, neither 

the President nor any official shall take any action prohibited by section 701 unless this title has first been repealed. 

15 USc 4292. 

Approved July 17, 1984. 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY-H.R. 5155: 

HOUSE REPORT No. 98-647 (Comm. on Science and Technology). SENATE REPORT No. 98-458 (Comm. on Commerce, Science, and Transportation). CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 130 (1984): Apr. 9, considered and passed House. 

June 8, considered and ped Senate, amended. 

June 28, House concurred in Senate amendment with an amendment. 

June 29, Senate concurred in House amendment. 

July 17, Presidential statement. 

WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS, Vol. 20, No. 29 (1984): 

0 

136 
APPENDIX F-4 

White House Fact Sheet 

National Space Strategy (August 15, 1984) 

FACT SHEET 

NATIONAL SPACE STRATEGY 

Introduction 

On August 15, 1984, the President approved a National 

Space Strategy designed to implement the National Space 

Policy, as supplemented by the President’s 1984 State of the 

Union Address. The strategy identifies selected, high priority 

efforts and responsibilities, and provides implementation 

plans for major space policy objectives. This strategy is consistent with other space-related National Security Decision 

Directives and other AdministrAion policies. A summary of 

the strategy’s contents is provided below. 

The Space Transportation System (STS) 

Insure routine, cost-effective access to space with the STS. The 

STS is a critical factor in maintaining U.S. space leadership, 

in accomplishing the basic goals of the National Space Policy, 

and in achievinga permanent manned presence in space. It is 

the primary space launch system for both national security 

and civil government missions. As such, NASA’s first priority 

is to make the STS fully operational and cost-effective in providing routine access to space. 

Implementation: The STS program will receive sustained 

commitments by all affected departments and agencies. 

Enhancements of STS operational capability, upper stages, 

and efficient methods of deploying and retrieving payloads 

will be pursued as national requirements are defined. 

NASA and Department of Defense will jointly prepare a 

report that defines a fully operational and cost-effective STS 

and specifies the steps leading to that status. This will be 

prepared and submitted for review by the Senior Interagency 

Group for Space- SIG(Space)- no later than November 30, 

1984. 

The STS will be fully operational by 1988. On October 1, 

1988, prices for STS services and capabilities provided to 

commercial and foreign users will reflect the full cost of such 

services and capabilities. NASA will develop a time-phased 

plan for implementing full cost recovery for commercial and 

foreign STS flight operations. At a minimum, this plan will 

include an option for full cost recovery for commercial and 

foreign flights which occur after October 1, 1988. OMB, in 

consultation with DOC, DOT, DOD, NASA and other 

agencies will prepare a joint assessment of the ability of the 

U.S. private sector and the STS to maintain international 

competitiveness in the provision of launch services. This 

analysis should include an assessment of all factors relevant 

to foreign ELVs, U.S. ELVs and the STS. NASA will keep 

OMB fully apprised of the elements of its time-phased plan as 

it is being developed. Both the time-phased plan and the 

OMB analysis will be submitted for review and comment by 

the SIG(Space) and the Cabinet Council on Commerce and 

Trade no later than September 15, 1984, and subsequently 

submitted for the President’s approval in order to permit their 

consideration in the development of the FY 1986 budget. 

The Department of Defense and NASA will jointly conduct a study to identify launch vehicle technology that could 

be made available for use in the post-1995 period. The study 

should be completed by December 31, 1984. 

The Civil Space Program 

Establish a permanently manned presence in space. NASA will 

develop a permanently manned Space Station within a 

decade. The development of a civil Space Station will further 

the goals of space leadership and the peaceful exploration and 

use of space for the benefit of all mankind. The Space Station 

will enhance the development of the commercial potential of 

space. It will facilitate scientific research in space. It will also, 

in the longer term, serve as a basis for future major civil and 

commercial activities to explore and exploit space. 

Zmplenwnlahn: As a civil program, the Space Station will be 

funded and executed by NASA bcginning in FY 1985 with 

the goal of the establishment of a permanently manned 

presence in space within a decade. 

Foster increased international cooperation in civil space actiuities. 

The U.S. will seek mutually beneficial international participation in its civil and commercial space and space-related 

programs. As a centerpiece of this priority, the U.S. will seek 

agreements with friends and allies to participate in the 

development and utilization of the Space Station. 

Zmplenentation: NASA and the Departmcnt of State will 

make every effort to obtain maximum mutually beneficial 

foreign participation in the Space Station program, consistent with the Presidential commitment for international participation and other guidance. The broad objectives of the 

United States in international cooperation in space activities 

are to promote foreign policy considerations, advance 

national science and technology; maximize national 

economic benefits, including domestic considerations; and 

protect national security. The suitability of each cooperative 

space activity must be judged within the framework of all 

these objectives. Consistent with these objectives, the 

SIG(Space) will review all major policy issues raised by proposed agreements for international participation on the Space 

Station program prior to commitments by the U.S. Government. 

Identifr major long-range national pals for lhe civil space program. 

Major long-range goals for the civil space program are essential to meeting the national commitment to maintain United 

States leadership in space and to exploit space for economic 

and scientific benefit. 

Implementation: In accordance with the FY 1985 NASA 

Authorization Act, the President will appoint a National 

Commission on Space to formulate-an agenda for the United 

States space program. The Commission shall identify goals, 

opportunities, and policy options for United States civilian 

space activity for the next twenty years. Upon submission of 

the Commission report to the President, the Office of Science 

and Technology Policy, in cooperation with NASA and other 

137 
appropriate agencies, will review the report and will provide 

their comments and recommendations to the President 

through the SIG(Space) within 60 days of the submission of 

the Commission report. 

Insure a uiguruus and balanced prugram uj civil scientijc research 

and cxpluratiun in space. The U . S. civil space science program is 

an essential element of US. leadership in space, a vehicle for 

scientific advancement and long-term economic benefits, and 

a valuable opportunity for international cooperation. 

Implrmcnfatiun: NASA and other appropriate agencies will 

conduct their activities in a manner that will maintain a 

vigorous and balanced program of civil space research and 

exploration. NASA will explicitly factor the broad spectrum 

of capabilities necessary for space science into the planning 

and development of the manned Space Station and will implement those plans in a manner that will lend stability and 

continuity to research in the space sciences. Furthermore, the 

Office of Science and Technology Policy, in conjunction with 

NASA and other appropriate agencies, will review and define 

the goals and missions of the various civil agencies in the area 

of earth sciences research and will provide their recommendations in a report to the SIG(Space) by April 1, 1985. 

Commsrcial Space Program 

Encuurage cummercial Expenahblc Launch Vehicle actiuities. The 

U.S. will encourage and faciliate commercial expendable 

launch vehicle operations. U.S. Government policies will 

promote competitive opportunities for commercial expendable launch vehicle operations and minimize government 

regulation of these activities. 

Impkmentatiun: The Department of Transportation will 

carry out the responsibilities assigned by Executive Order 

12465 on Commercial Expendable Launch Vehicle Activities. Appropriate agencies will work with Department of 

Transportation to encourage the U.S. private sector development of commercial launch operations in accordance with 

existing direction. 

The U.S. Government will not subsidize the commercialization of ELVs but will price the use of its facilities, 

equipment, and services by commercial ELV operators consistent with the goal of encouraging viable commercial ELV 

launch activities in accordance with existing direction. 

Stimulate private sectur commercial space activities. To stimulate 

private sector investment, ownership, and operation of civil 

space assets, the U.S. Government will facilitate private sector access to civil space systems, and encourage the private 

sector to undertake commercial space ventures without direct 

Federal subsidies. 

Impkmenfatiun: The U.S. Government will take the following initiatives: 

Ecunumic Initiatives. Tax laws and regulations which 

discriminate against commercial space ventures need to be 

changed or eliminated. 

Legal and Regulatury Initiatives, Laws and regulations 

predating space operations need to be updated to accommodate space commercialization. 

Research and Deuelupment Initiatives. In partnership with industry and academia, government should expand basic 

research and development which may have implications 

for investors aiming to develop commercial space products 

and services. 

Initiatives tu Establish and Implement a Cummercial Space 

Policy. Since commercial developments in space often re138 

quire many years to reach the production phase, entrepreneurs need assurances of consistent government actions 

and policies over long periods. 

NASA, Department of Commerce, and Department of 

Transportation all have roles and will work cooperatively to 

develop and implement specific measures to foster the growth 

of private sector commercialization in space. A high level national focus for commercial space issues will be created 

through establishment of a Cabinet Council on Commerce 

and Trade (CCCT) Working Group on the Commercial Use 

of Space. The SIG(Space) will continue its role of coordinating the implementation of policy for the overall U.S. 

Space Program. 

National Security Space Programs 

Maintain assured access tu space. The national security sector 

must pursue an improved assured launch capability to satisfy 

two specific requirements- the need for launch system complementary to the STS to hedge against unforeseen technical 

and operational problems, and the need for a launch system 

suited for operations and crisis situations. 

Implementatiun: In order to satisfy the requirement for 

assured launch, the national security sector will pursue the 

use of a limited number of ELV’s to complement the STS. 

Pursue a long-term suruivability enhancement prugram. The national security sector must provide for the survivability of 

selected, critical national security space assets to a degree 

commensurate with the value and utility of the support they 

provide. This will contribute to deterrence by helping to ensure that potential adversaries cannot eliminate vital U.S. 

space capabilities without considerable expenditure of their 

own resources. 

Implementation: The high priority and emphasis on survivability reflected within the Department of Defense space 

programs will continue. 

Strm the jluw uj advanced western space technolugy tu the Soviet 

Uniun. The U.S. cannot be complacent about the increasing 

Soviet efforts to erase the U.S. advantage through vigorous 

Soviet research and development efforts and through 

technology transfer. 

Implementation: All agencies of the Government will 

cooperate in order to prevent the transfer of space technology 

to the Soviet Union and to its allies, either directly or through 

third countries, if such transfer is potentially detrimental to 

the national security interests of the United States. 

Continue tu study space am control uptiuns. The United States 

will continue to study space arms control options. 

Implementatiun: The Senior Arms Control Policy Group will 

continue to study a broad range of possible options for space 

arms control. The studies will be undertaken with a view 

toward negotiations with the Soviet Union and other nations, 

compatible with national security interests. All actions will be 

conducted within the constraints of existing treaty commitments. 

Insure that DOD space and space-related prugrams will support the 

Strategic Defmre Initiative. In light of the uncertain long-term 

stability of offensive deterrence, an effort will be made to 

identify defensive means of deterring nuclear war. The U.S. 

has been investigating the feasibility of eventually shifting 

toward reliance upon a defensive concept. A program has 

been initiated to demonstrate the technical feasibility of 

enhancing deterrence through greater reliance on defensive 

strategic capabilities. The Department of Defense will 
posture its space activities so as to preserve options to support presents new challenges at the same time as advances in 

the demonstration of capabilities as they are defined and technology present new opportunities. 

become available, and as justified by the state-of-the-art Zmplmuntutiun: The Department of Defense will provide 

technology. strong emphasis on advanced technology to respond to 

Maintuin a vigornus natiuml securip swe technulugy prugram tu changes in the environment, to improve our space-based 

support the develupment .f necessary impruvrments and new assets, and to provide new capabilities that capitalize on 

capabilities. The changing nature of. the world environment technological advances. 

139 
APPENDIX F-5 

Public Law 98.575-October 30, 1984 

98t h Congress 

An Act to facilitate commercial space launches, and for other purposes. ~- 

PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 98 STAT. 3055 

Public Law 98-575 

98th Congress An Act 

oct. 30,1984 

[H.R. 89421 

To facilitate commercial apace launches, and for other purpoeea. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 

United States of America in Congress assembled, Commercial 

space SHORT TITLE Launch Act. 

S~ON 1. This Act may be cited as the “Commercial Space 49uSCapp.2601 Launch Act”. note. 

FINDINGS 

SEC. 2. The Congress finds and declares that- 

(1) the peaceful uses of outer space continue to be of great value and to offer benefits to all mankind; 

(2) private applications of space technology have achieved a 

significant level of commercial and economic activity, and offer 

the potential for growth in the future, particularly in the 

United State9; 

(3) new and innovative equipment and services are being sought, created, and offered by entrepreneurs in telecommunications, information services, and remote sensing technology; (4) the private sector in the United States has the capability of developing and providing private satellite launching and 

9880ciated services that would complement the launching and 

associated services now available from ,the United States Government; 

(5) the development of commercial launch vehicles and associated services would enable the United States to retain its 

competitive position internationally, thereby contributing to the 

national interest and economic well-being of the United States, 

(6) provision of launch services by the private sector is consisti 

ent with the national security interests and foreign policy interests of the United States and would be facilitated by stable, 

minimal, and appropriate regulatory guidelines that are fairly 

and expeditiously applied; and 

(7) the United States should encourage private sector 

launches and associated services and, only to the extent necessary, regulate such launches and services in order to ensure 

compliance with international obligations of the United States 

and to protect the public health and safety, safety of property, 

and national security interests and foreign policy interests of 

the United States. 

49 USC app. 

2601. 

PURPOSES 

SJX. 3. It is therefore the purpose of this Act- 49 usc 2602. 

(1) to promote economic growth and entrepreneurial activity through utilization of the space environment for peaceful purposes; 

140 
98 STAT. 3056 

49 USC app. 

2603. 

PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 

(2) to encourage the United States private sector to provide launch vehicles and associated launch services by simplifying and expediting the issuance and transfer of commercial launch 

licenses and by facilitating and encouraging the utilization of 

Governmentdeveloped space technology; and 

(3) to designate an executive department to oversee and coordinate the conduct of commercial launch operations, to issue 

and transfer commercial launch licenses authorizing such activities, and to protect the public health and safety, safety of 

property, and national security interests and foreign policy interests of the United States. 

DEFINITIONS 

SEC. 4. For purposes of this Act- 

(1) “agency” means an executive agency as defined by section 

105 of title 5, United States Code; 

(2) “launch” means to place, or attempt to place, a launch 

vehicle and payload, if any, in a suborbital trajectory, in Earth 

orbit in outer space, or otherwise in outer space; (3) “launch property” means propellant$, launch vehicles and 

components thereof, and other physical items constructed for or 

used in the launch preparation or launch of a launch vehicle; 

(4) “launch services” means those activities involved in the 

preparation of a launch vehicle and its payload for launch and 

the conduct of a launch; 

(5) “launch site” means the location on Earth from which a 

launch takes place, as defined in any license issued or transferred by the Secretary under this Act, and includes all facilities 

located on a launch site which are necessary to conduct a 

launch; 

(6) “launch vehicle” means any vehicle constructed for the 

purpose of operating in, or placing a payload in, outer space and 

any suborbital rocket; 

(7) “payload” means an object which a person undertakes to 

place in outer space by means of a launch vehicle, and includes 

subcomponents of the launch vehicle specifically designed or 

adapted for that object; (8) “person” means any individual and any corporation, part- nership, joint venture, association, or other entity organized or 

existing under the laws of an State or any nation; 

(9) “Secretary” means the kretary of Transportation; 

(10) “State”, and “United States” when used in a geographical 

sense, mean the several States, the District of Columbia, the 

Commonwealth of herto Rico, American Samoa, the United 

States Virgin Islands, Guam, and any other commonwealth, 

territory, or possession of the United States; and 

(A) any individual who is a citizen of the United States; 

(B) any corporation, partnership, joint venture, association, or other entity organized or existing under the laws of 

the United States or any State; and 

(C) any corporation, partnership, joint venture, association, or other entity which is organized or exists under the 

laws of a foreign nation, if the controlling interest (as 

defined by the Secretary in regulations) in such entity is 

(11) “United States citizen” means141 
PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 98 STAT. 3057 

held by an individual or entity described in subparagraph 

(A) or (B). 

GENEBAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SECRETARY AND OTHER AGENCIES 

SEC. 5. (a) The Secretary shall be responsible for carrying out this 

(1) encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space 

launches by the private sector; and 

(2) consult with other agencies to provide consistent applica- tion of licensing requirements under this Act and to ensure fair 

and equitable treatment for all license applicants. (b) To the extent permitted by law, Federal agencies shall assist 

49 usc app. 

Act, and in doing 80 shall- 2604. 

the Secretary, as necessary, in carrying out this Act. 

REQUIREMENT OF LICENSE FOR PRIVATE SPACE LAUNCH OPERATIONS 

SEC. 6. (ax11 No person shall launch a launch vehicle or operate a 

launch site within the United States, unless authorized by a license 

issued or transferred under this Act. 

(2) No United States citizen described in subparagraph (A) or (B) 

of section 4(11) shall launch a launch vehicle or operate a launch 

site outside the United States, unless authorized by a license issued 

or transferred under this Act. 

(3XA) No United States citizen described in subparagraph (C) of 

section 4(11) shall launch a launch vehicle or operate a launch site 

at any place which is both outside the United States and outside the 

territory of any foreign nation, unless authorized by a license issued 

or transferred under this Act. The preceding sentence shall not 

apply with respect to a launch or operation of a launch site if there 

is an agreement in force between the United States and a foreign 

nation which provides that such foreign nation shall exercise juris- diction over such launch or operation. (BXD Except as provided in clause (ii) of this subparagraph, this 

Act shall not apply to the launch of a launch vehicle or the 

o ration of a launch site in the territory of a foreign nation by a 

&ted States citizen described in subparagraph (C) of section 4(11). 

(ii) If there is an agreement in force between the United States 

and a foreign nation which provides that the United States shall 

exercise jurisdiction over the launch of a launch vehicle or operation of a launch site in the territory of such nation by a United States 

citizen described in subparagraph (C) of section 4(11), no such United 

States citizen shall launch a launch vehicle or operate a launch site 

in the territory of such nation, unless authorized by a license issued 

or transferred under this Act. 

(bX1) The holder of a launch license under this Act shall not 

launch a payload unless that payload complies with all require 

ments of Federal law that relate to the launch of a payload. The 

Secretary shall ascertain whether any license, authorization, or 

other permit required by Federal law for a payload which is to be 

launched has been obtained. 

(2) If no payload license, authorization, or permit is required by 

any Federal law, the Secretary may take such action under this Act 

as the Secretary deems necessary to prevent the launch of a payload by a holder of a launch license under this Act if the Secretary determines that the launch of such payload would jeopardize the 

49 usc app. 

2605. 

International 

agreements. 

142 
98 STAT. 3058 PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 

49 USC app. 

2606. 

public health and safety, safety of property, or any national security interest or foreign policy interest of the United States. 

(c)(l) Except as provided in this Act, no person shall be required to 

obtain from any agency a license, approval, waiver, or exemption for 

the launch of a launch vehicle or the operation of a launch site. 

(2) Nothing in this Act shall affect the authority of the Federal 

Communications Commission under the Communications Act of 

1934 (47 U.S.C. 151 et seq.) or the authority of the Secretary of 

Commerce under the Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984 (15 U.S.C. 4201 et seq.). 

AUTHORITY TO ISSUE AND TRANSYER LICENSES 

SEC. 7. The Secretary may, consistent with the public health and 

safety, safety of property, and national security interests and foreign policy interests of the United States, issue or transfer a license for 

launching one or more launch vehicles or for operating one or more 

launch sites, or both, to an applicant who meets the requirements for a license under section 8 of this Act. Any license issued or 

transferred under this section shall be in effect for such period of 

time as the Secretary may specify, in accordance with regulations issued under this Act. 

LICENSING REQUIREMENTS 

49 USC app. 

2607. 

SEC. 8. (a)(l) All requirements of Federal law which apply to the 

launch of a launch vehicle or the operation of a launch site shall be 

requirements for a license under this Act for the launch of a launch 

vehicle or the operation of a launch site, respectively, except to the 

extent provided in paragraph (2). 

(2) If the Secretary determines, in consultation with appropriate agencies, that any requirement of Federal law that would otherwise 

apply to the launch of a launch vehicle or the operation of a launch 

site is not necessary to protect the public health and safety, safety of 

property, and national security interests and foreign policy interests 

of the United States, the Secretary may by regulation provide that 

such requirement shall not be a requirement for a license under this 

Act. 

(b) The Secretary may, with respect to launches and the operation of launch sites, prescribe such additional requirements as are necessary to protect the public health and safety, safety of property, and 

national security interests and foreign policy interests of the United 

states. 

(c) The Secretary may, in individual cases, waive the application 

of any requirement for a license under this section if the Secretary determines that such waiver is in the public interest and will not 

jeopardize the public health and safety, safety of property, or any national security interest or foreign policy interest of the United 

states. 

LICENSE APPLICATION AND APPROVAL 

49 USC app. 2608. 

SEC. 9. (a) Any person may apply to the Secretary for issuance or 

transfer of a license under this Act, in such form and manner as the 

Secretary may prescribe. The Secretary shall establish procedures and timetables to expedite review of applications under this section 

and to reduce regulatory burdens for applicants. 

143 
PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 98 STAT. 3059 

(b) The Secretary shall issue or transfer a license to an applicant if 

the Secretary determines in writing that the applicant complies and 

will continue to comply with the requirements of this Act and an 

license such conditions as may be necessary to ensure compliance with this Act, including an effective means of on-site verification 

that a launch or operation of a launch site conforms to representa- tions made in the application for a license or transfer of a license. 

The Secretary shall make a determination on any application not 

later than 180 days after receipt of such application. If the Secreta 

has not made a determination within 120 days after receipt of suc 

application, the Secretary shall inform the applicant of any pending issues and of actions required to resolve such issues. 

(c) The Secretary, any officer or employee of the United States, or 

any person with whom the Secretary has entered into a contract 

under section 14(b) of this Act may not disclose any data or information under this Act which qualifies for exemption under section 

552(bX4) of title 5, United States Code, or is designated as confidential by the person or agency furnishing such data or information, 

unless the Secretary determines that the withholding of such data 

or information is contrary to the public or national interest. 

regulation issued under this Act. The Secretary shall include in suc l 

x 

SUSPENSION, REVOCATION, AND MODIFICATION OF LICENSES 

SEC. 10. (a) The Secretary may suspend or revoke any license 

issued or transferred under this Act if the Secretary finds that the 

licensee has substantially failed to comply with any requirement of 

this Act, the license, or any regulation issued under this Act, or that 

the suspension or revocation is necessary to protect the public health and safety, safety of property, or any national security interest or foreign policy interest of the United States. 

(b) Upon application by the licensee or upon the Secretary’s own 

initiative, the Secretary may modify a license issued or transferred 

under this Act, if the Secretary finds that the modification will 

comply with the requirements of this Act. 

(c) Unless otherwise specified by the Secretary, any suspension, revocation, or modification by the Secretary under this section- 

(1) shall take effect immediately; and 

(2) shall continue in effect during any review of such action 

(d) Whenever the Secretary takes any action under this section, 

the Secretary shall notify the licensee in writing of the Secretary’s finding and the action which the Secretary has taken or proposes to 

take regarding such finding. 

under section 12 of this Act. 

EMERGENCY ORDERS 

49 USC app. 

2609. 

SEC. 11. (a) The Secretary may terminate, prohibit, or suspend immediately the launch of a launch vehicle or the operation of a 

launch site which is licensed under this Act if the Secretary deter- mines that such launch or operation is detrimental to the public health and safety, safety of property, or any national security interest or foreign policy interest of the United States. 

(b) An order terminating, prohibiting, or suspending any launch 

or operation of a launch site licensed by the Secretary under this 

Act shall take effect immediately and shall continue in effect during 

any review of such order under section 12. 

Prohibition. 

49USCapp. 

2610. 

144 
98 STAT. 3060 PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 

ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL REVIEW 

49 USC app. 

2611. 

SEC. 12. (aX1) An applicant for a license and a proposed transferee 

of a license under this Act shall be entitled to a determination on 

the record after an opportunit for a hearing in accordance with 

section 554 of title 5, United gtates Code, of any decision of the 

Secretary under section 9(b) to issue or transfer a license with 

conditions or to deny the issuance or transfer of such license. An 

owner or operator of a payload shall be entitled to a determination 

on the record after an opportunity for a hearing in accordance with 

section 554 of title 5, United States Code, of any decision of the 

Secretary under section 6(bX2) to prevent the launch of such pay- load. 

(2) A licensee under this Act shall be entitled to a determination 

on the record after an opportunity for a hearing in accordance with 

section 554 of title 5, United States Code, of any decision of the 

Secretary- (A) under section 10 to suspend, revoke, or modify a license; or 

(B) under section 11 to terminate, prohibit, or suspend any launch or operation of a launch site licensed by the Secretary. 

(b) Any final action of the Secretary under this Act to issue, 

transfer, deny the issuance or transfer of, suspend, revoke, or modify 

a license or to terminate, prohibit, or suspend any launch or oper- ation of a launch site licensed by the Secretary or to prevent the 

launch of a payload shall be subject to judicial review as provided in 

chapter 7 of title 5, United States Code. 

REGULATIONS 

49 USC app. 2612. 

SEC. 13. The Secretary may issue such regulations, after notice 

and comment in accordance with section 553 of title 5, United States 

Code, as may be necessary to carry out this Act. 

MONITORING OF ACTIVITIES OF LICENSEES 

49 USC app. 

2613. 

SEC. 14. (a) Each license issued or transferred under this Act shall 

(1) to allow the Secretary to place Fedoral officers or employees or other individuals as observers at rny launch site used 

by the licensee, at any production facility or assembly site used 

by a contractor of the licensee in the production or assembly of 

a launch vehicle, or at any site where a pa load is integrated with a launch vehicle, in order to monitor tie activities of the 

licensee or contractor at such time and to such extent as the 

Secretary considers reasonable and necessary to determine compliance with the license or to carr out the responsibilities of 

the Secretary under section 6(b) of tgis Act; and 

rate with such observers in the performance of 

(b) The Secretary may, to the extent provided in advance by appropriation Acts, enter into a contract with any person to carry 

out subsection (aX1) of this section. 

require the licensee- 

(2) to coo 

monitoring r unctions. 

USE OF GOVERNMENT PROPERTY 

49 USC app. 2614. 

SEC. 15. (a) The Secretary shall take such actions as may be 

necessary to facilitate and encourage the acquisition (by lease, sale, 

transaction in lieu of sale, or otherwise) by the private sector of 

145 
PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 98 STAT. 3061 

launch property of the United States which is excess or is otherwise 

not needed for public use and of launch services, including utilities, of the United States which are otherwise not needed for public use. 

(b)(l) The amount to be paid to the United States by any person who acquires launch property or launch services, including utilities, 

shall be established by the agency providing the property or service, 

in consultation with the Secretary. In the case of acquisition of 

launch property by sale or transaction in lieu of sale, the amount of 

such payment shall be the fair market value. In the case of an 

other type of acquisition of launch property, the amount of SUC 

payment shall be an amount equal to the direct costs (including any specific wear and tear and damage to the property) incurred by the 

United States as a result of the acquisition of such launch property. 

In the case of any acquisition of launch services, including utilities, the amount of such payment shall be an amount equal to the direct 

costs (including salaries of United States civilian and contractor 

personnel) incurred by the United States as a result of the acquli- tion of such launch services. 

(2) The Secretary may collect any payment for launch property or 

launch services, with the consent of the agency pstablishing such 

payment under paragraph (1). 

(3) The amount of any payment received by the United States for 

launch property or launch services, including utilities, under this 

subsection shall be deposited in the general fund of the Treasury, and the amount of a payment for launch property (other than 

launch property which is excess) and launch services (including utilities) shall be credited to the appropriation from which the cost 

of providing such property or services was paid. (c) The Secretary may establish requirements for liability insur- ance, hold harmless agreements, proof of financial responsibility, and such other assurances as may be needed to protect the United 

States and its agencies and personnel from liabilit loss, or injury 

as a result of a launch or operation of a launct site involving Government facilities or personnel. 

LIABILITY INSURANCE 

SEC. 16. Each person who launches a launch vehicle or operates a 

launch site under a license issued or transferred under this Act 

shall have in effect liability insurance at least in such amount as is 

considered by the Secretary to be necessary for such launch or 

operation, considering the international obligations of the United 

States. The Secretary shall prescribe such amount after consultation 

with the Attorney General and other appropriate agencies. 

ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITY 

SEC. 17. (a) The Secretary shall enforce this Act. The Secretary 

may delegate the exercise of any enforcement authority under this 

Act to any officer or employee of the Department of Transportation or, with the approval of the head of another agency, any officer or 

employee of such agency. 

(1) make investigations and inquiries, and administer to or 

take from any person an oath, affirmation, or affidavit, concerning any matter relating to enforcement of this Act; and 

(2) pursuant to any lawful process- 

(b) In carrying out this section, the Secretary may49 USC app. 

2615. 

49 USC app. 2616. 

146 
98 STAT. 3062 PUBLIC LAW 98-5'75-OCT. 30, 1984 

(A) enter at any reasonable time any launch site, produc- tion facility, or assembly site of a launch vehicle, or any site 

where a payload is integrated with a launch vehicle, for the 

purpose of inspecting any object which is sub'ect to this Act 

made or kept under this Act; and 

(B) seize any such object, record, or report where there is 

probable cause to believe that such object, record, or report 

was used, is being used, or is likely to be used in violation of 

this Act. 

and any records or reports required by the L etary to be 

PROHIBITED ACTS 

49 USC app. 

2617. 

SEC. 18. It is unlawful for any person to violate a requirement of 

this Act, a regulation issued under this Act, or any term, condition, 

or restriction of any license issued or transferred by the Secretary under this Act. 

CIVIL PENALTIES 

49 USC app. 2618. 

SEC. 19. (a) Any person who is found by the Secretary, after notice 

and opportunity to be heard on the record in accordance with 

section 554 of title 5, United States Code, to have committed any act 

prohibited by section 18 shall be liable to the United States for a 

civil penalty of not more than $100,000 for each violation. Each day of a continuing violation shall constitute a separate violation. The 

amount of such civil penalty shall be assessed by the Secretary by written notice. The Secretary may compromise, modify, or remit, 

with or without conditions, any civil penalty which is subject to 

im sition or which has been imposed under this section. & If any person fails to pa a civil penalty assessed against such 

person after the penalty has Lome final or if such person appeals 

an order of the Secreta and the appropriate court has entered 

the civil penalty assessed in any appropriate district court of the 

United States. 

(c) For purposes of conducting an hearing under this section, the 

of witnesses and the production of relevant papers, books, documents, and other records, (2) seek enforcement of such subpoenas in 

the ap ropriate district court of the United States, and (3) adminiafinal judgment in favor o 7 the Secretary, the Secretary shall recover 

Secretary may (1) issue subpoenas P or the attendance and testimony 

ter oat Ks and affirmations. 

CONSULTATION 

Defense and 

national 

security. 

49 uSC 

SEC. 20. (a) The Secretary shall consult with the Secretary of 

Defense on all matters, including the issuance or transfer of each 

license, under this Act affecting national security. The Secretary of 

Defense shall be responsible for identifyin and notifying the %.retary of those national security interests ofthe United States whlch 

are relevant to activities under this Act. 

of State on all 

this Act affecting foreign polic . The Secretary of State shall be 

responsible for identifying an8 notifying the Secretary of those 

foreign policy interests or obligations of the United States whlch are 

relevant to activities under this Act. 

(c) The Secretary shall consult with other agencies, as appropriate, in order to carry out the provisions of this Act. 

2619. 

(b) The Secretary shall consult with the Secreta 

matters, including the issuance or transfer of eac x license, under 

147 
PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 98 STAT. 3063 

RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LAWS AND INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS 

SEC. 21. (a) No State or political subdivision of a State may adopt 

or have in effect any law, rule, regulation, standard, or order which 

is inconsistent with the provisions of this Act. Nothing in this Act 

shall preclude a State or a political subdivision of a State from 

adopting or putting into effect any law, rule, regulation, standard, or 

order which is consistent with this Act and is in addition to or more 

stringent than any requirement of or regulation issued under this 

Act. The Secretary may, and is encouraged to, consult with the 

States to simplify and expedite the approval of space launch activities. 

(b) A launch vehicle or payload shall not, by reason of the launching of such vehicle or payload, be considered an export for purposes of any law controlling exports. (c) Nothing in this Act shall apply to- 

(1) any- 

(A) launch or operation of a launch vehicle, 

(B) operation of a launch site, or 

(C) other space activity, carried out by the United States on behalf of the United States; 

(2) any planning or policies relating to any such launch, 

operation, or activity. 

(d) The Secretary shall carry out this Act consistent with any obligation assumed by the United States in any treaty, convention, 

or agreement that may be in force between the United States and 

any foreign nation. In carrying out this Act, the Secretary shall 

consider applicable laws and requirements of any foreign nation. 

Or 

REPORT ON LEGISLATION 

SEC. 22. (a) Not later than the last day of each fiscal year ending after the date of enactment of this Act and before October 1, 1989, 

the Secretary shall submit to the Committee on Science and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on 

Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate a report 

describing all activities undertaken under this Act, including a 

description of the process for the application for and approval of 

licenses under this Act and recommendations for legislation that 

may further commercial launches. 

(b) Not later than July 1, 1985, the Secretary shall submit to the 

Committee on Science and Technology of the House of Representa- tives and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation 

of the Senate a report which identifies Federal statutes, treaties, 

regulations, and policies which may have an adverse effect on 

commercial launches and include recommendations on appropriate 

changes thereto. 

SEVERABILITY 

SEC. 23. If any provision of this Act, or the application of such 

provision to any person or circumstance, is held invalid, the remainder of this Act and the application of such provision to any other 

person or circumstance shall not be affected by such invalidation. 

Prohibitions. 

49 USC app. 

2620. 

Re rt. 

49 CSC app. 

2621. 

49 USC app. 

2622. 

148 
98 STAT. 3064 PUBLIC LAW 98-575-OCT. 30, 1984 

49 USC app. 2623. 

49 USC app. 2601 

note. 

Regulations. 

AUTHORIZED APPROPRIATIONS 

SEC. 24. There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary $A,OOO,OOO for fwal year 1985. 

EFFECTIVE DATE 

SEC. 25. (a) Except for section 15 and the authority to issue 

regulations, this Act shall take effect 180 days after the date of 

enactment of this Act. 

(b) Section 15 shall take effect on the date of enactment of this 

Act, except that nothing in this Act shall affect any agreement, including negotiations which are substantially completed, relating 

to the acquisition of launch property or launch services of the 

United States entered into on or before the date of enactment of this 

Act between the United States and any private party. 

(c) Regulations to implement this Act shall be promulgated not 

later than 180 days after the date of enactment of this Act. 

Approved October 30,1984. 

1 49 

Q U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1985 0 - 495-812 : QL 3